《韩非子》Vol. 4

The Yǐn, an official post in the state of Chu, was extremely arrogant and fond of using military force. “You must be cautious and respectful. Quickly station soldiers beneath the hall and in the courtyards by the gates.” Wǎn did as he was told. When the Chief Yin arrived and saw what had been done, he was greatly startled and asked, “What is going on?” Wújí said, “You should probably leave here; the outcome is still uncertain.” The Chief Yin flew into a rage, sent troops, and killed Xì Wǎn.

Xīshǒu, an official post in the state of Wei, was at odds with Zhāng Shòu. Chén Xū had just arrived in Wei and disliked Xīshǒu, so he secretly sent someone to kill Zhāng Shòu. The King of Wei assumed Xīshǒu was responsible and had him executed.

In the state of Zhongshan, there was a low-ranking prince whose horse was thin and whose carriage was shabby. Someone close to him who secretly bore him ill will went to the King of Zhongshan on his behalf and said, “The prince is poor, and his horse is thin. Why doesn’t Your Majesty give him some more fodder?” The king refused. The man then secretly arranged for someone to burn down the fodder shed at night. The King of Zhongshan assumed the prince had done it and had him executed.

In the state of Wei, an elderly Confucian scholar was at odds with Lord Jiyang. A retainer who privately held a grudge against the scholar killed him in order to win favor with Lord Jiyang, saying, “I knew he showed you no respect, so I killed him for you.” Lord Jiyang did not investigate the facts and rewarded the retainer.

Another account says that Lord Jiyang had a young son by a concubine who was always neglected. Someone hoped to use the opportunity to win the lord’s favor, so he instructed a Qi envoy to send the old scholar to Mount Mali to gather herbs. The lord’s son wanted to claim credit for this and went to see Lord Jiyang. “Qi has sent the old scholar to Mount Mali to gather herbs. Officially, he is there to gather herbs, but in reality he is spying on our state. If Your Lordship kills him, you will incur Qi’s enmity. I ask to go and assassinate him.” Lord Jiyang agreed. The next day, the son killed the old scholar outside the city, and Lord Jiyang grew even closer to him.

Chén Xū was a minister of the King of Wei. He was on friendly terms with the King of Jing, that is, the King of Chu, and also induced Jing to attack Wei. Chén Xū seized the opportunity to ask to mediate on behalf of the King of Wei, then used Jing’s strength to support Wei.

During the reign of Marquis Zhao of Han, millet seed became very expensive for a time. Marquis Zhao sent someone to inspect the granaries, and the officials had indeed stolen large quantities of millet seed to sell.

When Zhāo Xīxù governed the state of Jing, someone burned the storehouses and grain pits, but no culprit could be found. Zhāo Xīxù ordered officials to bring in and question the sellers of thatching grass. The inquiry confirmed that someone had indeed set the fires.

During the reign of Marquis Zhao, the person in charge of preparing meals served him food in which there was a piece of raw liver in the soup. Marquis Zhao summoned the official responsible for the meals and demanded, “Why did you put raw liver in my soup?” The man bowed and confessed: “I secretly hoped to get the official in charge of the meals dismissed.” Another account says that when Marquis Xi was bathing, he found a stone in the hot water. He asked those nearby, “If the person in charge of bathing is dismissed, is there someone who can take his place?” They replied, “Yes.” Marquis Xi summoned that man and demanded, “Why did you put a stone in the hot water?” The man answered, “If the person in charge of bathing is dismissed, I can take his place. That is why I put the stone in the hot water.”

During the reign of Duke Wen, the person in charge of preparing meals served roast meat with a hair caught in it. Duke Wen summoned him and demanded, “Do you want me to choke? Why is there a hair caught in the roast meat?” The man bowed twice and said, “I have committed three capital offenses. First, I sharpened my knife on a whetstone until its edge was as keen as the sword Ganjiang, a famous ancient blade. When I cut the meat, it split, but the hair did not. That is my first offense. Second, when I skewered the pieces of meat with a wooden skewer, I did not see the hair. That is my second offense. Third, I placed the meat over glowing coals and roasted it. The meat cooked, but the hair did not burn. That is my third offense. Perhaps someone below the hall secretly hates me?” Duke Wen said, “You are right.” He had the people below the hall questioned, and they discovered that someone had indeed tried to frame the cook. That person was executed.

Another account says that Duke Ping of Jin held a banquet for his guests. A young attendant brought in roast meat with a hair caught in it. Duke Ping at once ordered the cook to be killed and forbade anyone to intervene. The cook looked up at the sky and cried, “Alas, I have committed three capital offenses. How can I die without even knowing why?” Duke Ping asked, “What do you mean?” The cook replied, “My knife was sharp enough to cut through bone, yet the hair was not cut. That is my first capital offense. I roasted the meat over mulberry charcoal. The meat was cooked, yet the hair did not burn. That is my second. After roasting the meat, I examined it carefully again and again, yet did not see the hair caught in it. That is my third. Surely someone below the hall is deceiving the ruler and hates me. Is it not too soon to kill me?”

When Lord Rang assisted the state of Qin, the state of Qi was powerful. Lord Rang wanted Qin to proclaim itself emperor, but Qi would not agree. He then proposed that Qi be called the “Eastern Emperor,” but that too came to nothing.

When Duke Xian of Jin was on the throne, Li Ji, his favored concubine, held a high position, almost equal to that of the principal wife. She wanted her son Xiqi to replace the crown prince, Shensheng, so she slandered Shensheng before Duke Xian. In the end, Shensheng was killed, and Xiqi was made crown prince.

The ruler of Zheng had already appointed a crown prince, but he then became enamored of a beautiful woman and wanted her son to inherit the throne. Fearing that her own position and her son were at risk, the ruler’s wife poisoned him.

Zhou Xu of Wei held a position of power nearly equal to the ruler’s. Ministers and common people alike feared his authority. Zhou Xu eventually killed the ruler and seized power.

Prince Chao was the crown prince of Zhou. His younger brother, Prince Gen, was deeply favored by the ruler. After the ruler died, Prince Gen raised a rebellion in eastern Zhou, and the state split into two.

King Cheng of Chu appointed Shangchen as crown prince, but later wanted to replace him with Prince Zhi. Shangchen rebelled, attacked King Cheng, and killed him.

Another account says that after King Cheng of Chu appointed Shangchen as crown prince, he later wanted to replace him with Prince Zhi. Shangchen heard of this but could not tell whether it was true, so he asked his tutor, Pan Chong, how he could find out. Pan Chong said, “Hold a banquet for Jiang Ji, but show her no respect.” The crown prince did as he was told. Jiang Ji grew angry and said, “You wretch! The king must be planning to depose you and appoint Prince Zhi instead.” Shangchen replied, “So it is true.” Pan Chong then asked, “Could you serve Prince Zhi?” Shangchen said, “No.” “Could you flee to another state and become its ruler?” “No.” “Could you take decisive action?” “Yes.” Shangchen then gathered the soldiers in the camp and attacked King Cheng. The king begged to eat the sacrificial meat of a bear’s paw before he died, but Shangchen refused. The king had no choice but to kill himself.

When Han Gui served as chancellor of Han, Yan Sui was deeply favored by the ruler. The two men hated each other. Yan Sui sent an assassin to kill Han Gui in the court hall. Han Gui fled to Duke Ai of Han and clung to him; the assassin killed both Han Gui and Duke Ai.

When Tian Heng served as chancellor of Qi, Kan Zhi was deeply favored by Duke Jian of Qi. The two men hated each other and both wanted to eliminate the other. Tian Heng secretly won people over by doing them favors, seized Qi, and eventually killed Duke Jian and took control of the state.

When Dai Huan served as grand steward of Song, Huang Xi was deeply favored by the ruler. The two fought for power and became bitter enemies. Huang Xi eventually killed the ruler of Song and seized power.

Hu Tu said, “When a ruler favors women, the crown prince is in danger; when a ruler relies on outsiders, the powerful ministers at his side are in danger.”

The Lord of Zheng asked Zheng Zhao, “How is the heir?” Zheng Zhao replied, “The heir has not yet been born.” The lord said, “He has already been appointed, yet you say he has not been born. Why?” Zheng Zhao replied, “Although the heir has been settled, the ruler still delights in women. If a favored consort bears a son, the ruler will surely cherish him; once he cherishes him, he will surely want to appoint him as heir. That is why I say the heir has not truly been born.”

Six.

King Wen of Zhou used Fei Zhong to work around King Zhou, persuading Fei Zhong to remonstrate with him and unsettle his mind, throwing the government into disorder.

The King of Jing sent an envoy to Qin, and the King of Qin treated him with great courtesy. The King of Qin said, “A worthy and capable person in an enemy state is a source of trouble for our own state. The envoy from the King of Jing is very talented, and this concerns me.” His ministers advised him, “With Your Majesty’s wisdom and Qin’s great strength, we hope this talented man from Jing will come over to Qin. Why not learn more about him and secretly win him to our side? If Jing thinks he is serving a foreign enemy, it will surely kill him.”

When Confucius governed in Lu, people in Lu did not pick up things left by the roadside. Duke Jing of Qi was troubled by this. Li Qie said to Duke Jing, “Removing Confucius would be as easy as blowing away a single hair. Why not welcome him with a generous stipend and a high position, then send the female musicians Duke Ai favors, so that Duke Ai will grow arrogant and indulgent, absorbed in music and sensual pleasures? Once Duke Ai becomes captivated by the new music, he will surely neglect affairs of state. Confucius will certainly remonstrate; if his advice is ignored, he will break with Lu.” Duke Jing said, “Good.” So he sent Li Qie to deliver two troupes of female dancers to Duke Ai of Lu. Duke Ai indeed became absorbed in the music and neglected affairs of state. Confucius remonstrated, but Duke Ai would not listen. Confucius then left Lu and went to Chu.

King Chu said to Qianxiang, “I want Chu to send Gan Mao as an envoy to Qin, then have him serve as Qin’s prime minister. Would that be possible?” Qianxiang replied, “No.” The king asked, “Why not?” Qianxiang said, “When Gan Mao was young, he served Master Shi Ju. Shi Ju was a gatekeeper in Shangcai who would not devote himself to serving his lord and cared nothing for his household. He was known throughout the realm for his harshness, yet Gan Mao served him obediently. Later, Gan Mao served the worthy King Hui of Qin and Zhang Yi, who was skilled in persuasion. He held ten different posts in succession and still escaped punishment. This shows that he is capable.”

King Chu said, “Why shouldn’t we recommend a capable man to serve as prime minister in an enemy state?” Qianxiang replied, “In the past, Your Majesty sent Shao Hua as an envoy to Yue. Within five years, Yue was brought to ruin. This was because Yue was in disorder while Chu was well governed. If we now send Gan Mao to Qin, would we not soon forget the strategy we used with Shao Hua?”

The king asked, “Then what should we do?” Qianxiang replied, “It would be better to appoint Gongli as Qin’s prime minister.” The king asked, “What qualifies Gongli to be prime minister?” Qianxiang said, “Gongli was favored from a young age. When he grew up, he became a high-ranking noble. He wore garments bestowed by the king, held fragrant du ruo in his mouth, carried a jade ring in his hand, and attended court to hear affairs of state. His greed for profit would be enough to throw Qin into disorder.”

When Wu attacked Chu, Wu Zixu sent someone to spread a message in Chu: “If Ziqi is put in charge of state affairs, Wu will attack Chu. If Zichang is put in charge, Wu will withdraw its troops.” The people of Chu believed this and appointed Zichang, dismissing Ziqi. The Wu army took advantage of the change, attacked, and ultimately won.

When Duke Xian of Jin attacked Yu and Guo, he gave Yu fine horses from Quchan, the renowned jade Bi of Chuiji, and sixteen singing and dancing girls. In this way he pleased the ruler of Yu, drawing him into a life of pleasure and causing him to neglect state affairs.

When Shuxiang slandered Chang Hong, he wrote a letter falsely claiming that Chang Hong had said to him, “Please tell the ruler of Jin that the time we agreed upon has arrived. Why have you still not sent out the troops?” Then he pretended to have left the letter behind in the Zhou royal palace and hurried away. The king of Zhou believed that Chang Hong had betrayed Zhou, and had him killed.

Duke Huan of Zheng planned to attack the state of Kui. He first investigated which of Kui’s ministers and warriors were well regarded and capable, learned all their names, and then selected Kui’s fertile fields to offer them as bribes. He also drafted lists of official posts and noble titles and put them in writing. Next, outside the city walls, beside the city gate, he raised an altar and made an offering. Treating the lists like a covenant, he smeared them with chicken’s blood as part of the sacrifice. The ruler of Kui suspected that people within his state were plotting a rebellion, so he executed all those worthy ministers. Duke Huan of Zheng seized the opportunity to attack Kui and ultimately conquered it.

Xiang Ci, the magistrate of Ye County, secretly cultivated ties with the close attendants of the King of Zhao. When the King of Zhao planned to attack Ye County, Xiang Ci always learned of it in advance and immediately reported it to the King of Wei. The King of Wei was therefore able to prepare, and the Zhao army had no choice but to withdraw again and again.

Seven. There was a dwarf in the state of Qin who was favored by the King of Chu. He secretly cultivated ties with people around the King of Chu, while also enjoying the deep trust of Lord Huiwen of Qin. Whenever Chu made a plan, the dwarf would learn of it first and report it to Lord Huiwen of Qin.

During the reign of Marquis Si of Wei, someone served as an informant close to the magistrate. One evening, after the magistrate had finished work and returned home, he found that his sitting mat and bedding were worn out. When Marquis Si returned, he sent someone to give the magistrate a mat, saying, “I heard that by the time you finished work today, your mat and bedding were badly worn, so I have granted you a new mat.” The magistrate was astonished. He thought his ruler must truly be like a spirit, knowing everything.

End of Volume Ten of the Han Feizi.

Volume Eleven of the Han Feizi

“Outer Compendium: Explanations on the Left, Part One,” Chapter Thirty-Two

One. The way an enlightened ruler governs a state is like the way You Ruo answered Mi Zi. When listening to what people say, an enlightened ruler likes to hear arguments expressed in elegant, persuasive terms. When examining people’s conduct, however, he praises those whose actions are lofty and outstanding. As a result, when subjects offer advice, they often speak in grand, impractical terms, while their actual conduct runs counter to ordinary conventions. The relevant example is the story of Tian Jiu answering the King of Chu. This is why Mozi made a wooden bird and Qiu Kui built the Martial Palace: both used concrete words and actions to illustrate this principle. Medicinal wine works through words, while an enlightened and sage ruler can see through to the truth by means of discerning observation.

When a ruler listens to arguments without judging them by practical results, persuaders will offer sophistries such as “characters can be carved on thorns” and “a white horse is not a horse.” If he uses no clear standard, every archer will claim to be as skilled as Hou Yi, the legendary divine archer. A ruler who believes whatever he hears is like the King of Yan learning the Dao: he accepts everything without distinguishing truth from falsehood. Those who delight in talking without end are like the people of Zheng, endlessly quarreling over which of them is older. Thus, some arguments may be intricate and ingenious, profound and difficult to understand, yet have no bearing on urgent matters. The schemes of Li Si, Hui Shi, Song Xing, and Mo Di were often no more than designs on paper. Some arguments are grand and far-reaching but impractical, so people like Wei Zhen and Zhan Chezhuang see ghosts and monsters everywhere. When words contradict the facts, cling stubbornly to an opinion, and produce no practical result, they are useless—like the supposedly hard gourds that Wuguang, Biansui, Baojiao, Jie Zitui, and Mo Di were said merely to hold on to.

Moreover, Yu Qing’s design failed to follow the carpenter’s methods, so the house collapsed; Fan Qie’s work failed to meet the craftsman’s requirements, so the bow broke. To judge whether an argument is true and reliable, then, one must see whether it accords with reality and whether it produces results.

When people work for others, they often expect a reward; when they work for themselves, the task is more likely to get done. That is why even fathers and sons sometimes resent one another, while hired workers can bring a delicious broth to the table. This principle can be seen in the story of Duke Wen of Jin, who first declared that he would attack Zheng, and in Goujian’s praise of King Fuchai of Wu, whom he described as majestic as an “Emperor.” Duke Huan of Qi concealed his resentment toward Cai and instead attacked Chu; Wu Qi, for his part, had a practical purpose when he sucked the wound of a wounded soldier.

The poems and eulogies of the former kings, and the inscriptions on bells and bronze vessels, were also ways of recording their deeds and winning a reputation. Yet what the former kings truly sought was gain, and what they relied on was strength. A proverb from the area of Zhu Di speaks to the possible mismatch between words and deeds. Even if someone imitates the former kings’ words and conduct, adopting graceful and ornate manners, such behavior may not suit the present day. To keep copying it without change will lead to trouble.

A man in Zheng County picked up goods left behind after a cart accident; a man in Wei helped someone shoot down a bird; and Bu Zi’s wife patched a pair of torn trousers. Each of these was simply a response to a particular situation at the time. Some words and deeds of the former kings seemed trivial in their own day but came to be regarded as important by later generations; others mattered greatly at the time but were later considered insignificant. They cannot all be judged by one rule. The stories of the Song man who interpreted an ancient book and the man from Liang who read old records make the point: the ancient text was originally just a letter sent from Ying in Chu to Yan, yet later generations invented all sorts of far-fetched interpretations. To plan how to govern the country without understanding its present circumstances, relying only on the past deeds of the former kings, is like knowing only how to measure things with an old ruler.

Four. People gather wherever profit lies; scholars devote themselves wherever fame is celebrated. So if merit is rewarded beyond what the law allows, the ruler loses credibility, and the people gain benefits from him that violate the rules. If fame is promoted without regard to the law, scholars will chase after reputation, and those below will come to slight the ruler.

Thus, after Zhong Zhang and Xu Ji took office, the people of Zhongmou abandoned their fields to study under them, until they made up half the county’s population. When Duke Ping of Jin suffered from swollen feet and numb legs, he did not dare sit or lie down as he pleased. In Jin, those who declined office or made excuses to avoid serving became as numerous as grain stored throughout the state. If the words of these three scholars accorded with the laws of the state, they belonged on the government rolls as officials; if their conduct met the standards of public affairs, they were people carrying out the law. The two rulers treated them far too generously. If their words violated the law and their conduct strayed from the path to merit, then they had exceeded the rules and become examples for the people. Why, then, should the two rulers have honored them? A state that treated them this way deserved to perish.

Moreover, those who stay at home reading and studying do not contribute when the state is at peace, and when danger comes, they do not put on armor and fight. Honoring them will only make people eager to pursue learning instead of farming and winning merit in battle. Refusing to honor them will make people follow the ruler’s laws. In peacetime, they bring no honor or distinction; in a crisis, they instead weaken the ruler’s authority. What can a ruler gain from people who live in comfort and pursue learning? Therefore, a wise ruler examines how Li Ci performed on his mission to the state of Zhongshan.

Five. The Book of Odes says, “If the ruler does not attend to affairs himself, the people will not be convinced.” Some interpret this to mean that the ruler should personally toil, even going without purple robes and ornaments like those worn by Zheng Jian and Duke Xiang of Song, and should require himself to honor and favor those who farm and win merit in battle. But if he fails to define people’s duties or require his ministers to fulfill theirs, and instead lowers himself to serve those beneath him—leaving his post to disguise his identity and travel incognito—then he has abandoned the duties of a ruler. Confucius did not understand this principle and praised such conduct, much like Mencius. The ruler of Zou did not understand it either, and brought humiliation upon himself first. The way a discerning ruler governs the state can be seen in such cases as Shu Xiang’s discussion of the royal hunt and Marquis Zhao’s refusal to heed Xi’s advice.

Six. Small acts of trust establish great trust, so a wise ruler continually builds up credibility. If rewards and punishments are not reliable, prohibitions cannot be enforced. The principle is illustrated by Duke Wen of Jin’s attack on Yuan and by Ji Zheng’s relief of the starving. Thus, Wu Qi waited for his old friend to arrive before eating with him, and Marquis Wen of Wei kept his appointment to meet the gamekeeper before going hunting. A wise ruler demonstrates his trustworthiness through his actions, just as Zengzi killed a pig to feed his child in order to keep his word.

One should be wary of King Li of Zhou’s sounding the alarm drum and Li Kui’s deception of Liang He.

When Mi Zijian governed Shanfu, You Ruo went to visit him and asked, “Why have you grown thin?” Mi Zijian replied, “The ruler did not recognize my abilities and appointed me to govern Shanfu. Government affairs are so demanding that I worry constantly, and so I have grown thin.” You Ruo said, “In the past, Shun played a five-stringed zither and sang the ‘Song of the South Wind,’ and the whole world was well governed. Shanfu is only a small place, yet governing it leaves you so worried. What, then, would you do if you had to govern the whole world? Those who know the right way to govern can sit at ease in the court, calm in appearance, without neglecting affairs of state. Those who do not know the right way may exhaust themselves and grow gaunt, yet still fail to get things done.”

The King of Chu asked Tian Jiu, “Mozi is a renowned scholar of our time. He himself is quite capable, so why are his words so numerous, yet lacking in elegance?” Tian Jiu replied, “Once, the Earl of Qin married his daughter to a Jin prince. He had a dowry prepared for her and sent along seventy richly dressed attendants. When they arrived in Jin, the people of Jin admired the attendants and looked down on the daughter of Qin. This may be called being skilled at sending off attendants in marriage, but not being skilled at marrying off a daughter. There was also a man from Chu who went to Zheng to sell pearls. He made a box of magnolia wood, scented it with cinnamon and pepper, adorned it with pearls and jade, set it with fine stones, and embellished it with kingfisher feathers. A man of Zheng bought the box but returned the pearl. This may be called being skilled at selling boxes, but not being skilled at selling pearls.

“Most public arguments today prize eloquence and fine language. When rulers read ornate writing, they forget the useful principles within it. Mozi’s teachings recount the principles of the ancient rulers and discuss the words of the sages, with the aim of conveying these principles to people. He feared that if he overly adorned his words, people would remember only the elegance and forget the upright principles, allowing fine language to obstruct practical use. This is like the Chu man selling pearls and the Earl of Qin marrying off his daughter. That is why Mozi’s words are numerous, yet he does not deliberately make them elegant.”

Mozi made a wooden kite, a flying device, and took three years to finish it. It flew for just one day before breaking. A disciple said, “Your skill is extraordinary, Master. You actually made a wooden kite fly.” Mozi replied, “My craft is not as good as that of the man who makes a ni, the wooden fitting that joins a cart’s shafts to its crossbar. With only a foot of wood, he can make one in less than two days, and it can pull a load of thirty shi over a great distance and keep working for years. I spent two years making my wooden kite, and it broke after flying for just one day.” After hearing this, Hui Shi said, “What Mozi is best at is making ni fittings; what he is worst at is making wooden kites.”

The king of Song had a feud with the state of Qi, so he set about building a palace for military affairs. When the singer Ou Gui led the work songs, passersby stopped to watch, and the laborers worked without feeling tired. Hearing of this, the king summoned Ou Gui and rewarded him. Ou Gui replied, “My teacher, She Ji, sings better than I do.”

The king then summoned She Ji and asked him to sing. This time, passersby did not stop, and the laborers felt tired. The king asked, “Why did people keep walking and the laborers grow weary? His singing was plainly less pleasing than Ou Gui’s.” She Ji replied, “Your Majesty could compare how much work they did. When Ou Gui sang, the laborers tamped down a layer after every four planks. When She Ji sang, they did so only after every eight. And consider how firmly they packed the earth: when Ou Gui sang, they drove the rammer five inches into it; when She Ji sang, only two inches.”

Good medicine often tastes bitter, yet wise people still urge others to take it, knowing that it enters the body and cures illness. Frank advice often sounds harsh, yet an enlightened ruler will heed it, knowing that it can help him accomplish great things.

A man from the state of Song asked to carve a female monkey on the tip of a jujube thorn for the King of Yan. He said the king would have to fast for three months before he could see it. The King of Yan therefore supported him with the stipend of three chariots.

The palace charioteer and the metalworker said to the king, “We have heard that when Your Majesty fasts, you never go ten days without taking a break. We now know that you cannot fast for a long time just to see a useless object. That man has deliberately set a three-month deadline. Anything carved must be cut with a knife, and the object being cut must be larger than the knife’s edge. I work metal and make tools, and I have no tool that could carve something like this. The claim makes no sense. Please examine it carefully.” The king then had the man imprisoned and questioned. As expected, he found that the man had been lying and had him executed. The metalworker said to the king, “When plans are not measured against practical limits, persuasive speakers will come up with many absurd claims like the ‘female monkey on a thorn.’”

Another account says that the King of Yan was fond of exquisite, tiny objects. A man from the state of Wei claimed he could carve a female monkey on the tip of a jujube thorn. The king was delighted and supported him with the stipend of five chariots. The king said, “I want to see the female monkey you carved on the thorn.” The man replied, “If Your Majesty wants to see it, you must stay out of the inner palace for six months, drink no wine, and eat no meat. Then, when the rain has stopped and the sky has cleared, you will be able to see the monkey on the thorn at the moment light and shadow meet.” The king therefore kept supporting the man from Wei, but never saw the monkey.

A metalworker who worked beneath the palace gate in the state of Zheng said to the king, “I make knives and tools. Even the smallest thing must be carved with a knife, and the object being cut must be larger than the knife’s edge. The tip of a jujube thorn cannot even contain a knife’s edge, so it is truly difficult to carve anything on it. Your Majesty need only inspect the knife the man uses to carve with, and you will know whether he can do it.” The king said, “Good.” He then asked the man from Wei, “Do you carve the thorn with a knife?” The man said, “I do.” The king said, “I want to see that knife.” The man from Wei replied, “I’ll go back to my lodging and get it.” Then he fled.

Gongsun Long was a skilled debater from the state of Song. His claim that “a white horse is not a horse” won over the debaters at Jixia in the state of Qi. Yet when he rode a white horse through a checkpoint, he still had to pay the usual tax on it. With empty words, he might defeat the debaters of an entire state; but when judged by practical facts and the things themselves, he could not deceive even one person.

A newly sharpened arrow is fitted to a crossbow, the bow is drawn to its full strength, and the arrow is shot. Even if the archer closes his eyes and fires at random, the arrow might still hit something as fine as an autumn hair. But once it has struck, he cannot make it return to its original place. This cannot count as skill in archery, because there is no fixed target. Set up a target five cun across and shoot from ten paces away: except for masters such as Yi and Feng Meng, no one can guarantee a hit every time. That is because the target is fixed. When a matter has a clear standard, it seems difficult; without a standard, it seems easy. With a fixed target, Yi and Feng Meng regard hitting a five-cun target as a skill. Without a target, to regard accidentally hitting an autumn hair with a random shot as a skill is a mistake. Thus, if a ruler sets no standard by which to assess arguments, skilled debaters will talk on without end. If he does set a standard and judges by it, even clever people will fear saying the wrong thing and will not dare to boast carelessly. Yet today, when a ruler hears proposals, he does not check them against any standard, but praises clever words that bring no practical results. He also commends people’s conduct without examining whether it conforms to the law. This is why rulers remain deceived for so long and persuaders continue to multiply.

A retainer once taught the ruler of Yan a method for attaining immortality. The ruler sent someone to learn from him, but before the student had mastered the method, the retainer died. The ruler of Yan was furious and had the student killed. He failed to see that the retainer had been deceiving him, and instead blamed the student for learning too slowly. Believing in something fundamentally impossible and then killing an innocent subject—these are the harms that come from failing to investigate. Besides, nothing matters more to a person than his own life. If the retainer could not even keep himself from dying, how could he make the ruler of Yan immortal?

Two men in Zheng argued over which of them was older. One said, “I was born in the same year as Yao.” The other said, “I was born in the same year as the elder brother of the Yellow Emperor.” They argued back and forth, unable to settle who was older. In the end, whoever stopped first counted as the winner.

A retainer once painted a box for the ruler of Zhou, taking three years to finish it. The ruler examined it and thought it looked no different from an ordinary lacquer box. He was very angry. The painter said, “Please build a wall ten wooden planks high, cut a window eight feet high into it, and place the box by the window at sunrise so the light falls on it.” The ruler did as he was told. From a distance, the images on the box—dragons and snakes, birds and beasts, chariots and horses—came fully into view, and the ruler was delighted. The box had indeed been made with exquisite care and great effort, but in practical use it was still no different from an ordinary lacquer box.

A guest was painting for the ruler of Qi. The ruler asked, “What is the hardest thing to paint?” The guest replied, “Dogs and horses are the hardest.” The ruler asked again, “What is the easiest thing to paint?” The guest replied, “Ghosts and monsters are the easiest.” People are familiar with dogs and horses and see them every day, morning and evening. It is difficult to paint them so they look true to life, which is why they are hard to paint. Ghosts and monsters have no fixed appearance and never come before people’s eyes, so they are easy to paint.

There was a recluse in Qi named Tian Zhong. Qu Gu, a man from Song, went to see him and said, “I have heard that you value self-reliance and do not depend on others to support you. I have a way of growing gourds that makes them as hard as stone, thick and without openings. I have brought one especially to present to you.” Tian Zhong said, “A gourd is useful because it can hold things. This one is so thick that it has no opening and cannot be cut open to hold anything. And it is as heavy as stone, so it cannot be used for scooping either. I have no use for such a gourd.” Qu Gu said, “That is true. I was just planning to throw it away. Now, Tian Zhong does not depend on others for support, yet he cannot serve his country either. He is like this useless, hard gourd.”

Yu Qing was having a house built and told the carpenter, “Make the roof high and spacious.” The carpenter replied, “This is a newly built house. The mud is still wet, and the rafters are still green wood.” Yu Qing said, “That is not so. Wet mud is heavy, and wet wooden rafters bend easily. If bent rafters bear heavy mud, the roof should be low. After some time, the mud will dry and the rafters will dry too. Dry mud becomes lighter, and dry rafters straighten. If straight rafters bear lighter mud, the roof can be higher.” The carpenter was persuaded and followed his instructions, but the house collapsed.

Another account says that when Yu Qing was preparing to build a house, the carpenter said, “The wood is still wet, and so is the mud. Wet wood bends easily, and wet mud is heavy. If bent wood bears heavy mud, the house will collapse after a while, even if it is completed.” Yu Qing replied, “When the wood dries, it will straighten, and when the mud dries, it will become lighter. Just wait until they are completely dry: the wood will grow straighter and straighter, and the mud will grow lighter and lighter. Even after a long time, the house will not collapse.” The carpenter was persuaded and followed his instructions. Soon after the house was completed, it collapsed.

Fan Ju said, “A bow breaks when it is drawn to its limit, not when it is first drawn. A bowyer must first leave the bow on a frame that corrects its shape for thirty days, then string it. If it is put to use after just one day, the bowyer has tended it gradually at the beginning, only to make it bear a heavy strain all at once at the end. How could the bow avoid breaking? A bow should not be made this way. First leave it on the frame for one day, then string it, and wait thirty days before using it. This means drawing the bow too hastily at the beginning and adjusting it gradually only at the end. If a bowyer worked this way, the bow would still break.”

The arguments of Fan Ju and Yu Qing both rely on polished language and victory in debate, yet run counter to how things actually work. When a ruler enjoys such arguments and does nothing to curb them, the state is brought to ruin. If he seeks no practical results in governing the state and strengthening its power, but instead becomes enamored of ornate rhetoric, he will turn away those who truly understand the art of government and appoint people who know only how to make a house collapse and a bow break. Rulers often do not understand the practical methods of building houses or making bows, yet let people like Fan Ju and Yu Qing speak about them in the abstract. Their talk is empty and useless, but they can still prevail in debate; when it comes to practical matters, they cannot change the situation and are left at a loss. When rulers hear many useless arguments and few proposals that can solve real problems, the state falls into disorder. People like Fan Ju and Yu Qing keep appearing, and rulers keep enjoying what they say. They prize words that lead to failure and ruin, while treating those who know how to govern as though they were artisans, yet giving them no chance to put their skills to use. As a result, houses collapse and bows break. Those who understand how to govern cannot put their methods into practice, the state falls into disorder, and the ruler is placed in danger.

When babies play together, they treat dust as rice, mud as soup, and pieces of wood as meat. Yet at dusk they always go home to eat, because they know that rice made of dust and soup made of mud are only for play, not for eating. Those who praise tales of antiquity and speak eloquently but without sincerity, and who expound the benevolence and righteousness of the former kings without being able to bring peace to the state, are likewise fit only for amusement; they cannot be relied upon to govern a state. The Three Jin states—Han, Zhao, and Wei during the Warring States period—admired benevolence and righteousness, yet grew weak and fell into disorder. Qin did not make benevolence and righteousness its guiding principles of government, yet brought the state to peace and strength. Still, Qin had not achieved imperial rule despite its power, because its governance was not yet fully in order.

When a child is young, the parents may not care for the child attentively enough, and the grown child may come to resent them. When the child is strong and fully grown, if they provide only meager support for their parents, the parents may become angry and reproach them. Father and child are closest of kin, yet they blame and resent one another because each calculates whether the other has done enough for them, instead of thinking only about what they themselves ought to do.

When someone hires workers to cultivate fields, the landowner spends the family’s wealth to prepare tasty meals for them and puts cloth in order, hoping to exchange it for money. This is not because the landowner cherishes the workers, but because they expect that, if they do these things, the workers will plow deeply and weed carefully. The workers labor diligently and keep the fields in good order, not because they cherish the landowner, but because they expect that, if they do so, the meals will be better and the cloth can be sold for money. Though the bond between employer and worker has something of the affection between father and child, each cares about practical benefits and thinks only of their own interests. Thus, when people act or give things to others with the other person’s benefit in mind, even distant strangers such as the people of Yue are easy to get along with. But when they act with the intention of harming the other person, even fathers and children grow distant and resentful.

Before Duke Wen attacked the state of Song, he first issued a proclamation: “I have heard that the ruler of Song is unrighteous: he treats his elders with contempt and insult, distributes goods unfairly, and fails to keep faith with the orders he issues. I have come to punish him on behalf of the people.”

Before the state of Yue attacked Wu, it too issued a proclamation: “I have heard that the king of Wu built the Rúhuáng Terrace and dug deep ponds, exhausting and afflicting the people, depleting their wealth and draining their strength. I have come to punish him on behalf of the people.”

A woman from Cai married Duke Huan of Qi. Once, while the duke and his wife were riding together in a boat, she rocked it. Duke Huan was terrified and told her to stop, but she refused. In anger, Duke Huan sent her back to her parents’ home. Later he brought her back, only to marry her off to someone else. Duke Huan was furious and prepared to attack Cai. Zhongfu (Guan Zhong) advised him: “A small matter such as playfully rocking a boat between husband and wife is no reason to send troops against an entire state. To establish a great undertaking, one cannot casually change the reasons for one’s actions. Please do not make this a pretext for going to war.”

Duke Huan would not listen. Zhongfu added: “If you must go to war, Chu has gone three years without presenting rushes to the Son of Heaven. You would do better to send troops in the name of punishing Chu on the Son of Heaven’s behalf. Once Chu submits, turn back and attack Cai, saying, ‘I punished Chu on the Son of Heaven’s behalf, but Cai did not send troops to obey the command.’ Then you can seize the opportunity to destroy Cai. This would be righteous in name and would achieve your aim in practice: you would gain the reputation of punishing a rebel on the Son of Heaven’s behalf, while also carrying out your revenge.”

When Wu Qi served as a general of the State of Wei, he led his troops in an attack on the State of Zhongshan. One soldier had developed a poisonous sore, and Wu Qi knelt down and personally sucked the pus from it. The wounded man’s mother stood nearby weeping. Someone asked her, “The general treats your son so well. Why are you crying?” She replied, “Wu Qi once sucked the pus from a sore on his father. His father later died in battle. Now my son has received the same kindness, so I know he too is going to die in battle. That is why I am crying.”

King Wuling of Zhao ordered craftsmen to make hooked ladders. He climbed Mount Panwu and had human footprints carved into the mountain, each carving three feet wide and five feet long. An inscription beside them read, “The Lord Father once toured here.” Lord Father was an honorific title for King Wuling of Zhao.

King Zhaoxiang of Qin ordered craftsmen to make hooked ladders and climbed Mount Hua. He had a chessboard made from pine and cypress, with arrows eight feet long and chess pieces eight inches long. An inscription read, “King Zhaoxiang once played chess here with the spirits of Heaven.”

When Duke Wen of Jin returned to his state and reached the Yellow River, he ordered his eating utensils and sleeping mats to be thrown away. He had those who had served him meritoriously, their hands and feet thick with calluses and their faces darkened, walk behind him. When Jiu Fan heard of this, he wept that night. Duke Wen asked, “I spent twenty years in exile and have only now managed to return. Jiu Fan hears of it and, instead of rejoicing, weeps. Does he not want me to return?” Jiu Fan replied, “Eating utensils are for eating, and sleeping mats are for sleeping, yet you have thrown them away. Those whose hands and feet are thick with calluses and whose faces are darkened are all people who have worked hard and earned merit, yet you have made them walk behind you. I am now among those being put at the rear, and grief overcame me, so I wept. Besides, I once used many deceitful schemes on your behalf to help you return. Even I find them distasteful; how much more must you?” With that, he took leave of Duke Wen. Duke Wen tried to hold him back, saying, “As the saying goes, when building an altar to the soil deity, one first uses a spade to pile up the earth into a platform; once the altar is complete, one puts on ceremonial robes and makes the sacrifice. You and I recovered the state together, yet you will not stay to govern it with me. We built the altar together, yet you will not stay to join me in the sacrifice. How can that be?” He then unhitched the left-hand trace horse—the horse on the left when drawing a carriage—and swore an oath with Jiu Fan beside the Yellow River.

In Zheng County, a man named Yi Zi asked his wife to make him a pair of trousers. She asked, “What should this pair look like?” Her husband said, “Make them like my old pair.” So his wife cut and altered the new trousers until they looked like the old ones.

A man in Zheng County found a yoke—a wooden device fitted around an animal’s neck to pull a cart—but did not know what it was called. He asked someone, “What is this thing?” The person replied, “It’s a yoke.” A while later, he found another one and asked again, “What is this thing?” The person still replied, “It’s a yoke.” At once, the man flew into a rage. “A moment ago you said it was called a yoke, and now you say it’s called a yoke again. How can there be so many yokes? You’re trying to deceive me!” As he spoke, he began fighting with the other person.

In the state of Wei, a man responsible for shooting birds saw one flying toward him. He first waved his sleeve to drive it away. The bird was startled and flew off, so he failed to hit it.

In Zheng County, a man named Yizi had a wife who bought a turtle at the market. On her way home, she passed the Ying River and thought the turtle was thirsty, so she put it in the water to drink. The turtle escaped.

A young man was drinking with an elder. Whenever the elder drank, the young man drank along with him.

Another account says that in the state of Lu there was a man who thought himself clever. When he saw an elder drinking but not finishing the cup in one gulp, he spat at him. When the elder spat, the man imitated him.

Yet another account says that in the state of Song there was a young man who also wanted to learn to do good. He saw an elder drink without leaving a drop behind and assumed the elder had poured the wine not simply to drink it, but to finish it all. So he, too, wanted to do the same.

A book says, “Bind it with a belt.” A man in the state of Song who was particular about his appearance lengthened his belt and used it to wrap himself up. When people asked what he was doing, he replied, “That’s what the book says, so that’s how it should be done.”

Another book says, “After carving and polishing, return to simplicity.” A man in the state of Liang who was particular about his appearance deliberately imitated the books of antiquity in all he did and said. He also clung rigidly to the written word when handling affairs, often making things difficult and losing sight of their original purpose. When people asked what he was doing, he replied, “That’s what the book says, so that’s how it should be done.”

A man in Yingdu wrote a letter to the chancellor of Yan. The light was dim that night, so he said to the person holding the lamp, “Raise the torch higher.” The scribe mistakenly wrote the two characters “raise the torch” into the letter. Those words had nothing to do with the letter’s intended meaning. But when the chancellor of Yan received it, he was delighted and explained, “Raising the torch means valuing brightness; valuing brightness means selecting worthy people and appointing them.” He reported this interpretation to the King of Yan, who was delighted as well, and the state was governed quite well as a result. Good governance was certainly a good thing, but it was not what the letter writer had intended. Many people in the world today who prize learning and cling rigidly to books are much like these people.

A man from the state of Zheng was planning to buy shoes. He first measured his feet and set the measurement down on his seat. When he arrived at the marketplace, he had forgotten to bring it. He had already picked out a pair when he said, “I forgot to bring the measurement.” So he went home to get it. By the time he returned, the marketplace had closed, and in the end he bought no shoes. Someone asked, “Why not try them on your own feet?” He replied, “I would rather trust the measurement than my own feet.”

When Wang Deng was serving as magistrate of Zhongmu County, he advised Lord Xiang: “There are two scholars in Zhongmu, named Zhong Zhang and Xu Ji. They are upright in character and learned. Why don’t you promote them?” Lord Xiang said, “Go and meet them. Then I will appoint them as Grand Masters of the Central Court, a high official rank.” A close minister of the ruler urged him to reconsider: “The Grand Masters of the Central Court hold important offices in Jin. Appointing these men when they have done nothing to earn it will not sit well with Jin’s ministers. You have only heard of them; you have not examined them in person, have you?” Lord Xiang replied, “When I appointed Wang Deng, I had already learned about him both by hearsay and through personal observation. I will learn about the people Wang Deng recommends in the same way. If I relied on others to examine everything for me, it would never end.”

Wang Deng met the two Grand Masters of the Central Court in a single day, and Lord Xiang granted them fields and residences. Seeing this, the people of Zhongmu gave up farming, sold their fields, gardens, and homes, and went to study under them. Half the people in the city did so.

Shu Xiang was attending Lord Ping. Lord Ping’s legs hurt, his feet were numb, and they were cramping, yet he did not dare shift his position. When people in Jin heard of it, they all said, “Shu Xiang is a worthy man, and Lord Ping respects him so much that even while cramping, he dares not show disrespect.” After that, countless people in Jin resigned from office, claiming they admired Shu Xiang.

A man named Qu Gong from Zheng County would be so terrified when he heard that the enemy was coming that he thought he was about to die. When he realized that it was only his own fright, he felt as though he had come back to life.

King Zhao Fuzhu sent Li Ci to find out whether the state of Zhongshan could be conquered. When Li Ci returned, he reported, “Zhongshan can be attacked. If Your Majesty does not send out troops soon, Qi and Yan will get there first.”

King Zhao Fuzhu asked, “Why do you say it can be attacked?”

Li Ci replied, “The ruler of Zhongshan likes to receive scholars who live in seclusion among the mountains. He has also stopped his carriage many times to visit poor scholars in remote, narrow lanes—dozens of them. He treats commoner scholars, who hold no official posts, with the same courtesy as others; there are hundreds of them.”

King Zhao Fuzhu said, “By your account, he is a wise ruler. How can we attack him?”

“That is not so,” Li Ci said. “When a ruler values only recluses renowned for their reputation and lets them take part in government, soldiers grow slack and refuse to fight bravely on the battlefield. When a ruler honors scholars and gives them the highest positions at court, farmers grow slack and refuse to plow. If soldiers neglect battle, the army will weaken; if farmers neglect cultivation, the state will become poor. A state whose military is weaker than that of its enemies and whose people are poor will never escape destruction. Is this not the right moment to attack?”

King Zhao Fuzhu said, “Good.” He then sent troops to attack Zhongshan, and the state was eventually destroyed.

King Huan of Qi liked to wear purple clothes, and everyone in the state followed his example. At the time, five bolts of white raw silk could not buy even one bolt of purple cloth. Troubled by this, King Huan said to Guan Zhong, “I like wearing purple, but purple cloth has become terribly expensive, and the people keep competing to wear it. What should I do?”

Guan Zhong said, “Why not try giving up purple clothes? Then tell those around you, ‘I detest the smell of purple clothing.’”

King Huan agreed. From then on, whenever someone close to him appeared wearing purple, he said, “Stand farther away. I detest the smell of purple clothing.”

After King Huan did this, none of his attendants in the palace wore purple that day. The next day, no one in the capital wore it. After three days, no one anywhere in the state wore purple.

Another account says that the king of Qi liked purple clothes, and the people of Qi came to like them too. At the time, five bolts of white silk could not buy one bolt of purple cloth, and the king was troubled by its high price. Fu Yue advised him, “The Book of Songs says, ‘If the ruler does not do it himself, the people will not believe him.’ If Your Majesty wants the people to stop wearing purple, he should first take off his own purple clothes before going to court. If a minister appears wearing purple, say, ‘Stand farther away; I detest that smell.’”

That very day, none of the palace attendants wore purple. Within the month, no one in the capital wore it. Within the year, no one anywhere in the state wore purple.

Duke Jian of Zheng said to Zichan, “Our state is small and caught between Chu and Jin. Now our city walls are weak and our weapons and armor are incomplete. If anything unexpected happens, we will be hard pressed to respond.” Zichan replied, “I have already made preparations far away, and our defenses at home are secure. Though our state is small, it is still not in danger. You need not worry.” Thus, throughout Duke Jian’s reign, no calamity befell him.

When Zichan served as chief minister of Zheng, Duke Jian said to him, “The banquets are not enjoyable, the vessels for sacrifices are not grand enough, and the bells, drums, mouth organs, and zithers are not played. I cannot attend properly to every matter of state; the people are uneasy, their lives lack order, and farming and military service are out of step. All this is your fault. You have your duties, and I have mine. Each of us should fulfill our own responsibilities.” Zichan withdrew and governed the state for five years. There were no thieves in Zheng, and no one picked up lost belongings along the road. Peach and jujube trees grew beside the streets, yet no one took their fruit. If an awl or a knife fell on the road, it could still be found there three days later. This governance continued for three years without change, and the people did not go hungry.

Duke Xiang of Song fought the Chu army at Zhuogu Valley. The Song army had already drawn up its ranks, but the Chu army had not yet all crossed the river. Gou Qiang, the Song army’s Right Marshal, hurried forward to urge him: “The Chu army is numerous, and our forces are few. Let us wait until they are halfway across and have not yet formed their ranks, then attack. We are certain to defeat them.” Duke Xiang of Song said, “I have heard that a gentleman does not strike the wounded or take captive those whose hair has turned white. He does not drive people into danger or press them when they are in distress. If the opposing ranks are not yet formed, one does not beat the drums to attack. To attack now, while the Chu army has not finished crossing, would violate what is right. Let them all cross and form their ranks; then we will beat the drums and advance.” The Right Marshal said, “You have no regard for the lives of the people of Song. You do not care even if your own belly and heart are injured; you insist only on what is right.” Duke Xiang said, “Return to your place in the ranks. If you do this again, I will punish you according to the law.” By the time the Right Marshal returned to the ranks, the Chu army had crossed the river and formed up. Only then did Duke Xiang beat the drums and attack. The Song army was routed, and Duke Xiang injured his thigh. He died three days later.

This is the calamity brought about when a ruler insists on practicing benevolence and righteousness personally. If the people will obey only when the ruler does everything himself, then he must also lead by plowing the fields and take his place in the ranks like a soldier before they will farm and fight. Would that not put the ruler in great danger, while leaving his ministers far too secure?

Duke Jing of Qi was visiting the Small Sea when a courier rider hurried from the palace to report: “Yan Ying is gravely ill and near death. He fears you will not arrive in time to see him one last time.” Duke Jing rose at once, but another rider arrived. He ordered them to harness quickly the carriage drawn by the horse named Fanqie and had Zouzi Han Shu drive it. After they had gone a few hundred paces, he thought Han Shu was not driving fast enough, so he took the reins and drove himself. A few hundred paces later, he thought the horse was not moving fast enough, so he abandoned the carriage and ran. Fanqie was a fine horse, and Han Shu was a skilled driver, yet Duke Jing thought he could get there faster by running himself.

King Zhao of Wei wanted to manage state affairs personally, so he said to Mengchang Jun, “I want to take part in governing.” Mengchang Jun replied, “If Your Majesty wishes to manage state affairs, why not first try studying and familiarizing yourself with the laws?” King Zhao read a little over ten bamboo slips before falling asleep. When he awoke, he said, “I cannot keep reading these laws.” If a ruler does not personally master authority and affairs of state, yet wants to do the work that belongs to his ministers, is it not only natural that he should fall asleep? Confucius said, “A ruler is like a bowl, and the people are like water. If the bowl is square, the water takes a square shape; if the bowl is round, the water takes a round shape.”

The ruler of Zou liked to wear long hat cords, and those around him wore them too. As a result, long hat cords became expensive. Troubled by this, the ruler asked his attendants why. They replied, “You like to wear them, so most of the people have followed your example. That is why they have become expensive.” The ruler then cut off his own long hat cords before going out. Soon, people throughout the country stopped wearing them. A ruler cannot suppress a custom simply by issuing orders about what the people should wear. To govern the people, he must first set an example and lead the change himself.

When Shuxiang oversaw the distribution of the hunting spoils, he allocated them according to each person’s contribution: those who had contributed more received more, and those who had contributed less received less.

Marquis Zhao of Han said to Shen Zi, “Laws and institutions are easy to put into practice.” Shen Zi replied, “Under the law, reward those who have achieved merit, and appoint people to office according to their abilities. Now, although Your Majesty has established laws, you still listen to requests from those around you. That is why the laws are difficult to put into practice.” Marquis Zhao said, “From now on, I know how to put the laws into practice. I will no longer listen to such requests.” One day, Shen Zi asked that his cousin be appointed to office. Marquis Zhao said, “This is not what I learned from you. If I grant your request, would that not undermine the standards you uphold? I will not accept your request.” Shen Zi withdrew to one side and apologized to Marquis Zhao.

When Duke Wen of Jin attacked Yuan, he brought ten days’ worth of provisions and agreed with his ministers that the campaign must be concluded within ten days. When they reached Yuan, ten days passed, but the city had still not been taken. Duke Wen ordered the signal for retreat to be sounded, and withdrew his troops.

A soldier came out of Yuan and reported, “Yuan will surrender in three more days.” His ministers urged him, “The people of Yuan have already run out of food, and their strength is nearly spent. Please wait a little longer.” Duke Wen replied, “I agreed with my soldiers that we would stay for ten days. If we do not withdraw on time, I will break my word. I would rather not take Yuan than lose my credibility.” So he withdrew.

When the people of Yuan heard what had happened, they said, “How could we not submit to a ruler who keeps his word?” They surrendered to Duke Wen. The people of Wei heard as well and said, “How could we not follow a ruler who keeps his word?” They too submitted to Duke Wen. When Confucius heard of this, he wrote: “By attacking Yuan, he won the state of Wei; this was because he kept faith.”

Duke Wen asked Ji Zheng, “How can we relieve the hungry?” Ji Zheng replied, “By relying on trust.” Duke Wen asked, “What does it mean to keep faith?” Ji Zheng said, “It means that reputation matches reality. When reputation is trustworthy, ministers carry out their duties conscientiously, their conduct does not depart from the proper path, and no task is neglected. When government is trustworthy, the seasons for farming are not missed, and the people do not overstep the rules. When moral principles are trustworthy, those nearby are encouraged, and people from afar come to join us.”

Wu Qi, a general of the Warring States period, was traveling when he met an old friend and invited him to eat. His friend said, “All right. I’ll come after I’ve finished some business at home.” Wu Qi replied, “I’ll wait until you arrive before I eat.” His friend had still not come by evening, so Wu Qi continued to wait without eating. Early the next morning, he sent someone to find his friend. Only after the friend arrived did Wu Qi eat with him.

Marquis Wen of Wei, ruler of the state of Wei during the Warring States period, had arranged to go hunting the next day with the official in charge of the state’s forests, lakes, parks, and preserves. The following day, a strong wind arose. Those around him urged him not to go, but Marquis Wen refused. “I cannot break my word just because the wind is strong,” he said. “I will not do that.” He personally drove his carriage through the wind to meet the official as promised, and only then called off the hunt.

Zengzi’s wife went to the market, and their son followed behind her, crying and fussing. She told him, “Go home. When I get back, I’ll kill a pig for you to eat.” When she returned from the market, Zengzi prepared to catch and kill the pig. His wife stopped him and said, “I was only joking with the child.” Zengzi said, “You must not joke with a child. A child does not yet understand things and is learning from his parents, following their instruction. If you deceive him, you are teaching him to deceive others. If a father deceives his child, the child will no longer trust his mother, and that makes it impossible to teach him well.” So Zengzi killed the pig and cooked it for their son.

King Li of Chu set up a warning drum to summon the people to defend the border. One time, while drunk, he passed by and accidentally struck it. The people were greatly alarmed. King Li sent someone to stop them, saying, “I was drunk and joking with those around me; I struck the drum by mistake.” Only then did the people disperse. Several months later, another alarm came from the border. King Li beat the drum to summon the people, but no one came. He then clarified the alarm signal, and only then did the people trust the warning drum again.

Li Kui, a politician of the state of Wei during the Warring States period, warned the left and right divisions of his army: “Be on your guard. The enemy will attack you sooner or later.” He said this two or three times, but the enemy never appeared. As a result, both divisions let down their guard and stopped believing Li Kui. Several months later, the Qin army invaded. By the time it arrived, it had nearly seized the Wei army’s camp. This is the calamity brought about by losing people’s trust.

Another account says that, while fighting the Qin army, Li Kui told the left division, “Move quickly! The right division has already set out.” He then hurried to the right division and said, “The left division has already set out.” Hearing this, both divisions hurried forward, each eager to advance. The following year, when they fought the Qin army again, the Qin army launched a sudden attack. By the time it arrived, it had nearly seized the Wei army’s camp. This is the calamity brought about by losing people’s trust.

The above is the transmitted text.

When people brought lawsuits against one another, Zichan, a politician of the state of Zheng, separated them and prevented them from speaking directly to each other. After listening to each person’s account and bringing together the information, he was able to understand what had really happened.

Huisigong, an ancient feudal lord, sent people to pretend to be officials responsible for the checkpoints and markets. The officials stopped and questioned them. The disguised visitors then took the opportunity to offer them money, and the officials let them pass. Huisigong later said to the officials, “A visitor passed through and gave you money. Why did you accept it?” The officials were terrified and believed that Huisigong could see through everything.

End of volume eleven of the Han Feizi.

Textual notes: The two characters “King of Yan” are missing here and have been supplied on the basis of the Zhang Bang edition. The graph “jian” should be “er.” The original note identifies “feng” as an error, but the textual note retains “feng” as in the original. The eight characters “One person said, ‘I am the same age as Yao’” are missing here and have been supplied on the basis of the Chen Qiyou edition. “Su” has been changed to “tong” on the basis of the Chen Qiyou edition. “Yun” has been changed to “geng” following Chen Qiyou’s view. “Shi” should be “chi”; “yue” should be “ri.” The character “yi” is missing here and has been supplied on the basis of the Yu Ping edition.

Han Feizi, Scroll 12: “Outer Storehouse Sayings, Part One, Lower Section,” Chapter 33

When someone is punished for a crime, people will not resent the ruler, because the punishment fits the offense. Zigao, an official of the state of Wei during the Spring and Autumn period, once sentenced a man to have his foot cut off. Though he carried out the punishment according to the law, he felt compassion for the man. The man who was punished was therefore grateful for his kindness and wanted to repay him.

When a minister is rewarded for merit, he does not regard the ruler as a benefactor, because the reward is simply what he deserves. Zhai Huang held the right-hand tally and rode in a curtained carriage. His merit entitled him to this favor, so he felt no shame in riding it.

King Xiang, however, did not understand that great merit deserved a generous reward. Zhao Mao performed great deeds: he drove Qin back in the west and held Qi at bay in the east. Yet King Xiang rewarded him with only five carriages. A great deed met with a meager reward is as ill matched as a wealthy man wearing straw sandals.

If a ruler appoints ministers only to positions within their actual abilities, and ministers do not exaggerate their skills, then a minister will not fail in his duty as Shaoshi Zhou did by refusing to recommend someone more capable. Shaoshi Zhou served King Xiang for his courage and strength, and was honest and trustworthy, never deceiving others. When he encountered someone braver and stronger than himself, he recommended that person to take his place.

Ministers should be governed through authority, not by trust alone. When a ruler relies on authority, a minister will not simply do as he pleases because he has been trusted. Relying on trust alone, however, may mean entrusting power to someone untrustworthy. For this reason, Dongguo Ya once advised Guan Zhong. Duke Huan of Qi wanted to hand all state power to Guan Zhong. Dongguo Ya argued that Guan Zhong was loyal, but that if he ever proved disloyal, the state would be in danger. Duke Huan therefore put Guan Zhong in charge of external affairs and Xi Peng in charge of internal affairs.

Ministers should be governed through methods and techniques, not by trust alone. For this reason, Hun Xuan once criticized Duke Wen of Jin. Duke Wen trusted Ji Zheng’s loyalty, appointed him governor of Yuan, and said, “He would never betray me.” Hun Xuan replied, “If a ruler does not govern his ministers through methods and techniques, but merely counts on them not to betray him, what will he do if something goes wrong?”

Thus, a ruler skilled in using methods and techniques brings out his ministers’ abilities through rewards and restrains wrongdoing through punishments. Even when a minister’s conduct is mixed with improper elements, the ruler can still put him to use and let him gain what he deserves. Here, “mixed conduct” means conduct that is impure, containing something improper. Zhao Jianzi appointed Yang Hu as his minister. Yang Hu later expelled the ruler of Lu and caused Lu to become dependent on Qi; his conduct was far from pure. Yet Zhao Jianzi governed him through methods and techniques, made full use of his abilities, and brought the state of Zhao close to achieving hegemony.

Duke Ai asks what is meant by saying that Kui had only one foot. Duke Ai asked Confucius, “I have heard that Kui had only one foot. Is that true?” Confucius replied, “Kui had a contrary temperament and a corrupt mind. Yet it was precisely because of this that he escaped misfortune.” Duke Ai then believed that Kui really had only one foot. This story illustrates that one should not trust hearsay about ministers; instead, one should have ways to govern them.

Third. If a ruler does not understand the proper duties of ruler and minister, he may end up like King Wen, bending down to put on someone else’s shoes and taking pride in it. Even when a ruler has teachers at his side, ministers should serve with care; lesser ministers should always stand ready to carry out orders. King Wen understood this principle, yet found no one at his side whom he could send on an errand. This, too, shows that he had lost his talent. To claim that everyone around the ruler is a teacher is merely to exaggerate one’s own fault and cover up one’s mistakes.

If one fails to distinguish the etiquette of court audiences from that of private rest, Jisun will remain stiff and formal all his life, and in the end be put to death. One should maintain solemnity at court, but try to relax somewhat in private. If Jisun is ordered to keep the same bearing at all times, he will remain stiff and formal throughout his life and ultimately meet his death because of it.

When what should be forbidden is treated as a benefit, and benefits that should be granted are instead forbidden, even the spirits cannot govern. When something that should be prohibited is encouraged, and something that should be granted is prohibited, the spirits still cannot govern—how much less can ordinary people? When those who should be punished are praised, and those who should be rewarded are slandered, even Yao could not govern. When punishment is due but someone is praised, and a reward is due but someone is slandered, even Yao could not govern—how much less could someone inferior to Yao?

A gate may be built, yet if people are not allowed to enter, they cannot get through it; the gate might as well not exist. Benefits may be set out, yet if people are not allowed to obtain them, then there is no point in offering them. This is how disorder arises: preventing people from entering and keeping them from obtaining benefits are precisely what cause disorder.

The Marquis of Qi did not heed the people around him, and the ruler of Wei did not listen to those who only praised him. Had they clearly judged their ministers, Qi would not have squandered its wealth. Qi’s great expenditure came from the king’s trusting those around him; Wei’s use of jade discs came from its ruler’s believing their praise. Ximen Bao’s request to govern Ye again is enough to illustrate the point. When he first governed Ye, he refused to indulge those around him, so the ruler dismissed him. Later, when he began to indulge them, the ruler personally welcomed him and bowed to him. From this we can see that those around a ruler may become a source of disaster for the state.

This is like the son of a thief who is not ashamed that his father stole, but instead wears the clothes his father stole and shows them off. It is also like people who form factions and profit through improper means: rather than being ashamed of their forebears’ conduct, they boast of the clothes their forebears left behind. People who are flattered and then act improperly are much the same.

Zichuo had two attendants draw pictures. The one on the left drew a circle, and the one on the right drew a square. Both were busy drawing, and neither could finish his picture properly at the same time as the other. This means that if one listens to those around him, he cannot also obtain the counsel of the worthy.

Using bones to drive away ants and fish to drive away flies only brings more ants and flies. This means that admonishing those around you with gentle words will only make them more flattering.

How could there not have been an occasion when Duke Huan worried that he had too few official posts to hand out? He listened to requests from those around him and wanted to give them positions, but had no posts to offer, so he worried. And how could there not have been an occasion when King Xuan worried about a thin horse? He failed to investigate the stable keeper who had stolen fodder and beans, and worried only that the horse had grown thin.

Five. If ministers make humility and frugality their guiding principles in life, ranks and rewards will not be enough to motivate them. If a ruler shows his ministers excessive, unchecked favor and trust, they will offend him and encroach upon his power. Relevant examples include the stories of Miao Benhuang and Fei Xianbo, as well as Confucius’s remarks about Yan Ying.

When Xianbo served as chancellor, his wife wore no silk clothing. Yan Ying was the same. But their frugality went too far and seemed to impose harsh demands on their ministers. Thus, when Confucius spoke of Guan Zhong and Sun Shuao, he thought Guan Zhong’s three fiefs showed extravagance, while Sun Shuao’s coarse cakes showed excessive frugality. The manner in which rulers and ministers advance and withdraw can change as a result.

Speaking of his own followers, Yang Hu said that while he lived in Qi, three men followed him; after he was convicted of a crime, those same three men helped the ruler pursue him. Yang Hu cited this to show that he had no private motives. But when Jian Zhu responded to his ministers, he accused Yang Hu of privately cultivating connections and said that the people he had recommended were unsuitable. This was like planting trifoliate orange trees and thorn bushes, only to be wounded by their thorns.

When factions collude and ministers each pursue their own private desires, the ruler becomes isolated. If the ministers recommend worthy people impartially and do not form factions among themselves, the ruler can see clearly. Yang Hu said that his recommendations were as wise as Zhao Wu and as impartial as Xie Hu: when recommending people, they did not set aside their relatives, nor did they exclude their enemies. Yang Hu considered his own recommendations just the same. Jian Zhu, however, compared this practice to planting trifoliate orange trees and thorn bushes, which did not accord with the way to govern the state. When a ruler says that those he has recommended will harm him, he is comparing them to thorn bushes and, in doing so, teaching his ministers to favor their own interests.

Six. When the power of the ruling house—the ruler and the royal family—declines, the ruler becomes wary of outspoken counsel. When ministers’ private interests and conduct take precedence over public duty, fewer people will work to serve the state. Relevant examples include Wen Zi’s frank words and Wu Zi’s use of a staff.

Wu Zi and his son Wen Zi both valued frank speech. Wu Zi said that if he lost those who spoke frankly to remonstrate with him, he would surely fall into danger, and disaster would also bring harm to his father. Zi Chan gave loyal remonstrance, but Zi Guo grew angry and rebuked him for it. Zi Guo said that those who remonstrated loyally would surely become estranged from the other ministers and would also place their father in danger.

Liang Che acted according to the law, yet Cheng Hou took back his seal of office. When Liang Che served as a county magistrate in Zheng, his sister broke the law, and he punished her according to it. The Zhao ruler judged him insufficiently compassionate and dismissed him from office. Guan Zhong acted impartially, yet the people slandered and resented him: he had not repaid the favors of the border official and had appointed only worthy people, so he drew complaints.

When Confucius held office in the state of Wei, his disciple Zigao served as a prison officer. He once sentenced a criminal to the punishment of yue—cutting off a foot. The man later became a gatekeeper. Someone told the ruler of Wei that Confucius was plotting a rebellion, so the ruler planned to arrest him. Confucius fled, and his disciples scattered in all directions. As Zigao was leaving through the city gate, the gatekeeper led him into a room beneath the gate to hide. The officers pursuing him failed to find him.

In the middle of the night, Zigao quietly asked the gatekeeper, “I handled your case according to the law and cut off your foot with my own hands. Now you have every reason to take revenge. Why, instead, are you willing to help me escape? What have I done to deserve such kindness from you?”

The gatekeeper replied, “Losing my foot was the just consequence of my crime; there was no way to change that. But when you first heard my case, you tried to find ways around the law and explained the circumstances to me more than once, hoping to spare me punishment. I knew this. Later, when you handed down the sentence, you looked unhappy; your expression gave it away. I saw it and understood how you felt. You did not act this way because you were biased in my favor. Your nature is simply kind and humane. That is why I was convinced of your sincerity and grateful for your De.” Since a person who had suffered the punishment of yue had difficulty walking, he was called “Yuewei.”

Tian Zifang was traveling from Qi to Wei when, from a distance, he saw Zhai Huang riding in a tall, covered carriage with cavalry accompanying him. Thinking it was the Marquis Wen of Wei, he had his carriage turn aside to avoid him. Only later did he learn that the person in the carriage was merely Zhai Huang. The word tu means “merely” or “only.”

Tian Zifang asked, “Why are you riding in such a carriage?”

Zhai Huang replied, “When the ruler was planning to attack Zhongshan, I recommended Zhai Jiao, and the plan succeeded. Later, when he sent troops to attack Zhongshan, I recommended Yue Yang, and Zhongshan was finally conquered. After the conquest, the ruler worried that he would not be able to govern it well, so I recommended Li Ke, and Zhongshan soon became stable. That is why the ruler rewarded me with this carriage.”

Tian Zifang said, “Given your achievements, the favor and reward you have received are still rather modest.”

The states of Qin and Han attacked Wei. Zhaomao traveled west to persuade Qin and Han, and both states then called off their attack. Qi and Chu attacked Wei, so Zhaomao traveled east to persuade Qi and Chu, and they too stopped their attack. King Xiang of Wei supported him at the level of five chariots of military provisions and appointed him general. Zhaomao said, “After Boyi died, he was buried beneath Mount Shouyang, and people throughout the realm praised his virtue and benevolence. But if he had been buried with the honors due a general, people would have thought his hands and feet were not properly covered. Now I have brought an end to hostilities among four states, yet Your Majesty rewards me with provisions for only five chariots. To assess merit this way is like someone who has made a great profit but still wears straw sandals.” Here, “win” means to make a profit; “winning greatly” means to profit handsomely. Zhaomao’s point was that earning only a meager reward for a great achievement is like making a large profit yet still wearing crude straw sandals.

Confucius said, “A skilled official accumulates goodwill; an unskilled one accumulates resentment.” A measuring vessel must be level to measure fairly; officials must enforce the law impartially to govern fairly. In governing a state, one must not lose sight of fairness.

Shaoshi Zhou was an upright and incorruptible man of ancient times who served as a strongman for Lord Xiang of Zhao. He tested his strength against Xu Zi of Zhongmou and lost, so he asked Lord Xiang to let Xu Zi take his place. Lord Xiang said, “This is a position everyone wants. Why recommend Xu Zi to replace yourself?” Shaoshi Zhou replied, “I serve my lord through my strength. Xu Zi is now stronger than I am. If I do not recommend him, I fear that when others point this out, I will be punished for concealing a worthy man.” Another account says that Shaoshi Zhou served as Lord Xiang’s right-hand guard in his chariot and accompanied him to Jinyang. A strongman named Niu Zigeng challenged Shaoshi Zhou to a contest of strength and defeated him. Shaoshi Zhou then said to Lord Xiang, “My lord appointed me as your chariot guard because I was strong. Now there is someone stronger than I am. I hope my lord will appoint him to the position.”

Duke Huan of Qi was preparing to appoint Guan Zhong and honor him with the title “Father Zhong,” a respectful title for an important minister. He said to the assembled officials, “I intend to appoint Guan Zhong as Father Zhong. Those who think this is appropriate should stand to the left as they enter; those who oppose it should stand to the right.”

Dongguo Ya stood in the middle of the doorway. Duke Huan asked, “I said that those who approve should stand on the left and those who oppose should stand on the right. Why are you standing in the middle?” Dongguo Ya replied, “With Guan Zhong’s wisdom, can he devise plans for great matters concerning all under Heaven?” Duke Huan said, “He can.” Dongguo Ya asked, “With his resolve, would he dare to carry out great undertakings?” Duke Huan said, “He would.” Dongguo Ya said, “Since you know that he is good at planning and has the resolve to act, entrust him with all the state’s authority. Given Guan Zhong’s abilities, and backed by your power, would his governance of Qi not become a danger?” Duke Huan said, “Well said.” He then assigned Xi Peng to oversee domestic affairs and Guan Zhong to handle external affairs, so that the two would work together while keeping each other in check.

When Duke Wen of Jin was in exile, Ji Zheng followed him, carrying a pot of food. On the road, he lost his way and became separated from the duke. Starving, he stood by the roadside and then lay down, enduring his hunger, but never dared to eat the food he carried. Later, Duke Wen returned to his state and sent troops to attack Yuan. After capturing it, he said, “Ji Zheng would rather endure hunger than touch that pot of food. This shows he would not betray me in order to gain Yuan.” He therefore appointed Ji Zheng as the governor of Yuan.

When the senior official Hun Xuan heard of this, he criticized the decision: “To trust that he would not betray you for Yuan simply because he did not touch that pot of food—is that not a failure to understand how to govern?” Thus, an enlightened ruler does not rely on ministers’ unwillingness to betray him. He relies on establishing conditions that make betrayal impossible. He does not rely on ministers’ unwillingness to deceive him. He relies on establishing institutions that make deception impossible.

Yang Hu once said, “When a ruler is worthy, I serve him wholeheartedly; when a ruler is unworthy, I conceal my schemes and wait for a chance to test him.” Yang Hu was driven out of Lu and also came under suspicion in Qi, so he fled to Zhao. Zhao Jianzi, the ruler of Zhao, welcomed him and appointed him chancellor. His attendants asked, “Yang Hu is skilled at seizing power in other states. Why appoint him?” Zhao Jianzi replied, “Yang Hu wants to seize power; I devote myself to holding on to it. As long as I can hold on, he has nothing to gain.” Zhao Jianzi then kept Yang Hu under his command and in check. Yang Hu did not dare act recklessly and instead devoted himself to assisting Zhao Jianzi. Zhao grew stronger and nearly became hegemon as a result.

Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius, “I have heard that in ancient times there was a man named Kui who had only one foot. Is that true?”

Confucius replied, “No. Kui did not have only one foot. He had a fierce temper and an unkind heart, so most people disliked him. Even so, he avoided being harmed by others because he was honest and trustworthy. People used to say, ‘One man like Kui is enough.’ This did not mean that Kui had only one foot; it meant that having him alone was sufficient.”

Duke Ai said, “Thinking it over, that is indeed right. One man like him is enough.”

Another account says that Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius, “I have heard that Kui had only one foot. Is that true?” Confucius replied, “Kui was a man. Why would he have only one foot? He had no other special skill; he was simply accomplished in music. Yao said, ‘One man like Kui is enough,’ and appointed him director of music. Thus, when a gentleman says Kui had ‘one sufficiency,’ he does not mean that Kui had only one foot. He means that one skill was enough to make him fit for the post.”

Duke Wen of Jin was at war with the state of Chu. When he arrived at the Mound of Yellow Phoenix, his shoe strap came loose, so he tied it himself. Someone at his side asked, “Could you not have someone else tie it for you?” Duke Wen said, “I have heard that the attendants of a superior ruler are all people he respects—that is, people of virtue. Those around a middling ruler are people he likes, because they can respectfully obey him. Those around an inferior ruler are people he looks down on, because they are incapable and despised by their ruler. I may not be wise, but the ministers left by my late father are still here, so I cannot ask them to do this for me.”

When King Wen of Zhou set out to attack the state of Chong, he reached Phoenix Ruins and found that the ties of his socks had come loose. He tied them himself. Taigong Wang (Jiang Taigong) asked, “Why do you do it yourself?” King Wen replied, “The people around a ruler should ideally be his teachers; next, his friends; and only after that, people who carry out his errands. These men are all ministers of my late father, so none of them is suited to be ordered about.”

Jisun valued worthy men and was always solemn and respectful in their presence. He conducted himself and dressed as though he were at court. Later, Jisun let his guard down for a moment and occasionally behaved improperly, failing to maintain his composure and dignity at all times. His guests took this as a sign that he slighted and disrespected them. Resentment grew among them, and in the end they killed Jisun. Therefore, a gentleman should avoid arrogance and excess.

Nangong Jingzi asked Yan Zhuoju, “Jisun provides for Confucius’s disciples. More than a dozen of them attend court in ceremonial robes and sit beside him, yet he was still robbed. Why?” Yan Zhuoju replied, “In the past, King Cheng of Zhou kept actors and dwarfs close, indulging his own desires. But he consulted gentlemen on matters of state, and so he was able to fulfill his aims throughout the realm. Now Jisun provides for Confucius’s disciples, and more than a dozen of them attend court in ceremonial robes and sit beside him, yet he consults actors and dwarfs on matters of state. That is why he was robbed. This shows that what matters is not who lives with you, but whom you consult.”

When Confucius was seated beside Duke Ai of Lu, the duke offered him peaches and millet and said, “Please have some.” Confucius ate the millet first, then the peach. Everyone nearby covered their mouths and laughed. Duke Ai said, “The millet isn’t meant to be eaten; it is for wiping the peach.” Confucius replied, “I know. Millet is foremost among the Five Grains and is the finest offering made in sacrifice to the former kings. Fruits and melons fall into six categories, and the peach ranks low among them; it cannot be placed in the ancestral temple as an offering to the former kings. I have heard that a gentleman uses humble things to set off what is worthy, but never that he uses what is worthy to set off what is humble. To wipe the lowest-ranking peach among fruits and melons with millet, foremost among the Five Grains, would make what is worthy set off what is humble. I believe this goes against ritual propriety, so I dared not eat the millet first, lest I place ahead of the rest the finest offering used in sacrifices at the ancestral temple.”

Jian Zhu said to those around him, “The mat on this carriage is far too splendid. A hat may be lowly, but the head must wear it; shoes may be precious, but the feet must wear them. With the carriage mat so splendid, what could I still wear on my feet? Shoes are, after all, made for the feet.” When the mat is overly splendid, no finer shoes are left to match it. If things below are made too elaborate, they consume the resources of those above: a splendid mat requires splendid shoes; splendid shoes, in turn, require splendid clothes. As the pursuit of splendor continues, those in high positions will spend ever more of their wealth. This is the very root of what undermines ritual propriety.

Fei Zhong said to King Zhou, “Boyi Chang, the Earl of the West (King Wen of Zhou), is virtuous. The people love him, and the feudal lords have rallied to him. He must be killed. If he is not, he will surely become a calamity for the Shang.”

King Zhou said, “You make a good point. But he is a feudal lord who upholds righteousness. How could I kill him?”

Fei Zhong said, “Though a hat may be worn and shabby, it is still worn on the head; though shoes may be embroidered in five colors, they are still trodden underfoot. Now Boyi Chang is a subject who practices benevolence and righteousness, yet the people all turn to him. In time, he will become a calamity for the realm. Must he really be allowed to prosper? When everyone ceases to regard their own ruler as virtuous, such a man cannot be left alive. Besides, when a ruler executes a subject, how can that be considered a fault?”

King Zhou said, “Benevolence and righteousness are what a ruler uses to guide his subjects. Boyi Chang values benevolence and righteousness, so he cannot be killed.”

Fei Zhong urged him three times, but his advice was never accepted. In the end, King Zhou’s dynasty was destroyed.

King Xuan of Qi asked Kuang Qian, “Do Confucians play the game of bo?”

Kuang Qian replied, “They do not.”

The king asked, “Why not?”

Kuang Qian answered, “In bo, the owl is the highest-ranking piece, and the winner must kill it. Confucians believe that killing what one holds in highest regard violates righteousness, so they do not play bo.”

The king then asked, “Do Confucians shoot birds?”

Kuang Qian answered, “They do not. Shooting birds means injuring what is above from below, just as a subject might injure a ruler. Confucians believe this violates righteousness, so they do not shoot birds.”

The king then asked, “Do Confucians play the se?”

Kuang Qian answered, “They do not. The se produces low notes on its thin strings and high notes on its thick strings, thereby reversing the distinction between large and small, and between superior and inferior. Confucians believe this violates righteousness, so they do not play it.”

King Xuan said, “Well said.”

Zhongni (Confucius) said, “Better to have the people flatter those above them than those below them. Flattery directed downward leads to the formation of factions; flattery directed upward is an expression of humility and respect.”

Fourth: Ju was a recluse from the state of Qi, and Chan was a recluse from the state of Wei. The rulers of Qi and Wei lacked discernment and could not learn firsthand about conditions in their own territories. They listened only to those around them, so these two men spent gold, jade, and other valuables in their efforts to obtain office.

Ximen Bao served as magistrate of Ye. He was upright and cautious, and would not take even the slightest private advantage. He kept his distance from the ruler’s close attendants and never ingratiated himself with them. As a result, the attendants banded together and joined forces to push him aside.

After a year, Ximen Bao went to the capital to report on his performance. Marquis Wen of Wei took back his official seal. Ximen Bao then asked, “In the past, I did not know how to govern Ye. Now I understand. Please return my seal and let me govern it for another year. If I do a poor job, I am willing to suffer execution by the axe and block, the instruments used for beheading in ancient times.” Marquis Wen could not bring himself to punish him, so he returned the seal.

Over the next year, Ximen Bao levied heavier taxes on the people and hurried to carry out the close attendants’ requests. A year later, he went to the capital to report again. Marquis Wen came out in person to welcome him and bowed to him. Ximen Bao said, “Last year I governed Ye for the ruler, yet the ruler took back my seal. This year I governed Ye for the close attendants, and the ruler bows to me. I can no longer govern Ye.” With that, he handed back the seal and left. Marquis Wen refused to accept it, saying, “Before, I did not understand you. Now I do. I hope you will continue to devote yourself to governing Ye for me.” He never accepted the seal Ximen Bao returned.

In the state of Qi, the son of a thief played with a man who had undergone leg amputation, and they boasted to each other. The thief’s son said, “My father’s fur coat has only one tail.” He meant that the coat his father had stolen still had the tail of the dog from which it had been taken. The man who had undergone leg amputation said, “My father never loses his trousers, even in winter.” People who had had their legs amputated did not wear trousers, so they could not lose them in winter.

Zichuo said, “No one can draw a square with the left hand and a circle with the right at the same time.” If you try to drive ants away with meat, there will only be more ants; if you try to drive flies away with fish, more flies will gather.

Duke Huan of Qi said to Guan Zhong, “There are few official posts, but many people seeking them. I am worried.” Guan Zhong replied, “My lord should not grant the requests of his close attendants. Award stipends according to ability and official posts according to merit, and no one will dare to seek office arbitrarily. What is there for my lord to worry about?”

Han Xuanzi said, “My horses eat plenty of beans and grain, yet they are thin. Why is that? It troubles me.” Zhou Shi replied, “If you had the horse keeper bring all the grain to feed the horses, you could not keep them from gaining weight even if you wanted to. If you claim to give them a great deal but actually give them very little, you cannot keep them from growing thin, even if you want to. My lord has not looked into what is really happening and only sits worrying. The horses still will not grow fat.”

Duke Huan of Qi asked Guan Zhong how officials should be appointed. Guan Zhong replied, “When it comes to clear and discerning speech, perceptive administration, incorruptible self-restraint, freedom from greed for wealth, and understanding how people and society work, I am no match for Xian Shang. Please appoint him as Grand Judge, the official in charge of justice. When it comes to observing ritual with care, conducting oneself with propriety, and receiving guests according to the rites, I am no match for Xi Peng. Please appoint him as Grand Master of Ceremonies, the official in charge of diplomacy and court hospitality. When it comes to reclaiming wasteland and expanding settlements so that the fiefs can harvest grain and pay taxes, I am no match for Ning Wu. Please appoint him as Grand Minister of Agriculture. When it comes to commanding troops and arranging their formations so that soldiers face death without fear, I am no match for Gongzi Chengfu. Please appoint him as Grand Marshal, the official in charge of military affairs. When it comes to disregarding a ruler’s displeasure and speaking frankly in remonstrance, I am no match for Dongguo Ya. Please appoint him as a remonstrating official. These five men are enough to govern the state of Qi. But if we are to achieve hegemony, I, Guan Zhong, am here.”

Meng Xianbo served as chief minister of the state of Lu. Bean leaves and thistles grew beneath the hall, and brambles crowded the space outside his gate. He ate no meal with two dishes and sat on no double-thickness mat. No concubine in his household wore silk, and he did not feed grain to his horses. When he went out, he rode in no carriage.

When Shu Xiang heard of this, he told Miao Benhuang. Miao Benhuang disagreed. “He is using the rank and stipend granted by his ruler to curry favor with the people,” he said.

Another account says that when Meng Xianbo was appointed Senior Minister, Shu Xiang went to congratulate him. At the gate there was a carriage driver, but the horses had been given no grain. Shu Xiang asked, “Why don’t you keep two pairs of horses and two carriages?” Meng Xianbo replied, “I see that people in the state still look hungry, so I do not give grain to my horses. Many of the elderly whose hair has turned white still have to walk, so I do not keep two carriages.”

Shu Xiang said, “At first I came to congratulate you on becoming Senior Minister. Now I congratulate you on your frugality.” After leaving, he said to Miao Benhuang, “Come congratulate Meng Xianbo with me on his frugality.”

“What is there to congratulate?” Miao Benhuang replied. “Rank, stipend, and insignia are used to distinguish merit and tell whether someone is worthy. Jin’s regulations prescribe two carriages and two horses for a senior grandee, two carriages and one horse for a middle-ranking grandee, and one carriage for a junior grandee. This is how ranks are made clear. Moreover, ministers and grandees must take responsibility for military affairs. They therefore need to keep carriages, horses, and troops in readiness for war. In an emergency, these can guard against unforeseen events; when the situation is peaceful, they can also serve the needs of the court. Meng Xianbo has now disrupted Jin’s regulations and weakened its preparations against unforeseen events, all to secure a reputation for personal frugality and win himself a name for integrity. Is this frugality worthy of praise? By the law, what he said should have merited death. What is there to congratulate?”

When Guan Zhong served Duke Huan of Qi, he said, “My status is exalted, but my household is still poor.” Duke Huan then granted him a residence known as the Three Returns. Guan Zhong next said, “I am wealthy, but my rank is still not high enough.” Duke Huan then placed him above the Gao and Guo clans. Guan Zhong said again, “My rank is honored, but I am not yet close enough to you.” So Duke Huan honored him with the title Zhongfu, a respectful name for Guan Zhong that meant he regarded him as a father.

When Confucius heard of this, he criticized Guan Zhong for being too extravagant, to the point of nearly usurping the ruler’s authority. Another account says that when Guan Zhong went out, he rode in a carriage with a vermilion canopy and blue curtains, with a drum placed inside. When he returned home, musicians welcomed him with music; when he came back from court, drums and music were also arranged to greet him. His household displayed bronze vessels and possessed the Three Returns residence. Confucius said, “He was a very capable minister, but his extravagance came close to usurping the ruler’s authority.”

When Sun Shuao served the state of Chu, he rode in a humble carriage drawn by mares. He ate coarse grain cakes and vegetable soup, and his meals often included dried fish. In winter he wore a sheepskin coat; in summer, clothes of kudzu fiber. His face even showed signs of hunger. Such a man was a worthy minister, though his excessive frugality came close to making the ruler seem inferior to his minister.

Yang Hu left Qi and fled to Zhao. Zhao Jianzi asked him, “I hear you are skilled at nurturing talent.” Yang Hu replied, “When I was in Lu, I promoted three men, and all of them became chief ministers. Later, when I fell into disfavor in Lu, they all hunted for me. When I was in Qi, I also recommended three men: one gained access to the ruler, one became a county magistrate, and one became a frontier watch officer responsible for keeping watch and relaying messages. Later, when I fell into disfavor, the man close to the ruler refused to see me; the magistrate met me face-to-face and had me bound; and the watch officer chased me to the border, stopping only when he failed to catch me. So I am not skilled at nurturing talent.”

Zhao Jianzi bowed his head and laughed. “Plant orange and pomelo trees, and when they mature their fruit is sweet and fragrant. Plant trifoliate orange and wild jujube trees, and when they mature they will wound people with their thorns. Therefore, a gentleman must be careful about the kind of people he selects and nurtures.”

When Zhongmou had no county magistrate, Duke Ping of Jin asked Zhao Wu, “Zhongmou is an important region on the borders of Zhao, Qi, and Yan, and it is also strategically important to Handan. I want to appoint a capable magistrate. Whom should I send?” Zhao Wu replied, “Xing Bozi would be suitable.” Duke Ping asked, “Isn’t he your enemy?” Zhao Wu answered, “Private grudges must not be brought into public affairs.”

Duke Ping then asked, “Whom should I send as magistrate of Zhongfu?” Zhao Wu replied, “My son could serve.” Thus, when recommending outsiders, he did not avoid his enemies; when recommending relatives, he did not avoid his own son. Zhao Wu recommended forty-six people, and after his death they were all settled according to their status as his guests. This shows that Zhao Wu did not use recommendations to pursue private gain.

Duke Ping of Jin asked Shuxiang, “Among all the ministers, who is the most worthy?” Shuxiang replied, “Zhao Wu.” The duke said, “You are favoring your own teacher, aren’t you?” Shuxiang had once served as a senior officer under Zhao Wu. Zhao Wu was humble and cautious in his conduct, as if even his clothes were too much for him to bear; he also spoke carefully and sparingly. Yet he recommended dozens of capable men and gave them the chance to put their talents to use. For this he earned praise and fulfilled his own aspirations. The state depended greatly on Zhao Wu. When he took charge of government, however, he did not use his position to benefit his family; and before he died, he did not entrust his family’s care to anyone in power. That is why I dare say he was worthy.

Xie Hu recommended his enemy for the post of chancellor to Zhao Jianzi. The man thought Xie Hu must have forgiven him and went to thank him. But Xie Hu drew his bow and nocked an arrow as he sent him off, saying, “I recommended you out of public duty, because I believe you are capable of the post. My enmity toward you is a private matter. I will not suppress your appointment before the ruler because of a private grievance. So private grudges must not be brought into public affairs.”

Xie Hu also recommended Xing Boliu to serve as governor of Shangdang Commandery. Xing Boliu went to thank him, saying, “You have pardoned my offense. How could I fail to bow to you again and again?” Xie Hu replied, “Recommending you is a public matter; resenting you is a private one. Go take up your post. My resentment toward you remains just as it was before.”

A man in Zheng County was selling pigs. Someone asked him the price, and he replied, “It’s already late in the day. How could I have time to tell you?”

Fan Wenzi liked to speak frankly. His father, Wuzi, beat him with a staff and said, “People who speak frankly are not easily accepted by others. If no one accepts you, you will put yourself in danger. And this will not only put you in danger; it will bring trouble upon your father as well.”

Zichan was the son of Ziguo. He was loyal to the ruler of Zheng, so Ziguo rebuked him: “You set yourself apart from the other ministers by being the only one to show loyalty to the ruler. If the ruler is wise, he may heed your words; if he is unwise, he will not. You cannot know whether he will listen, yet you have already distanced yourself from the other ministers. To distance yourself from them is certain to put you in danger. This will not only endanger you; it will endanger your father too.”

When Liang Che had just become magistrate of Ye County, his older sister came to visit him. After the city gates were closed at dusk, she climbed over the wall to enter the city. Liang Che thereupon cut off her feet. Zhao Chenghou judged him lacking in benevolence, took away his official seal, and removed him from his post as magistrate.

Guan Zhong was bound and being taken from the state of Lu to the state of Qi. Hungry and thirsty on the way, he reached the border checkpoint at Qiwu and asked the guard for food. The guard knelt as he handed it to him, showing great respect. Then the guard quietly asked Guan Zhong, “If you are lucky enough to reach Qi and are not put to death but instead are given an official post, how do you plan to repay me?” Guan Zhong replied, “If things turn out as you say, I will appoint worthy and capable people, and see that those who have rendered service are evaluated and rewarded. What could I give you in return?” The guard was displeased by his answer.

End of volume twelve of the Han Feizi.

1. The character xia (“below”) has been omitted here and should be supplied.

2. The character li (“separation”) has been omitted here; it is supplied following the Chen Qiyou edition.

3. Yuan ke was mistakenly written as yong dui; corrected following the Chen Qiyou edition.

4. Zu was mistakenly written as zhi; corrected following the Chen Qiyou edition.

5. The Yupi edition has jie (“all”); corrected accordingly.

6. The character yue (“said”) has been omitted; it is supplied following Chen Qiyou’s suggestion.

7. Reading this as men (“gate”) makes no sense; corrected following the Chen Qiyou edition.

8. The Yupi edition has bo; corrected accordingly.

9. The two characters Guan Zhong were omitted here; they are supplied following the Ling Yingchu and Yupi editions.

Volume thirteen of the Han Feizi

“Explanations of the Inner Compendium, Part Two: Upper Section,” chapter thirty-four

A ruler has three ways to govern his ministers. First, if his authority is not enough to make them obey, he should eliminate them. The answer of Shi Kuang and the arguments of Yan Zi both accord with the principle of using authority to change a situation. But putting these methods into practice is extremely difficult, like racing against wild beasts, and they cannot eliminate the danger. A method that can truly eliminate danger can be seen in the way Zi Xia explained the Spring and Autumn Annals.

Those skilled at wielding authority stamp out treachery as soon as it begins to show. Thus Ji Sun once used an opportunity to exercise his authority to dismiss Confucius. How much more vigilant, then, should a ruler be toward ministers like Chao Cuo? Jiang Taigong executed Kuang Gong, so even servants did not dare ride fine horses. Si Gong understood this principle, so he deliberately drove a deer cart; Xue Gong understood it too, so he played chess with two musicians. These examples all show how to discern similarities and differences between people and circumstances, and thereby infer their advantages and dangers in reverse. Thus an enlightened ruler governs his ministers by controlling them as one would livestock; this meaning can be seen in the word xu (“to keep and control”).

The ruler stands at the center of competing interests, like the hub of a wheel. Everyone watches him and offers advice, so he is easily misled. Once he reveals what he likes and dislikes, his ministers act to match those inclinations, making it difficult for him to see the truth. If ministers can speak freely without restraint, the ruler cannot judge matters independently and appears to lack divine insight. These principles can be seen in Shen Buhai’s “Six Cautions” and in Tang Yi’s account of shooting birds. The dangers are illustrated by the story of Guo Nian’s plea for reform and King Xuan of Qi’s sigh. The story of Jing Guojun presenting ten jade earrings, and those of Xishou and Gan Mao using tunnels to gather information, make the same point. Tangxi Gong understood how a ruler should control his ministers, so he tested the ruler with a jade goblet. Han Zhaohou understood this too: he listened to reports on state affairs alone before going to sleep. The ruler’s way of governing lies in making independent decisions, as Shen Buhai advised.

There are often reasons why a ruler cannot put methods for controlling his ministers into practice. If a shopkeeper does not kill the dog that steals his wine, the wine will turn sour. A state has such “dogs” too, and the people around the ruler are also like rats in the shrine, hiding inside the altar where they are hard to catch. If the ruler lacks the resolve to punish a wrongdoer a second time, as Yao did, and cannot handle a confrontation with the heir apparent as King Zhuang of Chu did, he will be swayed by others, like Bo Ao when she judged Cai Yu. Knowing what matters most is not enough; one must first use the method of testing people by having them teach singing. Wu Qi drove away his beloved wife, and Duke Wen of Jin killed Dian Jie: both acted against ordinary expectations. Thus, anyone who can have another person lance a boil for him must be able to endure pain.

A ruler’s gifts and praise cannot inspire people; punishments and scoldings cannot make them afraid. If all four methods have been used and the person still does not change, he should be eliminated.

When Duke Jing of Qi went to Jin, he drank with Duke Ping. Shi Kuang, a court musician of Jin known also for his understanding of state affairs, sat beside them. As they took their seats, Duke Jing asked him, “What advice does the Grand Musician have for me?” Shi Kuang replied, “It is enough for a ruler to show kindness to the people.” Halfway through the feast, when the wine was flowing freely and Duke Jing was about to leave, he asked again. Shi Kuang repeated, “A ruler must show kindness to the people.” As Duke Jing departed his lodging, Shi Kuang saw him off, and he asked once more. Shi Kuang gave the same answer: “A ruler must show kindness to the people.”

After returning to Qi, Duke Jing pondered these words repeatedly. Before the effects of the wine had worn off, he grasped what Shi Kuang meant. Gongzi Wei and Gongzi Xia were Duke Jing’s two younger brothers. They were deeply supported by the people of Qi, wealthy, and so renowned that their standing rivaled that of the ruling house. Duke Jing believed they threatened his position as ruler and thought, “When Shi Kuang told me to show kindness to the people, was he telling me to compete with my two brothers for their support?”

So, after returning to Qi, Duke Jing opened the granaries and distributed grain to the poor. He also took surplus wealth from the state treasury to aid orphans and widows. The granaries held no old grain, and the treasury had no surplus funds. He let the palace women whom the ruler had not taken to bed leave the palace and marry, and he provided rice stipends to people over seventy. Through these acts of generosity, Duke Jing won the people’s support and entered into a contest with his two brothers. Two years later, Gongzi Wei and Gongzi Xia fled Qi: Gongzi Xia went to Chu, and Gongzi Wei went to Jin.

Duke Jing of Qi and Yan Zi went for an outing at the Shao Sea. They climbed the Baixi Terrace and looked back over their state. “How beautiful it is,” said the duke, “so vast and magnificent! Who in generations to come will own a state like this?”

Yan Zi replied, “Perhaps the Tian Cheng clan will own it.”

The duke said, “This is my state. How can you say the Tian Cheng clan will own it?”

Yan Zi replied, “The Tian Cheng clan has won the deep support of the people of Qi. They appeal to the ruler on behalf of the ministers for titles and stipends. Among the people, they lend grain using large measures, but collect it back using small ones. When they slaughter an ox, they keep only one dou of meat—a dou is a vessel for holding meat—and use the rest to feed the shi. At the end of the year, they take only two portions of the cloth and silk they collect, using the remainder to clothe the shi. As a result, timber costs no more in the market than it does in the mountains, and fish, salt, turtles, soft-shelled turtles, snails, and clams from the lakes and marshes cost no more than they do by the sea.

“The ruler imposes heavy taxes, while the Tian Cheng clan gives generously. Qi once suffered a great famine. Countless people starved to death by the roadside, yet again and again, fathers and sons went together to seek refuge with the Tian Cheng clan. No one who went there was said to have perished. So the people of the Zhou and Qin regions sang together: ‘Sing, then stop; bundle up your belongings and go seek refuge with Tian Chengzi.’ The Book of Songs says, ‘Though you have no virtue or kindness to offer them, still sing and dance.’ Now the Tian Cheng clan bestows kindness on the people, and the people sing and dance for them; their hearts, too, have turned toward the clan. That is why I said the Tian Cheng clan will perhaps own this state.”

With tears in his eyes, Duke Jing said, “Is this not tragic? I possess this state, yet the Tian Cheng clan has won the people’s hearts. What should I do now?”

Yan Zi replied, “Why should the ruler worry? If you wish to win back the people’s hearts, draw close to the worthy and keep your distance from the unworthy; bring order to chaotic affairs, lighten punishments, provide relief to the poor, care for orphans and widows, show kindness, and make up for what the people lack. Then the people will turn toward the ruler. In that case, even if there were ten Tian Cheng clans, what could they do to you?”

When Ji Sun served as prime minister of Lu, Zilu was the magistrate of Hou. In the fifth month, Lu summoned the people to dig a long trench. Zilu used his own stipend to buy grain, cooked it into rice and soup, and served it to the trench diggers at the Wufu crossroads.

When Confucius heard of this, he sent Zigong to pour out the food and smash the vessels, then challenged Zilu: “The ruler of Lu has people of his own. Why did you presume to feed them?”

Zilu was angry. He rolled up his sleeves, went inside, and asked Confucius, “Does my teacher disapprove of my practicing benevolence and righteousness? What I learned from you is benevolence and righteousness. They mean sharing what one has with everyone under Heaven, so that all may benefit together. Now I have used my own stipend to feed the people. Why should that be wrong?”

Confucius replied, “You, Zhong You (Zilu), are truly uncouth. I thought you already understood these principles, but I see you have not yet reached that level; that is why you understand so little about ritual propriety. You fed them out of concern for them. But according to ritual, the Son of Heaven cares for everyone under Heaven; the feudal lords care for the people within their domains; high ministers care for the affairs entrusted to them; and officers care for their own households. To care for those beyond one’s proper sphere is to intrude on another’s responsibility. The people belong to the ruler of Lu, yet you presumed to bestow favors on them. That is an overreach of authority—and is it not also a case of names and roles being out of order?”

Before Confucius had finished speaking, an envoy sent by Ji Sun arrived and reproached him: “I, Ji Fei, have summoned the people for service, yet you have your disciple feed them. Do you mean to take my people away from me?” Confucius then left Lu by carriage.

For all Confucius’s wisdom, Ji Sun was not the ruler of Lu but merely a minister, yet he used his ministerial standing to exercise the powers of a ruler. If this overreach had been checked in time, before it took hold, Zilu would not have presumed to bestow favors, and trouble would not have arisen. How much more so when the ruler himself is involved? If Duke Jing of Qi had used his authority to stop Tian Chang from usurping royal power in time, he would surely have avoided the calamity of being seized and assassinated.

Jiang Taigong (Jiang Ziya) was enfeoffed in Qi, to the east. On the coast in eastern Qi lived two reclusive scholars, brothers named Kuang Yu and Hua Shi. They declared, “We do not submit to the Son of Heaven or associate with the feudal lords. We farm for ourselves and eat what we grow; we dig our own wells and drink their water, asking nothing of others. We seek neither the fame of high office nor a ruler’s stipend. We hold no official posts and make our living solely through our own labor.”

When Jiang Taigong arrived at Yingqiu, he sent officials to seize and execute them, making their case the first crime he dealt with. Hearing of this from Lu, the Duke of Zhou, Dan, immediately dispatched a messenger on horseback to ask Jiang Taigong, “These brothers were worthy men. You have only just begun governing Qi, yet you have killed worthy men. Why?”

Jiang Taigong replied, “The brothers declared that they would not submit to the Son of Heaven or associate with the feudal lords; that they farmed for themselves and ate what they grew, dug their own wells and drank their water, and asked nothing of others; that they sought neither the fame of high office nor a ruler’s stipend. Since they would not submit to the Son of Heaven, I could not make them my subjects. Since they would not associate with the feudal lords, I could not put them to use. They farmed and fed themselves, drew water from their own wells, and asked nothing of others, so I could not encourage or restrain them through rewards and punishments.

“Moreover, they sought no fame from high office. However talented they might be, they would not serve me. They did not rely on a ruler’s stipend, so however worthy they might be, they could not earn merit for me. If people hold no office, the state cannot be governed; if they refuse appointment, they cannot be said to serve loyally. The means the former kings used to direct their subjects were none other than rank and stipend, rewards and punishments. Now none of these four can make those men obey. For whom, then, could I be a ruler?

“They avoid warfare and refuse service, yet seek to make themselves renowned. They do not labor in the fields, yet gain a reputation. This is no way to instruct and transform a state. Suppose there were a horse that looked like a fine steed and could be called the best horse in the world, but would not move forward when urged, would not go straight when pulled, and would not turn left or right when directed. Even the lowliest servant would not put a foot in its stirrup to ride it. A servant is willing to ride a fine steed because it can pursue gain and avoid harm. If this horse cannot be put to use, even the lowliest servant will not ride it.

“These men consider themselves worthy scholars, yet refuse to serve their ruler. However lofty their character and virtue, a ruler cannot employ them. They are not the kind of subjects a wise ruler can make use of. They are like that fine steed that will not obey commands. That is why I had them killed.”

First account: After Jiang Taigong (Jiang Shang, a strategist who assisted King Wu of Zhou in the early Zhou dynasty) was enfeoffed in Qi, he heard that a worthy man named Kuang Qiao lived by the sea, so he went in person to invite him. Jiang Taigong dismounted outside his gate three times and asked to see him, but Kuang Qiao still refused to respond. Jiang Taigong then had him killed.

At the time, the Duke of Zhou (the younger brother of King Wu and a senior minister who assisted King Cheng) was in Lu. When he heard what had happened, he hurried off to stop it. By the time he arrived, Kuang Qiao had already been killed. The Duke of Zhou asked, “Kuang Qiao was a worthy man of the realm. Why did you kill him?” Jiang Taigong replied, “Kuang Qiao advocated neither submitting to the Son of Heaven nor associating with the feudal lords. I feared he would disrupt the laws and alter the teachings, so I killed him first. Consider a horse that looks like a fine steed but will not move when driven or advance when led. Even a servant would not put a foot on the carriage pole to ride in such a cart.”

Second account: Ru’er tried to persuade Duke Si of Wei, the ruler of Wei. Duke Si greatly admired what he heard, but sighed. An attendant asked, “Why don’t you appoint him as your minister?” Duke Si said, “There is a horse that looks like a deer and can sell for a thousand gold pieces, yet a horse worth a hundred gold pieces is worth more than a deer worth one. This is because people can use a horse to pull a carriage, but cannot use a deer that way. Ru’er now has the ability to assist a great state, and his thoughts are set on a great state, not on Wei. Even though he is eloquent, intelligent, and talented, he would not serve my purposes, so I will not appoint him as my minister.”

When Xue Gong served as chief minister to Marquis Zhao of Wei, two skilled musicians close to the ruler, named Yang Hu and Pan, were held in high esteem by the marquis but did not serve Xue Gong. This caused Xue Gong great concern.

So Xue Gong invited the two men to gamble with him and first gave each of them one hundred gold pieces. He then had their brothers join the game and gave each of them another two hundred gold pieces. As they were gambling, someone came to report that Ji Yu, the son of Xue Gong’s guest Zhang Ji, was waiting outside. Xue Gong’s expression changed at once. Resting his hand on his weapon, he said to the messenger, “Kill him! I have heard that Zhang Ji does not practice cultured virtue.”

After a while, Ji Yu happened to be nearby. “That is not so,” he said. “I have privately heard that Zhang Ji holds you in great esteem. You simply have not heard of it yet.” Xue Gong therefore called off the execution and instead received Ji Yu with generous gifts. He said, “Earlier I heard that Zhang Ji did not practice cultured virtue, so I wanted to kill you. Now I know that he does practice it. How could I forget Zhang Ji?” He then ordered the granary to provide a thousand measures of grain and the treasury to provide five hundred gold pieces. He also ordered the stable hands to bring two fine horses and sturdy chariots from his private stables, and had the eunuchs send Zhang Ji twenty of the palace’s most beautiful concubines.

Yang Hu and Pan said to each other, “Serving Xue Gong brings benefits; refusing to serve him brings harm. Why should we be reluctant to work for him?” They then competed to serve him eagerly, and in the end both came to work for Xue Gong.

Xue Gong was only a minister, yet he used the ruler’s methods for keeping ministers in line, so that they dared not disobey him. How much more so for someone who truly holds sovereign power? When a crow is tamed, its lower jaw is broken so that it has to rely on people for food. How could it fail to become tame? An enlightened ruler should treat ministers in the same way: make them dependent on the ruler’s stipends and unable to do without the reputation the ruler confers. When ministers rely on the ruler’s stipends and value the rank the ruler grants, how could they fail to obey?

Shen Zi (Shen Buhai) said: “If a ruler displays his discernment, his ministers will take precautions. If he does not display it, they will grow suspicious. If a ruler lets others see that he is wise, his ministers will mislead him; if he conceals his wisdom, his ministers will hide the truth from him. If a ruler reveals his desires, his ministers will watch for a chance to exploit them; if he reveals what he wants, they will bring him things to entice him. Therefore it is said: ‘I have no direct way of knowing what my ministers are like. Only Wuwei (non-action) allows me to assess them.’”

Another account says: Shen Zi said, “Be cautious in what you say, or others will figure you out. Be cautious in what you do, or others will follow your example. If you display wisdom, others will conceal things; if you do not display wisdom, they will try to fathom you. If you are wise, others will hide the truth; if you appear unwise, they will act on their own. Therefore it is said: ‘Only Wuwei allows a ruler to assess his ministers.’”

Tian Zifang asked Tang Yiju, “What must someone be careful about when shooting birds?” Tang Yiju replied, “Hundreds of eyes are watching you, while you have only two eyes to watch the birds. How could you fail to guard your hiding place carefully?” Tian Zifang said, “Well said. You are speaking of shooting birds; I am speaking of governing a state.”

After hearing this, Elder Zheng said, “Tian Zifang knows that a ruler should conceal himself as if he were in hiding, but he still does not understand how to do so. Only by remaining empty and still, practicing Wuwei, and revealing nothing of oneself can one remain beyond others’ scrutiny.”

Another account says: King Xuan of Qi asked Tang Yizi, “What matters most when shooting birds?” Tang Yizi replied, “The most important thing is to conceal yourself carefully.” The king asked, “What does it mean to conceal yourself carefully?” He replied, “Birds have dozens of eyes watching people, while people have only two eyes to watch birds. How could one fail to conceal oneself carefully?” So the key is to hide oneself with care. King Xuan said, “Then how should someone conceal himself when governing the realm? The ruler watches one state with two eyes, while that state has thousands upon thousands of eyes watching the ruler. How can a ruler protect himself and keep others from seeing through him?” Tang Yizi replied, “Elder Zheng once said that one might achieve this by remaining empty and still, practicing Wuwei, and revealing nothing of oneself.”

Guo Yang was highly favored by the ruler of Zheng. When he heard that the ruler knew he had done something wrong, he seized the chance while drinking with the ruler to say first, “Your servant has recently had the misfortune to commit a fault. I hope Your Majesty will tell me what it was. I will certainly correct it, and so may escape the death penalty.”

A guest advised King Xuan of Han. The king listened with pleasure and sighed. Those around him followed the king’s mood and urged him to tell the guest first, saying that this would be an act of royal favor.

When Jing Guojun served the state of Qi, the queen died. The King of Qi had not yet decided whom to appoint as the new queen, so Jing Guojun presented him with a pair of jade earrings to discover his intentions.

Another account says that when Lord Xue served as Qi’s chief minister, the consort of King Wei of Qi died. Ten of the women in the palace were favored by the king, and Lord Xue wanted to find out which one he intended to appoint as his consort. He therefore asked the king to choose one of them. If the king agreed, Lord Xue’s recommendation would be accepted, strengthening his influence over the appointment. If the king refused, his recommendation would have had no effect, diminishing his standing in the matter.

Lord Xue wanted to learn the king’s intentions first, then urge him to appoint the woman he preferred. So he prepared ten pairs of jade earrings, making one pair especially exquisite, and presented them to the king. The king distributed the earrings among the ten women. The next day, when they took their seats, Lord Xue observed who was wearing the exquisite pair and then urged the king to appoint that woman as his consort.

When Gan Mao served as chancellor under King Hui of Qin, the king greatly valued Gongsun Yan, whose courtesy name was Xishou. He once said to him privately, “I intend to appoint you chancellor.” One of Gan Mao’s officials overheard this through a hole in the wall and reported it to him.

Gan Mao went to the palace to pay his respects to King Hui and said, “Your Majesty has gained a worthy chancellor. I venture to congratulate you with a second bow.” The king replied, “I have entrusted you with governing the state. Why would I need to find another worthy chancellor?” Gan Mao answered, “Your Majesty is going to appoint Xishou chancellor.” The king asked, “How did you hear of this?” Gan Mao said, “Xishou told me.” Angered that Xishou had disclosed a secret, King Hui expelled him from Qin.

Another account says that Xishou was a renowned general throughout the realm and had originally served the state of Wei, called Liang in the text. The king of Qin wanted him to come to Qin and help govern the realm. Xishou replied, “I serve as a minister of Wei. I dare not leave the state where my ruler resides.”

A year later, Xishou fell into disgrace in Wei and fled to Qin. The king of Qin admired him. Chu Li Ji, a Qin general, feared that Xishou would replace him as commander. So he made a small hole in a place where the king often spoke privately with others and listened in. Before long, the king indeed discussed with Xishou: “I want to attack Han. What do you think?” Xishou replied, “We can send out the troops in autumn.” The king said, “I want to entrust the affairs of state to you. You must not let this slip.” Xishou quickly stepped back, bowed twice, and replied, “As you command.”

At that moment, Chu Li Ji also heard the conversation through the hole in the wall. The palace attendants began to whisper among themselves: “We’ll attack Han in autumn, and Xishou will command the army.” That very day, everyone in the palace knew; that very day, people throughout the state knew as well.

The king summoned Chu Li Ji and asked, “Why is there such a commotion outside? How did the news get out?” Chu Li Ji replied, “It seems Xishou let it slip.” The king said, “I never discussed this matter with Xishou. How could he have let it slip?” Chu Li Ji answered, “Xishou is an outsider living in Qin. He has only just fallen into disgrace in Wei and feels isolated and without support. He deliberately spread these words so that everyone would think he was the one who had leaked the news.” The king found this plausible and sent someone to summon Xishou, only to learn that he had already fled to another feudal state.

Tangxi Gong said to Marquis Zhao of Han, “Suppose there were a jade cup worth a thousand gold pieces, but it had no bottom. Could it be used to hold water?” The marquis replied, “No.” Tangxi Gong asked again, “Suppose there were an earthenware vessel that did not leak. Could it be used to hold wine?” The marquis replied, “Yes.” Tangxi Gong said, “Though the earthenware vessel is cheap, it can hold wine because it does not leak. Though the jade cup is extremely precious, it cannot hold water because it has no bottom and everything poured into it runs out. Which vessel, then, would people pour their wine into? If a ruler lets his ministers’ words slip out, he is like that bottomless jade cup. Even if the ruler possesses sage-like wisdom, his ministers will not reveal all their plans, for they will fear that their words might be leaked.” The marquis said, “That is well put.”

After hearing Tangxi Gong’s words, whenever Marquis Zhao planned matters of state, he thereafter slept alone, fearing that he might reveal his plans in a dream and let others learn of them.

There is another account: When Tangxi Gong went to see Marquis Zhao, he said, “Suppose there were a white jade cup with no bottom, and an earthenware cup with a bottom. If Your Lordship were thirsty, which would you use to drink water?” The marquis replied, “The earthenware cup.” Tangxi Gong said, “The white jade cup is exquisite, yet Your Lordship would not use it—is that because it has no bottom?” The marquis replied, “Yes.” Tangxi Gong said, “When a ruler lets his ministers’ words slip out, he is like a jade cup with no bottom.” Whenever Tangxi Gong left after visiting Marquis Zhao, the marquis would be sure to sleep alone, fearing that he might speak in a dream and let his secrets slip to his wives and concubines.

Shenzi said, “Only one who can observe things alone may be called discerning; only one who can listen and judge alone may be called perceptive; only one who can decide alone is fit to rule all under Heaven.”

In the state of Song, there was a man who sold wine. He measured it fairly, treated his customers respectfully, and brewed wine that was wonderfully fragrant and delicious. The sign hanging in front of his shop was high and conspicuous, yet the wine never sold. In the end, it all turned sour. Puzzled, he sought advice from Yang Qian, an elder who knew the situation. Yang Qian asked, “Is your dog fierce?” The wine seller replied, “Yes.” Yang Qian said, “Then why should it be surprising that your wine does not sell? People are afraid of it. Someone may send a child carrying money and a wine vessel to buy wine, but the dog rushes out and bites them. Naturally, the wine turns sour and remains unsold.”

States, too, have dogs like this. Men who understand the Dao of governing may carry strategies for ruling a state and wish to present them to the ruler of a great power. But ministers, like fierce dogs, block and attack them. The ruler is thus kept in the dark and constrained, while those who understand the Dao cannot be appointed to serve.

So Duke Huan asked Guan Zhong, “What is the greatest danger in governing a state?” Guan Zhong replied, “The greatest danger is the shrine rat.” Duke Huan asked, “Why fear the shrine rat?” Guan Zhong said, “Have you seen the wooden pillars in an altar to the earth god? They are coated with clay, and rats burrow into them and make their nests there. Smoke them out, and you fear the pillars will burn. Pour water in, and you fear the clay will collapse. That is why shrine rats are difficult to get rid of.”

Those around the ruler today are like shrine rats. When they leave the palace, they use their power to extract benefits from the people. When they return, they form factions for private gain and conceal the ruler’s wrongdoings. They also disclose palace affairs to outsiders, joining forces across the palace walls and raising one another’s standing so that officials can exploit the opportunity for profit. If they are not punished, they will disrupt the laws and commands; but punishing them may leave the ruler in danger. Such people, entrenched in their positions, are the shrine rats of the state.

If ministers seize power and take control of prohibitions for themselves, openly rewarding those who obey them and harming those who do not, they too are like fierce dogs. Ministers are like savage dogs, blocking and biting those who understand the Dao; those around the ruler are like shrine rats, spying on and exposing the ruler’s private affairs. If the ruler fails to see this, how can he avoid being kept in the dark? And how can the state avoid ruin?

Another account says that in the state of Song there was a wine seller named Zhuang, whose wine was always good. One day, a customer sent a servant to buy wine from Zhuang. Zhuang’s dog bit him, and the servant did not dare enter, so he bought wine elsewhere. When someone asked why he had not bought Zhuang’s wine, he replied, “Today Zhuang’s wine has turned sour.” That is why they say that unless the dog is removed, the wine will turn sour.

Duke Huan asked Guan Zhong, “What is the greatest danger in governing a state?” Guan Zhong replied, “The greatest danger is the shrine rat. The wooden pillars in an altar to the earth god are coated with clay, and rats hide inside. Smoke them out, and you fear the wood will burn; pour water in, and you fear the clay will collapse. That is why they are difficult to deal with.”

Those around the ruler today rely on their power to plunder the people when they leave the palace. Once inside, they form factions, deceive the ruler, and cover up wrongdoing. If they are not punished, they will disrupt the laws and commands; if they are punished, the ruler may be put in danger. They cling to their positions of power: these are the shrine rats. Ministers who monopolize authority and prohibitions, rewarding those who obey them and harming those who oppose them, are savage dogs. Thus, those around the ruler are shrine rats, and ministers who hold power and conduct state affairs are savage dogs. The methods of governing the state cannot be put into practice.

Yao planned to hand the realm over to Shun. Gun remonstrated with him, saying, “This is inauspicious! How can you hand the realm over to a commoner?” Yao would not listen. He sent troops to attack Gun and had him killed in the wilderness outside Mount Yu. Gonggong remonstrated in turn: “How can you hand the realm over to a commoner?” Yao still would not listen. He sent troops against Gonggong as well and had him killed at Youdu.

After this, no one in the realm dared say again that the realm should not be handed over to Shun. Confucius heard of it and said, “Yao’s wisdom and Shun’s virtue were not, in themselves, the hardest things to attain. What was truly difficult was that Yao killed those who remonstrated with him and still passed the realm to Shun.” Another account puts it this way: “The difficulty lies in not letting doubts in one’s mind overturn what one has observed.”

King Zhuang of Chu established the “Mao Gate rule”: when ministers, senior officials, or princes came to court, if a horse’s hoof stepped onto the spot beneath the eaves in front of the palace gate where rainwater dripped, the court judge responsible for enforcing palace regulations had to cut off the carriage pole and execute the driver.

Once, the crown prince came to court, and a horse’s hoof stepped onto the place where the water dripped. The court judge cut off the carriage pole and executed the driver according to the law. Furious, the crown prince went into the palace weeping and asked the king of Chu to kill the judge. The king said, “The laws exist to honor the ancestral temple and protect the state. Someone who acts in accordance with the law, obeys commands, and respects the state is a servant of the state. How could I kill him? To break the law, defy commands, and show disrespect for the state is for a subject to place himself above the ruler. Then those below will compete to defy those above. When subjects place themselves above their ruler, the ruler loses authority; when those below compete to disobey commands, those above are put in danger. If authority is lost and the ruler’s position is insecure, the state cannot be preserved. What, then, would I leave to my descendants?” The crown prince withdrew, spent three nights sleeping outdoors beyond the palace, and twice bowed facing north to ask that he be punished.

Another account tells the story differently. The king of Chu urgently summoned the crown prince. In Chu, carriages were forbidden to enter through the Mao Gate. It was raining that day, and water had pooled in the palace. The crown prince therefore drove his carriage through the Mao Gate. The court judge said, “Carriages may not enter through the Mao Gate. That is the law.” The crown prince replied, “The king’s summons is urgent; I cannot wait for the water to drain.” He continued driving forward. The court judge raised his staff and struck the horses, damaging the crown prince’s carriage.

The crown prince went into the palace weeping and complained to the king. But the king said, “He did not bend the law when serving my late father, and he does not show favoritism toward the ruler who will succeed me. He is a man who faithfully upholds his duty and the law.” The king then raised the court judge by two ranks and sent the crown prince out through a rear gate, so that he would not have to pass through the Mao Gate again.

Marquis Si of Wei said to Bo Yi, “You probably think my state is too small to be worth serving as an official. If I can put you to good use, I will raise your rank and make you a high minister.” He then granted him ten thousand qing of land.

Bo Yi said, “My mother trusts me deeply. She believes my abilities could help govern a state of ten thousand chariots and keep it from decline. Yet in our household there is a spirit medium named Cai. My mother favors her greatly and entrusts her with household affairs. I have enough judgment to make my mother trust my decisions about the household, and she lets me handle everything. But whenever she and I have discussed something, she still always asks Cai to decide.

“In terms of ability, my mother thinks I am capable of helping govern a state of ten thousand chariots; in terms of family ties, she and I are mother and son. Yet she still takes matters to Cai for advice. Now there is no bond of mother and son between the ruler and me, and there must surely be someone like Cai among those close to him. The people a ruler trusts and values are often those who can take care of his private affairs. Those who handle private affairs are not bound by the laws, while everything I say falls within the law. What lies outside the law conflicts with what lies within it, and the two cannot be reconciled.”

Another account says that when the ruler of Wei was about to travel to Jin, he said to Bo Yi, “I want you to come with me.” Bo Yi replied, “My mother is still at home. Please let me return and consult with her.” The ruler went in person to ask Bo Yi’s mother. She said, “Bo Yi is your subject. If you wish to take him with you, that is perfectly fine.” The ruler said, “I have already asked you, and you have agreed.” After Bo Yi went home and told his mother, she said, “How could the ruler’s love for Bo Yi compare with mine? How could his understanding of Bo Yi’s character compare with mine?” When Bo Yi and his mother discussed household affairs, even after a decision had been made, she would still ask Cai to judge the matter. This shows that even if the ruler and Bo Yi agreed that he would travel with him, Bo Yi’s mother might still seek the opinion of another Cai and overturn the decision. In that case, Bo Yi could not remain the ruler of Wei’s subject for long.

To teach someone to sing, first have him try out his voice, then correct him according to how it sounds. If he can sing the fast passages in the Gong mode and the slow passages in the Zhi mode, he can be taught. Another account says that singing should first be tested against the pitch system: fast passages should accord with the Gong mode, and slow passages with the Zhi mode. If the fast passages do not accord with the Gong mode and the slow passages do not accord with the Zhi mode, the teaching cannot be considered correct.

Wu Qi came from the area around Zuoshi County in the state of Wei. He asked his wife to weave a sash of a specified width, and she agreed. When it was finished, Wu Qi measured it again and found that it did not match the required dimensions. He was furious. His wife explained, “When I first wove it to the measurements, I could no longer change it.” Wu Qi then divorced her.

His wife asked her brother to plead on her behalf, hoping she could return to Wu Qi. Her brother said, “Wu Qi is a man who acts according to the law. Since he has set a rule and hopes to use it to assist a great state and establish a record of achievement, he will surely enforce it first on his wife and concubines, and only then extend it to everyone else. You have almost no chance of returning.” His wife’s younger brother was also a trusted confidant of the ruler of Wei, so he used the ruler’s authority to plead with Wu Qi. Wu Qi still refused. He then left Wei and went to Chu, which the original text calls “Jing.”

Another account says that Wu Qi showed his wife a piece of sash and told her, “Weave one like this.” When she finished and handed it to him, the sash was exceptionally finely made. Wu Qi asked, “I told you to weave it like this. Why did yours turn out especially fine?” His wife replied, “The materials and weaving method were the same; I simply took greater care to make it well.” Wu Qi said, “That is not what I asked you to do.” He then had her put on the sash and return to her parents’ home. Her father came to plead for her, but Wu Qi said, “I, Wu Qi, never make empty promises.”

Duke Wen of Jin asked Hu Yan, “I have the hall filled with fine food and the palace stocked with wine and meat. I see that the wine never grows cloudy and that fresh meat is always plentiful. When an ox is slaughtered, its meat is distributed throughout the country. All the wealth accumulated each year is used to make clothes for the soldiers. Are these measures enough to make the people fight for me?”

Hu Yan replied, “No.”

Duke Wen asked, “I reduce taxes at the passes and markets and ease the punishments. Are these measures enough to make the people fight for me?”

Hu Yan replied, “No.”

Duke Wen asked again, “When someone among the people lacks the means to hold a funeral, I personally send an official to take care of it. When someone commits a crime, I pardon them. When someone is poor and cannot make ends meet, I help them. Are these measures enough to make the people fight for me?”

Hu Yan answered, “No. These things are all intended to let the people live in peace. But war kills people. The people follow you so they can live in peace; if you send them to their deaths, they will have lost the reason to follow you.”

Duke Wen asked, “Then how can I make the people fight for me?”

Hu Yan answered, “You must make them unable to avoid fighting.”

Duke Wen asked, “How can I make them unable to avoid fighting?”

Hu Yan answered, “Rewards must be granted as promised, and punishments must be enforced without fail. That is enough to make the people fight.”

Duke Wen asked, “How severe must the punishments be?”

Hu Yan answered, “Do not spare those who are close to you or highly ranked. Even someone favored by the ruler must be dealt with according to the law.”

Duke Wen said, “Good.”

The next day, Duke Wen ordered the soldiers to drill at Pulu and set noon as the time for assembly. Anyone who arrived late would be punished under military law. Pi Qi, a favorite of Duke Wen, arrived late. The officer responsible for enforcing the law asked to punish him. Duke Wen wept, overcome with grief. The officer said, “Please allow me to enforce the law.” He then cut through Pi Qi’s back and displayed his body publicly, demonstrating that the order would be enforced.

Afterward, the people said fearfully, “The ruler valued Pi Qi so highly, yet still had him dealt with according to the law. How much more so will he deal with us?” Seeing that the people could now be mobilized for war, Duke Wen marched east, attacked and captured Yuan, then attacked the state of Wei, reversed the direction of its field ridges, and seized Wulu. He attacked Yang, defeated Guo, and then attacked Cao. Moving south, he laid siege to Zheng, whose forces withdrew behind the city walls. Later, Duke Wen lifted the siege of Song, returned, and fought the Chu army at Chengpu, defeating it decisively. After returning home, he held an alliance meeting at Jiantu, then built a city at Hengyong and swore an oath there.

In a single campaign he achieved eight successes. There was nothing else remarkable behind them: he simply followed Hu Yan’s advice and used Pi Qi’s body to show that military law would be enforced.

When an abscess erupts, the pain is unbearable. Unless it reaches into the bone marrow, the suffering cannot be endured. Only when the pain becomes this severe will the patient allow someone to scrape the affected area with a whetstone half a foot long.

Governing a state is much the same: unless one understands that governing brings pain, one cannot bring stability to the state. To govern well, one must heed wise and worthy people and put rebellious ministers to death. Rebellious ministers are often powerful and highly favored. Those who are highly favored are necessarily people very close to and beloved by the ruler. The people the ruler loves are precisely those who share his position on the “hardness and whiteness” question—a debate among ancient disputants over whether hardness and whiteness can be separated. Here, it refers to the ruler and his favored ministers agreeing with one another and being firmly bound together.

For an ordinary person to try to shake the ruler’s trust in a favored minister is like opening his own left chest to persuade his right leg: he would surely lose his life, and his persuasion would fail.

First, if the ruler and ministers share control over rewards and punishments, prohibitions cannot be enforced. Allowing ministers to wield this power as well is what is meant by “sharing.” How can this be explained? The stories of Zaofu and Yufu provide an example. Both were skilled charioteers and could endure thirst, but when a greedy horse wanted to drink, neither could control it. Zihan once brought out his own food to distribute among the people and also held the power to punish. Everyone in the state feared him. Later, he took the opportunity to usurp the throne. This was like handing ministers the powers both to distribute food and to carry out punishments. Tian Dan managed gardens and ponds, then took it upon himself to give rewards, and the people rallied to him. Later he killed Duke Jian. This, too, was like using the goods from gardens and ponds to buy popular support. Thus the ruler of Song and Duke Jian were both killed by their ministers. The danger lies in the ruler and ministers sharing power, just as it would lie in Wang Liang and Zaofu driving a chariot together, or Tian Lian and Cheng Qiao playing the zither together. Even if Wang Liang and Zaofu were both skilled drivers, if they each held the reins and tried to drive at the same time, the chariot could not move forward. And even if Tian Cheng truly was skilled at the zither, several people playing it together could not bring a melody to completion. The same principle applies when ruler and ministers share control over rewards and punishments.

Second, a state’s strength and good order have their roots in laws and standards; its weakness and disorder have their roots in favoritism. Once laws and standards become biased, the state will fall into disorder. A ruler who understands this should administer rewards and punishments impartially, rather than treat ministers with benevolence. Rank and stipend are granted on the basis of merit: only after merit is established does rank follow. Execution and punishment are imposed on the basis of offenses: only once an offense is clear does punishment follow. When ministers understand this, they will devote themselves to serving the ruler. When the ruler understands that government should not rely on private favors, and ministers understand that private loyalty is not a way to seek reward, the work of kingship can be accomplished.

King Zhaoxiang understood how a ruler should deal with ministers and the people. Ministers should act only in accordance with principle and accept evaluation and punishment according to the laws; the people should simply obey the ruler, who need not bend the rules out of personal affection. For example, when the king was ill, some people prayed for his recovery and blessings. King Zhaoxiang still held them accountable under the laws and ordered them to pay a fine of two sets of armor, but did not open the Five Parks, the ruler’s private grounds. When Lord Ying wanted to open the vegetable gardens and orchards to relieve the starving, King Zhaoxiang thought this would reward people who had earned no merit, and stopped him.

Tian Wei understood what a minister’s duty was: he needed only to establish merit, not to show the ruler private loyalty. He therefore taught Tian Zhang: “If you make the state prosperous, you will prosper too; if you benefit the ruler, you will benefit too.” Gong Yixiu’s refusal to accept fish given to him by others followed the same principle. He believed that if he accepted fish in violation of the laws, he would lose the chance to receive fish in the future, and so he refused to take them.

The enlightened ruler gains an understanding of affairs through information from outside the court, and so can bring external matters to completion. Su Dai criticized the king of Qi in order to persuade the king of Yan to appoint Zi Zhi alone. The king of Qi did not devote himself to employing capable people, and in the end failed to achieve hegemony.

The ruler must also learn about affairs from the scholars around him. If those close to him are unsuitable, his reputation cannot be widely recognized. Pan Shou spoke about Yu’s intentions to curry favor with Zi Zhi. He told the king of Yan that Yu had originally passed the throne to Yi, but that Qi later seized it. The king of Yan consequently honored Zi Zhi.

If the ruler does not see through these people’s intentions, he may think he understands what is going on. Consider someone who fears that people wearing similar clothes might blend into his clan, or that another person might borrow his authority. Knowing that everyone recognizes him, he refuses to ride with anyone dressed like him and will not let a clan member share his room. He fears that the other person might use their likeness to control him. How much more, then, should a ruler hesitate to lend his authority to a minister? Wu Zhang understood this. He used a pretense to persuade the other person; would he truly have handed his authority over to someone else?

The king of Zhao disliked tiger eyes, and as a result he shut off a means of learning what was really happening. Wang Pu had eyes like a tiger’s, and the king of Zhao found them repellent. When someone said that Pingyang Jun’s eyes looked even more like a tiger’s, the king had that person killed. This was like the Zhou envoy who prevented the Marquis of Wei from paying court to the Son of Heaven. The marquis was named Biqiang, and the envoy thought he shared the Son of Heaven’s name, so he barred him from court. Only after the marquis changed his name was he permitted to attend.

The ruler’s duty is to uphold the laws and see that officials complete their tasks, thereby establishing achievements. It is said that even when officials are corrupt, there may still be people among the common folk who hold to the good path; even amid official disorder, the worthy do not abandon their principles. The Three Benevolent Ones of the Shang, at the end of the Yin dynasty, and Long Feng, the loyal minister of the Xia, are examples. Yet we have never heard of a state being governed well by a few individual officials when the people as a whole are in disorder. If the ruler leads by setting himself straight, who would dare remain crooked? Thus, the enlightened ruler governs officials directly rather than managing the people one by one. When the officials are well governed, the people will be at peace.

This is like shaking a tree by its roots: the whole tree trembles. Lift the main cord of a fishing net, and all its meshes open. Set the officials straight, and the state can be governed well. Therefore, even a minor official responsible for putting out a fire must be held accountable. If an official runs off with a water jar to fight the fire himself, he contributes only one person’s effort. If he takes up a whip and directs the crowd, he can marshal many people. The enlightened ruler’s command of the laws, and use of them to hold officials to account, works in the same way.

When a ruler encounters someone who understands the art of governing, it is like encountering a frightened horse while driving a carriage. If he takes hold of the horse and pushes the carriage himself, it will not move. But if he takes the reins and whip from the driver, the horses will run together. Governing a state likewise requires grasping the essentials and correcting what has gone astray, as a hammer shapes metal and smooths its uneven places, or a tool straightens what is bent. Otherwise, the same disasters will happen again: Nao Chi borrowed authority to kill King Min of Qi, and Li Dui borrowed authority to starve Zhao Wuling, Lord of the Father, to death.

When we act in accord with the way things work, we can get things done without exerting ourselves. Zeng of Zi once sat on the shaft of a cart and sang; in the end, he got Gaoliang to rise up.

The danger in this approach can be seen in how Zhao Jianzi levied taxes. When he wanted to collect taxes, his officials asked whether the rate should be light or heavy. Jianzi did not set a standard himself. He simply said, “Don’t worry about whether it is light or heavy.” The officials then made their own decisions, exploiting the policy to enrich themselves. Bo Yi told Jianzi that the officials had pocketed all the wealth in the country. Jianzi was pleased to hear this, but the state treasury was empty, the people were starving, and corrupt officials had grown rich.

So when Duke Huan of Qi went out among the people, Guan Zhong cleared out unused goods from the palace and arranged marriages for the palace women. During his inspection, Duke Huan saw people going hungry and elderly men who had no wives, and he told Guan Zhong what he had seen. Guan Zhong said, “When goods lie unused in the country, the people go hungry. When women in the palace cannot marry, old men are left without wives.”

Otherwise, the result is like a horse drawing a cart at Yanling, unable either to advance or retreat. Zaofu, a skilled charioteer, passed by and wept for it: obstacles blocked the horse in front, while restraints held it back from behind. Unable to move forward or backward, it could only escape to the side. Zaofu wept at the sight, just as the failure to enforce rewards and punishments will ultimately lead to ruin.

Zao Fu, an ancient master charioteer, drove a team of four horses at full gallop, turning deftly and directing them as he pleased. Whatever he wanted the horses to do, they obeyed. He could do this because he controlled both the reins and the whip. Since Zao Fu alone held the reins and whip, the horses did not resist his command.

But when the horses were startled by a pig suddenly darting out, Zao Fu could no longer control them. This was not because the reins and whip lacked force, but because the pig had also become an object of fear for the horses, diverting Zao Fu’s authority over them.

Prince Youqi, another ancient master charioteer, drove without using the reins and whip to control the horses. Instead, he followed their wishes and took charge of the fodder and water they needed. Yet when the horses passed gardens and ponds, they would still leave the chariot and rush toward them, throwing it out of control. This was not because the fodder and water were ineffective, but because the gardens and ponds had also become attractions for the horses, weakening Prince Youqi’s control.

Wang Liang and Zao Fu were both renowned charioteers of their age. Yet if Wang Liang held the reins on the left and shouted at the horses while Zao Fu held the reins on the right and whipped them, the horses could not travel even ten li. This was because the two men were directing them together but giving conflicting commands. Likewise, Tian Lian and Cheng Qiao were both renowned musicians of their age. But if Tian Lian played the upper part and Cheng Qiao followed with the lower part, they could not produce a coherent melody, for the same reason: they could not coordinate their playing.

If even Wang Liang and Zao Fu, with all their skill, could not make the horses move smoothly when they held the reins together, how could a ruler govern a state by sharing power with his ministers? If even Tian Lian and Cheng Qiao, with all their skill, could not make music together on a single zither, how could a ruler achieve his aims by sharing authority with his ministers?

Another account says that when Zao Fu drove for the King of Qi, he first trained the horses to endure thirst. After a hundred days of training, they had learned to bear it. Later, while driving them to the park for a trial run, he passed a pond there. The horses saw it, left the chariot, and ran to drink, causing it to go out of control. When Prince Youqi drove for Zhao Jian, ruler of Zhao, in a race over a thousand li, a pig was lying in a ditch just as they set off. Prince Youqi tightened the reins and waved his whip to urge the horses onward. The pig suddenly sprang out of the ditch, startling the horses and sending the chariot out of control.

Zihan, the Minister of Works of Song, said to the ruler of Song, “Celebrating achievements, granting rewards, and giving out wealth are things the people enjoy. Please handle these yourself. Killing people, imposing penalties, and administering punishments are things the people detest. Let me take responsibility for those.” The ruler agreed.

Zihan then issued harsh decrees and executed ministers. Whenever the ruler faced state affairs, he would say that he needed to consult Zihan. The ministers consequently feared Zihan, and ordinary people gradually rallied to him. A year later, Zihan killed the ruler of Song and seized power.

Thus Zihan took over the state by administering punishments on the ruler’s behalf. He made the people obey through penal laws, just as one might control them through force and fear.

During the reign of Duke Jian of Qi, punishments were harsh, executions severe, taxes heavy, and the people were killed. Tian Chengheng, a minister of Qi who later took control of the state, by contrast, appeared kind and generous. Duke Jian treated the people like thirsty horses: he restrained them with laws and punishments but gave them no favors. Tian Chengheng treated benevolence as a garden and pond, using kindness to benefit people, like water nourishing everything in a garden and pond.

There is another account. Zaofu drove a chariot for the king of Qi and trained the horses by making them thirsty. After a hundred days, the horses finally obeyed. Zaofu asked the king to try riding with him, and the king told him to drive through the royal gardens. Zaofu drove into the gardens. When the horses saw the ponds, they rushed toward them, and Zaofu could not control them. For a long time Zaofu had driven the horses by keeping them thirsty. Now, when they saw the water, they broke free and raced toward it; even Zaofu could not subdue them. Duke Jian had long restrained the people with laws, while Tian Chengheng gave them benefits. This was like Tian Chengheng opening the gardens and ponds so that thirsty people could see the water.

There is another account. Wangzi Yuqi drove a chariot for the ruler of Song in a thousand-li race. The chariot and horses were harnessed, and he checked his hand signals and the markings around the horses’ mouths and noses. Just as he was about to set off, he drove forward, then pulled the chariot back; the horses’ steps became disordered as well. When he struck the horses to start them, a pig darted out of a hole. The horses were startled and backed away, and the whip could not make them go forward. They bolted in fright, and the reins could not control them.

There is yet another account. Zihan, the Minister of Works of Song, said to the ruler of Song, “Celebrating, granting rewards, and giving out wealth are things the people enjoy. Please handle these yourself. Punishing and killing are things the people detest. Let me take responsibility for those.” Zihan then punished ordinary people and executed ministers. When the ruler dealt with affairs, he would say that he needed to discuss them with Zihan. A year later, the people knew that the power over life and death lay in Zihan’s hands, and the whole state rallied to him. Thus Zihan coerced the ruler of Song and seized…