《南华真经章句音义(陈景元)》Vol. 4

Inviting someone with letters and gifts is called “engaging.” Providing food and drink is called “sustaining.” “Chu” means grass, and “shu” means soybeans.

Funeral Regulations

“Zhuji” is pronounced “zhu, ji.” Some also say these were ornaments on the coffins of the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords: first, the coffin was painted with cinnabar, then designs in the colors of the seasons were drawn on it, with the Azure Dragon on the left and the White Tiger on the right. Above, the sun and moon made of gold and silver were added, along with jade garments, pearls, and jade disks. Huang Shu says that a round pearl is called “zhu,” while a non-round one is called “ji.”

Huan Tan’s New Discourses says that those skilled in calendrical calculation worked out the dates of successive eras, tracing them from the primordial age of the Celestial Origin to a year when, at midnight on the jiazi day of the eleventh month, the new moon coincided with the winter solstice. The sun and moon then appeared like two jade disks joined together.

“Zhai” is pronounced “zi.” “Yuan” is pronounced “quan.” “Lou” is pronounced “lü.” “Yi” is pronounced “qi.” “Zheng” means accomplishment or fulfillment.

Miscellaneous Chapter, “All Under Heaven,” Section 33

The Confucians and the Daoists

In “guo e,” “e” is pronounced “wu.” In “bu li,” “li” is pronounced “li zhi” in fanqie. The “li” in “li xing” below and in “ruo lian bi” in the next chapter is pronounced the same way. “Zhai” is pronounced “zi,” “yuan” is pronounced “quan,” “lou” is pronounced “lü,” and “yi” is pronounced “qi.” “Zheng” means accomplishment or fulfillment.

Miscellaneous Chapter, “All Under Heaven,” Section 33

The Confucians and the Daoists

“Guo” is pronounced “wu”; “li” is pronounced “lizhiqie.” The terms “lixing” below and “li yu tong” in the next chapter are pronounced the same way. “Wei xing” is pronounced “mengqie”; every occurrence of the same character in this chapter is pronounced that way.

“Xunran” is pronounced “xuyunqie” and describes a gentle manner. Cui says this means making benevolence one’s virtue and allowing a good reputation to spread.

“Cao” is pronounced “qicao” and means to hold or maintain; “ji” is pronounced “ji” and means to examine. In “its numbers,” “numbers” refers to quantities such as one, two, three, and four, as well as methods, techniques, and institutions.

Yin Wenzi says that there are four kinds of standards. The first are enduring, unchanging standards, such as the order between ruler and ministers and between those above and below. The second distinguish ranks, such as differentiating the worthy from the base and what is alike from what is different. The third govern the people, such as rewards and punishments. The fourth provide fair measures, such as laws and ordinances, rulers and measures, balances, and capacities. These are standards that rulers apply in secret; ministers should not casually pry into them. The officials rely on these standards to establish their order and each carry out their duties.

“Fanxi” is pronounced “fan”; “chun” is pronounced “lunqie.” In “the six currents flow freely and the four seasons proceed,” “bi” is pronounced “biyi” and means that the six Qi flow freely and the four seasons proceed without obstruction. In “refined and coarse,” “coarse” is pronounced “qinuqie”; the same character elsewhere in this volume is pronounced the same way.

“Zou” is pronounced “zhuangyouqie” and was the fief granted to Confucius’s father. In “the gentry,” “jin” means to insert and refers to the tablet worn at the waist; “shen” means a broad sash. “Mingfen” is pronounced “fuwenqie” and refers to the titles and ranks that distinguish high from low.

“To obtain one partial aspect” means to acquire only one limited technique. In “glimpse it and thereby…” “glimpse” means to see faintly. “Hao” is pronounced “hubaqie”; this is relevant to the pronunciation of “si” below. “Ji” is pronounced “qiqie”; in “not all-encompassing,” “bian” is pronounced “bian.” In “called divine,” “cheng” is pronounced “chizhengqie,” as it is in the next chapter.

“Extravagance” means luxury and excess; “self-discipline” means restraining oneself and imposing strict limits on oneself. Mo Di (Mozi), a thinker who advocated frugality, was a senior official of the state of Song and valued a simple way of life. Qin Guli was one of Mo Di’s disciples. The Mohists disapproved of the music of the Five Emperors and the Three Kings, considering it excessively lavish and extravagant.

“Against Music” and “Moderation in Expenditure” are chapter titles in the Mozi. “Against Music” criticizes music and argues that it should not be used; “Moderation in Expenditure” advocates reducing expenses and limiting what the people consume. The Mohists promoted universal care—caring broadly for everyone—and mutual benefit—ensuring that everyone gains—and made frugality their guiding principle.

The Yellow Emperor had the music “Xianchi”: “xian” means all or universal, while “chi” suggests something that contains and nourishes all things. Yao had “Dazhang”; “zhang” conveys the idea of making things manifest. Shun had “Dashao”; “shao” means to carry on, referring to his continuation of Yao’s work. Yu had “Daxia,” intended to display his great De and carry on the legacy of the emperors Yao and Shun. Tang had “Dahu”; “huo” conveys the idea of protecting and rescuing the people. King Wen of Zhou had the music “Biyong.” The Biyong was a place where the Son of Heaven performed ritual and music and spread moral instruction. Its design symbolized the round jade disk and Heaven; water surrounded it, signifying the spread of moral teaching. King Wu of Zhou and the Duke of Zhou composed “Wu” to portray how military achievement brought peace to the realm.

Ritual texts record that the Son of Heaven’s coffin was enclosed in several layers of coffins, though accounts differ on their precise number and construction. The Xunzi says there were ten layers. The account mentioned here differs in some respects from those in the ritual texts, but the precise discrepancy is hard to establish. The phrase “not yet broken” is also written as “not yet ruined” or “not yet destroyed,” meaning that something had not yet been damaged. Cui explains it as meaning that the Mohist teaching had not yet fallen into disuse, and therefore should not be considered mistaken.

The Mohists opposed singing and music, yet even when a situation called for singing, they still regarded it as wrong. Their rules were severe and difficult for ordinary people to endure; how could they expect everyone in the world to follow them? Here, “le” is pronounced as in the word for music.

When Yu controlled the floods, he blocked and redirected the waters, and dug channels to carry them to the sea. “Yan” means to block or inundate. These deeds are cited to show that Yu, too, followed the principles of frugality and self-restraint. There were many tributaries that he cleared, which is why some versions read “tributaries.” “The nine rivers cleared their sources” appears in the Book of Documents. Kong Anguo explains that the rivers of the nine provinces had been cleared, so the waterways were no longer obstructed.

Yu’s work controlling the floods was extraordinarily arduous: he kept working through heavy rain, wearing coarse cloth and sandals or wooden clogs. “Fei” refers to the lower leg, “ba” to the fine hair on the leg, and “jing” to the area around the shinbone. “Without leg hair” means that the hair on his legs had been rubbed away. Commentators differ in how they identify the body parts named in the passage.

“Li Qin” was a Mohist teacher, surnamed Xiangli and named Qin; Ku Huo were the names of two others. Mohists criticized and reproached one another within their school, and also contended through clever argument. “Juzi” was a Mohist title for someone accomplished in learning and doctrine, comparable to the Confucian term “great scholar.” The remaining words in the passage also refer to hard labor, withering, and refusing to give something up.

Mingzhi: Song Xing and Yin Wen advocated making the inner heart clear and calm, without intending to oppose or harm others. Song Xing was from the state of Song and wrote eighteen works, following the teachings of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. Yin Wen lived during the reign of King Xuan of Qi and wrote two works. Both studied at Jixia in the state of Qi.

They wore hats modeled on the shape of Mount Hua. Since the mountain’s summit is flat, these hats symbolized an upright and balanced inner heart. They began by distinguishing good from evil and differentiating among the myriad things, then established names, roles, and injunctions to address worldly affairs. At the same time, they brought the myriad things into harmony and accord; when things joined together, they could bring delight. The phrase “instruction from above” in the text may be understood either as a ruler instructing his subjects or as injunctions by which subjects seek to please their ruler.

The text also explains “forceful haranguing” as persistently speaking into someone’s ear against their will, “seeking arrogance” as not scheming to become arrogant and self-important, and “harsh scrutiny” as examining things in excessive detail.

“On Law” discusses standards and methods of governing the state.

Some versions read “should” where the phrase “without favoritism” appears. Cui’s version reads “faction,” which he explains as “being utterly impartial and not forming factions or showing favoritism.” “Calm and simple” means peaceful and uncomplicated. Peng Meng, Tian Pian, and Shen Dao were scholars at the Jixia Academy in the state of Qi, where they studied and held discussions. Peng Meng and Tian Pian were skilled in rhetoric and debate. Shen Dao was from the state of Zhao and wrote forty-two chapters. The text mentions their doctrines and conduct to illustrate related views on the way of governing.

“Not partial” is read with the sense of “selecting.” “Selecting and refining” means choosing, eliminating, and simplifying. “Shame” can also refer to the abuse a petty person hurls in anger. “Crooked and slanting” describes improper, askew behavior, though some commentators explain it as strict and severe. “Taking no responsibility” means not taking matters upon oneself. Commentators say that even someone who strictly observes the law need not personally take charge of every matter. Leaving affairs to the people to handle together can reduce human interference. Recommending talented people in the name of honoring the worthy can sometimes invite ridicule.

“Unrestrained” means acting freely and without constraint; it also means not making a deliberate display of benevolence, righteousness, and Virtue. “Conduct” is read as “walking or behavior.” “Clubbing, beating, and punishing” are terms related to penalties or executions: “beating” means whipping, while the other terms refer to carrying out punishments. Commentators regard these as means of punishing offenders.

“Turning and transforming” means change. “Setting these aside” means abandoning these practices. “Steadfast” describes something firm and unmoving; “whirling” refers to a swirling wind; “turning back and forth” means rotating. “Like a grindstone” means that, as with a grindstone, the result depends on what is being ground. This illustrates that a person whose Virtue is complete does not cling to praise or blame, criticism or reproach from the outside world, and has no favoritism in the heart. Such a person will therefore not bring misfortune upon themselves.

“Clod” means a lump of earth; “a howling sound” describes the noise of wind blowing against it. In “thus detesting,” the word for “detesting” means “to hate.” The phrase about carrying out punishment uses the same term for punishment as earlier in the text. Commentators say that even if laws are established and instruction is put into practice, one may still fall into punishment and judgment if one cannot treat all things equally. “This is what is right” means “this is the correct way.” “Outline” means a general summary or framework, and can also refer to integrity and resolve.

On Praising Laozi

“Danran” is pronounced zanran and describes a calm, unassuming manner. Guan Yin is Yin Xi, the Keeper of the Pass, whose courtesy name was Gongdu and who served as the official in charge of Hangu Pass during the reign of King Ping of Zhou. Lao Dan is Lord Lao. “Yi ru” is pronounced ru; “ruo xiang,” xuzhang; “wuhu,” huhu; “xi,” kuxi; “zhi gou,” gou; and “kuiran,” qugui. Cheng Xuanying says that “kuiran” means standing alone. “Buwei” is pronounced fangwei and means suffering some loss.

The phrase “although it has not reached the utmost” appears in older editions as “it may be called the utmost”; an old Jiangnan manuscript reads, “although it has not reached the utmost.” This passage concerns teachings expressed in words: Lord Lao and Yin Xi’s remarks, offered in response to worldly affairs to teach people, are only relatively superficial expressions, not the ultimate subtlety of the mysterious Dao. How could the truly ultimate and wondrous principle be expressed in words?

On Narrating Zhuangzi

“Si” is pronounced yu, as it is below. “Manghu” is pronounced mogang, also as it is below. “Miuyou” describes speech that seems detached from the realities and reason of ordinary life; another interpretation takes it to mean something empty and profoundly remote. “Huangtang” means vast and boundless; another interpretation takes it to mean reckless and unconstrained by convention.

“Bu tang” is pronounced dingdang. Here, tang is used in the same sense as in titang, meaning unconventional and free-spirited; “bu tang” therefore refers to observing rules and standards. “Yi ji” is pronounced ji; ji means odd-numbered or unmatched. In “Zhuang’s words,” “Zhuang” refers to Zhuangzi; another interpretation takes it to mean reckless. “Yi zhi” is pronounced zhi. “Manyan” is pronounced zhan and has already been explained in the chapter on parables.

“Ao” is pronounced bao, and “ni,” yi. “Gan bai ao ni” describes a proud, self-satisfied manner. “Bu qian” is pronounced qianzhan, “xiang,” guhui, and “wei,” yugui, meaning unusual. “Lianfan” is pronounced fan and means adapting to external things without opposing them, so as not to suffer harm. “Can” is pronounced chulin, and “cha,” chuyi; the commentary says they describe ceaseless change. “Chu” is pronounced chishu, and “gui,” jiuwei; the commentary says they describe what differs from worldly convention. “Er bi” is pronounced biyi, and “shenhong,” hong. “Bu tui” is pronounced yue, or it may be pronounced shirui; another edition reads “bu tuo.”

On Evaluating Hui Shi

Huishi, a Warring States period master of disputation, had many doctrines. The old accounts are not copied here again; his newer ideas have already been appended to the notes under each chapter, so they will not be explained one by one here either.

“Five cartloads” is pronounced “chi she qie,” though another reading is also given. Several passages that follow record pronunciations and meanings of individual characters: “chuan” in “chuan yan qie” for “chuanbo”; “bang” in “bang jue qie” for “bo”; “ding” in “ding zhong qie” for the “zhong” in “bu zhong”; “li,” which some editions write as “li”; “yin” in “yin yi” for the “ni” in “fang ni”; “fang” in “fang jian qie” for “si”; and “gu” in “gu luan qie” for the “guan” in “da guan.” The Zilin explains that “xiao bian” means “clever and perceptive.” The “le” in “le zhi” is pronounced “luo.” The “zhan” in “bu zhan” is pronounced “nu chen qie”; “zao” is pronounced “cao bao qie”; “rui” is pronounced “ru rui qie”; and “zu” is pronounced “zi mu qie,” meaning an arrowhead. “Li” is pronounced “li zhi qie”; “chui” is pronounced “zhang yao qie”; and the “tuan” in “huan tuan” is pronounced “chu wan qie.” The “you” in “zhi you” is pronounced “you.” The “di” in “qi di” is pronounced “dian li qie”; the Shuowen says it means a tree root, and it is also read “ding ji qie.” “Yi ren” is read according to the characters. Some editions write “ji,” pronounced “ji yi qie”; Li’s commentary says it means “unusual.” The “zhui” in “bu zhui” is pronounced “zhi lei qie”; “ting” is pronounced “ting”; the “wei” in “bian wei” is pronounced “yu wei qie”; and “ao” is pronounced “wu bao qie.” Li’s commentary says it means a deep place. “Wen” is pronounced “wen,” and “yi” is pronounced “dai.” An old commentary says that “dang” can mean uninhibited or unrestrained.

Guo Xiang’s commentary discusses the overall meaning of the work and can indeed be said to have grasped the essentials of Zhuangzi’s teaching. Guo Xiang once lamented that people who live in luxury are capable only of empty talk. In my own later years, I too have witnessed the absurd arguments of the powerful and their followers. Though separated by different ages, they share the same prevailing tendency. What more is there to say?

Someone asked: “Zhuangzi and Huishi shared a friendship by the Hao River bridge and displayed the ingenuity of master craftsmen together. Why, then, does the book say that Huishi’s writings filled five cartloads and that his arguments missed the point? Could two people with such deep affection and shared interests really have criticized each other so harshly?”

The answer was: If one wishes to rescue people sunk in doctrines while making one’s words subtle and spirited, how can one avoid speaking artfully and presenting the reasoning with precision? In the seven chapters of the Zhuangzi, Zhuangzi gives voice to far-reaching ideas and passes these writings down to later generations. He uses words attributed to others to lead readers onto the path of investigating profound principles, and develops his arguments through elaborate writing. Though he values disputation when discussing profound principles, his teaching is not empty talk. His writing is easy to read, but its meaning is difficult to discern. Some readers may have an insight without fully understanding it, and so readily misunderstand its meaning. To correct this distortion, he brought Huishi’s arguments together for focused discussion.

This concludes Volume Fourteen of the Nanhua Zhenjing Zhangju Yinyi.