《悟玄篇》

Human beings live between Heaven and Earth, receiving the Qi (vital energy) of Yin-Yang, and for this reason they are subject to both birth and death. The result of a person's cultivation may be to become a ghost, or it may be to become an immortal: a ghost is pure Yin Qi, while an immortal is a body of pure Yang. To refine and transform Yin Qi by means of Yang Qi is easy to accomplish, and to convert Yin Qi by means of Yang Qi is likewise no difficult matter. What is called the study of immortality is nothing more than using Yang Qi to refine and transform Yin Qi. When the Yin Qi is exhausted and the Yang Qi is pure, one is called an immortal.

There are methods for refining and transforming Yin Qi. Advancing the fire follows a fixed order, and withdrawing the talisman likewise has its proper measure. "Advancing the fire" and "withdrawing the talisman" are expressions used in Neidan (internal alchemy) for regulating Yin-Yang within the body and governing the advance and retreat of cultivation. The human body contains a vital aperture called the "Mysterious Female" (Xuanpin, a Daoist term for the crucial place where life is conceived and Yin and Yang meet). If one can understand this aperture, the principles of the Three Powers of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity, together with those of all things, are fully present within oneself. The "aperture" here is not a physical object, nor is there any other esoteric technique involved; it is simply a matter of forgetting the body, calming stray thoughts, and keeping the mind focused inwardly. With long practice and growing mastery, the Central Palace (the central region of the body referred to in Neidan practice) becomes utterly still, and the Yang Qi within the body will naturally arise. As the Yang Qi gradually increases, the Yin Qi gradually recedes. This is the meaning of "Yang grows, Yin wanes."

I received transmission from my master in Guhang (Hangzhou), and now I no longer conceal these heavenly secrets. I have written them down as best I can in plain and humble words, to pass on to those who study immortality. I hope that all who are fated to read this text may ascend to the other shore of the Dao. Why should they be any different from me? Written as a preface by Yu Dongzhen, on the first day (the first day of the lunar month) of the summer season in the Jichou year.

The Dao (the Way) originally has no words; it is only through words that its principles are made manifest. Dharma-methods originally have no form; it is only through form that their principles can be grasped. Once the form is grasped, the words can be forgotten. Once the fish and the hare have been caught, the bamboo trap and the snare are no longer needed. Why is this so? As the saying goes: "One needs a raft to cross the river, but once at the shore, there is no need to carry the boat any further."

What we call a "person" is one who has received the true Qi (vital energy) of primordial Yang, the Yang energy that is the source of life, totaling 384 zhu. Of these, 24 zhu are distributed among the five viscera and six bowels, corresponding to the twenty-four solar terms; the other 360 zhu are distributed throughout the body, corresponding to the 360 degrees of the celestial cycle. Yuanhezi said: "The human body is, broadly speaking, the same as heaven and earth." Master Shao said: "Who says that heaven, earth, and humanity each have their own separate root? Within the human body there is another Qian and Kun (Heaven and Earth)." This is precisely what they mean.

In broad outline, at the hour of Zi (midnight), the Qi in the two kidneys rises upward, and at the hour of Wu (noon) it reaches the heart region, where the two currents of Qi join and steam upward. The liver fluid and the lung fluid come down from the heart region: the Qi of the left kidney bears the lung fluid downward, and the Qi of the right kidney bears the liver fluid downward. By the hour of Hai (late night), the lung fluid reaches the left kidney and is transformed into Jing (essence), while the liver fluid reaches the right kidney and is transformed into blood. After a long time, the primordial Qi is dissipated, the essence and blood dry up, and the person dies.

An alchemical text says: "When the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) move in their ordinary, forward course, the entire Dharma realm is like a pit of fire; when the Five Phases are reversed, the great earth becomes the Seven Treasures." This means that what the practitioners of immortality call "the dragon emerges from the fire, and the tiger is born in the water" embodies precisely the principle of the Five Phases moving in reverse. Therefore, those who go against the flow become sages, while those who follow the flow remain ordinary people.

The essential key to cultivation lies in the Three Passes. The first is refining Jing (essence) to transform it into Qi, called the First Pass; the second is refining Qi to transform it into Shen (spirit), called the Middle Pass; the third is refining Shen to return to emptiness, called the Upper Pass. When emptiness is shattered, the cultivation is complete. The marvelous workings of the Three Passes must be transmitted from master to disciple, heart to heart. After two months of "bathing" (the nurturing and purification of body and mind in the course of practice), the principle is profound and again profound. The oral instructions are extremely secret and subtle and cannot be spoken lightly. If those who study immortality do not meet an enlightened master to guide them, they will accomplish little even into old age, and will merely let their years pass in vain.

Formation of the Body (Xinghua)

A person is conceived from the father's Jing (essence) and the mother's blood. When the embryo forms, it contains a single point of primordial Qi (the fundamental energy from which life arises), which serves as the foundation of creation and transformation. Shen (spirit) first generates the left kidney, then the right kidney. The kidneys generate the heart, the heart generates the liver, the liver generates the lungs, the lungs generate the spleen, the spleen generates the small intestine, and the small intestine generates the large intestine. The Qi of the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) transforms in succession, and in this way the body takes shape and gradually reaches completion. After ten months of gestation, the fetus matures and becomes an infant.

People today know only how the body is formed, but not how Qi is formed. Among those who call themselves students of immortality, some speak only of the transformation of Qi (qihua, the generation and change of Qi) and say nothing of the transformation of form (xinghua, the generation and change of the body). Many people today treat the space between the two kidneys as the root from which the body is generated. They also say that the heart and kidneys correspond to fire and water respectively, that the liver and lungs correspond to the Hun and Po souls respectively, and that the spleen belongs to Earth and governs thought. All of these claims are mistaken.

Transformation of Qi (Qihua)

While a person is in the mother's womb, after ten months the Qi within the womb becomes full. At first it receives a single point of primordial Qi from the parents. When this primordial Qi reaches the heart, it stirs the embryonic Qi into motion and spreads it outward, enabling the fetus to receive life.

Shen dwells in darkness and haze, indistinct and unclear, not knowing where it is, as if immersed in fine rain and thick fog without a trace of light. It then follows a numinous light, enters the womb, and passes directly into the brightness within. When Yin Qi and Yang Qi meet, they transform into Qi, which is called the "Taiji (Supreme Ultimate)." This Qi then rises to the crown of the head and divides into two streams, which descend to the left and right kidneys; these are called the "Two Modes" (Liangyi). The path of Qian (Yang) forms the male, and the path of Kun (Yin) forms the female. Qian and Kun then unite and give rise to six children, which spread to the body's periphery and become the six vessels. The six vessels circulate throughout the body, and the body's structure is complete. Creation and transformation are thus fulfilled, and so the person is born into the world.

Those who study immortality should clearly recognize the root from which the body is generated and use it to establish the foundation of the elixir (danji, the basis for practicing Neidan, or internal alchemy), so as to transcend the mundane and enter the realm of the sages. I fear that these words still do not say enough, so I have drawn diagrams to inspire students, as a reference for those who wish to investigate the matter earnestly.

Yin containing Yang is called "Kan," and belongs to fire, but it is not the kidney.

Yang containing Yin is called "Li," but it is not the heart.

Practitioners of the Daoist arts need not be bound to fixed hours. Whenever body and mind are at leisure, find a quiet place, close your eyes and seal your mouth, and that is enough. The sitting posture need not be rigidly upright; you may sit cross-legged or not.

While sitting in stillness, do not cling outwardly to your own physical form, and do not be burdened by external things; inwardly, do not cling to thoughts, and do not be weighed down by affairs. The mind seems to hold something in awareness, yet does not deliberately hold it; it seems to guard something, yet does not deliberately guard it. In this way, you will not become attached to "emptiness." With long practice, as it grows more refined, thoughts settle of themselves.

Once thoughts are settled, yang qi (Qi, vital energy) begins to arise. Its movement has both ascent and descent. The rising qi starts from the lower back and the weilü (the area near the end of the spine), climbs along the jiaji (the stretch of the spine along the back), and reaches the crown of the head. With the aid of the "Xun wind" (here referring to the coordination of breath with the circulation of qi), the qi is stirred and driven upward. When the two kinds of qi unite, they flow down to the tip of the tongue, where the taste is sweet as honey; then slowly swallow it, letting it enter the Central Palace (the region within the body referred to as the Dantian, or energy center).

The Dan texts say: "Blowing and puffing must rely on the Xun wind." They also say: "At the beginning, effort is needed; afterward, it must be as though no effort were made." In short, if one does not understand the timing of fire and the measure of the qi's rising and falling, then even with daily practice one will not grasp the subtle use of the Three Passes (the gateways through which qi travels in cultivation) or the secret of "bathing" (regulating the breath and nourishing the qi so that its movement stays balanced). One will merely squander the years and, even in old age, accomplish little.

An ancient song says: "The immortals are unwilling to speak the principle plainly, and so many in the dusty world are left with regret." Why is this said? If everyone could understand this teaching, "earthly immortals" (immortals who attain their cultivation in the human world) would be as numerous as people in a marketplace. The so-called secrets of Heaven's workings dare not be disclosed in writing, and so they can only be passed on orally, from mind to mind.

Dry Fire and Flooding Water

"Dry fire" refers to qi that rises upward and cannot stop; "flooding water" refers to qi that descends downward without ceasing. If one can harmonize them with the proper method...

Raging fire always rises, and overflowing water keeps flowing downward. If they can be harmonized according to fixed principles and applied in the proper measure, the fire will not grow too fierce, the water will not flood, and body and mind will settle naturally. When they are needed, they appear; when they are not, they return to formlessness. The secret lies in the oral instructions. Without knowing this subtle application, how could one accomplish "first, refine Jing (essence) into Qi (vital energy); second, refine Qi into Shen (spirit); third, refine Shen and return to emptiness"? Today students of the Dao are found all over the world, yet very few receive the authentic transmission. How could this principle be passed on to people lightly?

Bathing

The saying "ten months of gestation, two months of bathing" adds up to the three hundred and sixty days of a year. Setting the ten months of gestation aside, where exactly are the two months of "bathing" to be placed? Since no fire phasing (huohou, the management of progress and heat in practice) is carried out during these two months, does the bathing come before, after, or in the middle? In fact, this stage has a real function; it is not a time of doing nothing. Students of the Dao should investigate it and seek instruction from others, and should not rigidly insist that the months of Mao and You (two months in the traditional calendar) are the period of bathing. When the time comes for "shedding the womb" (a term for the stage in practice when a decisive transformation is reached), one must in the end rely on oral transmission from master to disciple, heart to heart.

The Mysterious Pass, the One Aperture

The "Mysterious Pass, the One Aperture" (a term in Neidan, or internal alchemy, for the key gateway of practice) is only a borrowed name for a principle. It has neither form nor image, and it has no limit. If someone nowadays points to exactly where it is located, they will only drift further from its true meaning. To say that it is not in the heart, liver, spleen, lungs, or kidneys is rather like chiseling an aperture out of empty space, though saying so does exhaust what can be said. But once one insists that it lies in some specific place, one has erred again.

Medicinal Ingredients

Jing contains Qi, and within Qi and blood there is also Jing. Jing and Qi share one source, and both are born of the Taiji (Supreme Ultimate, the origin from which all things arise). Do not take the breath for the interaction of Yin and Yang (the union of Yin and Yang and the mutual response of Jing and Qi). How could breathing itself be the root of things that live and die?

Fire Phasing

During the stage of "advancing the fire" (jinhuo) in alchemical cultivation, a single Microcosmic Orbit (zhoutian, one full circuit of qi movement) can be completed in a mere moment. Ten months comprise three hundred days, three thousand six hundred double-hours, and thirty thousand quarter-hours. Some practitioners apply the fire phase at every quarter-hour, some once per double-hour, and some once per day; others are not bound to a set number of quarter-hours within a double-hour, or to a set number of double-hours within a day. The fire phase is to be applied whenever it is needed. But if one does not know its proper measure, the movement of Qi will rise and fall in disorder and cannot ascend. The oral instructions on this are transmitted separately.

The Central Palace: Earth Generates the Myriad Things

The heart-mind governs all affairs. The heart-mind is Earth, and Earth is the heart-mind, which is why it is called the "Central Wu-Ji Earth" (a Daoist term pairing the stems Wu and Ji with the Earth of the center). The center is the "Mysterious Pass, the One Aperture" (Xuanguan Yiqiao, the key aperture spoken of in Neidan, or internal alchemy, practice). When one understands the principle of Earth, the myriad things come to rest; when one understands the principle of the heart-mind, all affairs are calmed. Yet those who study the Dao today wander blindly, seeking only outside themselves, and do not look for the Dao in the depths of their own hearts.

Embracing the One

"Shedding the embryo and swallowing it into the belly" refers to the method of shedding the embryo in cultivation. Practice is carried out in the human world; after nine years of accumulated merit, reaching the number of eight hundred, one can attain immortality. Thereafter, one passes through the comings and goings of Qian and Kun, roaming the famous mountains and cavern-heavens; on the day that merit is fulfilled, one receives the Golden Writ and Jade Edict and is enrolled among the ranks of the immortals.

The Emergence of Spirit Is Called Releasing the Embryo

Those who study the Dao often do not understand the fire phases, nor do they know how the stages of cultivation, such as bathing (muyu) and the work of creation and transformation, are completed. When the time of shedding the embryo arrives, these methods must all be passed on through oral transmission and heart-to-heart instruction.

The Mysterious Pass, the One Aperture

The "Mysterious Pass, One Aperture" (Xuanguan yiqiao) is the most critical aperture in the human body. It refers to the "heart within the heart." The "heart" spoken of here is not the physical organ but the inner master, the spirit that governs the whole person and responds to all affairs. This spirit has no form, and one cannot simply say that it exists or does not exist.

When a person is free of selfish thoughts and distracting notions, they abide in the state of the Mysterious Pass, One Aperture; the moment even a trace of private desire arises, they are no longer in this state. Cheng Hao (Master Cheng) said: "To lean neither one way nor the other is called the 'Mean'; once there is any leaning, it is no longer the 'Mean.'"

The Perfected One Yaolin Shi (Zhenren Yaolin Shi) said: "Within the body lies a hidden, subtle mechanism; within the heart there is no stain of worldly thought." These words have already said everything essential.

The "Mysterious Pass, the One Aperture" (Xuanguan yiqiao) is the crux of cultivation and the root of all things. It responds when one comes into contact with external things, and it is nourished within the heart when one is still. It is neither entirely nonexistent nor truly substantial; it does not belong to visible form, nor can it simply be called emptiness. The practitioner must make body and mind settled and clear, while letting the breath move naturally.

The White Tiger and the Azure Dragon are terms of Neidan (internal alchemy), referring to the corresponding movements of Qi within the body. The poem says that the Qi on the left side rises and the Qi on the right side stirs, and the two converge and rest at the middle of the spine. One then stirs the Xun wind (a symbol of the wind of the breath's circulation), fanning the inner Qi as though it were a furnace fire, so that it rises to Kunfeng (the head). Next, Qian and Kun unite and transform into a pool of clear fluid. The fluid descends to the tip of the tongue and is then swallowed into the Yellow Palace (a cultivation site of the Dantian type).

The practice is done three or four times a day. The first pass is practiced for one hundred days, followed by a month of "bathing." The middle pass is practiced for another hundred days, followed by bathing in the same way, and the upper pass is likewise practiced for one hundred days. Here "bathing" is a Neidan term, meaning regulating the breath, nourishing the Qi, and moderating the heat of the fire; it does not simply mean washing the body. When the firing process is complete, one can shed the womb and transform in Shen (spirit), embracing the One and nurturing the Sacred Embryo. After nine years of practice, one can ascend to heaven in broad daylight.

The Great Dao cannot be exhausted in words, nor can it be understood merely by asking questions. The practitioner must forget the body and outward appearances and seek lead and mercury (Neidan terms, often used to refer to the Yin-Yang essences and Qi within the body). Guard the inner center, do not let stray thoughts occupy the mind, and concentrate on settling body and mind. Once the breath is harmonized, the Shen becomes naturally clear, and the six vessels (the body's meridians) naturally return to nature and life (xing and ming). When spirit, ethereal soul, and corporeal soul each return to their source, body and mind become still and unmoving.

When the first Yang is born and advances to the second Yang, one need only apply the firing gently. In an instant, the Qi is lifted upward to the Silver River (here meaning the channel in the head), so that the Jade Pillow and Niwan (Neidan terms for the back of the skull and the center of the brain, respectively) are warmed as if by fire. When the Qian Qi moves, the Shen is clear, and the six vessels return to nature and life; spirit, ethereal soul, and corporeal soul return to their source, and body and mind rest in stillness.

After Qian and Kun have united, the Bright Hall (Mingtang, a cultivation site at the head or between the brows) sends down clear, bright Qi. It is as though a round, radiant precious mirror hangs upon the neck, and the clear Qi slowly descends to the tip of the tongue, filling the mouth with fragrant, sweet saliva. One then swallows it gently, sending it down to the Yellow Court (Huangting, the central palace or Dantian region in internal cultivation), as though the whole body were enveloped in golden light. The Three Families meet (that is, Jing, Qi, and Shen unite) and form an infant (the Sacred Embryo of Neidan); the hexagram images advance layer by layer, symbolizing the gradual completion of the practice.

Morning and evening, one turns the Heavenly Mechanism, practicing in accordance with the proper sequence; the Four Images surround and guard the Jibing (a celestial metaphor for the pivot of the inner Qi). After one year, the practice advances to the crown of the head, which is called transcending the ordinary and entering sagehood. After nine years of embracing the Primordial One, the practice is complete, and one can ride a luan phoenix alone, ascending to return to the Great Cavern (Dadong, a Daoist term for the realm of immortals and true beings).

The author says that now the secrets of the sages are being revealed, and hopes the reader will cleanse their ears, still the mind, and practice with single-minded devotion. Do not wait until Jing and Qi are scattered and the root of cultivation has decayed, only to feel regret at the moment of death. The subtle mechanism of cultivation has been explained in detail; this is a secret transmitted from heart to heart, and students of the Dao should press forward diligently without delay.

Medicinal Substances

What is called "gathering the medicine" means drawing true Qi (qi) from the blood, and then drawing true Jing (essence) from the Qi. Blood and Qi circulate up to the crown of the head, where they meet, merge, and turn into a fluid. When true Jing and true Qi reach the crown and meet there, they become the "Golden Liquid" (a substance formed from Jing and Qi in Neidan practice), which flows through the meridians and becomes the "white blood." The "gold" within it enters the Central Palace (a Neidan term for the central region of the body) and congeals into the elixir. When the practice has matured, all the blood and Qi of the whole body are transformed into white blood, and the true Jing and true Qi are all congealed into the elixir. Once the body has been refined, the Shen (spirit) can leave and enter without being bound by the physical form. Going one step further, one can transcend the transformations of Yin-Yang, and this step is still passed on through oral instruction. As for the so-called "body beyond the body," it is not especially marvelous either.

First Steps

Within the Gate of the Mysterious Female (a Neidan term for the fundamental gateway of life's transformations), all things are forgotten, yet one's original nature is not lost. When even "forgetting" can no longer be forgotten, this is the wondrous state, which is limited by nothing in any direction. This passage appears to have errors or omissions, and its original meaning is difficult to determine.

Breaking Through the Pass

Once the passes and apertures have been broken open, the two Qi of Yin and Yang circulate and flow, responding to the opportunities of change. Let them come and go without any obstruction; the mind does not stir in the slightest, yet it can turn this pivot that is like Heaven and Earth.

Shattering Illusory Realms

When the mind-ground is bright and the original nature is transparent, the spiritual light is complete like a mirror; the moment a thought arises, all manner of scenes appear along with it. One who cultivates the Dao (the Way) must not cling to these scenes, and must recognize that they belong to external realms. Hence it is said: "Why can the eye not tolerate a speck of dust? Only because no dust remains in one's nature." When a thought stirs, the nature rises in waves, and the many forms of ghosts, demons, and spirits appear. This means that even when the mind is still, it can respond to outer things; if the practitioner does not seize upon these scenes as real, they will not be led astray by them.

Subduing Demons

When stray thoughts follow one upon another and cannot be stilled, strange and varied visions of ghosts, demons, and spirits will appear. At such a time, immediately set the Water and Fire carts in motion (a Neidan term for the circulation of Yin and Yang Qi within the body), break through the Three Passes (the apertures through which Qi passes in cultivation), and proceed straight to the Inner Court (a Neidan term for a deep cultivation site within the body). In this way the Three Corpses (spirits said in Daoism to dwell in the body and hinder cultivation) withdraw, the Six Thieves (a metaphor common to Buddhism and Daoism for the six sensory desires that disturb the mind) are driven out, and all obstacles of demons dissolve of themselves.

When waves of drowsiness and darkness descend, one should at once take up the sword and summon the wind (here a Neidan metaphor for rousing the spirit and setting the Qi in motion); let the fire of the Three Yang (the vigorous inner-refining fire of abundant Yang Qi) rise in the furnace, and in a moment it will sweep away all baleful and evil influences.

Establishing the Foundation

When Buddhist practice reaches this stage, it is called "becoming of one piece" (打成一片), meaning that the mind is single-pointed and the effort is unbroken. Even at night one does not relax, but simply keeps building concentration; as days and months accumulate, the practice deepens, and one can sustain it through the daytime as well. In the Daoist tradition (Daojiao), once the foundation is firm, one trains according to the fire phasing (huohou, the sense of timing and degree in cultivation), and in the end forms the Neidan (internal alchemy).

Once the foundation of the elixir (the root of Neidan practice) is firm, the mind becomes pure and unified. Day and night, a divine light guards the body, the two eyes naturally lose interest in outer things, and the heart silently keeps hold of the mysterious truth (the profound nature of the Dao).

Fire Phasing

The eight apertures divide into eight joints and gates, and warmth, coolness, cold, and heat correspond to Qian and Kun (Heaven and Earth, Yin-Yang). When the four seasons proceed without losing the proper Yin-Yang fire phasing, the cinnabar in the cauldron forms a purple cloud.

Master Bai added: those who practice fire phasing count time by the twelve double-hours, each of which equals five quarter-hours (ke). Counting three hundred days in half-month periods gives a total of one thousand five hundred ke. One circuit of the celestial cycle through the body takes eight ke, and a single ke of concentrated effort is equal to a year of cultivation. If the student understands how to work in this way, they can follow nature: eating when hungry and sleeping when tired.

Bathing

The "bathing" within the body refers to nurturing during the progress of the qi cycle, while the "bathing" tied to the moon's progress through particular months refers to nurturing the elixir's beginning (its initial state). Ziyang said, "The months and hours of the Rabbit and the Rooster." This phrase speaks of the bathing of two months.

When Jing and Qi are abundant, the furnace is warm, and Yin and Yang meet, one must guard the root and not waver. Do not adjust the fire phasing by drawing out and adding in; simply wash the mind clean and clear away stray thoughts, and the Dao will always remain.

When the qi cycle stirs, one must draw in the senses, lower the eyelids, and rest calmly without desire, waiting for the cycle to pass. When Jing and Qi are abundant, the furnace is warm, and Yin and Yang meet, one must guard the root and not waver. Do not adjust the fire phasing by drawing out and adding in; simply wash the mind clean and clear away stray thoughts, and the Dao will always remain.

When the qi cycle stirs, one must also draw in the senses, lower the eyelids, and rest calmly without desire, waiting for the cycle to pass. Do not let the mind run loose and scatter the Jing and Qi; if one cannot hold firm, the elixir will collapse.

At this stage of practice, one must be even more cautious and on guard, and may not simply follow ordinary methods. When the qi cycle stirs, it must be nurtured: draw in the senses and keep to the Dao of Wuwei (non-action).

Close your eyes. It is as though you are guarding a single spot within the body, and yet as though there is nothing at all; this spot is empty, but not wholly void. The true Qi (vital energy) of the Kun Palace (a Neidan term for the place in the body where yin true Qi resides) rises, and the back grows warm. The Xun wind (the breath symbolizing wind) stirs gently, and the breath passes all the way up to the Heavenly Palace (the inner cultivation region of the head). Gather this breath and do not let it scatter, and it will transform into sweet dew filling the whole head. Then let it slowly descend, like a gentle rain nourishing the earth.

The human head is where the many yang energies gather, yet it also contains a yin essence, called "True Mercury." The five organs are where the many yin energies gather, yet they also contain a yang essence, called "True Lead." The heart belongs neither wholly to the yang above nor wholly to the yin below, and so it sits in the middle as the master governing the entire body. Look for it, and you cannot see its form; listen for it, and you cannot hear its sound. Question it, and it responds and connects with you; touch it, and it remains still and unmoving. If a person can keep cultivating within this stillness, until the practice reaches maturity, they will come to understand that the principles by which Heaven and Earth create and transform are all complete within themselves.