《道德真经藏室纂微手钞(薛致玄)》

The highest De (Virtue/Power) does not keep De in mind, and therefore truly possesses De. Chen Jingyuan remarks that the actions of someone like Zhili Shu, who appears fragmented and incomplete, have already been explained earlier; he also notes that ordinary people make use of the Dao (the Way) every day yet remain unaware of its existence.

The Xici of the Yijing states: “The interaction of Yin-Yang is what is called the Dao. That which continues the Dao and gives rise to things is goodness; that which brings the myriad things to completion is nature. The humane perceive it as humaneness, the wise perceive it as wisdom; ordinary people employ it daily without knowing it, and therefore those who truly understand the way of the gentleman are few.” This precisely shows that the highest De does not claim De for itself, so although the people receive its influence day after day, they remain unaware of it.

A lower grade of De deliberately strives not to lose the name of De, and therefore in reality possesses no genuine De. Chen Jingyuan observes that this kind of De gradually becomes apparent in one’s actions and afterward grows increasingly shallow and dissipated.

“Zhiyi” refers to a state of complete, undifferentiated unity. The “Shanxing” chapter of the Zhuangzi states that in ancient times, when primordial chaos had not yet differentiated, people dwelt as one with the myriad things, their minds tranquil and still. At that time Yin-Yang were in harmonious balance and stability, ghosts and spirits did not come to disturb, the four seasons proceeded in due order, the myriad things suffered no harm, and lives were not cut short. Although people possessed wisdom, there was nothing they needed to accomplish by means of it; this is called “zhiyi.” In that era there was no human artifice; everything always followed its natural course.

Later, De (Virtue/Power) gradually declined. By the time Suiren and Fuxi governed the world, people began to take action; thus, although they still followed the inherent principles of things, they could no longer maintain that complete unity. Bixuzi cites this passage as supporting evidence, holding that once the stage of “lower De” was reached, people gradually came to value and practice various forms of doing, and the original state of pure unity accordingly dissipated.

Those of higher De follow the natural course, do not act with deliberate intent, and have no purpose they seek to achieve by means of action.

The Zuan commentary explains that when the mind is free of thoughts, it naturally abides in Wuwei (non-action); by forgetting merit and reputation one enters the realm of “wu yi wei,” that is, no longer seeking anything through action. Suiren and Fuxi are legendary sage-kings of antiquity; “Wuwei” (non-action) and “wu yi wei” are Daoist expressions describing the absence of deliberate artifice and the refusal to make merit, fame, or profit the aim of one’s actions.

The meaning of “wusi wulü” (without thought or consideration) can be illustrated by a story from the Zhuangzi, “Zhi Bei You” (Knowledge Rambling North). Zhi traveled to the banks of the Xuan River and at the hill of Yinjing met Wuweiwei. He asked: “How should one think and how should one consider in order to understand the Dao (the Way)? How should one dwell and how should one clothe oneself in order to rest securely in the Dao? From where should one set out and what path should one follow in order to attain the Dao?” Wuweiwei did not reply, not because he was unwilling to answer, but because he did not know how to answer.

Having received no reply, Zhi later met Kuangqu and put the same questions to him. Kuangqu said he knew the answer, yet just as he was about to speak he forgot what he intended to say. Still without an answer, Zhi returned to the imperial palace and inquired of the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor said: “Without thought or consideration, one first begins to understand the Dao; without attachment or reliance, one first begins to rest in the Dao; without following any particular route or clinging to any method, one first begins to attain the Dao.”

Zhi then asked the Yellow Emperor why he and the Yellow Emperor both knew the answer while Wuweiwei and Kuangqu did not, and which of them was right. The Yellow Emperor replied: “Wuweiwei is the one who is truly right; Kuangqu comes close to the Dao. You and I have still not approached it.”

The “Xici” commentary of the Yijing also records Confucius saying: “What is there for the people of the world to think about or consider? Although the affairs of the world follow different paths, they ultimately return to the same place; although thoughts and considerations are many, the ultimate principle is one and the same.” The transformations of all things under heaven have their root in stillness; the myriad affairs of the world have their root in the One. With stillness as the foundation, there is no thought or consideration in the mind; with the One as the ruler, there are no mixed thoughts in the mind.

The transformations of worldly things are chaotic and diverse, their paths all different; once stillness is realized, one knows they ultimately converge in one place. People’s thoughts and considerations are numerous and varied; returning to the One, the principle finally reached has no distinctions. Realizing the One by means of stillness, what then remains to be thought about or considered? Thus the sage governs the world without many words, and people naturally have faith; without deliberate action, moral transformation naturally takes effect. This is precisely because he has grasped this principle.

Therefore Bixu said: “Without thinking or considering, the mind naturally abides in Wuwei (non-action).” He also said: “Forget merit and fame, and go further to the realm of doing nothing at all.” This draws its meaning from the Zhuangzi, “Xiaoyao You” (Free and Easy Wandering): “The perfected person has no self, the spirit person claims no credit, the sage seeks no fame.” Hence the injunction to forget merit, forget fame, and go further still to the state of non-action.

Those of lower De (Virtue/Power) take action, and they do so with intention.

The Zuwei commentary states that his spirit unites with Yin-Yang, his achievements stand as conspicuous as the sun and moon, and the common people all revere and support him, gladly uniting to recommend him. Qilin and phoenixes appear, auspicious omens follow, and the people praise him in songs. All this shows that he takes action.

The Shouchao quotes the twenty-eighth chapter of the Biographies in the History of the Former Han: Gongsun Hong was a native of Xue. In the fifth year of the Yuanguang era under Emperor Wu of Han, worthy and literary scholars were summoned and ordered to compose policy essays. Gongsun Hong remarked that he had heard that when Qi (vital energy) is the same they draw close, and when sounds correspond they respond to one another. When the ruler above practices harmonious government of De, the people below live in concord; human hearts become compliant, Qi is balanced, the body is at peace, voices are pleasing, and Heaven and Earth respond in kind. Thus Yin-Yang are in harmony, winds and rains arrive in their seasons, sweet dew descends, the five grains yield abundant harvests, the six kinds of livestock thrive, auspicious grains and vermilion grass grow, mountain forests do not become barren, and lakes and marshes do not dry up. This is harmony at its utmost.

When the body is at peace there is little illness; with little illness there is no premature death, so fathers need not mourn sons who die young nor elder brothers weep for younger brothers who perish early. The ruler’s De matches Heaven and Earth, his radiance stands equal to the sun and moon; qilin and phoenixes arrive, turtles and dragons appear in the outskirts, the Yellow River produces the Hetu, and the Luo River produces the Luoshu. Distant rulers gladly accept his righteousness of the Dao (the Way) and come to court bearing gifts. This is harmony at its zenith.

The Shouchao then explains the phrase “the songs make it evident that there is action with intention.” Mencius said that Shun assisted Yao for twenty-eight years; this could not have been arranged by human effort but was the will of Heaven. After Yao’s death, when the three years of mourning ended, Shun yielded to Yao’s son and lived south of the Nan River. Yet those who came from throughout the realm to pay court did not go to Yao’s son but to Shun; those with lawsuits did not seek Yao’s son but Shun; and the people in their songs did not praise Yao’s son but Shun. Therefore Shun regarded this as Heaven’s will and only then came to the Central Plains and ascended the throne as Son of Heaven.

Here Bixu uses this account to show that the ruler’s spirit unites with Yin-Yang, his achievements shine like the sun and moon, the people revere him and gladly recommend him, auspicious omens such as qilin and phoenixes appear, and the people’s songs likewise reveal their joint support. These are precisely illustrations of “lower De acts, and acts with intention”: those of lower De take action, and they do so with a definite intention to act.

Superior ritual, although practiced by some, meets with no response. The people nevertheless jointly praise and recommend it; the qilin and phoenix appear, and auspiciousness follows. This means that the reputation of ritual and music is made manifest and has its own effects; it can illustrate the statement that “inferior De (Virtue/Power) has actions and corresponding results.”

If superior ritual is practiced yet no one responds, one rolls up the sleeves and forcibly drags others into compliance.

The Zuan states: Ritual is practice. That is, to act in accordance with the Dao (the Way), distinguishing the names and statuses of superior and inferior, and establishing the order of noble and base.

The Chao states: Distinguishing superior and inferior is as the Great Image commentary of the Lü hexagram in the Book of Changes says: “Heaven above, marsh below—this is the Lü hexagram.” The gentleman thereby distinguishes the names and statuses of high and low and settles the minds of the people.

The Zuan further states: Jade and silk interweave in coming and going.

The Chao states: The Yang Huo chapter of the Lu Yu records Confucius saying: “Ritual, ritual! Is it merely jade and silk? Music, music! Is it merely bells and drums?” The Zhongyong of the Book of Rites further states: “The detailed rules of ritual number three hundred, the ceremonial observances three thousand.” The overall principle can be summarized in one phrase: nothing without reverence.

Ritual takes reverence as its mainstay, music takes harmony as its mainstay. Norms that inspire awe are called “wei” (majesty); ceremonial forms that can be emulated are called “yi” (etiquette). Jade and silk are the vessels used in ritual to express ritual meaning; bells and drums are the instruments used in music to guide harmony. Thus we know that solemn reverence and peaceful harmony are the root of ritual and music, while jade, silk, bells, and drums are merely their external forms. Therefore it is said that jade and silk interweave in exchange and that majesty and etiquette respond to one another. The holding, kneeling and bowing, looking up and down, bending and stretching, advancing and retreating, glancing back, and saluting in the performance of ritual are all external ceremonial details of ritual, and so they are called mere peripherals. If these details are exchanged and performed yet meet with no response, it will reach the point of rolling up sleeves and forcibly compelling others to comply.

The Zuan states: Confucius said, “Great ritual accords with the rhythms of Heaven and Earth.”

The commentary notes that these words come from the Book of Rites, “Record of Music.” It states that the greatest music is in harmony with heaven and earth, and the greatest system of rites accords with the rhythms of heaven and earth. When heaven and earth are in harmony, the myriad things suffer no harm; when the rites conform to those rhythms, one may perform the sacrifices to heaven and earth. In the human realm there are rites and music; in the netherworld there are ghosts and spirits. The old edition of the compiled text mistakenly wrote “Confucius” as “Zhuangzi,” and this has now been corrected.

It further says: “Regard rites as wings, and rely on them to act in the world.” This sentence comes from the Zhuangzi, “The Great Ancestral Teacher.” Since it is said that the great rites accord with the rhythms of heaven and earth, and rites are likened to wings for traveling through the world, how then could there arise the behavior of rolling up one’s sleeves, baring the arms, and disturbing order?

“Rites are the manifestation of the decline of loyalty and trustworthiness, and also the beginning of calamity and disorder.”

The compiled text quotes the Zhuangzi as saying: “The sage practices teaching without words…” Perhaps only a person of great De (Virtue/Power) can achieve this.

The commentary notes that this passage comes from the Zhuangzi, “Knowledge Wandered North.” It has already been explained in detail in the compiled text and will not be repeated here. In general, these citations are used to explain that rites are merely the external manifestation of the Dao (the Way); when the root is lost, they may also become the beginning of calamity and disorder.

The compiled text further says: “De is harmony and compliance. When the inner heart holds utmost sincerity, and one’s conduct and demeanor also accord with the forms of ritual, this is rites.”

The commentary notes that this passage comes from the Zhuangzi, “Mending the Inborn Nature.” The compiled text has already discussed it quite fully, so it is not copied here. Bixu cites several passages from the Nanhua Zhenjing (that is, the Zhuangzi) in order to testify that the thought of Laozi and Zhuangzi did not look down upon the Dao, De, humaneness, righteousness, rites, music, or loyalty and trustworthiness; they merely pointed out that these have a distinction of root and branch, of what comes first and what comes last.

“Foreknowledge” is the external ostentation of the Dao, and also the beginning of ignorance.

The compiled text quotes a Daoist scripture as saying: “To govern the state with cleverness and craft is the disaster of the state.” The commentary notes that this is the text of chapter 65 of the present jing (scripture/classic), which has already been explained in that chapter.

The commentary further notes that the phrase “what to think, what to consider” in the compiled text comes from the Book of Changes, “Appended Statements,” and has already been explained earlier.

The compiled text says: “When rites and ceremonies become overly elaborate, they give rise to chaos.”

The Shangshu, in the “Charge to Yue, Middle Section,” records that after Fu Yue (minister to King Wuding of Shang) took overall charge of the officials, he advised the king: “An enlightened ruler follows Heaven’s Dao (the Way) in founding the state and establishing the capital. If one relies on one’s own good deeds, one will instead lose those good deeds; if one relies on one’s own talent, one will instead lose one’s achievements. Only by preparing everything in advance can disaster be avoided. Do not indulge those who enjoy favor, lest they bring humiliation upon themselves; do not conceal errors out of shame, lest one continue to do wrong. Sacrifices should not be too frequent, for excessive frequency makes them appear slighting and irreverent; when sacrificial rites are overly elaborate, affairs become disordered and difficult to carry out.” The Shang king praised Fu Yue’s words as excellent and expressed his willingness to follow them. Fu Yue kowtowed in gratitude and added: “To know the principle is not difficult; what is difficult is to put it into practice.” If the Shang king could trust and employ him, he would accord with the De (Virtue/Power) of the former kings. Xue Zhixuan quotes this passage to illustrate the earlier statement “to govern the state with wisdom is the thief of the state”: excessive reliance on clever knowledge leads to deceit; overly elaborate rites produce chaos. These are all flashy manifestations of the Dao, and they may also become the beginning of ignorance. Better than this is to restrain knowledge, refrain from reckless thinking in the heart, and return to honest thickness and simplicity.

Therefore a great man possessed of the Dao establishes himself in honesty and thickness, not in shallowness; he abides in the substantial, not pursuing the flashy, and thus discards the latter and chooses the former.

The “Zuan” commentary explains that a great man is one who is firm and vigorous, pure and upright, and endowed with cultivation of De.

Firmness, robustness, purity and refinement. The Wenyan commentary on the Qian hexagram of the Yijing (Classic of Changes) states: “Firm and vigorous, centered and correct, it is purely refined.” This means that the great man is born endowed with this firm, vigorous and pure Qi (vital energy) and thereby becomes a person of the Dao (the Way). He discards the flashy and superficial aspects of ritual and wisdom and takes up the substantial aspects of Dao and De (Virtue/Power). This is to value the root and abandon the branches, and so it is said “discard that side and take this side.”

The Wenzi says that the great man is peacefully without thoughts or deliberations, calmly without worries or troubles; when he walks it is as if there were no road, when he sojourns it is as if there were no stopping-place; in coming and going he is not restricted by doors or rooms. He concentrates and gathers his Shen (spirit), withdraws his knowledge and perceptions, remains silently in Wuwei (non-action), yet there is nothing he cannot accomplish.

The Daoyuan chapter of the Wenzi records that Laozi said: “The great man” refers to one who is able to embody the great Dao (the Way). He is peacefully without thoughts or deliberations, calmly without worries or troubles, taking Heaven as his canopy, Earth as his vehicle, the four seasons as his horses, and Yin-Yang as the driving force. With Heaven as canopy there is nowhere that cannot be covered; with Earth as vehicle there is nothing that cannot be carried; with the four seasons as horses there is no power that cannot be driven; riding the transformations of Yin-Yang, he is able to make all things each attain their proper place.

Therefore the sage cultivates the root within and deals with the branches without; he unifies and concentrates his Shen (spirit), withdraws his own knowledge and perceptions, and thus remains silently in Wuwei (non-action) yet there is nothing he cannot do. What is meant by “Wuwei” (non-action) is not acting in advance of things; what is meant by “no governing” is not altering the natural condition of things; what is meant by “nothing not governed” is according with the inherent circumstances of things so that each functions appropriately. Bixu draws upon this passage to explain the meaning of “the great man dwells in what is substantial, not in what is thin.”

Those of Old Who Attained the One, Chapter 39.

In former times, all things that attained unity with the Dao (the Way) did so by obtaining the One: Heaven obtained the One and thereby became clear; Earth obtained the One and thereby became peaceful; spirits obtained the One and thereby became numinous and wondrous; valleys obtained the One and thereby became full; the myriad things obtained the One and thereby grew; lords and kings obtained the One and thereby were able to serve as the correct Way and standard for all under Heaven. All these functions arise from “obtaining the One.”

The “One” spoken of here is an existence generated by the Dao; it is a blended, harmonious, and subtle Qi (vital energy). It is the root of Yin-Yang and the maternal body of the myriad things. When it exerts its function, it rises and becomes clouds, descends and becomes rain, disperses and becomes wind, and agitates and becomes thunder; that which agitates and emits light is lightning. From antiquity to the present it remains constantly the same, circulating and returning without end. The designation “One” truly possesses an immensely vast meaning.

The “Ke Yi” chapter of the Zhuangzi states: “When situated in Yin, one shares the De (Virtue/Power) of Yin; when situated in Yang, one flows together with Yang.” The “Zhi Bei You” chapter of the Zhuangzi further says that the Dao exists in tiles and bricks. These statements all speak of the “One Qi” of the Dao being present everywhere.

When silent and in Wuwei (non-action), unperturbed by external things, it is called the “True Lord”; that which is able to govern and command the physical form is called the “True Ruler.” The Xici commentary of the Yijing observes that the mind-Shen (spirit) remains silent and unmoving, yet is able to respond to things and thereby penetrate the principles of the world. The “Qi Wu Lun” chapter of the Zhuangzi says that without an external “that” there is no internal “I”; without an “I” there is likewise no physical form. This is precisely the meaning upon which the term “True Ruler” is based.

The state of silence and Wuwei (non-action), without any movement. The Xici of the Yizhuan (Commentary on the Changes) says: “Silent and unmoving, yet when stimulated it thereby connects with the reasons of all under heaven.” This means that the mind-spirit is originally silent and motionless; when it encounters things and responds, it can then fully comprehend the principles of all affairs in the world.

It also speaks of the “True Lord” (Zhenjun) and “True Governor” (Zhenzai). Zhuangzi’s Qiwulun discusses the master that governs body and mind: Without a counterpart there is no way to manifest the self; without the self there is no object from which to take a model. Although this is said, one still does not know what exactly is directing the body and mind. It seems there truly is a master, yet one cannot see its traces; it enables the activities of life to operate, yet it has no concrete form; it possesses genuine function but remains invisible.

A person’s hundred bones (the entire skeleton), nine orifices (the nine openings of the body), and six viscera (the six internal organs) all exist together within the body. Which of them should I draw close to? Can they all govern themselves? Do they each have their own private biases? Are they all merely subordinate ministers, unable to govern one another? Or do they take turns serving as lord and minister? From this it can be known that there must be a “True Lord” present in the body. Even if one seeks it and either finds it or fails to find it, this neither adds to nor subtracts from its original reality.

The Xisheng Jing also says: “Obtain the One, and all things are complete.” This meaning has already been explained previously.

Zhuangzi said: “Qi (vital energy) is empty and still, awaiting the coming of external things.” Only the Dao (the Way) can gather within emptiness and stillness. Zhuangzi also said: “In an empty and quiet chamber brightness is generated; auspiciousness comes to rest and dwell in quietude and stillness.”

This passage is from the Zhuangzi, chapter “In the Human World.” Yan Hui said to Confucius: “My family is impoverished; for several months now I have neither drunk wine nor eaten meat. Can this be regarded as fasting?” Confucius replied: “This is merely the fasting that precedes a sacrificial ritual, not the fasting of the mind (xinzhai).” Yan Hui asked: “Please tell me, what is the fasting of the mind?”

Confucius said: “Unify the mind and spirit. Do not listen merely with the ears, but experience things with the mind; do not experience them merely with the mind, but feel them with Qi (vital energy). Hearing remains at the ears; the mind’s knowing remains at its correspondence with external objects. So-called Qi is a state of emptiness and stillness that awaits the arrival of the ten thousand things. Only the Dao (the Way) can gather within emptiness and stillness; this emptiness and stillness is precisely the fasting of the mind.”

Yan Hui said: “Before I received the Master’s instruction, I truly listened only with my ears and then experienced things with my mind. Now I understand that one must feel with Qi: hearing ceases at the ears, the mind’s knowing ceases at correspondence with external objects. Qi is emptiness and stillness awaiting the ten thousand things; the Dao gathers in emptiness and stillness—this is the fasting of the mind. Previously, I was still a solid and real ‘I’; after receiving the instruction, it is as if I no longer cling to the ‘I.’ Can this be called emptiness and stillness?”

Confucius said: “When cultivation reaches its utmost, it is like this. Behold that empty and luminous realm: when the chamber of the heart is empty and still, brightness arises from it, and good fortune thereby takes up its dwelling. If the mind and Shen (spirit) cannot come to rest in stillness, this is called ‘sitting while racing’—though the person sits, the mind gallops about without cease. What can serve as proof amounts to no more than this.”

The Zuanwei further states that “the myriad things begin by relying on it,” a phrase drawn from the Commentary on the Judgment of the Qian hexagram in the Yijing (Book of Changes): “How great is Qian yuan! The myriad things originate from it.” It also states that “the myriad things grow by relying on it,” drawn from the Commentary on the Judgment of the Kun hexagram in the Yijing: “How perfect is Kun yuan! The myriad things grow from it. The earth of Kun is thick and deep, bearing the myriad things, its De (Virtue/Power) vast and boundless.” The Zuanwei further remarks that “Shen (spirit)” is used to illustrate the marvelous transformations of the myriad things; this statement comes from the Shuogua commentary of the Yijing and has already been explained earlier.

Bixu (the commentator) cites these scriptural passages to demonstrate the principle of “attaining the One.” The “One” spoken of here is primordial Qi (the original vital energy of the myriad things). Primordial Qi is able to manifest as Yin and Yang, yet it does not belong to Yin or to Yang. When it rises to the Jade Capital and Golden Palaces (the celestial palaces of which Daoism speaks), it does not thereby become pure; when it abides amid potsherds and brambles, it does not thereby become turbid. Qian yuan relies upon it to initiate the myriad things; Kun yuan relies upon it to nourish the myriad things. When it presides over affairs of action, it is called the True Ruler (the substance that governs the myriad things); when it remains still and unmoved, it manifests as the True Lord (the substance of purity, stillness, and Wuwei (non-action)). It is empty in the extreme, yet it is the root of all living beings; it appears minute in the extreme, yet it is the origin of the myriad things. Those who attain the Dao grasp this principle, so that the myriad things can grow and all affairs can be brought to completion. Hence it is said: “Heaven attains the One and becomes clear.”

The Zuanwei says: “If lords and kings can attain the One, they can long preserve the most precious root, so that there is no one under heaven who does not submit, and the world is brought back to peace and rectitude.”

The phrase “none who do not submit” comes from the Mao recension of the Book of Songs, Greater Elegantiae, “King Wen Has a Voice”: “In Haojing the Biyong was established; from west and from east, from south and from north, none who did not submit. How great is the sovereign king!” This means that King Wu held the rites of the Biyong (an ancient site of ceremony and moral instruction) at Haojing, and people from the four directions came from every quarter to observe; all were transformed by King Wu’s De (Virtue/Power), so that none failed to submit in their hearts. The passage indicates that King Wu’s transforming influence was vast, able to elicit sincere and joyful submission. Bixu quotes these lines to show that King Wu could bring the four directions into submission because he too had attained the “One” and thereby set the world aright; hence the statement “When lords and kings attain the One they become the rectifiers of the world.”

Should Heaven fail to preserve its clarity, it would fear splitting apart; should Earth fail to preserve its tranquillity, it would fear quaking; should Shen (spirit) fail to preserve its numinous efficacy, it would fear dissipating; should valleys fail to preserve their fullness, they would fear running dry; should the myriad things fail to grow, they would fear extinction. Should lords and kings fail to preserve rectitude while greedily seeking honor and high station, they would fear being overthrown. Therefore honor takes the lowly as its root, and high position takes the low as its foundation. That lords and kings call themselves “the orphaned,” “the lonely,” and “the unworthy” (all humble self-appellations)—is this not precisely taking the lowly as the root? How could it not be so?

The Zuan commentary states: “Yin-Yang are disordered.”

The Chao commentary says: The Wenzi, in the “Superior Rites” chapter, likewise observes that when Yin-Yang fall into disorder, the four seasons lose their proper sequence, thunder, lightning, frost and hail bring disaster, and the myriad things wither and die prematurely. This entire passage has already been quoted in detail in the “Thirty Spokes” chapter of the Dao Jing. The text further remarks: “Shen is the incalculable functioning of the transformations of Yin-Yang.” This point has already been explained earlier.

The Zuan commentary states: “Therefore when the Luo (pronounced luo) withered and died, the Xia dynasty perished; when the Yellow River dried up, the Shang dynasty was lost.”

The Records of the Grand Historian, Annals of Zhou, records that in the second year of King You of Zhou, an earthquake struck the region around Haojing, the Western Zhou capital, affecting the Jing, Wei, and Luo rivers. Bo Yangfu, the Grand Historian of Zhou, declared that the Zhou dynasty was about to perish.

Bo Yangfu held that the qi (vital energy) of heaven and earth circulates according to a definite order. When the movement of qi falls into disorder, it leads to unrest among the people. When yang qi remains hidden and fails to emerge, while yin qi presses upon it so that it cannot rise, an earthquake occurs. Now that the lands of all three rivers are shaking, this shows that yang qi has lost its proper position and has sunk into yin qi; as a result the sources of the rivers will become blocked. Once the sources are blocked, the state will perish.

Soil and water nourish the myriad things, and the people depend on them for their livelihood. If the land loses the moisture of water, the people will lack wealth and the necessities of life; how then can the state not perish? In former times, when the Yi and Luo rivers dried up, the Xia dynasty fell; when the Yellow River dried up, the Shang dynasty fell. At present the De (Virtue/Power) of the Zhou has already declined to the level of the final years of the Xia and Shang, and the river sources are moreover blocked. Blockage of the water sources will inevitably cause the rivers to dry up. The state is established by relying on its mountains and rivers; the collapse of mountains and the drying of rivers are omens of the state’s demise. After the rivers dry up, the mountains will surely collapse as well. If the state is about to fall, it will not last more than ten years; this is the limit of its allotted span of qi. Heaven, in abandoning a state, will not allow it to exceed this limit.

In that same year the three rivers dried up and Mount Qi collapsed. Three years later King You favored Bao Si and deposed Queen Shen. The queen’s father, the Marquis of Shen, grew angry and allied with the Quanrong, a western tribal people, to attack the Zhou. The Quanrong killed King You, thereby fulfilling the omen of the state’s impending fall. Bi Xu cited this episode to illustrate the principle “If the valley has no way to fill itself, it will fear exhaustion”: a valley cannot remain full forever; in the end it will surely run dry.

The Zuan further states, “Cultivate oneself through humility,” meaning that one should nourish oneself with a humble attitude.

The commentary on the first line of the Hexagram of Modesty in the Yijing has already been quoted in detail in chapter 15 of the Daodejing. Bixu cites the several passages above to illustrate the principle of attaining the One. Losing this attainment of the One will bring about disasters such as splitting, decline, exhaustion, extinction, and overthrow.

So even if one is repeatedly praised, one should not become complacent thereby; one should not deliberately pursue being as precious as beautiful jade, nor deliberately appear as aloof as a rock.

The Compilation says: Even if the people of the world praise one many times, one does not become more diligent on that account; even if the people of the world criticize one many times, one does not become discouraged on that account.

This cites the idea from Zhuangzi's "Free and Easy Wandering": Those who by talent are competent for one office, by conduct obtain the recognition of one village, by virtue accord with one ruler, or by ability gain the trust of one country, often view themselves in this way as well. Yet Song Rongzi still dismissed it with a smile. Even if he were unanimously praised by the people of the world, he would not become more diligent thereby; even if he were unanimously criticized by the people of the world, he would not become discouraged thereby. He could distinguish the inner self from outer evaluations and also see clearly the boundary between honor and disgrace. Bixu uses this passage to show that whether the people of the world repeatedly praise or repeatedly criticize, one should not change one's inner holding on that account; how then can one determine that something is certainly valuable or certainly not valuable? Forgetting the distinction between the noble and the base and holding to the Dao (the Way) of emptiness, stillness, and concentrated unity is the correct Dao of the world.

Chapter 40: Reversal Is the Movement of the Dao

The transformation of things toward their opposite is the manner in which the Dao operates.

The Compilation cites the Hexagram of Return in the Yijing: "The firm returns." It further says that yang Qi (vital energy) begins to stir and proceeds in accordance with the tendency, so that coming and going, entering and exiting, encounter no obstruction.

This cites the hexagram statement and the commentary on the judgment of the Hexagram of Return in the Yijing. The Hexagram of Return symbolizes restoration and return. The hexagram statement says "Return: success," meaning that returning brings unobstructed flow; "the firm returns" refers to the return of vigorous yang Qi. Because yang Qi stirs and proceeds according to the tendency, there is no obstruction to entering and exiting; like kinds gather and arrive, and no misfortune ensues. The statement also notes that in the cycle of coming and going, after seven days yang Qi arrives anew; this is the regular pattern of the heavenly Dao's movement. It is advantageous to have somewhere to go, because yang Qi is increasing; what the Hexagram of Return manifests may well be the original heart of heaven and earth in their ceaseless generation of life.

This is precisely the time of "one yang beginning to be born," when yin Qi is gradually receding and yang Qi has just begun to sprout. Baoji explains: The root of heaven and earth lies in the "one origin" (the common primordial beginning of all things). As the one origin operates, vigorous yang Qi gradually increases; what the Hexagram of Return manifests may well be the original heart of heaven and earth.

This is the time when Yang Qi (vital energy) has just begun to arise. Bao Ji explained that the root of Heaven and Earth lies in the One Origin (the shared primordial beginning of all things), and that the Qi of this One Origin resides within the Kan trigram. Below, it corresponds to the Huangzhong pitch (the first of the twelve ancient musical pitches); above, it corresponds to the Qiangniu constellation (the Ox lodge); and in the middle it contains the Qi of Taiji (Supreme Ultimate).

It takes stillness as its substance and movement as its function, and is therefore able to set the four seasons in motion and to transform and nourish the myriad things. This is what is meant by the saying “silent and unmoving, yet when stimulated it penetrates the principles of all under Heaven”: originally still and without motion, once it responds to stimulation it can comprehend the reasons of everything in the world. When movement comes to rest it returns to stillness, and stillness returns to the original source; this is precisely the month of Jianzi (the eleventh lunar month, when Yang Qi begins to revive), the time when the three Qi unite as one. When stillness reaches its extreme it turns again into movement, and once it moves its function becomes apparent. Cycling round and round, generating without cease, the Dao (the Way) is within this.

When things remain in a state of centrality and correctness they can endure, and after enduring they undergo change. Therefore one can perceive stillness within movement, and perceive the substance within the function. That the substance is said to be stillness is only because, viewed from the standpoint of movement, its stillness is made manifest. Stillness, one might say, is the original mind of Heaven and Earth.

Thus the sage comprehends and embodies the original source, and thereby establishes genuine sincerity: taking stillness as the nature and movement as transformation, one accords with the Middle Path without forced effort, attains insight without deliberation, and unites with the De (Virtue/Power) of Heaven and Earth. Those who can grasp the principle from the forms of the myriad things and seek to return to the original source are the worthies. Those who take the original source as their foundation are sages; those who are able to return to the original source are worthies. This must be realized in the principle of the initial nine line of the Yijing, and Yan Hui (a disciple of Confucius) achieved it.

The Xici Xia of the Yijing states: “The gentleman can discern the minute and also distinguish the apparent; he understands the soft and also understands the hard, and therefore is looked up to by the multitude.” Yan Hui probably approached this state. Confucius said: “The son of the Yan clan has probably come close to the Dao! There is no unwholesome thought that he does not know of; once he knows it, he does not repeat it.” The Yijing says: “If one turns back shortly after the error has occurred, there will be no great remorse, and the outcome is greatly auspicious.” This is exactly the situation described. From this we see that returning to the original source is not itself the original mind of Heaven and Earth, yet it enables one to see that original mind. Zhu Xi remarked: Beneath the dense Yin Qi a single Yang begins to return, and thereby one can see the original mind of Heaven and Earth in giving life to and nurturing the myriad things; in the human being it appears as stillness reaching its extreme and turning into action, and as evil thoughts reaching their extreme and turning toward the good.

Softness and weakness constitute the functional mode of the Dao.

The Zuānwēi says: “Softness and weakness, holding to the feminine, and clarity and stillness are indeed the manner in which the Dao (the Way) functions.” The Shǒuchāo explains: This speaks of genuine teaching. Gentleness, yielding, and occupying the lower position are the path of entry into the Dao. Why is this so? The “Yellow Emperor” chapter of the Lièzǐ states that in the world there are methods that can always prevail, and methods that do not always prevail. Chapter Thirty-three has already quoted this passage in detail. From this it can be seen that softness and weakness are precisely the manner in which the Dao functions. What was discussed earlier is the Dao’s aspect of flexible adaptation; what is discussed here is the Dao’s aspect of genuine reality, unfeigned and not empty. What is called “expedient adaptation” is a temporary departure from ordinary convention in order to accord with the Great Dao; what is called “the actual” is sincerity that is not false. Expedient adaptation is used to bring actual principle to fulfillment, and actual principle is likewise put into practice by means of expedient adaptation; the two complement each other and neither can be neglected.

The Guǎngshèngyì explains: The Dao honors softness and weakness, while the worldly prize brute strength. Softness and weakness help to preserve life; brute strength easily invites ruin. The present scripture says: “Those who are violent and overbearing do not meet a good death; I shall take this saying as the foundation of instruction.” The sage uses this to admonish the people of the world, causing them to abandon brute strength and hold to gentleness, to set aside restlessness and return to clarity and stillness.

Instruction takes two forms: expedient adaptation and actual principle. People of superior capacity penetrate the sincere principle, and so they are awakened by genuine teaching and naturally accord with the Dao. People of middling and inferior capacity are first guided by expedient methods of teaching; if they still do not understand, they are exhorted with good words; if they do not heed exhortation, they are encouraged with kindness and rewards; if they still do not listen, they are restrained by laws and decrees; if laws cannot restrain them, they are overawed by regulations and institutions; only at last are they punished with penalties. The penalties spoken of here include the five ancient punishments: tattooing (mò), cutting off the nose (yì), amputation of the feet (yuè), castration (gōng), and capital punishment (dàpì). Yuè is pronounced like “fěi” and refers to cutting off the feet.

When the sage uses punishments to overawe people, is it because he has no other choice? The Book of Documents says: “The purpose of punishment is ultimately to arrive at a point where punishment is no longer used.” Here “qī” means to seek or to hope. The sage establishes punishments by the way of expedient adaptation, his original intent being the hope that people will not commit crimes, not that he harbors any desire to inflict punishment upon others. The Guǎngshèngyì further cites the Book of Documents: “When there is doubt about merit, recognize it on the heavier side; when there is doubt about a crime, treat it on the lighter side.” Although the sage sets up punishments to prohibit evil conduct and encourage people toward the good, he still harbors a heart of compassion and the goodwill of cherishing life. Only after teaching and exhortation have both failed to take effect are punishments employed.

Therefore, punishments are used to make the common people fearful, and rewards are used to encourage them: encouragement draws people toward the good, while awe prevents them from doing evil. Even if some people consequently suffer punishment, the intent of the punishment is still to guide people in practicing good. Punish the few and warn the many: those who suffer punishment are few, while those who turn toward the good are many. This is like combing the hair: if one combs only once every ten days, much hair will fall out; if one combs every day, the hair will be relatively smooth. From this it can be known that if the way of expedient adaptation is well employed by a sovereign, it is a strategy for governing the world; if it is well employed by ordinary scholars and common people, it is a method of according with the Great Dao. If it is employed improperly, it will instead invite disaster—how can one not be cautious?

If one can repeatedly embody and recognize the root of emptiness and stillness, and transcend the distinction between being and non-being, then the strong and the soft, the expedient and the actual, will all be set aside together—why would one still need to use punishments and rewards to prohibit or to exhort? Therefore it is said: “Reversal and return are the movement of the Dao; softness and weakness are the manner in which the Dao functions.”

All things under Heaven arise from Being, and Being in turn arises from Non-being.

The Liezi states that things possessing form arise from the formless; from where, then, do Heaven and Earth themselves arise?

The “Heaven’s Gifts” chapter of the Liezi records Liezi as saying: The sages of antiquity governed Heaven and Earth according to the transformations of Yin-Yang. Since that which has form arises from the formless, from where do Heaven and Earth arise? It is therefore said that the coming-into-being of the myriad things proceeds through the stages of Taiyi, Taichu, Taishi, and Taisu.

Taiyi is the time when Qi (vital energy) has not yet appeared; Taichu is when Qi first begins to arise; Taishi is when form first begins to take shape; Taisu is when material substance first begins to form. Although Qi, form, and substance are already present, they have not yet separated from one another. This state is called Hunlun, meaning that the myriad things remain fused together in an undifferentiated whole and have not yet divided. It cannot be seen, heard, or touched, and is therefore termed Yi (Change). Yi has no fixed shape; it transforms and becomes the One. The One transforms into Seven, and Seven transforms into Nine. When transformation reaches Nine it attains its limit and returns once more to the One. The One is the starting point of the transformation of form. What is light and clear rises to become Heaven; what is heavy and turbid sinks to become Earth; the harmonious Qi produced by the intermingling of Yin and Yang forms human beings. Thus it is said that Heaven and Earth contain Jing (essence) and Qi, from which the myriad things are generated through transformation.

The Liezi further states: When form moves it does not produce another form, but produces a shadow; when sound is uttered it does not produce another sound, but produces an echo. Likewise, the action of the formless does not produce another Non-being, but produces Being.

The Chaowen cites the Yellow Emperor’s Book as quoted in the Heavenly Auspices chapter of the Liezi: when the bodily form moves it does not generate bodily form itself but generates a shadow; when sound is produced it does not generate sound itself but generates an echo; without movement, non-being is not generated from non-being, but being is generated thereby. The bodily form will ultimately perish, and Heaven and Earth will come to an end together with me; what follows after that end cannot be known. Bixu quotes this passage to illustrate the principle that the myriad things of the world arise from being, while being itself arises from non-being.

Chapter 41: When the Highest Person Hears the Dao

When persons of the highest caliber hear the great Dao (the Way), they diligently put it into practice in accordance with the Dao. When persons of middling caliber hear the great Dao, they remember it at times and forget it at others. When persons of the lowest caliber hear the great Dao, they burst into loud laughter. If the great Dao were not laughed at by people, it could not yet be called the great Dao.

The Zuanwen explains that the so-called person of the highest caliber possesses a heavenly nature that is clear and tranquil, bland and solitary, with an empty state of mind, following what is natural and refraining from arbitrary action. The Chaowen notes that this description is taken from the Constrained in Will chapter of the Zhuangzi, already explained at the beginning of the work and therefore not repeated here. The Zuanwen continues: pure and unified without admixture, tranquil and unified without alteration. The Chaowen adds that this likewise comes from the Constrained in Will chapter of the Zhuangzi. The Zhuangzi states that to be pure and unmixed, still and unchanging, blandly practicing wuwei (non-action), and to act in accordance with nature—this is the method of nurturing the Shen (spirit). The Zuanwen remarks that this is what is meant by according with one’s heavenly nature and naturally attaining liberation.

The Chaowen then quotes the Secret of Caring for Life chapter of the Zhuangzi: when Laodan passed away, Qin Shi went to mourn him, cried out three times, and departed. A disciple of Laodan asked, “Were you not a friend of the Master?” Qin Shi replied, “Yes.” The disciple asked further, “Since you were a friend, is this manner of mourning appropriate?” Qin Shi answered, “It is appropriate. At first\ldots”

The Zhuangzi, in the chapter “Nourishing the Lord of Life,” relates that after Lao Dan died, Qin Shi went to offer his condolences. He cried out only three times and then left. Lao Dan’s disciples asked him, “Were you not a friend of the Master?” Qin Shi replied, “I was.” They asked again, “Since you were his friend, is it proper to mourn him in this way?” Qin Shi said, “It is. I had earlier supposed that you understood how to follow nature, but now I see that you do not. When I went in to pay my respects, I saw the old weeping for him as they would for a son, and the young weeping for him as they would for a mother. Those gathered here included some who spoke when they ought not to have spoken, and some who wept when they ought not to have wept. This is to go against nature, to turn away from genuine feeling, and to forget that life itself is originally received from nature. The ancients called such conduct fleeing the punishment that nature inflicts. A person happens to come into the world because the time for life has arrived; he happens to leave the world by going along with the transformations of nature. If one is at ease with the opportune moment and accords with change, then sorrow and joy cannot invade the heart. The ancients called this the untying of the bonds that Heaven has placed upon human beings. This, then, is what is meant by liberation in accordance with nature.”

Compilation commentary: The zhongshi, or person of the middle rank, is one whose innate nature is harmonious and moderate.

Copied commentary: The “Mean” (zhongyong) here refers to the possession of a constant virtue that is even, upright, and moderate. The Book of Rites contains a chapter entitled “Zhongyong” (The Doctrine of the Mean), which is devoted to discussing this virtue of centrality, correctness, and harmony. In the Analects, in the chapter “Yong Ye,” Confucius remarks: “The virtue of the Mean is something the common people have long been unable to maintain.” If a person already possesses this virtue of the Mean within his innate nature, he may be called a zhongshi.

Compilation commentary: If a person of the Mean is not employed by the world, he will wish to withdraw to remote places such as mountain forests and marshes, dwelling in quiet and open surroundings. There he expels the turbid qi (vital energy) from within and draws in the fresh and pure—the practice known as tuogu naxin, “expelling the old and taking in the new”—taking the cultivation of body and the nourishing of nature as his essential task.

The Zhuangzi, in its “Ke Yi” chapter, states that those who deliberately cultivate their bodies and esteem moral conduct, who withdraw from the dusty world and stand apart from common custom, who speak in lofty terms and criticize the age, do so only in pursuit of a noble reputation. This is what people who dwell in seclusion in mountain forests, shunning worldly society, prefer. Discussing humaneness, righteousness, loyalty, trustworthiness, respect, frugality and humility is merely for the cultivation of De (Virtue/Power). This is what those who engage in teaching and travel in search of knowledge during times of peace prefer. Speaking of establishing great achievements and attaining great fame, attending to the rites between ruler and minister and setting right the distinctions of high and low, is merely for the sake of governing the state. This is what those who serve at court, honor the sovereign, strengthen the nation’s power and accomplish meritorious deeds prefer. Living in seclusion among lakes and wilderness, fishing at leisure and seeking only Wuwei (non-action)—this is what those who withdraw from the world, delighting in seclusion and ease, prefer. Breathing by exhaling the stale and inhaling the fresh, imitating the movements of a bear climbing a tree or a bird stretching its body (a type of ancient Daoyin technique), is merely to prolong life. This is what those who practice Daoyin and nourish the body prefer, such as people like Pengzu who pursue longevity.

As for those who are naturally lofty without deliberately seeking loftiness, whose De is cultivated of itself without relying on the names of humaneness and righteousness, whose world is ordered of itself without seeking merit and fame, who remain at ease without needing to seclude themselves by rivers and seas, who live long without using Daoyin techniques; nothing is forgotten and nothing is lacking, the mind is detached and boundless, and every excellence naturally follows. This is the Dao (the Way) of Heaven and Earth, the De of the sage. Now Bixu quotes this passage in order to illustrate the meaning of “as if existing, as if perishing” (seeming to be present yet absent).

The compilation states: The inferior person is endowed with a turbid nature and is entangled by worldly affairs. The eyes wish to see beautiful colors, the ears wish to hear pleasing sounds, the mouth wishes to taste fine flavors, and the aspirations of the mind together with the desires of Qi (vital energy) wish to be filled and satisfied; once these cannot be obtained, sorrow and fear arise.

Zhuangzi said that the eyes desire to see beautiful colors, the ears desire to hear pleasing sounds, the mouth desires to taste fine flavors, and the mind along with Jing (essence) and Qi (vital energy) desire to be satisfied. If these desires cannot be realized, a person will become extremely anxious and fearful.

In the “Perfect Happiness” chapter of the Zhuangzi it is further said that people of the world prize wealth and honor, longevity, and beauty, delighting in bodily comfort, rich food, splendid clothing, attractive looks, and beautiful music, while they despise poverty and lowliness, premature death, and ugliness. Their sufferings consist of the body not being at ease, the mouth not tasting delicious food, the body not wearing fine clothes, the eyes not seeing beauty, and the ears not hearing music. Failing to obtain these things, they grow worried and fearful. To attach such importance to the enjoyments of the physical form is truly foolish. These preceding remarks serve to illustrate that superior, middling, and inferior persons differ in their insights when regarding things.

Lu Xisheng quoted the Xici of the Yizhuan, which states: “That which is above form is called the Dao (the Way); that which is below form is called the vessel.” The Dao transcends concrete physical forms and is the fundamental principle that pervades beyond the physical; the vessel belongs within concrete physical forms and refers to things possessing shape and appearance. The superior person can both discern the subtle and perceive the manifest, thereby penetrating beyond physical form; the inferior person knows only what is obvious but does not understand the subtle principles contained therein, remaining limited in knowledge to the realm of physical form. The citation of the Yizhuan here is meant to explain the differences in insight among superior, middling, and inferior persons. Because it has already been quoted in the first chapter of the Daojing, it is not repeated at this point.

An ancient saying expresses it as follows: The bright Dao appears instead as if dim, the even Dao appears instead as if rugged, the advancing Dao appears instead as if retreating. Lofty De (Virtue/Power) appears like an empty valley in its humility, great whiteness appears as if stained with disgrace, vast De appears as if insufficient, and firm and vigorous De appears instead as if indolent.

An old saying goes: “Those skilled in business hide their precious goods so deeply that they appear outwardly to have none; a gentleman of profound De (Virtue/Power) appears outwardly plain, even somewhat dull.” This is the teaching Laozi gave Confucius, as recorded in the “Biography of Laozi” in the Records of the Grand Historian.

Wu Yun’s Xuangang lun states: “Establish merit without revealing any sign of it, and openly acknowledge one’s faults.” In the chapter “Establishing Merit and Correcting Faults” of the Xuangang lun, Wu Yun explains that merit and De must be concealed rather than displayed if they are to be preserved, while faults must be revealed if they are to be eliminated. If merit cannot be preserved and faults cannot be eliminated, one cannot be entered into the registers of the immortals, nor can one hope for longevity. Yet merit need not be great: whenever one encounters people or matters that need help, one should strive to assist them. Faults need not be great either: as soon as one recognizes a mistake, one should correct it. Establishing merit and correcting faults need not be done in a hurried or restless manner; the crucial point is that after correcting a fault one does not repeat it, and after establishing merit one continues steadfastly. In this way one can increase one’s De day by day and receive the protection of Heaven. Precisely because establishing merit must be hidden and unrevealed, the text says “establishing De is like stealing,” which means that one establishes De yet it appears as if nothing has been shown.

“质真若渝” means that the simple and genuine nature appears as if it has been altered. What is called “质真” refers to unadulterated purity. The Zhuangzi, in the “Ingrained Ideas” chapter, says that those who can embody and preserve this purity are called true persons.

“大方无隅” means that the greatest squareness appears to have no corners. What is called “honing one’s reputation and integrity” means polishing one’s character and firmly upholding one’s honor and moral integrity so as to accord with established rules. This is the approach valued by those who are constrained by teachings and regulations. “Honing” describes the action of grinding something smooth and straight; both di and li are types of whetstones. The Book of Songs says, “As level as a whetstone, as straight as an arrow.” The wording here is quite similar.

“Constrained by teaching” refers to being limited by doctrines and one’s own knowledge. In the Zhuangzi’s “Autumn Floods” chapter, Ruo of the North Sea remarks that a frog in a well cannot speak of the ocean because it is limited by its dwelling place; a summer insect cannot speak of ice because it is limited by the season; a person of narrow views cannot speak of the Dao (the Way) because he is limited by his teachings. Thus they become objects of ridicule to those of broad understanding.

The scripture further says: “It may be ground yet does not become thin, dyed yet it does not become black”—this is what constitutes the “great square.”

The Zuanwei says: “Grind it and it will not become thin; dye it and it will not become black—this is the person of the Great Square (dafang).”

The Shouchao explains that the Analects, Yang Huo chapter, records how Bi Xi (a household retainer of Zhao Jianzi, a high official of the state of Jin during the Spring and Autumn period) summoned Confucius. Zilu asked Confucius: “You once said that a gentleman does not enter the place of one who himself does what is not good. Bi Xi is now in rebellion at Zhongmou; why then would you go?” Confucius replied: “There is indeed such a saying. Yet is it not said that what is truly hard cannot be ground thin, and what is truly white cannot be dyed black? Am I a gourd, to be hung up and not eaten?” These words of Confucius are drawn upon here to show that the person of the Great Square can hold firmly to their original nature and will not change merely because they find themselves in a complicated environment.

The Zuanwei further says: “In acting one does not deliberately appear different from others.”

The Shouchao explains that the Zhuangzi, Heaven and Earth chapter, states that regarding mutually different things as interconnected is called “great”; acting without deliberately advertising differences is called “broad.” Such vast and penetrating openness is what is meant by the Great Square. If one constantly clings to the distinction between sameness and difference, one cannot be considered of the Great Square.

“A great vessel is late in completion.”

The Zuanwei says: Those who accomplish great undertakings, like such weighty vessels as the Nine Tripods or the hu and lian, cannot possibly be completed all at once.

The Nine Ding refer to large ding cauldrons. The Inner Biography of the Yellow Emperor states that the Yellow Emperor collected copper from Mount Shou and cast ding at Mount Jing; Mount Jing lies south of present-day Hucheng and is also known as the “Casting Ding Plain.” Others maintain that the Nine Ding were cast by Yu of Xia. Zeng Gong’s Record of the Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) Hall records that copper was presented from throughout the Nine Provinces, which Yu of Xia used to cast the Nine Ding, engraving on them the mountains, rivers, plants, trees, birds, and beasts of the Nine Provinces. From this it is clear that there is also a tradition attributing the Nine Ding to Yu of Xia.

“Hulian” are precious ritual vessels used in sacrificial offerings. In the Analects, chapter “Gongye Chang,” Zigong asked Confucius what sort of person he resembled. Confucius replied, “You are a vessel.” When Zigong asked what kind of vessel, Confucius answered, “Hulian.” Bao Xian’s commentary explains that hulian are ritual vessels for holding millet, sorghum, and other grains. In the Xia dynasty they were called “hu,” in the Yin dynasty “lian,” and in the Zhou dynasty “fu and gui,” all of them precious utensils employed in ancestral temple sacrifices.

The Nine Ding and the hulian are both perfect and exalted great vessels. Their fashioning cannot be accomplished in a single morning or evening, just as the reason worthy persons and sages become worthy and sagely is not that they lack meritorious practice or can achieve it in a short time, but rather that they rely on long-term accumulation and only after many days attain beauty and goodness. Hence it is said, “A great vessel is late in completion.”

The Zhuangzi, chapter “In the World of Men,” records that Lord Ye Zigao was about to undertake a diplomatic mission to Qi and sought instruction from Confucius. Confucius told him that in conducting affairs one must not arbitrarily alter commands, nor force outcomes into being; exceeding the proper measure instead brings harm. Hastily changing orders and urging matters to completion easily plunges them into danger. Fine accomplishments require prolonged accumulation; should evil develop to the point of being beyond remedy, it is too late to correct it—how can one not be cautious? Only the Heavenly Dao is able to give skillfully and bring all things to completion.

The compiled text states: Only this mysterious Dao (the Way) can cause ghosts, spirits, and the Heavenly Emperor to manifest the marvelous, and can also generate Heaven and Earth.

The copied text notes that this sentence appears in the Zhuangzi, chapter “The Great Ancestral Teacher.” The compiled text further states: Only this mysterious Dao can cause ghosts, spirits, and the Heavenly Emperor to manifest the marvelous, and can also generate Heaven and Earth.

The Chao commentary states that this is a passage from the Zhuangzi’s “The Great and Venerable Teacher” chapter. It was already quoted in the earlier explanation of the first chapter of the Daodejing, so it will not be repeated here. The general meaning is that the Great Dao (the Way) is skilled at bestowing its own power upon the myriad things, which then grow and transform by relying on it.

Chapter 42: Dao Generates One

Dao produces the “One,” the “One” produces the “Two,” the “Two” produces the “Three,” and the “Three” produces the myriad things.

The Zuan commentary says: “Hunlun” (the undifferentiated whole) is the “One.” The Qi (vital energy) that forms an undifferentiated unity has not yet been dispersed.

The Chao commentary notes that the term “hunlun” comes from the Liezi’s “Heaven’s Gifts” chapter. It was already quoted in full in chapter 40 of the Daodejing, so it is omitted here.

The myriad things rest their backs against yin and face toward yang; the two Qi of Yin-Yang intermingle with each other and form a harmonious state.

The Zuan commentary says: If a gentleman is not disturbed in his inner mind by external things, he can nourish a plentiful and upright flood-like Qi.

The notes quote from Mencius, Gongsun Chou I. Gongsun Chou asked Mencius: “If you were appointed as a minister in the state of Qi and could implement your own proposals, even if this resulted in achieving hegemony, it would not be surprising. Faced with such a situation, would your mind be moved?” Mencius replied: “No, I had already achieved an unmoved mind by the age of forty.”

Gongsun Chou said: “In that case, you are far stronger than Meng Ben (a person renowned for his physical courage).” Mencius said: “This is not difficult. Gaozi (named Buhai) achieved an unmoved mind even earlier than I did.” Here “zi” is a general term of address for a man. Meng Ben was strong in physical courage, while Mencius considered himself strong in the Dao and righteousness, so he said that achieving an unmoved mind is not difficult. Gaozi had already done so before turning forty, and thus Mencius said that Gaozi preceded him.

Gongsun Chou asked again: “Could you explain the difference between what you and Gaozi mean by an ‘unmoved mind’?” Gaozi believed: “If one cannot make sense of something in speech, one should not turn back to seek the reason in the inner mind; if one cannot make sense of it in the inner mind, one should not further seek the reason in the Qi (vital energy).” Mencius held that it is acceptable not to pursue the Qi when the inner mind cannot understand; but it is not acceptable not to seek the reason in the inner mind when speech cannot be understood.

Mencius said: “The will is the commander of the Qi; the Qi is the force that fills the body.” Here “will” refers to the intentions and thoughts within the mind, and “Qi” refers to the vital force that fills the body and also varies with emotional changes. The will commands the Qi, causing it to take action, and must also judge whether the action is appropriate.

“The will is of utmost importance, and the Qi ranks second.” The will is the foundation, and the Qi follows the will in its movements. Therefore one must hold fast to one’s own will and not disturb one’s Qi. “Bao” means to disturb. That is, once the will has been determined, one should hold it uprightly and not allow the Qi to become disordered, such that one vents joy and anger upon others.

If it is said that the will is most important and the Qi secondary, why then speak of holding the will and not disturbing the Qi? Mencius answered: “When the will is concentrated at a given time, the Qi becomes settled and one will not arbitrarily impose one’s joy and anger upon others.”

One’s aspiration must be concentrated, for it affects Qi (vital energy); it is also said that one must hold fast to the aspiration and not rashly stir the Qi. Why is this? Mencius replied: “When the will is concentrated it mobilizes the Qi, and when the Qi is concentrated it likewise affects the will.”

“Cha” describes a condition of stagnation, blockage, and lack of free circulation.

Nowadays people hurry along with hasty footsteps; this belongs to the activity of Qi, yet it in turn disturbs the heart-mind. Mencius said that if a person’s will and Qi become blocked they hinder one another: when the will is blocked the Qi cannot circulate smoothly; when the Qi is blocked the will also finds it hard to penetrate. Constricted steps while walking arise precisely because the Qi is blocked and cannot regulate itself, so that will and Qi become inverted and disordered; in this disharmony a person is easily disturbed and falls into alarm. Thus it is clear that will and Qi influence each other and mutually support one another.

Someone asked Mencius: “What is the Master skilled in?” Mencius replied: “I am able to discern words, and I am also skilled at cultivating my flood-like Qi (the abundant and upright spiritual power).” He asked further: “What is this flood-like Qi?” Mencius said: “It is difficult to explain clearly. It is supremely great and supremely firm; as long as it is nourished with uprightness and not harmed, it can fill the space between Heaven and Earth. This Qi must be matched with righteousness and the Dao (the Way); without righteousness and the Dao it will weaken.”

The flood-like Qi is naturally cultivated through the daily accumulation of actions that accord with moral principle; it cannot be obtained by occasionally performing a single righteous deed. “Ji” means to accumulate and gather together. If one reflects on one’s own conduct and feels that one has not acted in accordance with humaneness and righteousness, there will be a sense of deficiency in the heart, and the flood-like Qi will thereby weaken.

Therefore things sometimes diminish yet thereby gain, and sometimes increase yet thereby lose.

The Zuanwei says: Restrain oneself with humility.

The Shouchao says: This is the line statement of the initial six of the Qian hexagram in the Yijing; it has already been explained many times previously, so it is not repeated here.

The Zuanwei says: Humility is able to bring benefit.

The commentary cites a passage from the Book of Documents, “Counsels of the Great Yu,” to illustrate the De (Virtue/Power) of humility: “Virtue can move Heaven; there is no place so distant that it cannot reach. Complacency invites loss, while humility brings benefit—this is the constant law of Heaven’s Dao (the Way).”

Bixu quotes the Liezi’s description of Qi (vital energy), form, and substance being wholly complete yet still undifferentiated from one another, in order to explain “the Dao generates the One.” He further quotes Mencius’s “flood-like Qi” to elucidate “the blending of Qi to produce harmony.” Drawing next upon the teaching of remaining humble and self-contained from the Book of Changes, Hexagram of Humility, together with the principle that humility brings benefit from the Book of Documents, “Counsels of the Great Yu,” he shows that things sometimes gain by being diminished and sometimes lose by being increased.

It concludes with the statements “the violent and overbearing do not die a natural death” and “I shall take this as the foundation of teaching,” underscoring the need to admonish the world to remain humble, preserve De, and refrain from violence. This exhortation is profoundly earnest.

Chapter Forty-Three: The Softest Thing in the World

“Non-being” is able to enter where there is no gap. This refers to how the soft, weak, and formless can pass unobstructed through the most minute places.

The Zhuangzi says: “Metal and stone, if they are not struck, will not produce sound.” Although metal and stone themselves can produce sound, they only ring when they are struck; as for the circumstances of the myriad things, who can determine them?

Bixuzi uses this passage to explain: Metal and stone are hard and dense, seeming difficult to penetrate; but they emit sound when struck because they contain Dao Qi (vital energy of the Way) within them. Dao Qi is formless and without substance, while metal and stone have no pores. That the empty and formless Dao can enter into metal and stone—is this not like a formless thing entering a place that has no gaps? The Huashu, in its “Dao Transforms” chapter, also recounts the story of “the dragon dying on Shouyang Mountain,” used to illustrate that distinguishing the true from the false can sometimes be quite simple and clear.

The Zhuangzi, in the Yang Zhu chapter, further says: “The people of the world bustle about, constantly chasing after fame; is this merely a matter of ease and pleasure versus worry and suffering?” Changzi says that removing governmental decrees eliminates worries; Laozi says that fame is merely an appendage of actual things. Yet the people of the world still ceaselessly pursue fame. Can fame really be discarded, and is it truly only an appendage?

With fame, a person may obtain honor and glory; without fame, one may occupy a lowly status and suffer humiliation. Honor and glory bring ease and pleasure, while lowliness and humiliation bring worry and suffering. Worry and suffering go against human nature, while ease and pleasure accord with human nature—this is precisely why people value fame. How, then, can fame be discarded simply by wishing it so, and how can it be regarded merely as an external appendage? What one should truly reject is clinging to fame to the point of harming one’s own actual interests. If one holds only to fame and thereby harms oneself, one will worry about danger and destruction; is this predicament merely a distinction between ease and pleasure and worry and suffering?

Therefore Bixuzi cites these passages to illustrate the question of which, when fame is compared with the body, is more worthy of being drawn close to.

The Zuanwei also says that people like Bao Jiao and Jie Zitui are those who cling stubbornly to reputation and thereby harm themselves.

The Shouchao explains that the stories of Bao Jiao and Jie Zitui appear in ancient texts. Bao Jiao was a recluse of the Zhou dynasty who, dissatisfied with the ways of the world, deliberately maintained his purity and integrity. He gathered firewood and collected acorns to eat, unwilling to serve the Son of Heaven or associate with the feudal lords. Zigong encountered him and pointed out that, since he lived in this country and enjoyed its benefits, he ought not to criticize it while receiving those benefits. Bao Jiao replied that the honest person values taking office and thinks little of withdrawing, that the virtuous person is easily ashamed and does not regard death as a grave matter. He then stood embracing a tree until he withered and died.

Jie Zitui was utterly loyal to Duke Wen of Jin. When Duke Wen was in exile and in distress, Jie Zitui cut flesh from his own thigh to feed him. After Duke Wen returned and took the throne, he rewarded his followers but forgot Jie Zitui. Jie Zitui composed a song, wrote it on the palace gate, and left in anger. Duke Wen later regretted this and went to Mount Jie (also known as Mount Mian) to search for him. Jie Zitui hid and would not come out, so Duke Wen set fire to the mountain hoping to force him forth. Jie Zitui did not evade the flames and was burned to death while embracing a tree.

In commenting on these two men, Bi Xu held that they were merely attached to preserving their reputation, and as a result they injured themselves instead.

Which is more worth cherishing, the body or material possessions?

The compiler says: Wealthy people labor hard to accumulate a great deal of wealth, yet they may not be able to enjoy it fully; such people's minds are also burdened by external possessions. Noble people toil day and night, repeatedly pondering whether they have handled matters correctly; such people's minds are also distanced from themselves.

The handwritten notes quote from the Zhuangzi's "Ultimate Happiness" chapter: What people throughout the world value are wealth and nobility, longevity, and a good reputation; what they enjoy are physical comfort, abundant fine food, splendid clothing, attractive appearance, and pleasing music. People disdain poverty, lowliness, short life, and a bad reputation; they most fear that their bodies cannot be at ease, that they cannot eat well, wear beautiful clothes, see beautiful sights, or hear pleasant sounds. When they fail to obtain these things, they become anxious and fearful. To bustle about in this way for the sake of the body and its desires is truly foolish.

Wealthy people labor at their work, accumulating much wealth but unable to enjoy it to the full; noble people ponder day and night, worrying about whether things have been done well. From the moment a person is born, worry accompanies them; those who live to a great age remain in a daze, worrying for a long time yet delaying death—what is the point of this? The minds of such people are too far from their own Dao (the Way). From this it can be seen that those who pursue wealth and nobility exhaust their entire lives in the pursuit of fame and profit, spending their whole lives in anxiety without a single day of genuine happiness. Therefore Bixuzi quotes this passage to illustrate which is more important: preserving oneself or chasing after possessions.

Which is more a cause for worry, gaining or losing?

The compiler says: Zhuangzi says that those who cultivate the mind and will forget the physical form, those who nourish the physical form forget profit, and those who attain the Dao forget even the thoughts of the mind.

The handwritten notes quote from the Zhuangzi's "Yielding the Throne" chapter, saying that when Zengzi lived in the state of Wei he was so impoverished that he did not even possess a cotton-padded robe, and his complexion was haggard...

When Zengzi lived in the state of Wei, his clothing and food were extremely meager. He had no intact garments on his body, and his face looked haggard from hunger and emaciation. His hands and feet were covered with calluses. For three days he lit no fire to cook, and for ten years he added no new clothes. When he adjusted his cap the strap broke; when he lifted his robe his elbows showed through; when he put on his shoes the heels were worn away. Dragging his tattered clothing he sang the Shang Hymns, his voice filling heaven and earth as though it were the ringing of metal and stone. The Son of Heaven could not treat him as a minister, nor could the feudal lords treat him as a friend. Therefore those who cultivate the mind forget outward appearance, those who cultivate the body forget profit, and those who attain the great Dao (the Way) forget selfish concerns.

The two passages from the Zhuangzi quoted below also come from the “Yielding the Throne” chapter. The surrounding context is complete, so there is no need to recopy them. They illustrate which is more worrisome—attaining the Dao or losing the Dao—and also show that contentment prevents humiliation.

Chapter Forty-Five: Great Perfection Seems Lacking

Truly perfect things appear as though they have some deficiency, yet their functioning never fails. Truly full things appear as though empty, yet their functioning is never exhausted.

The compiled commentary says: This is like the great ravine (the vast deep ocean), which never fills no matter how much water is poured in and never dries no matter how much is drawn out; it is also like a bright mirror that reflects the myriad things without growing weary.

The copied commentary explains: The reference to the great ravine comes from the “Heaven and Earth” chapter of the Zhuangzi. Chun Mang was traveling east toward the great ravine and met Yuan Feng on the eastern seashore. Yuan Feng asked, “Where are you going?” Chun Mang replied, “To the great ravine.” Yuan Feng asked again, “What will you do there?” Chun Mang said, “The great ravine never fills even when water is poured in and never dries even when water is drawn out. I intend to wander there.” Bixu cited this passage to illustrate the principle that “great perfection seems lacking, yet its use is never worn out.” Here the “great ravine” means the ocean. The meaning of the “bright mirror” has already been explained in detail in Chapter Twenty-Five.

The compiled commentary says: Those who possess magnificent De (Virtue/Power) and great accomplishments…

The Yizhuan states: “There is new change every day; this is called great De (Virtue). To possess a rich enterprise is called a great undertaking. Great De and a great undertaking have already attained the utmost.” Bixu cites this passage to show that when De is so abundant and the undertaking so plentiful, it may be termed “great fullness.” Nevertheless, his manner remains modest and he is not proud or self-satisfied. Even when wealth and honor fill the household and gold and jade fill the halls, he still preserves an empty heart and practices frugality, without extravagance or wastefulness. It is precisely for this reason that his outlays always have a surplus and he never sinks into want.

Great Skill Seems Clumsy

The Zuanwei quotes the Liezi as saying: “A man of Song carved a leaf of the chu tree from jade for his ruler and did not vaunt his own clever skill.”

The note explains that this passage is from the “Shuofu” chapter of the Liezi. The Zuanwei has already quoted it in full both before and after this point, so there is no need to repeat it here. Genuine great skill, as Zhuangzi put it, is capable of covering Heaven and Earth and of carving the myriad things, yet does not take itself to be skillful; how could the mere carving of a chu leaf from jade be regarded as great skill?

Great Eloquence Seems Inarticulate

The Zuanwei says: “Do not speak of affairs that do not conform to the laws and standards.”

The commentary cites the chapter on ministers and grandees in the Xiaojing: One dare not wear ritual garments that were not instituted by the former kings; one dare not put into practice De that was not promoted by the former kings; one dare not utter words that were not sanctioned by the former kings. Hence words that do not conform to the laws and standards are not spoken, and actions that do not conform to principle are not performed. Speech then requires no picking and choosing, and action requires no picking and choosing; words that circulate throughout the world are without fault, and deeds that circulate throughout the world are without resentment. Only when these three aspects have been fulfilled can one safeguard the ancestral temples. This describes the filial piety of the ministers and grandees. The Book of Songs says: “Morning and night without remiss, serving the ruler with a dedicated heart.” This serves to clarify the meaning of “not speaking of affairs that do not conform to the laws and standards.”

The Zuanwei further states: “Do not speak of affairs that do not conform to ritual.”

The commentary quotes the “Yan Yuan” chapter of the Analects: Yan Yuan inquired what ren is. The original text that follows then enumerates the responses, stressing that both speech and conduct should conform to ritual (li).

The annotation cites the “Yan Yuan” chapter of the Analects. Yan Yuan asked what constitutes ren. Confucius replied: “To restrain oneself and return one’s words and deeds to the norms of ritual is ren. To restrain oneself means to constrain one’s own person; ‘return’ means to go back. When the self is able to return to the norms of ritual, one attains ren. If even for a single day one accomplishes self-restraint and return to ritual, the people of the entire world will turn toward ren. The practice of ren depends on oneself; how could it depend on others?” Yan Yuan then asked how this should be carried out in concrete terms.

Confucius said: “Do not look at what does not accord with ritual, do not listen to what does not accord with ritual, do not speak of what does not accord with ritual, and do not act on what does not accord with ritual.” Yan Yuan answered: “Although I am not particularly intelligent, I am willing to put these words into practice.” For this reason the scripture states “do not speak of matters that do not accord with ritual.” Here Bixu borrows this passage to show that anything not in accordance with law, measure, ritual, and righteousness ought neither to be spoken nor acted upon, and therefore one appears as if inarticulate. Confucius also remarked: “The gentleman hopes to be cautious in speech and diligent in action.” The sense is similar. Hence it is said that “great eloquence seems like stammering”: those who are truly adept at debate sometimes appear instead to be poor speakers.

Restlessness can overcome cold, while stillness can overcome heat; clarity and stillness constitute the proper Dao (the Way) that the world ought to follow.

The Zuan quotes the Zhuangzi: “Hold fast to the spirit so that the inner mind remains quiet; then the physical form will of itself become upright, and in this way long life may be attained.”

The Chao explains that this is a statement from the “Zai You” chapter of the Zhuangzi, already treated in detail in chapter 20. Bixu cites it in order to illustrate that “clarity and stillness are the proper Dao of the world.”

Chapter 46, “When the World Has the Dao”:

“When the world is at peace and possesses the Dao, warhorses are retired from service to till the fields and accumulate fertilizer.”

This has already been explained in detail earlier. Bixu quotes this sentence to illustrate that “clarity and stillness are the proper Dao of the world.”

Chapter 46, “When the World Has the Dao”:

“When the world is at peace and possesses the Dao, warhorses are retired from service to till the fields and accumulate fertilizer.”

The Zuan states: “‘When the world has the Dao’ refers to an age of peace and stability.”

The ancient commentary draws on the Tai hexagram of the Yijing (Jing) to illustrate a condition of peace throughout the world. In the Tai hexagram Qian is below and Kun above, indicating the intermingling of Yin-Yang, so that all things communicate freely and those above and below share one heart. The firm yang Qi (vital energy) is within while the yielding yin Qi is without; the noble person comes into power and the petty person withdraws, so that the way of the noble person flourishes while that of the petty person declines. The hexagram image states “Heaven and earth interact: Tai,” and therefore the ancient kings should regulate the movements of heaven and earth, assist the myriad things in according with the seasons, and govern the people. Bixu uses the Tai hexagram to explain “a time of peace and security”: at this time the myriad things flourish, ancestral temples stand in glory, the four directions are at peace, the feudal lords come to court, all kinds of living beings enjoy contentment, and the world possesses the Dao (the Way).

When the world lacks the proper Dao, war horses breed in the open countryside.

The Zuan says that “the world without the Dao” refers to a time of obstruction and blockage.

The Qin uses the Pi hexagram of the Yijing to illustrate a world without the Dao. In the Pi hexagram Kun is below and Qian above, indicating the isolation of Yin-Yang, so that all things cannot communicate, those above and below fail to connect, and the world loses its order. The yielding yin Qi is within while the firm yang Qi is without; the petty person comes into power and the noble person withdraws, so that the way of the petty person flourishes while that of the noble person declines. The hexagram image states “Heaven and earth do not interact: Pi,” and therefore the noble person should restrain his De (Virtue/Power), avoid disaster, and not regard official emolument and prominence as glory. Bixu uses the Pi hexagram to explain “a time of obstruction and blockage”: officials neglect their duties, the ruler is anxious, the national treasury is empty, floods and droughts occur frequently; Yin-Yang are cut off from each other, and all kinds of living beings suffer misery and hardship. This is the condition of a world without the Dao.

There is no greater transgression than giving free rein to desire.

Indulging arrogant and luxurious desires will inevitably bring the misfortune of “he jiao.” “He jiao” means wearing a cangue, a wooden collar used as a punishment device.

This passage draws on the line statement from the Yijing’s Shi He hexagram (which symbolizes using punishments to correct offenses): “Upper Nine: wearing a cangue that covers the ears, misfortune.” The Commentary on the Images explains that wearing a cangue covering the ears occurs because hearing has already become dull. The Shi He hexagram concerns criminal justice; its hexagram statement reads, “Shi He: success. It is advantageous to use in administering justice,” meaning the hexagram symbolizes biting through and deciding, and it is beneficial for handling matters of punishment and imprisonment.

The Initial Nine and Upper Nine lines of the hexagram respectively represent those who receive punishment. The Initial Nine states: “Wearing fetters that cover the toes, no blame,” meaning a punishment device on the feet that injures the toes yet brings no disaster. The Commentary on the Images notes that wearing fetters covering the toes is intended to prevent further progress. Here “jiao” refers to the punishment implement and “zhi” to the feet. Applying stocks to the feet at the first transgression is meant to encourage reform so the person will not continue doing wrong.

The Upper Nine depicts offenses that have accumulated to an extreme: when the fault was still light the person refused to repent; later the crimes multiplied beyond concealment and finally brought the harshest punishment, a heavy cangue that even injures the ears. This is precisely the result of hearing without understanding. Therefore the Zuan observes that indulging arrogant and luxurious feelings will surely invite the misfortune of wearing a cangue. Such calamities arise from the pursuit of desires, so among all faults none is graver than greedily chasing after desires.

The Zuan further remarks: “The man of Qi seizing gold.”

This phrase comes from the final chapter of the Liezi’s “Explaining Signs.” The Zuan has already supplied a complete explanation, which is not repeated here.

The Zuan also says: “Gazing at turbid water yet being deluded by the clear abyss...”

This sentence likewise originates in the last chapter of the Liezi’s “Explaining Signs.” The Zuan has already given a full explanation, which is not repeated here.

The excerpt cites the “Mountain Tree” chapter of the Zhuangzi, saying: While Zhuang Zhou was wandering in the garden of Diaoling, he saw a strange large bird flying from the south, its wings seven chi wide and its eyes as large as inch-wide pearls. Disturbed by Zhuang Zhou’s breath, it alighted in a chestnut grove. Zhuang Zhou thought, “What bird is this? Its wings so wide yet it does not fly swiftly; its eyes so large yet it does not see clearly.” He lifted his robe and hurried after it, taking up his slingshot to aim.

At that moment Zhuang Zhou saw a cicada hiding in the dense shade to enjoy the cool, forgetting its own safety; a praying mantis concealed behind a leaf catching the cicada, so absorbed in the prey before it that it forgot itself; and the strange large bird seizing the chance to catch the mantis, greedy for its gain and forgetting itself. Zhuang Zhou sighed, “Alas, the myriad things entangle one another; two kinds of things always attract each other.” He laid down his slingshot and turned to leave, only to be pursued by the garden keeper who questioned his purpose.

After returning home Zhuang Zhou did not go out for three months. Lan Qie, a disciple of Zhuang Zhou, came and asked, “Master, why have you not gone out lately?” Zhuang Zhou said, “I was concerned only with protecting my outer form and forgot myself; gazing at turbid water I lost sight of the clear deep pool. I once heard my teacher say”—here “teacher” refers to Laozi—“When you arrive at a place, follow the local customs.” Now, while wandering in Diaoling I forgot myself and that strange bird perceived my neck; while roaming the chestnut grove I again forgot my original nature; the garden keeper took me for an intruder. That is why I have not gone out.”

This uses Zhuang Zhou’s experience to illustrate that if a person’s mind is disturbed by objects of desire, it is rare not to incur fault thereby. Zhuang Zhou’s wandering in Diaoling was like looking at turbid water yet becoming lost in the clear deep pool. For this reason Bi Xuzi considered that he had lost his discernment.

“There is no greater fault than the desire to obtain” means that the greatest calamity is none other than greedily seeking gain.

The compiled text says “none remaining,” meaning not a single one left, all without omission.

The commentary cites the “Yun Han” poem from the “Greater Odes” of the Book of Songs: “The drought is already extremely severe and cannot be driven away; people tremble in fear as if facing thunder; none of the people of Zhou can escape this disaster.” Here “tui” means to drive away, “jingjing” means fear, and “yeye” means anxious unease. The verse describes King Xuan of Zhou’s worry that the drought cannot be eliminated and his concern that none of the common people will be spared.

Bixu borrows the phrase “none can be spared,” but with a meaning different from the poem: people of insatiable greed, whether they have seen the things of the world or not, want to seize them all as their own, wishing that not a single item is omitted and everything belongs to them. This is extremely greedy conduct that violates the Dao (the Way), and the misfortunes it brings fall not only upon themselves but also extend to their descendants. Therefore it is said that there is no greater fault than the greedy pursuit of possession.

Without Going Out the Door, Know the World

The Zuan says: When eating, think of those in the world who are still hungry; when dressing, think of those in the world who are still cold; loving one’s own parents, one knows there are still elderly people in the world; cherishing one’s own children, one knows there are still young children in the world.

The Chao cites Mencius, “Li Lou Xia”: Yu and Hou Ji lived in a time of peace under heaven, passing their homes three times without entering, and Confucius praised them. Yan Hui lived in a chaotic age, dwelling in a humble alley with only a bamboo basket of rice and a gourd of water; others could not endure such poverty and hardship, yet he did not change his joy.

Confucius praised this kind of joy. Mencius said that the Dao (the Way) practiced by Yu, Hou Ji, and Yan Hui was the same: when Yu thought of anyone in the world being drowned, it was as if he himself were drowning; when Hou Ji thought of anyone in the world starving, it was as if he himself were starving. The Great Yu regulated the floods and Hou Ji taught the people to sow and cultivate, which is why both labored so urgently over these tasks. The Dao of Yu, Hou Ji, and Yan Hui was identical; had they exchanged situations, each would have acted just as the others did.

The Mencius, in the chapter “King Hui of Liang, Part One,” further states: “Honor the elders in your own family and extend that honor to the elders of others; cherish the children in your own family and extend that cherishing to the children of others. Govern the world in this way and it becomes as easy as turning an object in the palm of your hand.” This is the principle of knowing others from oneself, other households from one’s own household, and thereby the world from the world. If this is so, why wait until after stepping outside the door to understand the world?

One need not peer through the window in order to know the Heavenly Dao.

The Zuanwei says: A ruler should share the same De (Virtue/Power) as Heaven and Earth and share the same brilliance as the sun and moon. When he moves ahead of Heaven’s timing, Heaven itself does not contradict him; when he moves in accordance with Heaven’s timing, he follows the sequential order of the Heavenly Dao.

The Wenyan commentary on the Qian hexagram of the Yijing states: “The great person (one whose De (Virtue/Power) corresponds with heaven and earth) unites his De with heaven and earth, his luminosity with the sun and moon, his actions with the order of the four seasons, and he corresponds to the auspicious and inauspicious indicated by ghosts and spirits. Acting before the timing of Heaven, the Dao (the Way) of Heaven does not oppose him; acting after the timing of Heaven, he follows Heaven’s timing.” This means that if a ruler can conduct himself in this way, he need not peek out the window in order to understand the Dao of Heaven.

It is also said that Shao Yaofu (the Song-dynasty Yijing scholar Shao Yong) has a poem that reads: “The myriad things each have their own selves, and within a single body there is again contained a heaven and earth. Since one knows that the myriad things are all complete within oneself, how could one regard the roots of the Three Powers of heaven, earth, and humanity as separate? Heaven differentiates and transforms within the Great Void, while humans plan and govern from the heart-mind. How could heaven and humanity have two different principles? The Dao does not operate emptily by itself; the crucial point lies with humanity.” This may be said to be understanding the Dao of Heaven without looking out the window.

The Xici Shang of the Yijing says: “Looking upward one observes the celestial phenomena, looking downward one examines the earthly patterns, and thereby understands the principles of the hidden and the manifest. Tracing things back to their origins and examining their endings, one thereby understands the principles of death and life.” Is this not precisely what is meant?

The Zuanwei further quotes Yan Junping (the Han-dynasty Daoist scholar): “Those who extinguish the Three and Five…” This layer of meaning has already been explained in detail in chapter 3 of the Daodejing and will not be repeated here.

The farther one goes out in search, the less one knows.

The Zuanwei says: “Ancient texts state that if one wishes to govern the world, one must first govern one’s own state well; if one wishes to govern one’s own mind, one must first make one’s intentions sincere.”

The Book of Rites, in the Great Learning, states that in ancient times those who wished to enable everyone under Heaven to understand virtue first had to govern their own states well. Those who wished to govern their states well first had to bring harmony to their families. Those who wished to bring harmony to their families first had to cultivate themselves. Those who wished to cultivate themselves first had to rectify their inner hearts. Those who wished to rectify their inner hearts first had to make their intentions sincere. Those who wished to make their intentions sincere first had to advance their knowledge.

Here the “knowledge” in question means recognizing where good and evil, fortune and misfortune come from and what results they produce. In the phrase “extending knowledge lies in investigating things,” “ge” means to attract or to summon, and “wu” means affairs. The deeper a person’s recognition of and inclination toward the good, the more readily they attract good affairs; the deeper their recognition of and inclination toward evil, the more readily they attract evil affairs. In other words, affairs arrive in accordance with the direction of a person’s preferences. “Zhi” (to extend) is also written as “zhi” (to arrive at).

Once affairs are understood, knowledge can be attained. Once knowledge is attained, intentions can be sincere. Once intentions are sincere, the inner heart can be rectified. Once the inner heart is rectified, the self can be cultivated. Once the self is cultivated, the family can be harmonious. Once the family is harmonious, the state can be well governed. Once the state is well governed, all under Heaven can be at peace. From the Son of Heaven down to the common people, all ought to devote themselves single-mindedly to self-cultivation as the root. It is impossible for the root to be disordered while the branches are well ordered; there has never been a case of treating lightly what one regards as important and treating importantly what one regards as light. This is knowing the root, which is also knowledge reaching its utmost. The commentaries explain that from the Son of Heaven to the common people all take self-cultivation as the root and governing the state as the branches; “fou” means “not.”

Bixu cites this passage as proof, showing that the farther one seeks the origin of things outwardly, the harder it becomes to grasp, and knowledge may thereby grow even less. It is already sufficient simply to return to oneself and reflect inwardly. Therefore the sage knows without going forth, understands without seeing with his own eyes, and accomplishes affairs without acting deliberately.

The Zuan says: Confucius once remarked, “Only Heaven is the greatest; only Yao was able to model himself on the Dao of Heaven.”

This sentence is found in the Tai Bo chapter of the Lu Yu.

Confucius said: “How truly great Yao was as a ruler! His loftiness can be compared only to Heaven, for Yao modeled himself on the laws of Heaven. His grace was so vast and boundless that the people did not even know how to praise him; his meritorious achievements were lofty and conspicuous, and the rites and statutes he established were also clearly manifest. ‘Huan’ means bright and conspicuous.” He also said: “The one who governed by Wuwei (non-action) was probably Shun.” These remarks also appear in the Analects, in the chapter “Wei Ling Gong.”

What is discussed here is that the sages of high antiquity who thoroughly penetrated the great Dao (the Way) had no need to go out and travel far in order to understand the infinite affairs of the world; they had no need to peek out the window or raise their heads to observe in order to comprehend the laws of the natural operation of celestial phenomena, so why should they expend effort in planning? They were able to cause the world to return naturally to transformation through Wuwei because they turned their gaze inward upon themselves and discerned the Dao from within their own persons. Therefore Bixu cites the examples of Yao and Shun to show that sagely rulers modeled themselves upon the Wuwei and natural laws of Heaven and Earth in order to transform the world, and the people, like grass that bends before the wind, naturally accepted the transformation. Thus it is said: “The sage knows without going forth, perceives clearly without seeing with his own eyes, and accomplishes things without deliberate action”—the reason lies here.

Pursuing learning increases day by day; pursuing the Dao decreases day by day (In the affairs of learning one increases daily, while cultivating the Dao one decreases daily) Chapter Forty-Eight

The Zuan says: “Knowing the child and guarding the mother means returning to the original beginning and reverting to the root.”

The Chao explains: “‘Knowing the child and guarding the mother’ comes from the Daodejing, the chapter ‘The World Has a Beginning,’ which has already been explained previously. The expression ‘returning to the original’ is found in the Zhuangzi, in the chapter ‘Mending Nature.’”

The Zuan further says: “Knowing the child and guarding the mother means returning to the original beginning and reverting to the root.”

“Knowing the son and holding to the mother” comes from the chapter “The world has a beginning” in the Daodejing, and a detailed explanation has already been given in that chapter. The idea of “returning to the beginning” appears in the “Mending Nature” chapter of the Zhuangzi: people cultivate their original nature amid the secular world, yet, influenced by worldly learning, they wish to restore their primordial condition; disturbed by worldly desires, they also wish to recover their innate clarity of perception. Zhuangzi calls such people “the obscured and benighted folk,” that is, those who are covered over and remain ignorant. “Returning to the root” originates from the chapter “Attain the utmost emptiness” in the Daodejing, and the related meaning has already been recorded in that chapter.

To restore the original beginning and return to the root, one must first eliminate cleverness and calculated thinking, grasp the essentials and hold to the fundamental; day by day reduce artificial actions and gradually enter a realm of emptiness, stillness, and subtle profundity. Thus it is said that cultivating the Dao consists in continual reduction. In governing the world one should always employ Wuwei (non-action) in a manner that does not disturb the people; if one intervenes in every matter and multiplies governmental decrees, this is not sufficient to govern the world.

The Zuan commentary explains: if every affair is handled through human artifice, decrees will become numerous and complicated and the common people will also suffer hardship; everyone will stand cautiously, glancing sideways at others; the people will therefore look up to the ruler and feel fear in their hearts.

To win the hearts of the people of the world there is no other way than to take the people's wishes as one's own. One should therefore accord with the people and not oppose them, stabilize society and not disturb it arbitrarily. When the people each find their proper place, the world will naturally be free of calamity.

Why is this so? The Mencius, in “Li Lou, Part One,” states that Jie lost the world because he lost the people; he lost the people because he lost their hearts. There is a way to obtain the world: obtain the people and you obtain the world. There is a way to obtain the people: obtain their hearts and you obtain their allegiance. To obtain the people's hearts one should help them gather what they desire and not impose on them what they detest. The people turn to a humane and virtuous ruler just as water flows downward and wild beasts run toward the open wilderness.

Thus it is the otter that drives the fish into the deep pools and the hawk that drives the birds from the woods. It was Jie of Xia and Zhou of Shang who drove the people over to Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou. If today a ruler delights in humanity and virtue, the feudal lords will naturally send the people to him; even if they loudly proclaim “there is no ruler,” they cannot prevent the people from attaching themselves to him.

There is no one among the people who does not desire peace, so the ruler should remain still and not disturb them; there is no one who does not desire prosperity, so one should give to the people rather than extract from them; there is no one who does not desire long life, so one should treat the people generously and not plunge them into hardship. Then, instructing the people by the Dao (the Way) of Wuwei (non-action) and governing through non-interference, allowing the ten thousand things to follow their natural course, there is no reason one should fail to win the people's hearts.

If one governs the people with numerous ordinances they will be disturbed and find it hard to be at peace; if one burdens them with heavy labors they will grow weary and find it hard to be at rest. The Records of the Grand Historian, in the “Basic Annals of Qin Shi Huang,” records that the Qin dynasty had many taboos; a loyal word might not even be finished before the speaker was killed. Thus the scholars of the world could only listen with ears cocked, stand with feet together, and keep their mouths shut. In this way the ruler loses the Dao, loyal ministers dare not speak, wise men dare not plan, and the world falls into chaos. To govern in this manner and still hope to obtain the world is impossible.

What the Jing (scripture) says—“The people starve because the rulers collect too many taxes; the people are difficult to govern because the rulers act willfully”—speaks exactly of this principle. Bixu holds that if in governing one interferes in every matter and issues complicated decrees, the people will suffer toil and therefore one cannot win the hearts of those under heaven. “Standing with feet together” means standing with both feet pressed close, used to describe people who cannot feel at ease or find a place of rest.

The latter volume of the Daode Zhenjing Cangshi Zuanwei Shouchao ends here. The character “仰” appears as “归” in the original text and has been emended to “仰” on the basis of the subsequent passage and Chen Jingyuan’s original wording. The character “上” appears as “下” in the original text and has been changed to “上” according to the original Mencius.