《道德真经藏室纂微篇开题科文疏(薛致玄)》

The Explanatory Commentary on the Opening Questions and Ritual Procedures of the Collected Subtle Meanings in the Dao De Jing’s Treasury of Writings is a five-volume commentary written by Xue Zhixuan in the Yuan dynasty. It explains Chen Jingyuan’s Collected Subtle Meanings in the Dao De Jing’s Treasury of Writings and the Opening Questions at the beginning of that work. The book is prefaced by essays by Li Ting, Bu Shizhong, and Feng Fu. The base text comes from the Zhengtong Daoist Canon, in the Jade Instructions section of the Cavern of Divinity division.

Preface to the Collected Commentary and Notes on the Subtle Meanings in the Dao De Jing’s Treasury of Writings

The five thousand words of the Daodejing have circulated in the world for fifteen hundred years. Its radiance is brilliant, like the sun and moon suspended high in the sky; it needs no praise. More than a hundred scholars, from ancient times to the present, have written commentaries on it. Their interpretations vary in depth and in detail, but whenever they clarify its profound and subtle principles or awaken the reader’s understanding, they contribute to the transmission of the sages’ Way.

I once read Master Chen Bixu’s commentary and found that it brings together the teachings of different schools, analyzes what is mysterious and subtle, and supports its arguments with extensive citations. It is thorough from beginning to end, and for this reason it has been especially esteemed in recent times. Yet beginners often open the book and feel at a loss, like people standing before the ocean with no idea where to begin.

The Perfected One of Taixia, a Daoist adept, was naturally sincere and generous, upright in De, and widely learned. He was recognized throughout the Daoist community as a master. He explained this scripture for nearly fifty years and may be said to have penetrated its depths and grasped its subtleties. In the quiet intervals of his practice, he therefore compiled seven volumes of Explanatory Notes on the Structure and Meaning of the Text, along with two volumes each of Collected Subtleties and Opening Questions and General Chapters with Interlinear Verses. These works explain the scripture’s meaning repeatedly and in careful detail, in hundreds of thousands of words.

He hoped that students would follow the stream back to its source and, through wide-ranging study, gather its essential teachings; and that, like climbers ascending a nine-tiered terrace by its steps, they would see farther the higher they went. Once they grasp the ultimate depth of “double mystery”—the Daoist realm that transcends ordinary distinctions between being and nonbeing—and understand that “Great Dao” is merely a name established out of necessity, they will no longer cling to substance and function, being and nonbeing. They can then pass beyond the limits of words and methods and realize the truth freely. At that point, offering a single stick of incense in reverence to Laozi will mean that their many years of diligent effort have not been in vain.

This work was completed long ago, but it remained in private custody and was never printed. Master Zhang of Fengxiang and Bai Xiandao of Meiyuan repeatedly and earnestly urged that it be published so it could circulate widely. Liu Boying of Jingzhao supported the project and brought the printing to completion; he also asked me to write a preface. I believe their intentions deserve praise, and so I am glad to write these words. Preface by Li Ting of Fuyang.

The principles of all things between Heaven and Earth converge in the hearts of the sages and are made clear in their words. When reading the words of the sages, if we do not investigate where they come from, we are bound to feel confused amid the multitude and complexity of things.

The root of all things under Heaven lies gathered in the Sage’s heart and is revealed through the Sage’s words. When reading the Sage’s words, if we do not investigate where they come from, then amid the profusion and variety of things, it is naturally difficult to find the root that brings them together.

The Dao arises from the One and spreads out into the myriad things. If we do not understand that the myriad things ultimately return to the One, it is because we have not pursued the study of tracing things back to their source. The Daode Jing of Laozi has only one root. It is divided into the Dao Jing and the De Jing, which appear to be two parts but in fact still return to the One. It is divided into eighty-one chapters and five thousand words, which appear to contain different ideas but in fact never depart from this root. The One underlying Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things is contained in the two books, the eighty-one chapters, and the five thousand words, enabling people in later generations to follow these writings and recognize that fundamental One.

The principle of the One is vast and undifferentiated, beyond the reach of words. Call it “being,” and words cannot exhaust it; call it “nonbeing,” and it has never been apart from the myriad things. Before Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things took form, the principle of the One was already concealed within them. After Heaven and Earth settled into their places and the myriad things each acquired their kind, the One was still everywhere. Heaven and Earth attained the One and became Heaven and Earth; the myriad things attained the One and became the myriad things. The Sage grasped the common root of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things, then used it to enlighten later generations. This principle cannot be fully expressed in just a sentence or two; that is why Laozi wrote the five thousand words of the Daode Jing.

Bixu Zi, a Daoist commentator, lived a thousand years after Laozi. With an open and humble mind, he upheld the One, inherited the teachings of the arcane tradition, and wrote the Zuanwei Kaití. Perfected One Taixia praised his wide reading and the breadth and profundity of his exposition, saying that it was beyond the understanding of those with shallow learning and limited experience. After turmoil in the world, books had also been burned and lost, leaving no way to consult them. He feared these teachings would gradually be lost over time.

Thus, I took Bixuzi’s writings as my foundation, then drew on and developed the learning I had acquired over the years to compose the ritual texts, explanatory commentaries, and a general introduction. The work is clearly arranged by chapter, with each section explained in turn and its ideas connected throughout. It sets out every level of meaning in detail, addressing the large and small points alike, until the work was complete. Because I considered the matter carefully, my arguments are cautious; because my concerns ran deep, my explanations are detailed. Bixuzi’s exposition, I believe, has now been presented without omission.

Alas, the Scripture on the Dao and De was written by Laozi, compiled by Bixuzi, and further annotated by Taixia. Though many have written commentaries over the long years since, this is because the principle of the One is difficult to compare or describe in words. Even so, later students must not retreat in fear because its principle is profound, nor treat it as easy and settle for a superficial understanding. They should use clear and discerning thought to examine it carefully, study it day by day, and persevere without interruption; they should grasp it deeply and put it into practice. Then understanding of the One will become suddenly clear in the heart. At times, insight may arise naturally, without being deliberately sought.

The path from ordinary life to sagehood, transcendence of the world, spiritual wandering in all directions, and residence in Langyuan, the realm of immortals, may well begin with studying this Way. Even the modest benefits gained along the way are enough to help one order the family, govern the state, and bring peace to the world.

The Venerable Master Meitian Bai Gong Xiandao, a master of Chongxu, and the Venerable Master Chang’an Liu Gong Boying, a master of Baoguang, together with Master Zhang Gong of Fengxiang, arranged to have this book carved and printed so it could circulate in the world. The lecturer Jue Gong Gongshu of Pucheng then sent someone to ask me to write a preface. I therefore first inscribed these opening words for the book.

On the sixteenth day after the beginning of the seventh month, in the autumn of the jiyou year of the Great Mongol State, Guo Shizhong of Taihua, Deputy Commissioner for the Shaanxi Regulation and Management of the Sanbai Canal, wrote this preface.

Master Kangjie said, “The Pre-Heaven Diagram is a method of the heart-mind.”

O heart, O heart, you are truly the foundation that bears the great principles of Heaven and Earth. The sixty-four hexagrams contained in the Great Change, and the pure, subtle meanings within them, all arise from the heart’s design. The teaching of single-mindedly holding to the Mean, passed down by the two emperors and three kings, also derives from the heart’s method. And the subtlety of “consistency throughout” and “loyalty and reciprocity,” taught by the disciples of Confucius, is likewise understood through the study of the heart.

The heart-mind’s innermost depths are obscure and unfathomable. Since ancient times, the sages have relied on it to probe the subtle signs of things and examine hidden, difficult truths. In this way they surpassed the ordinary and entered the realm of the sages, awakening to the Dao and realizing the Real. Scholars who seek to grasp the mysteries of the Diagram of the Former Heaven or explore the profound meaning of the Dao De Jing must, for the most part, begin with the One Heart. Across countless millennia, people have communicated heart to heart and attuned themselves to the Way of the sages. Only Perfected One Taixia has managed to grasp Laozi’s teaching, transmitted without words, and reveal the hidden mysteries of the primordial state, before anything had yet appeared.

In his early years, Perfected One Taixia wielded his brush in the literary world and stood out among Confucian scholars. Later, he entered deeply into the Daoist tradition and investigated its mysteries, becoming a model of discipline within the religious community. He received favor from two dynasties, and his reputation has endured through the ages. In the past, he lived in seclusion on Mount Hua to cultivate the Dao, keeping company with nature and befriending the trees. He held the world’s turmoil in contempt and had truly practiced the Dao for many years.

In the winter of the Dingwei year, Marshal Wang of Pingdong invited the Perfected One with great ceremony. The Perfected One gladly came, undeterred by the long journey. Riding in a carriage drawn by phoenixes and cranes, he made Mount Kongtong his permanent abode, as though Guangchengzi had appeared once more. From then on, the mountains and rivers seemed transformed, and even the plants and trees appeared more radiant. Auspicious harmony spread through the four quarters, and the Daoist teaching could be heard far and wide. Those who have heard of the Perfected One’s bearing and admire the legacy he left behind—could they be confined to the dozens of prefectures in Shaanxi alone?

When the small space within the heart is clear, the vast world offers no obstruction. A lucid mind is bright and still, like the surface of calm water. The heart is open and expansive, like a fresh breeze after rain or the clear light of the moon—bright, limpid, and transparent.

Drawing on learning gained through inward realization, the author explains the principle of Wuwei (non-action) set forth in the Dao De Jing and the Qingjing Jing. He introduces each chapter and annotates its explanations, citing scriptures and commentaries so that profound principles melt into clarity like ice. He then organizes and clarifies the material, comparing ancient and contemporary interpretations to resolve its difficulties. Every sentence leads to the mysterious gate; every word illuminates the truth that is constant and real. By unfolding the chapters, he makes them easier to understand; once understood, they are easier to put to use. Laozi’s original intention thus shines forth like sunlight. The subtle meaning of the Dao can be grasped, and its finest points no longer cause confusion. Readers will find their minds and senses cleared; as they read, it will feel as though body and mind are merging with the Dao. This book is titled Commentary and Explanation of the True Classic of the Dao and Its De.

When later scholars read it, it is like seeing the blue sky after clouds have parted, or finding a fine piece of jade upon climbing Mount Kunlun. Its benefit to future students is truly immense.

One day, Marshal Wang summoned the students to the courtyard and said to me, “The Perfected One’s Commentary and Explanation of the True Classic of the Dao and Its De accords with Laozi’s teaching of the mind. It is indeed a work unlike any that later students have seen. Among our Daoist companions, Master Zhang of Xiqi has already had it printed. I still worry that it will not circulate widely enough. I would like to prepare the finest ink and paper here, print many copies, and give them away so the book may spread widely and open the way for those who seek to learn. This would be a truly great act of benevolence. Why don’t you write an introduction for it?”

I replied, “Treasures such as the Marquis of Sui’s pearl and He Shi’s jade need no merchant to promote them. I have never had any learning; how could I presume to understand the sages?” I refused again and again, but in the end could not decline. So I reluctantly wrote this superfluous praise. It is like trying to depict Heaven and Earth or paint the sun and moon—plainly beyond my ability. As for “having caught the fish, forgetting the trap; having caught the hare, forgetting the snare; having grasped the meaning, forgetting the words”—that is for those who truly realize the Great Dao in the future to understand for themselves.

Written in the month of Wushe, in the year Jiyou. By Feng Fushu, a tribute student residing in Pingdong.

Perfected Person Bixu says: The Dao Jing and De Jing transmitted by Laozi give an overall account of the empty and formless, natural Dao and De, divine clarity and great harmony, and Yin-Yang in Heaven and Earth. They also discuss sages, feudal lords and kings, scholars and common people, animals and plants—in short, all things. Their scope is so broad that nothing lies beyond them, and their insight so penetrating that nothing escapes their reach. Thus Sima Qian praised them, saying, “The contents of many classics are vast, yet they cannot match the concise depth of these two texts.”

In explaining this classic, I will first identify the revered deity who transmitted it, then introduce those who wrote commentaries and explanations. This scripture was spoken by the Most High Lord Lao, a deity venerated in Daoism. The Zuānwēi was written by Master Chen, the Perfected Person Bixu; the Kāití was also composed by the Perfected Person Bixu himself. The Old Man of Great Mists, Xue Zhixuan, knowing my own limits poorly, has rashly written this ritual commentary and explanation, and has also explained the Kāití. I hope to help students understand the circumstances in which Xuanyuan (Laozi) appeared in the world and transmitted the scripture, and the sequence in which the Perfected Person Bixu expounded Xuanyuan’s meaning, using this ritual commentary as an entry point. I am like someone trying to measure the sea with a mussel shell or look at the sky through a bamboo tube: I truly fail to recognize my own ignorance.

The explanation of the Kāití is divided broadly into twenty sections. The sections that follow are:

First, the reasons why the Perfected Person Bixu originally compiled the Zuānwēi and the Kāití.

Second, an item by item explanation of the Kāití: first, the Most High’s surname, personal name, courtesy name, and honorific titles; then, how he is at times the ruler of the myriad heavens and at times the teacher of the hundred kings, along with accounts of his concealment, manifestation, and transformations.

Third, the era, year, month, day, and hour of the Most High’s conception, gestation, and descent into the world, together with the relevant sources.

Fourth, the Most High’s sacred and dignified appearance after his descent into the world, his seventy-two auspicious signs and eighty-one wondrous features, and the names of the region and state where he was born and lived.

Fifth, it explains that the Supreme One (Taishang), an honorific title for the highest Daoist deity, concealed his identity as a sage and lived like an ordinary person. He held a humble office and assisted the ruler of his time. It also identifies when these events took place.

Sixth, it recounts the biography of the Perfected One of the Pass (Guanzhi Zhenren), the legendary gatekeeper who attained the Dao. It describes how he observed the stars and the movements of Qi, foreseeing signs that a sage was about to pass through the gate.

Seventh, it gives the dates when the Supreme One passed through the gate, and tells how he later arranged to meet the Perfected One Yin at the Qingyang Market in the Shu capital, Chengdu.

Eighth, it says that the Supreme One returned to the Central Plain during the reign of King You of Zhou. The Guangsheng Yi, however, says he returned during the reign of King Ping of Zhou. Confucius was then able to ask him about ritual and marveled that he was as mysterious and hard to fathom as a dragon.

Ninth, it says that the Supreme One returned to the Central Plain during the reign of King You of Zhou. The Guangsheng Yi, however, says he returned during the reign of King Ping of Zhou. Confucius was then able to ask him about ritual and marveled that he was as mysterious and hard to fathom as a dragon.

Ninth, it explains that the Supreme One knew the Dao of governance in the Zhou dynasty had declined. He therefore left through the pass once more, changed his name and title, concealed his whereabouts, and blended in with ordinary people. No one knows how long he lived.

Tenth, it explains that the Supreme One held the Great Dao in his heart and upheld De, concealing his identity as a sage and living among ordinary people. His lineage endured, with descendants succeeding one another through the generations, and the rites of sacrifice never ceased.

Eleventh, it explains that the Supreme One was a spirit who had attained the Dao, and was therefore given the title “Laozi.”

Twelfth, it explains that the Supreme One possessed supernatural powers and was worthy of serving as the Dao’s patriarch. He left teachings in the world and established a religious tradition, helping people in many different ways.

Thirteenth, it explains that Laozi was inwardly tranquil and detached, practicing Wuwei (non-action) and remaining steadfast. Outwardly, he restrained his brilliance, lived among ordinary people, and responded to circumstances as they arose. For this reason, he was called the “Perfected One of Fuda.”

Fourteenth, it explains that Laozi and Zhuangzi also had wives and descendants. As patriarchs of the Great Dao, they showed later generations that the path to longevity could be attained through diligent study and practice, and was not open only to those with extraordinary inborn gifts.

Fifteenth, it explains that the Supreme One’s mysterious beneficence spread throughout the world and his sage virtue endured through the ages. He was revered in successive generations, and the temples where he was worshiped remained in continuous use. For this reason, the Tang dynasty honored him as the “Sage Ancestor.”

Sixteenth, it explains why later readers added the word “Jing” (scripture) after these two texts.

The seventeenth item explains the meaning of the interpretive glosses on “Dao” and “De.”

The eighteenth explains the meaning of the scriptures and their glosses, as well as the guiding principles underlying the eighty-one chapters in the two parts, the Dao Jing and the De Jing.

The nineteenth explains the fundamental purpose of the Dao Jing and the De Jing, and outlines their teachings on governing the state and cultivating oneself.

The twentieth explains why Perfected Bixu compiled and glossed the scripture: to expound the meaning of the Dao De Jing and leave it for later students to read.

The commentary says: This section first explains why Perfected Bixu wrote the Zuanwei Kaitio. Before explaining this scripture, one must first explain what “opening the topic” means; once that has been clarified, one must also introduce the person who originally wrote it. The Zuanwei Kaitio was written by Perfected Bixu.

The Perfected One’s surname was Chen, his personal name Jingyuan, and his courtesy name Taichu. His religious name was Master Bixu. His family had lived for generations in Jianchang. His great-grandfather, Chen Zhixun, and grandfather, Chen Lingchen, were both known for their filial devotion and upright character, and had no desire to serve as officials. His father passed the jinshi examination and once served as magistrate of Qushan. He later lived in Gaoyou, where he died of illness. His mother was poor and had nowhere to turn. There were four sons in the family, and the Perfected One was the youngest. After completing the mourning period for his father, he saw his elder brothers die one after another and firmly resolved to leave the world and cultivate the Dao.

In 1042, during the Qingli era, he became a disciple of Master Chongdao, Han Zhizhi, at Tianqing Temple in Gaoyou. The following year, he passed an examination on the scriptures and received ordination as a Daoist. At eighteen, carrying a case of books, he traveled among famous mountains and came to Mount Tiantai. There he read the Three Caverns, the collected Daoist scriptures, and met the eminent recluse Zhang Wumeng, from whom he grasped the subtle meaning of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Later, he lived in seclusion in the Jianghuai region, entertaining himself by playing the zither and reading.

After a long time, he wished to visit the capital and broaden his horizons. Wang Qi, governor of Weiyang and vice minister of the Ministry of Rites, wrote a poem recommending him to Lord Wang Qi. The poem said, “The old verses of Aoshan are long; how glad I am to see those square pupils again.” At the time, Lord Wang Qi served as Director of the Hanlin Academy. He was pleased by the Perfected One’s arrival and had his name entered on the register at Ruiyun Temple. Thereafter, the Perfected One repeatedly petitioned the court for permission to lecture on the two parts of the Dao De Jing and the Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi). His lectures continued without pause, and ministers and senior officials competed to make his acquaintance. Later, the superintendent of Liquan Temple submitted a memorial recommending him for an appointment as a compiler at the temple. He once went to the shrine of the True Lord at Nawang, where he was summoned beneath the shrine and answered questions about Daoism. Because of his extensive learning, the court bestowed purple robes upon him.

Emperor Shenzong of the Song established the Great Universal Offering, a large Daoist purification ritual held for the deities of the realm, and ordered the composition of a memorial in blue paper, a document presented to the celestial realm during Daoist rites. Chen Jingyuan’s memorial met with the emperor’s approval, so he was further appointed to take part in the purification rites and offerings during the Tongtian Festival held at Zhangge. Shenzong summoned him and bestowed on him the title “True Serenity.”

In the fifth year of Xining, Chen Jingyuan presented his own commentary on the Daode Jing. Shenzong issued a handwritten directive and ordered it conveyed to the Secretariat: “Chen Jingyuan’s commentary on the classic analyzes the mysteries and illuminates subtle principles. It brings together the teachings of various schools, and its meaning is thorough and complete. It truly deserves to be adopted. Among his fellow Daoists, he should be commended.” He was therefore specially appointed Deputy Supervisor of the Right Street and Joint Director of Religious Affairs. Among Daoist priests in feathered robes, this was a rare honor.

Chen Jingyuan requested leave to return to Gaoyou to bury a family member. Shenzong once sent an envoy to give him thirty yi of silver, with each yi being an ancient unit of weight, and conveyed an edict saying that Chen Jingyuan would be put in charge once the Central Taiyi Palace was completed. After Chen Jingyuan returned to the capital, he was ordered to select no more than twenty diligent and dedicated Daoist priests who observed the precepts with purity, and have them practice together in the palace while burning incense.

On the twelfth day of the eleventh month in the sixth year of Xining, Shenzong summoned the group to Yanhe Hall and bestowed gifts according to rank. On the fifteenth, a ceremony was held to enshrine the image of the Taiyi deity. On a later date, the emperor went to the palace in person to pay his respects. After the ceremony, he summoned Chen Jingyuan to Yanhe Hall and specially appointed him to an additional post as Deputy Registrar of the Right Street. He also authorized Chen to ordain three disciples; from then on, one disciple could be ordained in the palace each year. The court supplied the palace community each month with sixty hu of provisions for ritual use and twenty thousand coins, and granted it estates to the north and south for its support.

After some time, Chen Jingyuan found the workload burdensome and repeatedly asked to leave his post so that he could live in seclusion on Mount Lu. The relevant office reported the matter to the court, which refused his request and ordered him to continue overseeing the palace’s affairs, stipulating that the palace administrators were not to interfere. Each year he was also granted two additional ordination certificates, authorizing Daoist priests to receive formal ordination.

Later, the court judged that the nine grades of ritual regulations contained errors, and that the ranks and changes in rank of the deities throughout the realm lacked order. It therefore ordered the relevant office to establish a bureau and assign three Daoist priests to conduct research, with Chen Jingyuan responsible for revising the texts. The court also appointed Li Suzhi, Grand Master of Remonstrance, and Sun Yong, Academician of the Privy Council, to supervise the work, while Yang Jie, Gentleman for Discussion of Policy, managed the editing and revision. When the book was completed and presented to the court, Chen Jingyuan was given fine silk and ordination certificates.

The court appointed Li Suzhi, Right Admonisher-in-Chief, Sun Yong, Academician of the Privy Council, and Yang Jie, Gentleman for Consultation, to take joint responsibility for abridging, revising, and polishing the text. When the manuscript was complete, it was submitted to the court. The three men were awarded bolts of silk, ordination certificates authorizing them to become Daoist priests, purple robes, and master titles, and the book was approved for publication.

At the time, the court planned to confer higher titles on the Envoy of the Nine Heavens and the Elder of the Five Sacred Peaks. The Grand Chancellor asked the Perfected One to devise their headwear, clothing, colors, ranks, and titles. The Perfected One accordingly established the relevant ceremonial forms, and the Envoy of the Nine Heavens was then granted the title “Perfected Lord Who Responds to the Origin and Safeguards the Mandate,” while the Elder of the Five Sacred Peaks received the title “Perfected Lord Who Stores Blessings and Settles Fate.” Some matters remained obscure and unexplained; these were referred to as “planting jade on the Day of Xuan.” Many of the eminent scholars and worthy men of the time exchanged poems and replies, from Grand Chancellor Wu Kui, Left Chancellor Pu Zongmeng, and Academician Wang Qigong to others. Since there were too many to include, they have not all been reproduced here, but are appended to the biography.

The Daoist palace in the capital had twelve Daoist priests. Since the time of the ancestors, the court had assigned them to oversee incense offerings and cultivation at the official Daoist temples within and outside the capital. Those who served diligently and achieved merit were often recommended by the government for appointment. Whenever a post fell vacant, candidates were asked to sit examinations on three scriptures: the Daode Jing (Classic of the Dao and De), the Nanhua Jing (Classic of Southern Florescence, or the Zhuangzi), and the Lingbao Scripture for Deliverance of Humanity. Each scripture had ten questions on its principles. The emperor strongly approved of this proposal and ordered that an Office for Compilation and Revision be established. From then on, the study of Daoism took a new direction; this change began with that decision.

In the sixth year of Yuanfeng, the Perfected One resigned from his duties at the palace and returned to Maoshan to live in seclusion, where he collated the ritual methods of the Three Caverns (Sanqing, Dongzhen, Dongxuan, and Dongshen), the Daoist system for classifying scriptures. People from all over who sought the Dao and the life of a Perfected One came to join him. Much later, carrying ritual implements and travel provisions, he journeyed through the Mount Song and Mount Shaoshi area in search of a place to practice alchemy.

In the third year of Yuanyou, the Perfected One passed through the capital. The abbot of the Central Taiyi Palace and others believed that the palace had been established with the Perfected One’s help. They therefore tried to keep him there by sedan chair, hoping to care for him and provide precious goods such as medicinal fungi and tree fruits. Before long, the court reinstated him as Right Street Registrar of Daoism, a position overseeing Daoist affairs in the capital. The Right Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs, Su Shi, said, “Zhenjing should pass on his learning to his disciples. Otherwise, the Daoist tradition of Tao Hongjing and Ge Hong may not be transmitted to later generations.”

He possessed several thousand volumes of Daoist and other classical texts, and usually collated them himself. The court later reinstated him as Right Street Daoist Registrar. Su, the Right Vice Director of the Department of State Affairs, said to him, “Zhenjing, you should pass on everything you have learned throughout your life to your disciples. Otherwise, the teachings of the line of Tao Hongjing and Ge Hong may well be lost.”

He possessed several thousand volumes of Daoist and other classical texts, and had also copied three hundred volumes by hand. He excelled at small regular script and had mastered the calligraphic techniques of Ouyang Xun and Chu Suiliang. His works included Collected Subtleties of the Archive Chamber in two volumes, Sentences and Commentary on the Nanhua Jing in seven volumes, General Chapters in three volumes, Notes on the Meaning in three volumes, Wondrous Meaning of the Precious Pearl in three volumes, Brief Explanations in one volume, Further Meaning of the Postscript to the Examination of the True in one volume, and Supplementary Collection of Biographies of Recluses. He also wrote three commentaries on the Tongxuan Jing, four on the Duren Jing, and a commentary on the Xisheng Jing.

In his later years, he devoted himself to cultivation. He went to Jiangling and refined liquid gold in a spirit chamber, seeking the alchemical secrets of the “nine returns and seven reversals.” He seemed to have gained some insight, but his allotted years were nearly spent, and he could not continue. He was fond of taking powdered mica and said that he had taken cinnabar in his youth. Even in old age, when his hair had turned gray, his face and skin still looked youthful.

In the fifth month of the first year of the Shaosheng era, he was not ill, but suddenly lost his appetite and drank only water. At the beginning of the hour of the Horse on the thirteenth day of the sixth month, he suddenly asked to bathe and change clothes. He summoned his disciples and had them write a formal petition for him, stating that he wished to go and pay his respects to the immortal of Tongchu Palace. When they had finished, he told them to take the petition outside the ritual hall and burn it. He then ordered that his seat be turned toward the northwest. Sitting upright and facing the Gate of Heaven, he gently clicked his teeth before sitting down again. He asked an attendant to bring paper and brush, then wrote these verses for everyone to see:

“Once I dwelt within the harmony of Qi; now I shed my bodily form. This is neither transformation nor life and death. I am returning to my own true home.”

After he finished speaking, his spirit and Qi left his body. His voice seemed still to ring out in a long cry, and then he passed away peacefully. At dawn that day, his body was temporarily placed at the Life-Nurturing Institute outside Xuanhua Gate.

He left his body and underwent the transformation of his spirit and soul in the height of summer. His appearance remained dignified, just as if he were still alive. The people of the city came to pay their respects; young and old, high and low in rank, all praised him without end. He lived to the age of seventy. Among his disciples who had entered the Dao, there were more than forty, beginning with Xu Xiuzhen. At the start of mid-autumn, in the eighth lunar month, his remains were buried in the cemetery bestowed by this palace. As he was being laid to rest, several butterflies suddenly fluttered before the grave. A while later, when the grave had been filled in, they drifted lightly away toward the southeast.

The epitaph written by Wang □, a Hanlin Academician of the Hall of Worthies, says: “Alas! Sima Ziywei of the Tang was renowned for the teaching of sitting in forgetfulness; Wu Zhenjie, for his literary writings; and Du Guangting, for his support of Daoism. These three were outstanding figures of different eras, and our master possessed the strengths of them all.” The epitaph also praises how the master was respected by court ministers and great scholars throughout the realm. In his dealings with them, he met them as an equal and yielded to no one. He pursued learning into old age without weariness, and so read widely among the precious cases and treasured collections, the golden slips and jade books, probing their profound principles. In his leisure, he drew on a wide range of sources, observed keenly, and argued with clarity. When discussing the Laozi and Zhuangzi, or points on which earlier scholars still had doubts, he was able to discern their essential meaning. His poetry and prose followed the style of Tao Hongjing and Ge Hong: their language was plain and unrestrained, yet vigorous and forceful. All the ministers and officials mourned his passing.

His immortal presence, like a canopy of lingzhi, rode a chariot into the empty expanse and returned to stillness; no one could know where he had gone. People could only recall his immortal bearing and example, and speak together of the De he had left behind. The course of the Perfected One’s life has already been briefly recounted above. The meaning of “opening the topic” will be explained below: “opening” means expounding, and “topic” means indicating. To “open the topic” is to explain the meaning of this Jing and mark the main points of each section, making them clear to later generations.

The work is called an “Opening Explanation” because it explains the title of the scripture. Before explaining the scripture itself, it first clarifies its title: The Supreme One’s Scripture of the Dao and De: An Opening Explanation of the Collected Subtleties in the Repository. “The Supreme One” is an honorific title for Lord Lao (Laozi). “Dao and De” are the foundation of the Five Constant Virtues—benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness—and the source of the myriad methods. “Scripture” means what is constant and serves as a rule; it indicates that Dao and De are unchanging principles that hold true throughout the ages.

“Repository” is pronounced with a level tone. “Chamber” refers to a deep and mysterious place; here it means the hidden chamber where scriptures are kept in the treasure storehouse of the Mysterious Capital—the treasury of Daoist texts. “Collected” means brought together, and “subtleties” means profound mysteries. The title thus means drawing out the profound teachings preserved in the Repository, gathering earlier sages’ explanations of their subtle meanings, and using them to substantiate and explain the Dao De Jing. This is the general sense of the title The Supreme One’s Scripture of the Dao and De: An Opening Explanation of the Collected Subtleties in the Repository. The various elements of the title have already been explained in detail, one by one, in the Opening Explanation.

This Commentary on the Sectional Outline is Elder Taixia’s commentary on the Opening Explanation. “Commentary” is pronounced with a level tone and means to open up and set things in order. Just as one clears a blocked channel by following the course of the water and guiding it toward rivers and seas, here the outline of the Opening Explanation is divided into twelve sections and set out in sequence. This allows learners to follow its structure and gain access to the meanings of the Dao De Jing. Hence the work is called a Commentary on the Sectional Outline.

End of fascicle one of The Commentary on the Sectional Outline of the Opening Explanation of the Collected Subtleties in the Repository of the True Scripture of the Dao and De.

Fascicle two of The Commentary on the Sectional Outline of the Opening Explanation of the Collected Subtleties in the Repository of the True Scripture of the Dao and De, composed by Elder Taixia, Xue Zhixuan.

Opening Explanation:

“Title” refers to the Opening Explanation composed by Bixu, a Daoist figure. The title of fascicle two is The Commentary on the Sectional Outline of the Opening Explanation of the Collected Subtleties in the Repository of Lord Lao’s True Scripture of the Dao and De. Composed by Elder Taixia, Xue Zhixuan.

Opening Explanation.

Whenever a passage is marked “The title says,” it is an introductory statement written by Bixu, the courtesy name of the author Xue Zhixuan. Laozi’s surname was Li, his personal name Er, and his courtesy name Dan; some also say his courtesy name was Boyang. According to Daoist scriptures, Laozi came into being naturally long before Heaven and Earth took shape. He often dwelled in Heaven and, from age to age, served as the teacher of the Heavenly Emperor. These accounts concern matters beyond the ordinary world, so here I will omit the details and give only a general outline.

The commentary says: The second part of this section formally explains the introductory statement. It first gives the Supreme One’s surname, personal name, courtesy name, and posthumous title, then explains how he was at times the ruler of the various heavens and at times the teacher of emperors through the ages, as well as the accounts of his appearing and withdrawing from the world. This part has two sections: the first discusses the Supreme One’s surname, personal name, courtesy name, and posthumous title; the second discusses his roles as ruler of the various heavens or teacher of emperors, and the accounts of his appearances and withdrawals.

First, the Supreme One’s surname, personal name, courtesy name, and posthumous title. The introductory text says that Laozi’s surname was Li, his personal name Er, and his courtesy name Dan, though some say it was Boyang. Another account gives “Dan” as his posthumous title. “Laozi” is the Supreme One’s honorific title, which was explained in detail above. The origin of Laozi’s surname, Li, will be discussed in the third section. Here, I will explain his personal name, courtesy name, and posthumous title in turn.

The Guangshengyi quotes the Yuangjun Neizhuan as saying that Lord Lao had nine names when he lived among human beings. The first was Er, with the courtesy name Boyang; the second, Ya, with the courtesy name Bozong; the third, Zhong, with the courtesy name Boguang; the fourth, Shi, with the courtesy name Menggong; the fifth, Zhong, with the courtesy name Ziwen; the sixth, Ding, with the courtesy name Yuanyang; the seventh, Yuan, with the courtesy name Boshi; the eighth, Xian, with the courtesy name Yuansheng; and the ninth, De, with the courtesy name Bowen. Other accounts say he had thirty-six honorific titles or seventy-two names. Still others say his surname and personal name were so profound that they could not all be recorded from one kalpa to the next. The account most widely transmitted today is the first: his personal name was Er and his courtesy name was Boyang.

As for the name “Dan,” a person receives a personal name, a courtesy name, and a title during life; after death, a posthumous title may be assigned based on their virtue or appearance. According to tradition, Laozi was born with large, drooping ears and the distinctive features known as the “three droopings”: they hung low and were conspicuous, and so were regarded as an extraordinary sign of a sage. Later generations therefore gave him the posthumous title “Dan.” This is one account of the Supreme One’s personal name, courtesy name, and posthumous title.

The phrase “teacher of a hundred kings and lord of ten thousand heavens” means that, according to Daoist scriptures, the Most High Lord Lao appeared before the formation of Heaven and Earth. He possessed the wondrous principle of natural transformation, dwelled constantly in the heavenly realm, and served generation after generation as the teacher of emperors.

“Daoist scriptures” is a collective term for such works as the Xuandu Treasure Repository, the Three Caverns and Four Supplements, and the Dragon Chapters and Phoenix Registers. The phrase “appeared before the empty vastness” means that the Most High Lord Lao manifested alone before Chaos had separated and before the myriad things had come into being. “Empty vastness” refers to a state of void and stillness, without shape or image, yet open and unobstructed.

The Guangsheng Meaning says that Lord Lao was born at the time before beginnings, arising without any cause. He was the forerunner of the myriad Dao and the ancestral source of primordial Qi. At that time there was no light, form, color, or sound, nor any beginning or trace; all was profound darkness and stillness. This is why it is called “empty vastness.” The text also says that Lord Lao takes emptiness and nothingness as his substance and nature as his inherent character. Nothing can make him necessarily be so, nor can anything make him necessarily not be so; people cannot fathom the reason. This is why he is called “natural.”

The passage means that the Most High Lord Lao had no ancestor before him and took the Dao as his own substance. When gathered, he appears as a form; when dispersed, he transforms into Qi. He received the wondrous principle of nature and holds the power of creation and transformation. At the time when Chaos was undivided and the empty vastness was still devoid of things, his Dao-body had already manifested alone. This is what the scripture means when it says, “I do not know whose son he is; he seems to have existed before the image of the Supreme Ruler.” “He dwells constantly in Heaven” means that he travels through the heavens and is the teaching lord of the ten thousand heavens.

The Biography of the One Like a Dragon records that in ancient times the Perfected Yin followed the Lord Lao west into the Flowing Sands region. He later accompanied the Sage’s carriage on a tour through the Three Realms and Nine Heavens, traveling until he had visited all the myriad heavens. Whenever the Lord Lao arrived at a new heaven, its Heavenly Emperor, the Golden Boys and Jade Maidens, and a great retinue of carriages and attendants came out to welcome him. Jade banners and feathered canopies, ceremonial ornaments decorated with jade and feathers, and immortal music filled the sky. When the Lord Lao reached the center of the heaven, he toured its palaces, expounded the wondrous Dharma to the heavenly beings, and served as their religious teacher. In each succeeding heaven, the ceremonies, music, feasts, palaces, teachings, and transmission of scriptures were much the same. He visited all the myriad heavens, and everywhere it was so.

The Guangshengyi also records that the Lord Lao sometimes attended court before the Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning to report on offenses and blessings. He visited the Jade Morning Palace to pay his respects to the Celestial Worthy of Jade Morning, checked the registers of names in the Nine Palaces, and oversaw the records of birth and death for living beings in the Three Realms. He saw hundreds of millions of Heavenly Kings bow before him and ask his guidance on wind and rain, floods and droughts, harvests and scarcity, the fortunes of worldly affairs, and the good and evil of life and death. Although the Lord Lao traveled through the myriad heavens and spread the transformation of the Dao, one Lord Lao always remained peacefully in residence in the Great Red Heaven, the Realm of Great Clarity, and the Palace of the Supreme Ultimate. This is why it is said that he “always dwells in Heaven.”

In every age, the Lord Lao served as a teacher to emperors and kings. The Guangshengyi says that in the era of the Three Sovereigns of the Upper Age, people were still simple and free of guile. In the first year of Longhan, the Lord Lao was called the “Great Master of the Mysterious Center.” He transmitted the twelve divisions of the Sacred Teachings of Highest Clarity, teaching the path of the Greater Vehicle and transforming and saving heavenly beings and living creatures. In the era of the Three Sovereigns of the Middle Age, in the first year of Chiming, the Lord Lao was called the “Ancient Master of Old.” He revealed the twelve divisions of the True Scripture of Numinous Treasure, using the teachings of the Middle Vehicle to transform living beings and save the people.

By the time of the Lower Three Sovereigns, the people’s simple and unspoiled ways had already faded. In the first year of Kaihuang, the Venerable Lord descended into the human world under the title Lord of the Golden Tower. He transmitted twelve scriptures of the Cavern of the Spirits, teaching the people through practices that were relatively accessible. It is said that the scriptures and teachings left from the Upper, Middle, and Lower Three Sovereigns comprised thirty-six works. They were kept in secret in the heavens and had not yet been transmitted to the human world. The chapter “Establishing Teachings on the Divine Way” in the Treatise on the Mysterious Framework says, “At first they were kept secret in the heavens; only later were they passed down to the human world.” This refers to that account.

By the time of Fuxi, people’s hearts had grown increasingly shallow and frivolous, and there was not yet a complete system of laws and customs. In the first year of Qingzhuo, the Venerable Lord descended under the title Yuhuazi and became Fuxi’s teacher. He taught the Scripture of Primordial Yang, showing Fuxi how to draw the Bagua (Eight Trigrams) to understand the qualities of the spirits and compare them with the conditions of the myriad things. He also created writing and contracts to replace the knots once used to record government affairs. He looked up to observe the signs in the heavens and down to examine the features of the earth, and established norms for marriage and human relationships.

By the time of Shennong, people still ate birds and beasts, consuming their food raw, with the fur and blood still on it. In the first year of Qinghan, the Venerable Lord descended under the title Dachengzi and became Shennong’s teacher. He taught the Scripture of Primordial Essence and methods for nurturing life. People then began sowing the grains and cooking them for food instead of slaughtering birds and beasts. They also blended hundreds of medicines to treat all kinds of illness. It is said that after tasting a tender grass, people obtained millet; after tasting willow, they obtained rice; after tasting elm, they obtained broomcorn millet; after tasting locust tree, they obtained beans; after tasting peach, they obtained wheat; after tasting apricot, they obtained barley; and after tasting chaste tree, they obtained hemp. Once the grains were harvested in abundance, animals were spared harm. Ceasing to kill could increase good conduct, while removing evil conduct could preserve life. By not eating blood and flesh, people suffered less from illness and pain; the Five Grains nourished body and mind, and people no longer accumulated old karma. These practices brought great benefit to humanity.

By the time of Zhurong, people still ate food raw and cold, and did not yet know how to cook with fire.

In the first year of the Tianhan era, the Old Lord took human form as Guangshouzi and descended to teach. He lectured on the Jing of Massage and the Circulation of Essence, taught people to shape pottery into vessels, and through this transformed the forms of life, enabling people to preserve their lifespans.

From the age of the Three Sovereigns until before Fuxi, people had no codes or rites, and lived much like birds and beasts. The Old Lord used the Dao to transform the world. People gradually learned to distinguish forms and taste food. He also taught scriptural methods widely in accordance with the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water), transforming the people.

After Fuxi, the Old Lord began teaching people how to govern society. People then established rites and music to distinguish rank, made clothing and ornaments to mark differences in status, and built houses in place of nests, following the “Great Strength” hexagram in the Classic of Changes. They made boats and carts to overcome obstacles to travel, following the “Dispersion” hexagram; made coffins and shrouds to cover the dead, following “Great Exceeding”; made bows and arrows to deter those who would not submit, following “Opposition”; established penal laws to warn the violent, following “Biting Through”; created written contracts to replace knotted cords as records, following “Breakthrough”; and taught people to ride oxen and horses to carry heavy loads and travel far, following “Following.” They also established markets at noon, where people traded and then dispersed, again following “Biting Through”; invented farming tools such as plows, spades, pestles, and mortars, following “Increase”; and set up multiple gates and patrolled at night, striking wooden clappers, following “Enthusiasm.” These were all methods by which the Old Lord instructed the rulers of that time and transformed the people.

In the time of the Yellow Emperor, the Old Lord was known as Guangchengzi and lived on Mount Kongtong. The Yellow Emperor went to him to become his disciple. Guangchengzi taught him the Dao De Jing and the Jing of Daoist Precepts, and passed on methods for governing the state and cultivating oneself. The Yellow Emperor put these teachings into practice and later ascended to heaven by day, riding a fire dragon. The Dao De Jing was first transmitted on this occasion.

In the time of Zhuanxu, the Old Lord descended to teach under the name Chijingzi and lived on Mount Heng. He transmitted the Jing of Subtle Words to Zhuanxu, teaching him the way of loyalty and respectful obedience. Then, in the time of Emperor Ku, the Old Lord again descended to teach, under the name Lutuzi, and lived by the river.

The Old Lord once transmitted the Yellow Court Scripture (Huangting Jing) to rulers, teaching them the way of governing through stillness and harmony.

During Emperor Yao’s reign, the Old Lord descended into the world to serve as his teacher. He was known as Master Wucheng and lived on Mount Gushe. He transmitted to Emperor Yao the Scripture on the Order and Harmony of Government, teaching him to govern through stability and prudence.

During Emperor Shun’s reign, the Old Lord descended into the world to serve as his teacher. He was known as Master Yinshou and lived in Heyang. He transmitted the Dao De Jing (Classic of the Dao and De) to Emperor Shun, teaching him to govern through Wuwei (non-action) and filial devotion and respect for elders. Shun put these teachings into practice, and the people throughout the realm were transformed by them. Thus Confucius praised him, saying, “Could it not have been Shun who governed through non-action?” This was the second transmission of the Dao De Jing.

During Yu the Great’s reign in the Xia dynasty, the Old Lord descended into the world to serve as his teacher. He was known as Master Zhenxing and lived on Mount Shang. He transmitted the Scripture of De and Admonitions to Yu, teaching him diligence and frugality. He also transmitted the Five Talismans of Lingbao and the arts for summoning ghosts and spirits by dispatch. Following these teachings, Yu cleared the nine rivers and brought the many waterways under control, directing the rivers toward the sea.

During Tang’s reign in the Shang dynasty, the Old Lord descended into the world to serve as his teacher. He was known as Master Xize and lived on Mount Qian. He transmitted the Scripture of Long Life to Tang, teaching him the way of reverence.

The liturgical text says: “The Great Sage, the True Primordial Ancestor, was born before the vast aeons began. He came into the world to be the teacher of emperors through the generations, and, upon departing, became the lord of the heavens. His scriptures appear under many names, and his dragonlike De extends to all living beings. He has twelve hundred names, and no amount of praise could exhaust them.”

A note beneath the title states: “This concerns matters beyond the four directions of Heaven and Earth, so they are omitted here.” The “Discussion on Making All Things Equal” in the Zhuangzi says: “As for matters beyond the Six Extremes, the sage acknowledges them but does not discuss them.” The Six Extremes refer to Heaven, Earth, and the four directions. The point here is that these matters lie beyond the scope of ordinary discussion; “acknowledges them but does not discuss them” means recognizing their existence without passing judgment. At the end of the text, the phrase “not on the same path” is also noted, with an instruction that “ting” is to be pronounced with the falling tone.

“Far apart” refers to a great difference, or to an account that goes against ordinary expectations. Here, “great medicine” means the essential points or guiding principles. In the Zhuangzi, “Free and Easy Wandering,” some things are said to be so far apart from one another that they defy ordinary expectations. The matters discussed earlier all go beyond worldly experience, so it is no surprise that they sound implausible. This is no exaggeration or distortion, but simply an outline of the main points. Thus, the title says that these matters belong to what lies beyond the four directions of Heaven and Earth and leaves them aside. This does not mean they are bizarre and absurd; it merely touches on their general meaning.

The title says that Laozi’s mother conceived after responding to a great shooting star. Since this account goes against ordinary expectations, it is no surprise that it sounds implausible. It is not deliberately exaggerated, but simply gives the main points. Thus, the title says that this belongs to what lies beyond the four directions of Heaven and Earth and leaves it aside. The aim is not to describe extraordinary events in detail, but only to mention their general meaning.

The title further says that the account of Laozi’s mother conceiving after responding to a great shooting star is recorded in the Li family tradition. Laozi was born in the Shang dynasty. In the eighteenth year of King Yangjia’s reign—also given as the seventeenth year of Yangjia, the year Gengshen—he was conceived and carried in the womb. After eighty-one years, this corresponded to the sun’s cycle of nine times nine. His mother often wandered at ease beneath a plum tree, where she later gave birth to Laozi. He was already white-haired at birth and could therefore speak. Pointing to the plum tree, he said, “This is my surname.” Another account says that his father’s surname was Li, and his given name was Wuguo; some say it was Lingfei. His mother’s surname was Yin, and her given name was Yishou. Yet another account says that Laozi was born in the twenty-second year of King Wuding’s reign—also given as the ninth year of Wuding, the year Gengchen—on the fifteenth day of the second month, at the hour of the Rabbit.

The commentary says: This passage explains the historical setting of Laozi’s miraculous conception, gestation, and birth. It has two parts: first, it identifies the dynasty and era in which he was conceived and carried in the womb; second, it explains the origin of his surname and the time of his birth.

First, the date of his conception and gestation. The section heading says that Laozi’s mother conceived after receiving the influence of a great falling star, and that Laozi came into the world through the Li family in response to the Way.

The Guangsheng Yi, citing the Yuánjūn Nèizhuàn, says: In the heavens, the Lord Lao is honored above all the sages. Countless kalpas ago, he was already teaching the world through the enduring Way of Wuwei (non-action), nurturing both heavenly beings and humans, and serving as the lord of all the sages. The Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning and the Dao Lord of Jade Morning bestowed on him the revered title “Supreme Lord Lao.” He had borne this title since before the creation of Heaven and Earth, through countless kalpas. Though he had appeared in response to the needs of each age, serving as teacher to emperors, he had not yet been born into the world as an ordinary human being.

Later, above the Nine Heavens of Purity—the lofty celestial realm in Daoist teaching—the Lord Lao ordered the Mysterious and Wondrous Jade Maiden to descend to earth. She was born as the daughter of the Yin family of Tianshui and married Li Lingfei. Riding the essence of the sun in a chariot drawn by nine dragons, the Lord Lao transformed into a five-colored luminous orb, described in some accounts as a falling star. He entered the Jade Maiden’s mouth, causing her to conceive and carry him in the womb for eighty-one years.

The Guangsheng Yi also says that the Lord Lao entered the womb out of compassion for a world in decline. He concealed his sacred traces and appeared as an ordinary person, descending among humanity to save its people. Accordingly, he was conceived by the Mysterious and Wondrous Jade Maiden in the seventeenth year of the reign of Yang Jia, the eighteenth ruler of the Yin dynasty—that is, in the gengshen year. The discussion in this section is then divided into five parts.

First, the Great High One, the embodiment of the Great Dao, descended into the world and entered a human womb. Riding on the essence of sunlight, he appeared as a five-colored radiance, making manifest the sun’s Virtue. Second, the Great High One arrived in a chariot drawn by nine dragons and gathered the transformations of five-colored dark-yellow Qi. This Qi entered the mouth of the Mysterious Jade Maiden, symbolizing the essence of the nine dragons’ Yang essence. Third, the Great High One dwelt in the womb, endowed with spiritual wisdom unlike that of ordinary people. After eighty-one years, reaching the sun’s number of nine times nine, he was born. Fourth, after the Mysterious Jade Maiden conceived, she grew younger in appearance and her spirit and bearing became serene. For eighty-one years she was filled with boundless joy. These were portents left by the descent of a sage. Fifth, the room where the Holy Mother lived remained mild and pleasant in every season. The six Qi—Yin, Yang, wind, rain, obscurity, and brightness among the natural forces—were in harmony: winter was not bitterly cold, and summer was not oppressively hot. Auspicious light shone through the room, numinous winds filled the courtyard, no evil spirits could intrude, and all the spirits secretly guarded her. Thus, even eighty-one years did not seem long. All this shows that the Great High One’s conception and gestation differed from those of ordinary people.

The account above sets out the era and years associated with the Great High One’s conception and gestation. Hence the title says that Laozi’s mother conceived after responding to a great falling star, and that Laozi manifested in the household of the Li family. The second part explains how Laozi acquired his surname and identifies the time and year of his birth. The title says: “The Holy Mother often wandered at ease beneath a plum tree. Later, she gave birth to Laozi. When he was born, his hair was already white, so he could speak. Pointing to the plum tree, he said, ‘This is the tree from which I take my surname.’”

According to tradition, the sage was invited to descend during the time of the Yin kings. Moved by compassion for the decline of the age, he wished to descend into the world and live as an ordinary person. He therefore concealed his divine traces and temporarily took on birth through a mother’s womb, manifesting various miraculous transformations to help the people of the world. Thus Laozi came into the world through his parents. According to the account in the Basic Annals, his father’s surname was Li and his name was Wuguo; he was also known as Lingfei and Qianhui.

Laozi’s mother was surnamed Yin and named Yishou. In the ninth year of the reign of Wuding, the twenty-second ruler of the Yin dynasty, on the fifteenth day of the second month, the Holy Mother rested peacefully beneath a plum tree and gave birth to Laozi from beneath her left armpit. Laozi could speak as soon as he was born. Pointing to the plum tree, he said, “This is the source of my surname.” Then he pointed up and down and said, “Above the heavens and below the earth, I alone am the most honored. What is there in the world’s suffering that is worth delighting in hearing? I will spread the teachings of the Dao and save all beings everywhere: animals, plants, and living creatures throughout the ten directions, reaching down to the prisons of the underworld. All who ought to be saved but have not yet crossed over must be brought to salvation.”

Then a thousand perfected immortals and ten thousand sacred spirits filled the sky and came together to protect him. Sages in the heavens responded and arrived, joining in praise of Laozi’s ten honorific titles: the first was Supreme Lord Lao; the second, Perfect Spirit of Wisdom; the third, Supreme Venerable One; the fourth, Teacher of Emperors and Kings; the fifth, Great Man; the sixth, Great Immortal Venerable; the seventh, Father of Heaven and Humanity; the eighth, Superior Master of Wuwei (non-action); the ninth, Great Compassionate One; and the tenth, Master of the True Origin. These are the ten titles praised by the perfected sages in the heavens.

Soon afterward, nine dragons appeared and breathed pure water to bathe the sage. The places where they spouted water became nine wells. The Nine Dragon Wells at the Taiqing Palace in Bozhou are said to be these very wells, and they still exist today. This account also appears in the Scripture on Converting the Barbarians. Such were the extraordinary events that accompanied the Great Sage’s descent into the human world.

There are many accounts of why the Lord Lao’s surname was Li. According to the Genealogical Register of the Jade Tablets of the Great Tang, the ancestors of the Holy Patriarch were descendants of Zhuanxu. Zhuanxu had a son named Daye, and Daye had a son named Wa (pronounced “Gua”). Wa married a daughter of the Youqiao clan. Through a response to the moonlight passing through the Mao lunar mansion, she gave birth to Jiuyou (Jiuyou’s first character is pronounced “Gao,” and the second “Yao”).

Among Bo Yi’s descendants was Li Zheng. For generations, Bo Yi’s descendants served as shi shi, officials responsible for administering justice and penal affairs. In Li Zheng’s time, he fled the chaos under Xia Jie and settled in the former territory of the Marquis of Yi, where he survived by eating plums. He therefore changed the character for his surname from “Li” to “Li,” becoming the founder of the Li clan. This account concerns the descendants of Gao Yao. Since Gao Yao’s office involved adjudicating criminal cases, his descendants took “Li” as their surname; later, some of them used the surname “Li.” After Li Zheng sought refuge in the former territory of the Marquis of Yi, he changed “Li” to “Li.”

Li Zheng’s son was Li Zhen, who lived during the time of Shang Tang. Li Zhen’s son, Chang Zu, served as a minister in the state of Chen and later settled in Ku County. Chang Zu’s son, Ming, became chancellor of Chen. He was buried north of Laixiang, where a temple was built for him; the place consequently came to be known as Xiangcheng. Ming’s son was Qing Bin, whose son was Ling Fei, also called Qian Hui. Both Qing Bin and Ling Fei ascended to heaven in broad daylight.

Earlier, it was said that Lao Jun pointed to a tree and took his surname from it, thus becoming Li. According to these accounts, the surname Li may have been written successively as “Li,” “Li,” and “Li”—different written forms with the same pronunciation. The claim that the surname’s written form changed over time is not reliable. Celestial Master Du considered the account that Lao Jun took his surname from a tree to be the appropriate one. The “Stele of Lao Jun,” written by Xue Daoheng during the Sui dynasty, records: “He was born in response to the sun, yet the cause of his receiving Qi and taking form cannot be determined. He pointed to a tree and took it as his surname, though its origin is unknown.” This suggests that the account of his taking his surname from a tree may be the more credible one.

Next, we consider the era and date of Lao Jun’s descent into the world. The Guangshengyi says: “Lao Jun is the ancestral teacher of the Supreme Dao and the source from which all things are transformed and born. Though he was born in high antiquity, one cannot say that he was the earliest; though he was born in a later age, one cannot say that he was the latest. Moreover, countless kalpas before this, he had already proclaimed the Great Dao and instructed the people. How, then, could the process of his birth from his mother’s womb be called his true ‘birth’? His descent into the world refers to his manifesting among humanity and showing that he had a beginning; taking form in the Holy Mother’s womb showed that he was born; and his mother serving the Primordial Sovereign expressed reverence for the revered one.”

A review of the dates of Lao Jun’s descent into the world recorded in various scriptures and proclamations shows that they can be divided into roughly three occasions.

First descent: The records say that in the seventh year of Shanghe, the gengyin year, on the third day of the ninth month, jiazi, Lao Jun was born among the plum trees in the Tian’gang Lingjing Mountains of the Northern Kingdom of the Mysterious Maiden. His Holy Mother was called the Mother of Mysterious Emptiness. At his birth, three suns appeared together in the east, and nine dragons sprayed water to bathe him. He therefore took Li Gu as his surname, was named Xuanyuan, and was styled Ziguang. He was a descendant of the Most High and an offspring of the Jade Emperor. His divine titles were Great Lord of Long Life, Lord Taiyi of Supreme Truth and Great Peace, and Imperial Lord of the Nine Mysteries, Sage of the Golden Gate.

A closer examination shows that this date also falls before the cosmic catastrophe; “Vermilion Spirit Shanghe” was the era name of the previous cosmic cycle.

At his second incarnation, it is said, he was born in the ninth year of King Wuding’s reign in the Yin-Shang dynasty—the gengchen year—on the fifteenth day of the second month, during the mao hour. His sacred mother was named the Mysterious and Wondrous Jade Maiden. She is said to have originally been the teacher of the Supreme Emperor and later to have become the Primordial Lady of the Great One. Taken together, these accounts suggest that this was the year and month when Laozi was born in Bozhou. The area around Taiqing Palace in what is now Weizhen County is said to be the place of his birth.

According to the Long Calendar by Huangfu Shian, and to the account of Ge Xiangong, Laozi became the teacher of King Wen of Zhou in the dingmao year. This was the twenty-first year of King Zhou of Shang; the first year of King Zhou’s reign was the dingwei year. At that time, Laozi lived south of Mount Qi and served as the teacher of the Earl of the West, King Wen of Zhou. He was known as Xieyizi. From the ninth year of King Wuding of Yin, the gengchen year, to the twenty-first year of King Zhou, the dingmao year, was a span of 108 years. Another 107 years passed before Laozi left through Hangu Pass in the twenty-fifth year of King Zhao of Zhou, the guichou year. Thus, 215 years elapsed from the ninth year of Wuding to the twenty-fifth year of King Zhao. This is why Sima Qian said that Laozi lived for more than two hundred years and was known in his time as a “reclusive gentleman,” a virtuous man who lived in seclusion.

Some have mistakenly claimed that Laozi was born during the reigns of King Ping, King Ding, King You, or King Li of Zhou. These accounts do not fit the facts. Had Laozi been born only in those periods, he could not have met King Wen and King Wu, nor could he have met the perfected man Yin at Hangu Pass and transmitted the Daode Jing to him. It follows that Laozi was not born during the reign of King Ping or King Ding.

According to the account of the third descent, the Biography of the Dragon-Revered One quotes the Basic Annals of Hundun as saying that the Most High Lord Lao ascended to Heaven in the jiayin year of King Zhao of Zhou. The jiayin year was the twenty-sixth year of King Zhao’s reign, but the text does not record the month or day of his ascension. Later, Zhang Qu of Western Shu wrote in his commentary on the Beidou Jing that the Most High Lord Lao ascended to Heaven on the twenty-eighth day of the fourth month of the jiayin year, the twenty-sixth year of King Zhao’s reign. In the following year, yimao, he manifested a divided form and descended to the banks of the Jin River in Western Shu, taking birth in the household of an official family.

In the dingsi year, the twenty-ninth year of King Zhao’s reign, Yin Xi arrived in Shu. At that time, there was not yet a Qingyang shop—a shop marked by a green sheep. While the Most High Lord Lao was in Taiwei, a celestial region, he first sent a green youth of the Azure Emperor down to the capital of Shu, transformed as a green sheep. Yin Xi saw someone leading the sheep and suddenly understood: “Since there is a green sheep, and it is near a shop, this must be the place where the Most High arranged to meet me.” He asked the person leading it, “Whose sheep is this?” The person replied, “My wife gave birth to a child with white hair who would not stop crying. We put him in water and in fire, but neither harmed him. A person who had attained the Dao said that if we gave the child the milk of a green sheep, he would stop crying. That is why we bought this sheep.”

Yin Xi instructed him, “Please tell your wife’s child that I, Yin Xi, the Pass Guardian, have arrived.” The man passed on his message. When the child heard that Yin Xi had come, he rose from the arms holding him, shaking out his robe, and said, “Let Yin Xi come in.” When Yin Xi entered, the Most High Lord Lao suddenly revealed a form more than ten feet tall, golden all over, with a round halo behind his neck. He wore a crown of the Seven Luminaries and a robe of nine colors. Everyone in the household was overcome with alarm.

The Most High Lord Lao said, “I make Taiwei my dwelling and take the True One as my essential nature. I descended in the Qi of Great Harmony and took form, using the Radiant Soul as my human body. Host and guest depend on one another; I am only lodging here for a time. Why are you so astonished?” Yin Xi then bowed his head and prostrated himself twice, saying, “This meeting is truly cause for celebration: once again I am able to behold the face of the Heavenly Venerable. I do not know whether, in your coming and going between being and nonbeing, the Compassionate Venerable has lately been well and at ease.”

The Old Lord, serene in bearing, said to Yin Xi, “Since we parted, what have you gained, and what have you lost? You have continually nurtured the Great Dao and held fast to single-mindedness. What have you attained now?”

Yin Xi replied, “I received the secret essentials from you and put them into practice, grasping their subtle meaning. The kindness with which you rescued and guided me surpasses the grace of Heaven and Earth.”

The Old Lord asked, “Have you been well in your comings and goings, your movements and rest, and your daily life?” This exchange is repeated once in the original text.

The Old Lord continued, “Long ago, I had you remain among the people and observe fasting and purity for a thousand days, so that I could wait for you here today. Now you have preserved your body and refined and nourished your breath, reaching a profound and subtle state. Purple patterns have formed within your heart, and your face shines with a full, radiant glow. Your Golden name has been entered in the register of perfected immortals, and your Jade document has been bound into the Purple Palace, the abode of immortals. Your Qi accords with Taiwei, the region where the celestial officials reside; you can now release yourself from the body and unite with the true Dao.”

As soon as he had finished speaking, the perfected sages of the Three Realms—the heavens, the earthly realm, and the other realms inhabited by spirits—arrived through the air in a thousand chariots, with ten thousand attendants. They bestowed on Yin Xi a purple hibiscus crown, a flying blue-green feathered skirt, a vermilion shawl and green-sleeved robe, a cross-collar garment adorned with rainbows, and a yellow seal-sash patterned with woven lines. They appointed him “Master of the Beginning,” and granted him the title “Supreme Perfected One.” From then on, he was able to attend the dragon chariot ridden by the immortals and travel freely through Heaven and Earth.

The place where the Most High Old Lord ascended his seat and expounded the Scripture of Primordial Yang to his mother lies several hundred paces southwest of Chengdu. In the second year of Zhonghe, the court ordered the Qingyang Palace to be built at the site of the miraculous events described in the legends. This passage refers to the Most High Old Lord ascending his seat to teach his mother during his third birth. The account of his three births was thus established as one tradition. The opening title of this chapter, however, cites the story of the Old Lord’s second birth in Bozhou.

The title states that Laozi was eight chi and eight cun tall, with a yellow complexion, fine eyebrows, a broad forehead, keen ears, large eyes, sparse teeth, a square mouth, and full lips. His forehead bore three or five lines that extended across it; the corners of his forehead resembled the sun, and the Xuanding resembled the moon. On either side of his nose were raised ridges, and each ear had three openings. His feet bore lines shaped like the character “wu,” and his palms held ten lines. This means that the Qi he received at birth was exceptionally pure, and his appearance differed from that of ordinary people. He was born in Qurenli, Laiyang Township, Ku County, Chu State, on the north bank of the Wo River.

This section describes the extraordinary features of the Supreme One’s appearance after his descent into the world, and the land where he was born. It is divided into two parts: one on his unusual appearance, and the other on his birthplace.

Laozi was eight feet and eight inches tall. His skin was yellow, and his appearance was as majestic as gold, hence the description “yellow.” His forehead was broad. “Drooping ears” means large ears that hang down—that is, the feature expressed by the name Dan. His eyes were large, symbolizing that he could see everything. His teeth were large and spaced apart, and his mouth was well formed. Here, “square mouth” means that he was skilled at speaking about the Way and its principles; it does not mean that his mouth was literally square. Confucius, too, was described as having “river eyes and a sea mouth.” Such features are accounts of the unusual appearance of sages. Laozi’s lips were full.

On his forehead were “three or five penetrating lines,” meaning that it seemed to bear three or five lines that extended across it. “The sun’s horns and the moon’s mystery” means that the shapes of the sun and moon seemed to appear between his temples, symbolizing his ability to illuminate what was near or far, hidden or obscure. It does not mean that he literally had the sun and moon on his face. His face was also like the full moon. “Mysterious” suggests depth and subtlety, and here describes a beautiful and wondrous appearance.

There were paired bones on his nose, which the text explains as three openings; each ear had three openings. The soles of his feet bore two markings shaped like the character “wu,” while each palm had a cross-shaped marking. This resembles the account that Great Yu had unusual markings on his palms; both are records of sages’ extraordinary features. The scripture holds that Laozi’s body was so distinctive because the Qi he received was exceptionally pure.

Ancient sages often had extraordinary appearances. How much more so the Most High Lord Lao, whose virtue was that of a great sage! It is said that he possessed seventy-two auspicious signs and eighty-one excellent features. His natural bearing was solemn and upright, and his sacred countenance was exceptionally wondrous—too remarkable to describe in full. Surely he had more than just these features.

Second, this section explains the village and state where the Most High Lord Lao lived. The title of the scripture says that the Most High Lord Lao was born in Qu Ren Hamlet, Laiyang Township, in Ku County of the state of Chu, on the north bank of the Wo River. According to the Tang dynasty text Tianzhi Jade Register, the Sacred Ancestor’s forebear Changzu served as a minister in the state of Chen before settling in Ku County. Changzu’s son, named Ming, served as chancellor of Chen and was buried north of Laiyang Township. People later built a temple there.

Ku County is called part of Chu here because some consider Yingzhou to have been the ancient state of Chu, and Ku County at that time belonged to Chu. Today, thirty li east of Chengfu County in Bozhou stands the Tianjing Monastery. It is said to be where the Holy Mother’s conception was divinely induced. Relics of Meteor Plain and the Hall of Daytime Sleep also remain there. Chengfu County, too, belonged to ancient Chu.

According to this account, the Most High Lord Lao was conceived at Tianjing Monastery in Chengfu and descended into the world at the Taiqing Palace in Ku County. Ku was the ancient name of the place. From the Han and Wei dynasties onward, it was renamed Guyang County. In the first year of the Qianfeng era under Emperor Gaozong of the Tang, it was renamed Zhenyuan County; in the second year of the Zhonghe era, it was elevated to a prefectural county. During the reign of Emperor Zhenzong of the Song, it was renamed Weizhen County. This is the area around Taiqing Palace in Guyang Town, Laiyang Township, Weizhen County today. The phrase “north of the Wo River” refers to the Taiqing Palace’s position on the river’s right bank, hence the use of “north”; the character for “north” is also sometimes written as “bank.”

This concludes the account of the village and state where the Most High Lord Lao lived.

Collected Subtle Interpretations in the Chamber of the Dao De Jing: Explanatory Outline and Commentary, volume two, ends here.

Collected Subtle Interpretations in the Chamber of the Dao De Jing: Explanatory Outline and Commentary, volume three

Written by the Elder of Great Rosy Clouds, Xue Zhixuan.

In the twenty-first year of King Zhou of Shang, a Dingmao year, Laozi was living south of Mount Qi. When the Earl of the West (King Wen of Zhou) heard of him, he appointed him Keeper of the Archives, an official responsible for the state’s writings. After King Wu overthrew the Shang, Laozi became a Court Historian beneath the Pillar. He served through the reigns of Kings Cheng and Kang, always working quietly and holding a low-ranking post. After living in Zhou for a long time and witnessing the decline of the Zhou house, he resigned and departed. In the twenty-fifth year of King Zhao of Zhou, a Guichou year, on the twenty-ninth day of the fifth month, a Renwu day, he left Zhou riding in a thin-canopied carriage drawn by a blue ox, driven by Xu Jia.

The commentary says: This is the fifth section, which explains how the sage concealed his identity, lived among ordinary people, and remained in seclusion in a humble official post. It then mentions “the twenty-ninth day of the fifth month in the Guichou year, a Renwu day,” saying that on this day Laozi left Zhou in a thin-canopied carriage drawn by a blue ox and driven by Xu Jia.

The commentary says: This is the fifth section. It describes Laozi concealing his identity as a sage, living like an ordinary person, quietly holding a humble office, serving the rulers of his time, and eventually leaving the Zhou dynasty. The section has two parts: the first tells how Laozi kept a low profile and held office; the second concerns the date of his departure from Zhou.

The first part describes Laozi’s life in modest circumstances. The heading records that this began in the twenty-first year of King Zhou of Shang … and continued until Laozi resigned from office. Qishan is the county of Qishan in today’s Fengxiang Prefecture. According to tradition, when King Wen of Zhou served as the Earl of the West, his domain lay around Qishan. “Earl” was one of the five ranks of nobility in ancient times. In the final years of King Zhou of Shang, King Wen made Qishan his base and led the lords of the west. His virtue was that of a sage, and many people rallied to him. Thus the Discourses of the States: Lu records Confucius as saying, “The virtue of the Zhou may be said to have reached its height. The world was divided into three parts, and Zhou held two of them, yet it still submitted to and served Shang.”

At that time, Laozi lived south of Qishan and was known as “Xieyi Zi.” He observed how the Earl of the West governed through moral teaching. Hearing of Laozi’s reputation, the Earl summoned him to serve as Keeper of the Archives, an official responsible for the state’s books and records. Laozi wrote the Scripture of Red Essence and instructed the Earl in the way of benevolence and trustworthiness. The Earl put these teachings into practice, honoring worthy men and upholding the Way. Tradition says that phoenixes gathered at Qishan as a result. The Book of Rites says, “When Zhou was rising, the luan and feng birds called on the southern slopes of Qishan.” Later, Qishan became the name of a county, and Fengxiang the name of a prefecture. Eighteen li north of Fengxiang city, tradition places Laozi’s former residence; during the Tang dynasty, Qisheng Palace was built there.

After King Wu of Zhou overthrew Shang, Laozi was known as Yucheng Zi and wrote the Scripture of the Jade Pivot. King Wu made him his teacher and ultimately won the realm. In the time of King Cheng of Zhou, Laozi was known as Jingcheng Zi; in the time of King Kang, as Guoshu Zi. Laozi continued to serve as the Pillar-Beneath-the-Eaves Archivist, a historian responsible for books and records. By the time of King Zhao of Zhou, the Supreme One—a Daoist honorific for Laozi—saw that Zhou’s power was waning and resigned from office. Laozi therefore remained in Zhou as an archivist from the time of King Wen through the time of King Zhao. He served the Zhou court for many years, concealed his identity, lived modestly, and assisted the rulers of his time.

The second part concerns the date of Laozi’s departure from Zhou.

The text says that on the twenty-ninth day of the fifth month, the Renwu day of the Guichou year, the twenty-fifth year of King Zhao of Zhou, Lao Jun left the territory of Zhou in a light carriage drawn by a green ox, driven by Xu Jia. This was the year Lao Jun departed from Zhou. The text calls the light carriage a “bozhang.” Xu Jia was the man who drove for the Most High Lao Jun; his surname was Xu and his given name was Jia.

Lao Jun said to Xu Jia, “I intend to travel to the countries of Daqin, Jibin, Tianzhu, and Anxi, in the region of the Western Sea. Drive for me, and I will pay you one hundred coins each day. When I return from those countries, I will settle the whole amount in gold. How does that sound?” Xu Jia agreed. He drove through Hangu Pass and came to the foot of Zhongnan Mountain.

Lao Jun wanted to test Xu Jia, so he had him tend the green ox in the wild. He then used auspicious grass to transform it into a woman of extraordinary beauty. When the carriage reached the place where the ox was grazing, the woman approached Xu Jia and flirted with him. Xu Jia was taken in. He thought Lao Jun had traveled far across the shifting sands and would surely never return. Breaking his agreement, he made up an excuse to go to the pass official and presented a written complaint against Lao Jun, demanding payment for driving the carriage.

Lao Jun said, “You have followed me for more than two hundred years, so I owe you seven million two hundred thousand coins. Besides, your allotted lifespan had already run out long ago. I placed the Great Mystery Talisman of Life within you, and that is what brought you back to life. Why do you not remember? Return the talisman to me, and I will repay what I owe you.” As soon as he finished speaking, the life talisman flew out of Xu Jia’s mouth and fell before Lao Jun, its writing still as fresh as if newly made. Xu Jia at once turned back into a pile of dry bones.

The pass official pitied Xu Jia, who had broken his word against his better judgment and died once again. Wanting to see with his own eyes Lao Jun’s art of bringing the dead back to life, he bowed before Lao Jun and pleaded, “I am willing to repay Xu Jia’s wages for him. I beg the Great Sage to take pity on him, forgive his offense, and grant him life once more. That would be a great kindness.” Lao Jun accepted the pass official’s plea and placed the life talisman back into the dry bones. Xu Jia was restored to his former state.

Laojun said, “I do not blame you. You broke our original agreement, and so the Daoist arts naturally left you; that is why you died.” He then paid Xu Jia the wages he had earned as a laborer and prepared to send him away. Xu Jia prostrated himself on the ground and slapped his cheeks with his hands, saying, “I have received the sage’s compassion. You have forgiven my offenses and allowed these dried bones of mine to see the light again. I will remember this always, and I am willing to follow your carriage.” Taishang never agreed, but Xu Jia continued to follow him along the road. This is what happened when Taishang left the Zhou state, and why Xu Jia drove alongside him.

The text says: Yin Xi, the Warden of the Pass, was an official of the Zhou state. His surname was Yin, his given name Xi, and his courtesy name Gongyang. He wrote nine books on matters of Dao and De. He also studied esoteric teachings, astronomy, and techniques for ingesting essences—the “essences” here referring to the vital essence of the sun and the radiance of the moon. Yin Xi cultivated virtue and practiced benevolence in secret, unknown to the people of his time.

Another account says that when Yin Xi’s mother was sleeping during the day, she dreamed that a flash of lightning descended from heaven and circled around her. She swallowed the lightning, and afterward gave birth to Yin Xi. At his birth, two rays of light like suns circled around him, and sunlight seemed to shine in his eyes. He was tall and handsome, loved ancient books, and was well versed in astronomy and esoteric prophetic texts. He could read the heavens above and examine the earth below, discerning everything; even the transformations of ghosts and spirits could not escape him. He was broad-minded and exceptional in bearing, unbound by worldly formalities. He treated others with kindness, lived simply, and gladly helped the people. He once served at court as a companion to the heir apparent, then took office as Warden of Hangu Pass. Whenever he looked up at the sky, he felt drawn toward a life beyond the ordinary world.

Before Laozi reached Hangu Pass, Yin Xi climbed a tower and looked out in every direction. He saw purple clouds drifting westward from the east and knew that a perfected being would soon pass through the region around the capital. He therefore ordered the gate officials to keep strict watch, had the road swept, and burned incense as they waited to welcome the traveler foretold by this sign.

The commentary says: This is the sixth section, which presents the biography of the Perfected Yin Xi and explains how he observed the clouds and stars and foresaw that the sage would pass through Hangu Pass. Yin Xi’s life and the omens that appeared before Taishang Laojun left the pass were explained in detail in the opening discussion above, so they are not addressed one by one here.

On the jiazi day, the twelfth day of the seventh month, Yin Xi, the official who guarded the pass, arrived there. Joyfully and reverently, he knelt and bowed, then looked up at the sky’s signs and the stars. He understood that these were omens of a sage passing through the pass. The stories of the life of the Perfected Yin Xi, and the signs that appeared when the Most High Lord Lao passed through the pass, have already been described above and need no further explanation.

On the jiazi day, the twelfth day of the seventh month, Yin Xi came to the pass, bowed reverently, and invited Laozi to stay at his residence. He prepared towels, combs, and water for washing, then purified himself through ritual fasting and asked Laozi about the Great Dao. On the twenty-fifth day of the twelfth month, Yin Xi resigned from his post, claiming illness and staying at home. On the twenty-eighth, Laozi entrusted him with the upper and lower parts of the Dao De Jing.

Yin Xi kowtowed and asked to follow Laozi westward to the land of flowing sands. Laozi said, “You have not yet cultivated the Dao to completion. How can you travel with me as far as the flowing sands? The customs there are different, the people are rough, and they are difficult to guide. How will you meet that challenge? Only when the Dao arises within you and the divine spirit abides in your body can you cast off distracting thoughts and impurities, calm your mind, and remain single-mindedly with the Dao. After a thousand days of ritual fasting, cultivating and refining your body until you enter the mysterious realm, you may come to the Green Ram Market in Shu and find me there. Can you do this?”

Yin Xi readily agreed and offered his thanks. Laozi suddenly rose into the air and slowly ascended into Taiwei, the celestial region of the stars. Yin Xi waited until the light and shadow had faded and all sound had ceased. Then he stayed in a tower, living in quiet seclusion and observing ritual fasts. He sent away his servants and attendants, recited scriptures for three years, and devoted himself to cultivation for a thousand days. His mind and spirit grew still; it seemed that his body, too, dissolved. Gradually he came to understand the subtle principles of exhausting the limits of one’s allotted life and penetrating change, as well as the mystery of changing with the form and transforming the myriad things.

Then Yin Xi gave up his household and home and set off on a journey beyond the ordinary world. When he reached the Green Ram Market, he finally met Laozi. Laozi conferred on him the title Master Wenshi, and the two then set out together for the land of flowing sands.

The commentary says: The seventh section recounts the year and date when the Supreme Lord Lao (Taishang Laojun) passed through the Hangu Pass and transmitted the scriptures, as well as his later agreement to meet the Perfected Yin at the Green Ram Market. This section has two parts: the first gives the time of his passage through the pass and transmission of the scriptures; the second tells of the later meeting arranged at the Green Ram Market.

The first part says that the heading records: on the Jiazi day, the twelfth day of the seventh month, Laozi arrived at the pass. When Yin Xi saw him, he performed the ritual known as “raising the hands, kneeling, and bowing with bent arms.” The Zhuangzi, in “The Human World,” says that Yan Hui performed this ritual each day. It was the ceremonial form by which a minister served his ruler. “Raising” means lifting the hands; “kneeling” means sitting back on bent knees; and “bent arms” means bowing with the body inclined. On that day, Laozi transmitted the two chapters of the Daode Jing.

According to the Inner Biography of Yin Xi, Perfected Yin was originally an official under King Kang of Zhou and was skilled at observing celestial phenomena. At his residence, he built a tower out of thatch—the place now known as Louguan, beneath Mount Zhongnan. He often climbed the tower to observe the heavens. When he saw purple Qi appear above Hangu Pass, gentle winds blow three times in succession, and the stars indicate that the Heavenly Principle Star was moving westward, he knew that a sage would soon pass through the gate.

During the reign of King Zhao of Zhou, Yin Xi asked to serve as the Hangu Pass warden. He cleared the road and burned incense, awaiting signs that his prediction would come true. He also warned the gate officers, including Sun Jing: “If anyone arrives with a carriage, horses, or clothing unlike those of ordinary people, and with an unusual appearance, do not let him through the pass. Report it to me at once.”

In the twenty-fifth year of King Zhao of Zhou, the Gui-chou year, on the Jiazi day, the twelfth day of the seventh month, the Lord Lao arrived at the pass in a cart drawn by a blue ox, driven by Xu Jia. The Master of Limitlessness, the Master of the Ghost Valley, and the Master of the Supreme Ultimate accompanied him. The Lord Lao asked to pass through the gate. Sun Jing, the gate officer, said, “The warden has given orders. Please wait here, honored elder.” He then went inside and reported to the warden: “A white-haired elder has arrived from the east in a cart drawn by a blue ox. He wishes to pass through the gate.”

Yin Xi said joyfully, “A sage has arrived. I should go and pay my respects.” He put on his court robes, went out to welcome the visitor, performed the rites of a disciple, and invited Lao Jun, saying, “Please stay a little while, Sage.”

Lao Jun demurred. “I am only an old man of humble means. My home is east of the pass, and my fields are west of it. I am merely going to fetch some firewood for a while. Why would you ask me to stay? Please let me pass; I would not presume to trouble you.” Yin Xi pleaded, “Please stay, Sage.” Lao Jun replied, “I am no more than this poor old man, going to fetch firewood for a while. Why insist that I stay? Please let me pass; there is no need to plead so earnestly. By repeatedly urging me to stay, you are delaying the moment to show your respect.” Lao Jun’s repeated modest refusals were the first test.

Yin Xi bowed again and said, “I do not think you are heading to an estate in the west. Please stay a little while.” Lao Jun replied, “I am going to Tianzhu—the ancient name for the region of India—to expound the Great Dao. There is an ancient master there, skilled in entering the realm of Wuwei (non-action), beyond the bounds of beginning and end, enduring through endless eons without interruption. I am on my way to visit him, and have come through this pass. Why would you presume to detain me?” This was the second test.

Yin Xi said, “Now that I have seen your true appearance, I recognize your extraordinary bearing and know you are the supreme one of Heaven. What is there in a distant land that you would need to go and see? Please do not offer further excuses; have some compassion for me.” Lao Jun asked, “How can you tell who I am?” Yin Xi answered, “Last year, in the tenth month, the star Tianli moved westward and passed through the Yi region. Now, at the beginning of autumn, the gentle southeast wind has blown three times, and purple Qi has appeared in the southeast, winding westward like a dragon or serpent. These are all signs that a perfected one is passing through the pass. Since I was young, I have been fond of astronomy and esoteric prognostication—the study of celestial signs and prophetic portents. I observe the heavens above and examine the earth below, and what I see often comes to pass. The celestial signs were as I have described, so I knew a sage would pass through the gate. Ever since, I have thought of this day night and day, never letting the matter slip from my mind. Now it seems I have the fortune to encounter the Dao, and indeed your sacred presence has arrived. I beg you, in your compassion, to instruct and guide me, and to deliver me from my ignorance.”

Seeing that Yin Xi had passed all three tests, Lao Jun smiled with delight and said, “I knew you had an affinity with the Dao, so I came to test you. Since you know who I am, I know who you are as well.” After they had spoken back and forth several times, Lao Jun finally agreed to Yin Xi’s request.

…(In a Daoist context, this means rescuing those sunk in darkness.) Seeing that Yin Xi had endured three tests and passed them all, Lao Jun smiled calmly and said, “I knew you were destined to encounter the Dao, so I came to test you. Since you recognize me, I recognize you as well.” After exchanging these words several times, he finally agreed to Yin Xi’s request.

Thus the Four Eminent Elders (four recluses) said: When Lao Jun and Yin Xi met, had they not already understood each other and grasped the mystery beforehand? Yet Lao Jun insisted on speaking these humble words in order to teach people that, when a master transmits teachings to a disciple, proper etiquette should be observed.

Yin Xi then invited Lao Jun to his home and prepared a seat for him. Facing north, he performed the rites of a disciple and honored Lao Jun as his teacher. Lao Jun asked, “Do you wish to transmit the vast Great Dao to the people of the world?” Yin Xi replied, “The Great Sage is about to withdraw from the world. Please write a work for me.” Lao Jun then transmitted the two parts, the Dao Jing and the De Jing.

According to the Guangshengyi, Lao Jun passed through the pass on the twelfth day of the seventh month, the jiǎzǐ day, in the guǐchǒu year, the twenty-fifth year of King Zhao of Zhou. The reasoning is that Yin Xi served as a minister during the reign of King Kang of Zhou and later became the commandant of Hangu Pass during the reign of King Zhao, giving him the opportunity to meet Lao Jun.

Zang Xuánjìng believed that Lao Jun went west through Long Pass during the reign of King You of Zhou, but this conflicts with the dates given for Lao Jun’s passage through Hangu Pass. Moreover, the first year of King You was a gēngshēn year and his eleventh year a gēngwǔ year; neither was a guǐchǒu year, so this account is mistaken. Wen Ruhai, by contrast, said that Lao Jun passed through the pass in the guǐchǒu year, the twenty-second year of King Cheng of Zhou. This date was earlier than Yin Xi’s lifetime, making it impossible for the two to have met, so it is not credible. Wen Ruhai also placed the event in the guǐchǒu year, the forty-third year of King Ping of Zhou. That date falls much later than Yin Xi’s lifetime, with too great a gap between them, and is likewise untenable.

After examining accounts from both ancient and modern sources, the author concludes that Lao Jun passed through the pass on the twelfth day of the seventh month, the jiǎzǐ day, in the guǐchǒu year, the twenty-fifth year of King Zhao of Zhou. This date fits Yin Xi’s life and can be regarded as certain. The precise year, month, and day of Lao Jun’s passage through the pass have already been explained above.

Accounts of when and where Lord Lao taught the scriptures differ. The Guangshengyi quotes the Neizhuan of Ge Xianweng as saying that in the time of the Yellow Emperor, Lord Lao was known as Guangchengzi and lived on Kongtong Mountain. He once taught the Yellow Emperor the Dao Jing and De Jing, along with the “Method of the Five Jia,” together known as the “Five Sage Diagram.”

The Neizhuan of Lord Lao also says that in the time of Emperor Shun, Lord Lao was known as Yin Shouzi and lived in Heyang. He taught Shun the Dao De Jing and instructed him in honoring elders, loving his brothers, and the principles of quietude and Wuwei (non-action). Shun governed in accordance with these teachings: he yielded humbly and made way for others, honored the Dao and valued De, appointed sixteen worthy ministers—the Eight Yuan and Eight Kai—and banished the Four Wicked Ones. He discerned conditions throughout the four regions and listened widely to the people’s concerns; he soothed the people beyond his court and fostered harmony within his clan. Thus, all the people under heaven were transformed by his example. Confucius praised him, saying, “Perhaps Shun was the one who governed through Wuwei.”

Many accounts hold that on the jiazi day of the seventh month in the twenty-fifth year of King Zhao of Zhou (the gui-chou year), Lord Lao passed through the mountain pass. On the twenty-fifth day of the twelfth month that year, Yin Xi pleaded illness and resigned from office; on the twenty-eighth, he received the two texts, the Dao Jing and the De Jing. The “Biographies” in the Records of the Grand Historian say that Laozi wrote more than five thousand characters for Yin Xi. Wang Zinian’s Records of Lost Writings, however, relates that Laozi lived on Jing Room Mountain during the Zhou dynasty and often discussed the transformations of Heaven and Earth with five elders. He wrote more than a hundred thousand characters, then removed the more elaborate passages to compile the five thousand words.

Here, drawing on the Preface to the Chapters and Commentaries on the Upper and Lower Books of the Two Classics, as Taught by the Lord of the River, the account states that the Lord of the River once told Emperor Wen of Han that he had been commenting on this text for more than seventeen hundred years. It had been passed down through three people before reaching him, making four in all, and he instructed that it not be transmitted to unsuitable people. This indicates that the Dao De Jing was not taught by Lord Lao to Yin Xi alone, nor was it composed only on Jing Room Mountain.

A further examination of the chapter “The Valley Spirit Does Not Die,” quoted in the Book of the Yellow Emperor in the Liezi, reveals the following: legend has it that during the time of the Yellow Emperor, the Old Lord was known as Master Guangcheng and once expounded the two treatises, the Dao and the De, to the Yellow Emperor. Thus, the fact that the book attributed to the Yellow Emperor cites this chapter as evidence does not mean that the two treatises were written by the Yellow Emperor on Mount Jingshi.

Long ago, when the Perfected Master Chongxu (Liezi) taught his disciples about “Heaven’s Signs,” he called the source the Book of the Yellow Emperor because he had seen its contents in that book. This is like the way the Zhuangzi and Liezi often cite Lao Dan and Confucius as authorities, while later authors in turn often cite the Zhuangzi and Liezi. They say only “Zhuangzi says” or “Liezi says,” not “Lao Dan says” or “Confucius says.” The principle is the same.

We can also estimate the dates by considering when the classic was transmitted. If the Daodejing originated in the time of King Zhao of Zhou, when Laozi specially wrote it for Yin Xi, then fewer than a thousand years had passed by the time of Emperor Wen of Han. Heshang Gong could not therefore have said that more than seventeen hundred years had passed since he began commenting on the text. Heshang Gong also said that the classic had been transmitted through three people, making him the fourth. This suggests that the conflicting date records indicate that the classic was first transmitted in the time of the Yellow Emperor, transmitted a second time in the time of Emperor Shun, a third time in the time of Yin Xi, and a fourth time in the time of Emperor Wen of Han. That is why he said, “It has been transmitted through three people; with me, there are four.”

In my view, the “more than seventeen hundred years” Heshang Gong mentions should be “more than twenty-three hundred years.” Why do I say this? From the Yellow Emperor, through Zhuanxu and Gaoxin, to Tang Yao and Yu Shun, about 385 years elapsed. From Emperor Shun to the first year of Emperor Xiaowen of Han, the Xia, Shang, Zhou, and Qin dynasties together account for about 2,001 years. From the Yellow Emperor to Emperor Wen of Han, the total is about 2,386 years.

On examining the matter privately, I find that a long time had passed since Ge Xianweng compiled the “Preface to the Chapters and Verses of the Two Classics by the Old Man on the River.” Perhaps later readers mistakenly changed “two thousand characters” to “one thousand characters,” and “three hundred characters” to “seven hundred characters”; another possibility is that an error occurred during woodblock printing.

About 385 years separated the time of the Yellow Emperor from that of Shun. Shun lived to be one hundred, ruled for thirty-nine years, and later ceded the throne to Yu. From Yu to Jie, the throne passed down through seventeen generations of descendants over 432 years, until Shang Tang conquered Jie. From Shang Tang to Zhou, the throne passed down through thirty-one generations over 629 years, until the Zhou dynasty brought the Shang to an end. From King Wu to King Nan, the Zhou throne passed down through thirty-seven generations over 867 years, until Qin annexed the Zhou. King Zhaoxiang of Qin ruled for forty-nine years and brought the Zhou to an end in the Dingwei year. From Qin Shihuang to Ziying, the Qin dynasty lasted forty-five years, until Han conquered it. From Emperor Gaozu of Han, through Empress Lü and Emperor Hui, to the first year of Emperor Wen, twenty-eight years passed in succession. By this reckoning, more than 2,300 years had elapsed from the Yellow Emperor to Emperor Wen of Han. This is quite clear.

I also suspect that the word “annotate” in the original should be changed to “compose.” Why? “Annotate” means to write commentary or explanations, whereas “compose” can mean to make something clear as well as to create or write. In my view, during the time of the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun, sages established laws and methods to benefit the world and composed classics. There was as yet no question of anyone annotating or explaining those classics. We should therefore say, “More than 2,300 years have passed since this classic was first created.” That is, the classic began when the Yellow Emperor brought it to light and composed it, and was later transmitted to Shun, Xi, and the time of Emperor Wen of Han. These figures merely transmitted the classic. That is why it is said that three people transmitted this classic, making four in all when its original composer is included. Learned and discerning scholars should examine this claim carefully.

This section of the ritual text explains the time and circumstances in which the Most High transmitted the scriptures, and the account is grounded in the passage here. The second part describes how, after transmitting the scriptures to Yin Xi, the Most High arranged to meet him again at the Green Ram Market in Shu Commandery.

The heading says that Yin Xi bowed his head and asked to follow the Lord Lao, the patriarch of the West, to the Flowing Sands. The Lord Lao said, “You have not yet attained the Dao. How can you travel with me as far as the Flowing Sands? The Flowing Sands lie in a foreign land, where the people are rough and difficult to transform. How can this be managed? Only by allowing the Way of life to enter your belly and keeping the spirit-brightness always present can you remove defilement, still distracting thoughts, quiet the mind, and hold fast to the One. After a thousand days of purification and cultivation of the body, when you have reached the mysterious realm, you may come to find me at the Green Ram Market in Shu Commandery. Can you do this?” Yin Xi repeatedly assented and expressed his gratitude.

When the Lord Lao had finished transmitting the scriptures, he slowly rose into the Taiwei Enclosure. The Taiwei Enclosure is one of the celestial regions: the Ziwei Enclosure is regarded as the dwelling place of the Great Emperor of the North Pole, the Tianshi Enclosure as the dwelling place of the Great Emperor of the South Pole, and the Taiwei Enclosure as the dwelling place of the Great Emperor of Heaven. The Guangsheng Yi says that among the stars, the Lord Lao corresponds to the Great Emperor of Heaven; this is why it says that he rose into the Taiwei Enclosure.

The Scripture of the Western Ascension says that when the Lord Lao had finished preaching, he suddenly vanished. A moment later, five-colored flames of light streamed from the palace chambers. Yin Xi went into the courtyard, bowed his head, and prayed: “May the divine person appear once more and teach me a crucial secret, so that I may attain the One and preserve my original source.” He then looked up and saw the Lord Lao suspended in midair, dozens of feet above the ground. His form was like that of a golden figure, his image appearing and disappearing, while his aspect continually shifted between old and young. Five-colored radiance shone all around him. The Lord Lao said, “I solemnly instruct you: remember and observe this. Remove defilement, still distracting thoughts, quiet the mind, and hold fast to the One. Once every kind of defilement has been cleared away, all matters will be settled. This is the essential teaching of the Dao I have transmitted.”

After completing his admonitions, he withdrew into seclusion. He waited until the signs and visions of joy had faded and all around him had grown quiet. Then he stayed upstairs in a tranquil retreat, fasting, sent his attendants away, recited the scriptures for three years, and devoted a thousand days to contemplation. Gradually, his mind and spirit became still, his body seemed to dissolve, and his flesh and bones blended into one.

The phrase “the mind grows still, the body dissolves, and flesh and bones blend as one” refers to a story in the Liezi. Lie Yukou studied under Lao Shangshi, befriended Bogaozi, and learned the art of riding the wind. After nine years of study, he no longer weighed his own gains and losses, or those of others, in his thoughts or words. He even let go of his attachment to the roles of teacher and friend. His inner world gradually joined with things outside him. In time, his eyes seemed able to hear, his ears to smell, and his nose to speak; the senses were no longer distinct from one another. He no longer felt that his body relied on anything or that his feet stood upon anything. He simply drifted east and west with the wind, like a dry leaf or an empty shell, unable to tell whether the wind carried him or he rode upon the wind.

“Still” means settled; “dissolve” means to disperse or let go; and “blend” means to harmonize. The passage describes the mind and spirit settling within, while the limbs, bones, and nine apertures—the body’s sensory openings—also become one harmonious whole. The Liezi also speaks of “the mind dying and the body falling away.” Thus the scripture uses “the mind grows still, the body dissolves, and flesh and bones blend as one” to show that Immortal Yin had reached this wondrous state as well.

Thereafter, he fully understood the principles governing the transformations of things, and the mysteries of the body changing along with them. The phrase “exhausting the patterns and understanding change, shifting as form changes” is based on the “King Mu of Zhou” chapter of the Chongxu Jing. It recounts how Lao Chengzi studied illusion techniques under Master Yin Wen. Master Yin Wen explained that the ability to exhaust the patterns of things, understand change, and transform along with form is called “transformation,” and is also called “illusion.”

The commentary says that one who can fully investigate the principles governing the two powers of Heaven and Earth and grasp the guiding patterns of Yin-Yang’s movement can nourish and transform the myriad things without difficulty. It is like a perfected person who, after receiving the Great Dao from the Most High Lord Lao, can fully investigate the laws of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things and understand the transformations through which Yin-Yang brings things into being. Even the wondrous abilities to divide into multiple forms, disperse one’s shadow, and vanish and reappear are within their understanding.

Then Yin Xi left his home and official residence, journeyed far away, and went to the Qingyang Market, the legendary place where Laozi was born. There he met Laozi. Laozi named him “Master of the Primordial Beginning” and took him along to travel through the city of the Flowing Sands. Qingyang Market is said to be where the Most High Lord Lao was born for the third time; this is discussed in the “Births” section. After meeting the perfected one again, Yin Xi rode Laozi’s cloud chariot up to the various heavens, then descended to travel through the eighty-one kingdoms of the Flowing Sands, spreading Daoist teachings and guidance in the far western lands.

Some say that Laozi left the Hangu Pass during the reign of King Zhao of Zhou and went west to teach the Hu people, then returned to the Central Plain during the reign of King You of Zhou. The Guangsheng Yi, however, says that Laozi returned to the Central Plain during the reign of King Ping of Zhou, the fourteenth ruler of the Zhou dynasty. Confucius once went to Luoyi, the Zhou capital, and respectfully asked Laozi about ritual. Laozi told him, “The people you speak of, along with their bones, have long since turned to dust. Only their words have been passed down. When a gentleman finds the right moment, he steps forward to act; when the moment is not right, he drifts like tumbleweed on the wind. I have heard that a skilled merchant hides his treasures deep, so that he seems to have nothing. A gentleman of profound De (Virtue) likewise appears plain and unadorned. You should rid yourself of pride and excessive desire, and rein in affected manners and overreaching ambition. None of these will do you any good. This is all I can tell you.”

After Confucius left, he said to his disciples, “I know that birds fly; I know that fish swim; and I know that beasts run. Those that run can be caught in nets, those that swim can be caught with a line, and those that fly can be shot with arrows. But as for the dragon, I do not know how it can ride the wind and clouds up into the sky. Having met Laozi today, I think he must be like a dragon!”

The commentary says: This is the eighth section. It tells how the Great High One (that is, Laozi) returned to the Central Plain during the reign of King You of Zhou, enabling Confucius to visit the Zhou capital and ask him about ritual, and to praise him as being like a dragon. In the past, Confucius said to Nantian, “Having met Laozi today, I think he must be like a dragon!”

Our school’s account says that the Supreme Lord Lao returned to the Central Plains during the reign of King You of Zhou. Confucius then went to the Zhou capital to ask Lao Dan—that is, Laozi—about ritual, and marveled that he was as unfathomable as a dragon.

Once, Confucius said to Nangong Jingshu, “I have heard that Lao Dan knows the past and present, understands the origins of ritual and music, and grasps where the Dao and De ultimately lead. He could be my teacher. I intend to go and seek his guidance.” Confucius went to the Zhou capital, asked Lao Dan about ritual, and spoke with him about benevolence and righteousness.

Lao Dan said to him, “Crows are black by nature, and swans are white by nature; they need not bathe every day to become so. Black and white are simply as they are, and there is nothing to dispute. Fame and praise are not enough to make a person truly broad-minded. When a spring dries up and fish are stranded on land, they breathe on one another and moisten one another with their saliva. How much better it would be for them to live in rivers and lakes, each at ease and without concern for the other. The people you speak of today, along with their bones, have already decayed. Only their words remain.”

As Confucius was about to leave the Zhou capital, Lao Dan said, “I have heard that the wealthy send people off with gifts of money and goods, while the benevolent send them off with words. I shall borrow the title ‘benevolent person’ for a moment and offer you a few words. Some people today are clever and perceptive, with keen insight, but this brings them close to danger because they enjoy criticizing others’ faults. Others are widely learned, eloquent, and discerning, but this puts them at risk because they enjoy exposing others’ hidden failings. A minister should not think only of himself; a son should not resent the place he occupies. When a junzi encounters the right moment, he enters public service and acts. When the moment is not right, he comes and goes freely, like a tumbleweed carried by the wind. A skilled merchant hides his precious goods deep away, so that he appears to have nothing. A person of great De may seem dull. Let go of your pride, your many desires, your affected manner, and your excessive ambition. None of these will do you any good. That is all I can tell you.”

After returning, Confucius did not speak of the encounter for three days. His disciples found this strange and asked, “Master, what guidance did you receive from meeting Lao Dan?” Confucius said, “In the past, while I was in the state of Lu, I encountered various kinds of people. When someone’s thoughts soared like a wild goose in flight, I made my own thoughts into a bow and arrow and shot after him; I could always catch and subdue him. When someone’s thoughts wandered leisurely, like a deer moving through the forest, I made my own thoughts into a hunting dog and chased him; I could always catch and subdue him. When someone’s thoughts sank deep, like a fish at the bottom of a well diving into the depths, I made my own thoughts into a hook and line and cast them down; I could always catch and control him. But when I saw a dragon, I could not fathom it. When a dragon gathers, it forms a whole; when it disperses, it reveals its splendor. Riding the Qi of the clouds, it nourishes Yin and Yang and roams in the realm of the Great Purity. I could not pursue it. Now that I have met Lao Dan, surely he is like a dragon! He left me with my mouth hanging open, unable to close, and my tongue extended, unable to draw back. My body was exhausted, my spirit dazed, and I did not even know where I was. What could I possibly have taught Lao Dan?”

This chapter opens by citing and elaborating on the account in the “Biography of Laozi” in the Records of the Grand Historian: the earlier text recounts the events briefly, while this one develops them in detail.

The world was in turmoil and the royal way was in decline, so Laozi once again left through the pass. Some say he was Lao Laizi; others say he was Grand Historian Dan (Dan is pronounced like “dàn”). Some say he lived for more than 160 years, others that he lived for more than 200, believing he attained longevity by cultivating the Dao and nurturing life. It is also said that he studied the Dao with Rong Chengzi and sought its teachings from Chang Cong. People cannot know for certain whether these accounts are true, but they all describe him as a noble man who lived in seclusion and held no office.

The Commentary says: This is the ninth section. It tells how the Supreme One—that is, Laozi—knew that the Dao lineage of the Zhou dynasty had already declined. He therefore passed through the frontier gate once more, changed his name and title, concealed his tracks, and lived among ordinary people. No one in the world knew how long he lived, so people of the time called him the “Hidden Gentleman.”

This was during the reigns of King You and King Li of Zhou, when the realm was in turmoil and the dynasty’s government and Dao lineage were steadily declining. The Supreme One therefore changed his name and title and concealed his identity. Some say he called himself Lao Laizi; others say he was Grand Historian Dan. It is said that Lao Laizi lived past the age of seventy and that his mother was still alive. He often wore brightly colored clothes while serving her, sometimes pretending to stumble and fall and imitating a baby’s cries to amuse her. This shows how devoted he was to his mother. Grand Historian Dan, it is said, served as a court historian for generations during the reigns of Kings You and Li of Zhou. The figures in both accounts are names Laozi used after concealing his identity.

Another account holds that Laozi once sought the Dao from Rongchengzi. The Liezi records that the Yellow Emperor and Rongchengzi once fasted together for three months on Mount Kongtong. This suggests that Rongchengzi must have lived in the time of the Yellow Emperor. Another account says that Laozi asked Changcong about the Dao. It is unclear when Changcong lived, and the account has little firm basis; he was probably a Daoist of that time.

The Supreme One is the source of the Great Dao and the master of the myriad teachings. He may be revered as the lord of the heavens or honored as the teacher of emperors throughout the ages. Why, then, would he need to learn the Great Dao from a teacher or friend? The account of his seeking the Dao from a teacher uses the teacher-student relationship to show that the Dao and its teachings have been transmitted through a lineage. It is an allegorical expression, similar in meaning to Confucius’s words: “I was not born with knowledge; I love the ancient ways and pursue learning diligently.”

As for the Supreme One’s age, some say he lived more than 160 years, others more than 200, attributing his longevity to cultivating the Dao and nurturing life. After the Zhou dynasty declined, he passed through the frontier gate once more, sometimes withdrawing from the world and sometimes appearing among people. Since no one could tell what had truly happened, they called him the “Hidden Gentleman.”

Thus, the “Biography of Laozi” in the Records of the Grand Historian says: “Laozi sometimes lived in seclusion and sometimes appeared in public. He lived for more than two hundred years, then traveled west into the land of shifting sands. After that, no one knew what became of him.” He was probably a worthy man who lived in seclusion and never entered official service.

“Lord” was an honorific for a person who embodied the Dao; “Master” was an honorific for a person of De. In ancient times, people also used “Master” to address teachers. Anyone who taught others was expected to embody the Dao and possess De, and was therefore also called a “gentleman.” It is clear that “gentleman” originally served as an honorific for virtuous people such as rulers and teachers.

The Book of Rites says that a student who can explain matters broadly is fit to become a teacher; one fit to be a teacher is fit to become an official; and one fit to be an official is fit to become a ruler. Because rulers and teachers possess bright and expansive virtue, they are called “gentlemen.”

Another explanation is that people who embody the Dao and possess De are respected even when they live among ordinary people, and are therefore called gentlemen. Those who lack virtue are disliked even when they hold high positions, and are therefore called petty people. The Dao is like a ruler, and De is like a teacher: only one who possesses both the Dao and De can truly be called a gentleman.

If this is true of ordinary people in the world, how much more fitting is it for the Mysterious Origin Emperor, the Most High Lord Lao—a Daoist honorific for Laozi—who is the patriarch of the Dao and De and a model for emperors to follow. His title as a gentleman is surely well deserved. His movements were as elusive as a hidden dragon, and his status and whereabouts were impossible to discern. For this reason, he was called the “hidden gentleman.”

Laozi’s son was named Zong. Zong served as a general in the state of Wei and, for his military achievements, was enfeoffed at Duangan. Zong’s son was named Zhu, Zhu’s son was named Gong, and Gong’s distant descendant was named Jia. Jia served as an official during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han. Jia had a son named Jie, who became tutor to Liu Yin, the King of Jiaoxi, and later settled in Qi. Liu Yin was the name of the King of Jiaoxi.

The commentary says: This is the tenth section. It describes how the Supreme One embraced the Dao and De, concealed his identity as a sage, and lived among ordinary people. His lineage extended far into the past, his descendants passed it down through generations, and the ancestral sacrifices never ceased. These matters are already made clear in the heading, with no further meaning intended, so there is no need to explain them in detail.

From the time Heaven and Earth came into being, the arts of the Dao have also existed. When would those who safeguard and cultivate the Dao ever be cut off? From Fuxi onward, through the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, each generation had prominent Daoist adepts. As for Laozi, he was himself an extraordinary person, perhaps the one who attained the Dao most profoundly. Because people saw that he lived a long life, and because his hair was already white as snow when he was born, they called him “Laozi.” “Lao” can also be an honorific, while “zi” is a general form of address.

The commentary says: This is the eleventh section. It explains that the Most High (Taishang), a Daoist title for the supreme deity, is a divine being who attained the Dao and later received the title “Laozi.”

At the beginning of Heaven and Earth, people’s hearts were simple and whole, and the original state of the Dao had not yet been dispersed. Though the name “Daoist arts” did not yet exist, their principles were already circulating among people. After Fuxi, writing and contracts began to emerge, and society gradually acquired laws and institutions. Those who cultivated and protected the Dao thereby began to make their names known. From the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors through the Three Kings and Five Hegemons, the Most High served as a teacher in generation after generation, instructing the rulers of each age and establishing laws and institutions that benefited later generations. Thus, the name “esoteric arts” arose in the world, and people continued to cultivate the Dao. This is why it is said, “Daoist adepts became known, and there have been such people in every generation.”

The Most High was originally a spiritually endowed person, and his attainment of the Dao was especially profound. Seeing that he lived for a very long time and often appeared in the form of an old man, people called him “Laozi.” The Guangsheng yi says: Laozi entrusted his wisdom to the womb of jade for eighty-one years, and when he was born, his head was already covered with white hair. The Holy Mother gave him his title to reveal his origins to the world.

This section offers five interpretations, of which the text first presents three.

The first says that when a sage descends into the human world, he appears in a way unlike ordinary people. When the Holy Mother named him, “Lao” meant that he was already old when he was born, while “zi” meant that he had just come into the world. Since his head was covered with white hair, the two were joined to form “Laozi.”

The second says that the Dao runs counter to ordinary worldly expectations. “Lao” is a term for longevity and old age, while “zi” means young. People are young first and old later, but the Most High appeared old first and young afterward. This was meant to show his return from outward appearance to the root.

The third says that “lao” carries the meaning of examining or testing, referring to his examination of the sages; “zi” carries the meaning of giving rise to life, referring to his bringing forth the myriad things. Lord Lao is the father and mother of all things and the ancestral teacher of the many sages. Thus, the name “Laozi” expresses the meanings of examining the sages and bringing forth the myriad things.

Fourth, the Sage placed “Lao” before the title, signifying a return from the endpoint to the beginning. “Lao” means the end, while “Zi” means the beginning. Ordinary people always begin first and move toward an end later; Lord Lao, however, first appeared as the end and then returned to the beginning. This was meant to teach people to cultivate the Dao, so that they might return from old age to infancy. Hence the name “Laozi.”

Fifth, Lord Lao concealed his true nature and revealed an accommodating outward appearance in order to suit the ways of the world. “Lao” can also refer to being born with white hair, which is why he was called “Lao”; “Zi” is a general term for a man. Confucius, Mencius, Zhuangzi, and Liezi are known by titles formed from their surnames, while Laozi, Heguanzi, Baopuzi, and Huainanzi received their names for other reasons.

The Preface and Instructions (Xujue) says: “The title ‘Laozi’ had already appeared countless kalpas ago, in an age so distant that it is difficult to know.” From this, we can see that Laozi was not given the name because he was old at birth. Rather, he had existed since countless kalpas before, and so was called “Lao.”

According to legend, Laozi descended through the womb of a sacred mother and was born from her left armpit, his head already covered in white hair. Hence he was called Laozi. But according to the Xujue, his title came from the mysterious source, which existed before Heaven and Earth and was not subject to aging; hence he was called “Laozi.” This is the evidence the Xujue offers in support of this account.

Taken together, the various accounts suggest that since Laozi was not named for being old at birth, Lord Lao had continually manifested to teach and transform beings since countless kalpas ago, often appearing in the form of an old man. This is why he came to be called “Laozi.” The title took shape in that era; the title “Lord Lao,” by contrast, had existed since countless kalpas earlier and did not arise in the same period.

The scriptures also say that when Lord Lao was about to proclaim the Great Dao and teach the four quarters, he believed that the Dao could not be without a revered teacher, nor its teachings without a patriarch. He therefore took the Great Lord of the Great Dao, Jade Radiance of the Most High, as his teacher. The Great Lord of the Great Dao was a disciple of the Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning. He understood the root and source of the Great Dao and was born countless kalpas ago. He was the ancestor of Dao Qi—the primordial energy that constitutes the Great Dao—and was therefore called the “Great Lord of the Great Dao.” The Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning, meanwhile, was the ruler of the myriad heavenly realms. He appeared before the onset of the great calamities and was the root of Dao Qi.

Long before countless kalpas had passed, the Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning and the Lord of the Dao Above were the source and origin of Dao Qi, the primordial energy of the Dao. For this reason, the latter was called the Great Lord of the Dao. The Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning rules over the innumerable heavenly realms as their sovereign and king. He came into being before the beginning of the great calamities and is the root of Dao Qi.

The Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning and the Lord of the Dao Above manifested as the Lord Lao, traveling between heaven and the human world and taking on endless forms. He came into being countless kalpas ago and remains ever-present after countless kalpas have passed. All the heavens revere him, and emperors throughout the ages have taken him as their teacher; thus he was granted the honorific title “Most High Lord Lao.” The three holy venerables each served as one another’s teachers, establishing the fundamental hierarchy among those who teach and transform the world.

“Most” means greatest, “High” means highest, “Old” means longest-lived, and “Lord” means most venerable. In other words, the Most High Lord Lao is greatest, highest, longest-lived, and most revered. He stands before the Five Primordials—the several original stages in the formation of the cosmos as described in Daoism—and embodies the principles of the Four Extremities, a term referring broadly to the bounds of the universe. This is why he is called the Most High Lord Lao, and this is the origin of the title Lord Lao.

The Guangsheng yi explains that “Most High” is an honorific title for one who presides over the teachings, as well as the highest fruit of attainment in the sacred realm. Another explanation is that “Most” means great, with nothing greater, and “High” means elevated, with nothing higher. The title marks the highest state attained through cultivation and realization. A person cultivates beyond the ordinary, attains the Dao and becomes an immortal, advances from immortality to perfectedness, and then realizes sagehood. Upon reaching the highest level of sagehood, one ascends to the rank of “Most High.” This state encompasses the Six Supernatural Powers and myriad virtues. Its bearer succeeds to the position of Dharma King and leads all the sages, thereby receiving this supreme honorific title. It is like an emperor in the human world who, after inheriting the throne, may call his father the “Retired Emperor.”

After the Celestial Worthy of Primordial Beginning, there are also such revered deities as the Great Lord of the Dao Above, the Most High Lord Lao, the Most High Elder, and the Most High August Emperor. They too bear the title “Most High,” but do not preside over the teachings.

The one who governs all the heavens and stands as the supreme patriarch of all teachings is none other than the Supreme Lord of the Great Dao and the Supreme Lord Lao. For this reason, Daoist scriptures such as those of the Three Caverns and Four Supplements, as well as other classics, may place the words “Supreme Lord” before their titles. “Supreme Lord” is an honorific that encompasses the teachings, and it also represents the highest state of attaining sainthood.

The titles “Laozi,” “Lord Lao,” and “Supreme Lord” have already been briefly explained above. As for the names used when the Supreme Lord responds to the world and manifests his Dharma body, and the titles handed down through successive ages, they are as countless as the sands of the Ganges. Why is this said? The Scripture of the Western Ascent records that, since antiquity, the ages through which the Supreme Lord has passed have been as numerous as dust and sand. Each time he transforms and acts, he must pass through immeasurably long kalpas; he himself says that this has been a great labor.

The Biography of the Dragon-Like One also says: Lord Lao was born within the primordial void, transformed in accordance with nature, possessed boundless wisdom, and attained perfect sacred virtue. His form is beyond measure, and his names are inexhaustible. In the heavens, he is the lord of all the heavens; among sages, he is sovereign over all sages; among immortals, he is the leader of all immortals; among perfected beings, he ranks first; among the stars, he is the Great Emperor of Heaven; and within the teachings, he is the Supreme Lord Lao. At times he manifests twelve hundred names; at times, one hundred and eighty titles. Sometimes he is called the “Father of Wuwei,” and sometimes the “Mother of the Myriad Things.” He moves and transforms in accord with the Great Dao; he is the source of Heaven and Earth, vast and boundless, and impossible to describe fully by name.

Thus, the postscript by Bixu says: The names of Laozi were only briefly explained above. They are now discussed in detail, drawing on various scriptures. Is the virtue of the Supreme Lord not truly vast?

The heading says: Some people, when destined to be born, naturally possess the ability to communicate with the spirits and understand the principles of things. Their endowment differs from that of ordinary people, and so they are meant to become masters of the Dao. Such a person may be called Laozi. His names were only briefly discussed above; they are now examined in detail, drawing on various scriptures. Is the virtue of the Supreme Lord not truly vast?

When people receive their allotted life and are born, some naturally possess the ability to communicate with the spirits and perceive the underlying patterns of things. The Qi they receive differs from that of ordinary people, so they ought to serve as custodians of the Dao. They can therefore gain the help of heavenly spirits and are followed by the immortals. The methods they transmit for aiding the world—such as refining the Nine Elixirs and Eight Minerals, preparing jade brew and golden liquid, preserving one’s true nature and guarding primordial Qi, visualizing spirits as they travel through the body’s organs, circulating Qi and refining the body, dispelling calamities and warding off evil, treating ghosts and nurturing one’s nature, fasting from grains and undergoing transformations, using Fulu methods to restrain spirits, observing the teachings and precepts, and commanding ghosts and demons—are all methods Laozi once used to help the people of the world. Yet they are not the most profound methods of the Dao.

As for governing the household and governing the world, these are direct concerns of the Great Dao in teaching the people and ordering worldly affairs. They are also tasks that sages undertake alongside their cultivation of the Dao.

The commentary says: This is the tenth…