《混元圣记》

Huaiying had once been a Ru scholar who studied for the civil examinations and knew how to honor Confucius. Later he set aside the scholar’s cap and became a Daoist, and so turned the reverence he had felt for Confucius toward honoring Laozi instead. He wrote a work in several fascicles that, from the opening of Heaven and Earth down to his own time, collected and arranged in order every mention of Laozi’s names, transformations of form and trace, transmitted anecdotes, and sayings scattered through the various classics, and compiled them into the Sacred Chronicle (Shengji). The book is at once focused and far-ranging, and it truly serves the Daoist tradition well.

Ru scholars are keen on official careers; even when they wish to devote themselves to writing, they often lack the leisure to investigate obscure deeds and chronological details. Some who do have the time must still choose their material with caution, hemmed in by the Six Classics and unable to set things out at full length. Thus Confucius’s Dao is as enduring and boundless as Heaven and Earth, and all honor him, yet there are few works that record his life as comprehensively as Huaiying’s does for Laozi.

Had Huaiying been able to finish his former studies and never left home to become a Daoist, this book would probably have been written to honor Confucius—what a great service that would have been. Yet the Grand Historian Sima Qian long ago wrote the “Hereditary House of Confucius,” which shows that such an aim already existed. Some, however, say that since Confucius’s Dao is as long-lived and inexhaustible as Heaven and Earth, there is no need to measure his span against the enfeoffed lords of the Warring States and Han; therefore the “Hereditary House of Confucius” perhaps ought not to have been written at all. Descendants of the Kong clan gathered what they had heard into works such as the Kong Family Sayings and Kongcongzi, which Ru scholars did not much value; as for things like the “sacrificial sheep of Fen” and “arrow-wood of Ku”—legendary curiosities—if used to magnify the sage, others reject them as too supernatural to credit.

Seen in this light, even if Huaiying had not become a Daoist but had written to honor Confucius, he would still have been bound by the Six Classics and could not have collected material as broadly as he has done here. I therefore sigh for Huaiying: it is a pity he could not write under Confucius’s name; yet it is also his good fortune that he could complete this book under Laozi’s name. Hence this preface. Huaiying’s surname is Xie and his given name Shoujie; he is from Yongjia and was once my schoolmate. In the eighth month of the fourth year of the Shaoxi era (1193), Chen Fuliang wrote this preface.

Your subject, Shoubin, kowtows in reverence and speaks thus: The manifestation of sacred traces in Taqing (the Clear Purity realm, honored in Daoism as a realm of stillness and transcendence) depends on the broad record of history; the scriptures left from ancient kalpas likewise await an age of great peace and prosperity before they can be fully collated. Such a moment is hard to meet, yet the transmission of the Dao is not in vain.

Your subject, Shoubin, kowtows again in fear and trembling. Your subject holds that above the Nine Heavens they have long called it the Emperor’s Homeland, and beyond the four quarters of heaven and earth the sages’ books are likewise preserved. If the Three Historical Classics (Sanfen, the legendary scriptures of high antiquity) were lost, the age of Fuxi and Shennong would be hard to recover; when the Six Classics appeared, the work of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius could flourish. In the flourishing ages of Han and Tang, the supreme teaching of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi was honored; sages succeeded one another, the Great Dao was widely practiced, the age prospered, and the cultural line was not broken.

The Primordial Sage of Primordial Chaos (Hunyuan Shang Sheng, a honorific for Laozi) treasured the root of the wondrous Dao. He gave birth to heaven and earth, yet none could see where he began; he endowed ghosts and spirits and emperors with numinous power—who could exhaust its subtlety? Already in kalpas such as Yankang and Chiming (names of distant cosmic eras in Daoist cosmology), he had been teacher age after age. In the Shang and Zhou periods he divided his body and responded in transformation, appearing as the world required. His teaching did not discriminate among listeners, so even barbarians of the western regions could attain the Dao; the Dao was unfathomably deep, so Confucius of Lu also once saw a dragon. Those who knew him were always few, so that his deeds were not fully handed down—this is not surprising.

Older records are like viewing heaven through a tube or inferring the whole from one spot on a leopard’s hide; later schools diverge day by day, like chasing many forked paths and losing the flock. The complete records of the repository (cangshi, the ancient storehouse of texts) have scarcely been heard—this is truly a gap in the Daoist canon. Your subject’s talent is not equal to deep study of the Dao, and his learning falls short of specialized scholars; how could he range freely in the forest of letters? He has only searched a little among documents and classics. Poring over them again and again, his hair has turned streaked; taking up the brush to write, calluses have formed again and again on his hand. He gathered books of the three teachings (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism), compiled them into the Sacred Chronicle (Shengji), and examined the doctrines of various schools…

Chronicle of the Sacred in Primordial Chaos (Hunyuan Shengji), Scroll 1

Compiled by Master Guanfu, the eminent Daoist scholar Xie Shoubin of the Song dynasty

Your subject, Shoubin, speaks thus: [In the original, the wording here repeats in part, and the passage breaks off unfinished after “examining the doctrines of various schools.”]

The Supreme Old Lord (Taishang Laojun) is the sovereign of the Great Dao and the root of every lineage. He existed before the Great Void (Taiwu), rose from the source of Wuji (limitless), and has passed through numberless heavens and earths beyond reckoning; he has neither end nor exhaustion. According to local conditions he established teachings in each place, and through kalpa after kalpa he has appeared as teacher—now hidden, now revealed, sometimes with form, sometimes without—beyond all measure.

Yet when the Supreme Old Lord spread the teaching in the world and showed himself in embodied form, those events stand out as clearly as the sun and moon—how could they not be recorded? Earlier biographies are mostly thin: Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian, Ban Gu’s tables of persons ancient and modern, Liu Xiang’s writings on the ranks of immortals, works on lofty recluses by Ji Kang and Huangfu Yi, and Ge Hong’s Biographies of Immortals, Collected Immortals, General Collection of Immortals, and similar books often preserve only fragments; not one event in a hundred is told whole.

Yin Wen-cao compiled the Sacred Annals in eight hundred twenty chapters; Jia Shanxiang wrote Like a Dragon and divided the material into one hundred sections. Though fuller than older works, these texts still wander into side branches and jumble their sequence; what they keep or drop is not always sound, and accounts disagree from book to book, leaving readers more confused. Each time one turns the pages, the same regret arises: this is truly a gap in the literature of the teaching.

Now, overreaching as I am, I have examined the classics and biographies of the three teachings, traced these records to their sources, and set out in order the acts of veneration and sacrifice offered to the Supreme Old Lord through the ages, compiling them as Sacred Annals, opening with a year-by-year chronicle. As for the beginning of the Five Greats (Wutai) and the start of the Nine Sovereigns (Jiuhuang), written records from those immortals had not yet appeared, and the canon cannot be searched in detail; therefore the present work begins only from the year in which the histories say Laojun responded to the world, with his chronology listed below.

Heavenly Sovereign (Tianhuang)

Huangfu Mi, Chronicle of Thirty-five Sovereigns.

Huangfu Mi’s Sanwu Li (Chronology of the Three and Five) states that when heaven and earth had just taken form, there was a Heavenly Sovereign (Tianhuang) with twelve heads, belonging to the Wood Phase (Wood Virtue), who reigned in the world; the calendar began with the Sheti era. He had twelve brothers, each ruling for eighteen thousand years.

Xu Zheng’s Sanwu Liji (Record of the Three and Five) says that at the opening of the Yuanxi age, there was a divine being titled the Heavenly Sovereign. At that time Laozi (the Old Lord) descended to the human realm and was called the “Celestial Master of Pervading Mystery” (Tongxuan Tianshi), also known as the “Great Master within the Profound” (Xuanzhong Dashi).

The Qingyang Gong Ji (Record of the Green Goat Palace), composed by Tang Hanlin academician and chief drafter of imperial edicts Le Penghao, says that the Supreme Ultimate Profound Origin Old Lord (Taishang Xuanyuan Laojun)—the honorific title in Daoism for Laozi—manifested in the world in accord with the times and served as teacher to the Heavenly Sovereign. At that time clear qi rose and turbid qi sank; heaven and earth had only just separated, and were still not far apart; the six directions and eight quarters had just begun to divide, and were likewise still close together. Laozi set right the forms of heaven and earth—the four quarters, the round and the square, above and below—and fixed the rough, primal layout of the primordial age. Rivers had only begun to flow together, and the waters were still murky and indistinct; the land was starting to solidify, and the rock was not yet firm. Laozi entrusted the four seas to the four deities and entrusted the Five Phases (Wuxing) to the Five Emperors (Wudi).

Earthly Sovereign (Dihuang)

Laozi descended again to serve as teacher to the Earthly Sovereign, styled the “Great Ancient Master” (Yougu Daxiansheng). The Tang Ji says that at that time the form of heaven was still low and the body of earth still thin; Laozi established the order of heaven and earth, fixed the directions, carried out teaching and built merit, and again entrusted the Five Phases to the Five Emperors.

Earthly Sovereign (continued)

The Tang Ji also says that heaven’s form was still low and earth’s body still thin. After Laozi concealed his traces he appeared once more as teacher to the Earthly Sovereign, arranging yin and yielding qi, establishing cold and heat, so that the earth grew thicker and the sky higher and clearer. His sacred power was inexhaustible and his wondrous achievements beyond measure. Trees put forth shoots in profusion and grasses began to sprout; birds and beasts were assigned respectively to the Dui and Li directions, while shelled and scaled creatures were distributed to the Kan and Zhen directions. Dui, Li, Kan, and Zhen are four of the positions in the Bagua (Eight Trigrams) scheme of directions.

Human Sovereign (Renhuang)

The Chunqiu Wei calls this the “Era of Nine Heads” (Jiutou Ji).

Laojun descended to the world and became the teacher of emperors and kings, known as “Master Pangu.” The Sanwu Liji (Chronicle of the Three and Five) records: Before heaven and earth were divided, all was chaos, like an egg, and Pangu was born within it. Later heaven and earth were opened apart, and Pangu remained between them; only afterward did the Three Sovereigns appear. This was the beginning of the formation of heaven and earth, humankind, and the myriad things.

The Tang Ji says that after years and ages in the “blue sea” era had passed, the two sages governed the realm and light shone in all directions. The Grand Supreme Elder Lord (Taishang Laojun) spread grace widely and rescued living beings, and served as teacher to the Human Sovereign. After that, the three hundred and sixty rivers and streams began to branch, fifteen thousand kinds of things first paired in twos; the spirits of the three ren and three yi were engendered from the qi of water and wood, and the generals of the six bing and six xin were born from the qi of fire and wind. Over one hundred fifty-six generations and more than forty-five thousand years, Laojun was first called “Celestial Master of Penetrating Mystery,” later “Sovereign Lord of the Golden Gate,” and his third title was “Master Pangu.”

The Five Dragon spirits were engendered from the qi of water and wood, and the generals of the six bing and six xin were born from the qi of fire and wind. Over one hundred fifty-six generations and more than forty-five thousand years, Laojun was first called “Celestial Master of Penetrating Mystery,” later “Sovereign Lord of the Golden Gate,” and his third title was “Master Pangu.”

The Five Dragon Age comprises five surnames; the era ruled by the Jade Emperor is called the Hook Dragon Age.

The Connected Age comprises six surnames; some versions write it as “Connected Remote Age.” The Chunqiu Wei, Hetu, and Wuhuang Li all write “Connected Age.”

The Hexiong Age comprises three surnames. The Chunqiu Wei writes “Hanxiong Age,” and the Chuzhi Tiandi Jing writes “Hexiong Age.”

The Five-Surname Age: the Hetu calls it “Tongji Five Surnames,” that is, the Five-Surname Age. The Chunqiu Wei records the Sheti Age; the Wuxing Ji also lists in order the Qiangyi Age.

The Shuming Age comprises four surnames. The Zhi Tiandi Jing writes “Hou Age,” and the Yuhuang Li writes “Xuanming Age.”

The Xiufei Age comprises nine surnames; the Hetu writes “Jufang Shi.”

The Yinti Age: the Hetu writes “Titing Age.”

The Chantong Age comprises seventy-two surnames; the Hetu writes “Tongxing Ji.”

The Liuqi Age: Shiji Suoyin · Sanhuang Ji says the Liuqi Age corresponds to the time of the Yellow Emperor, who established the nine ages.

According to the Genealogy of Surnames Substituted in the Hetu, in remotest antiquity humanity began to multiply. Men and women united in marriage and bore children; people took their mother’s lineage as their surname. The first “three-headed” beings were called the Hexiong clan, and their age was termed the era of the Third Generation. After Hexiong died, descendants passed down the line generation after generation and recorded each person’s lifespan; that stretch of time was called the Shuming Record era.

In the Tong Record period four surnames appeared and produced a second generation of descendants; as men and women grew more numerous they settled close together, which was called the Connected Record. Later they again produced a first generation of offspring; the Tong Record period had five surnames in all, called the Five Surnames Record. People lived together across the land, gathering by ties of kinship and closeness. With many men and women, they split into nine groups, each dwelling in a different place—hence they were called the Jufang clan.

After the Jufang clan had propagated for thirty-two generations, the strong bullied the weak and some even sought to devour or harm others. Then a divine person appeared who lifted and governed the multitude, and so they were called the Titing clan. The Titing clan propagated for thirty-five generations; the Tong Record altogether comprised seventy-two surnames, and so it was called the General Surname clan. After that came the Youchao clan: the nine groups of the world all submitted to and honored them. Youchao begat Suiren, and Suiren begat Fuxi.

The Hetu and the Sanwu Calendar record that after the Human Sovereign there were in succession clan leaders such as the Wulong clan, Suiren clan, Darning clan, Baihuang clan, Zhongyang clan, Juanxu clan, Lulu clan, Lilian clan, Hexu clan, Zunlu clan, Hundun clan, Haoying clan, Youchao clan, Zhuxiang clan, Getian clan, Yinkang clan, and Yuanhuai clan—but their surnames and the order of their generations can no longer be verified.

The San Fen records the Heavenly Sovereign and Fuxi. In its Policy Discourse it says that the Sovereign spoke to Xiang: “I command you to succeed me, occupy the position of the flying dragon, create graphs and patterns, and on my behalf proclaim to heaven, earth, and the four directions—do not err or go against my charge.”

Later, Haoying Shi presented the calendar to the sovereign and said: “The calendar begins from Jiayin.” The sovereign said: “On a Jia day, paired with Yin and Chen, Wood qi is strong at the Mao hour. In the second month, gather the people at the Teaching Altar and tell the common folk that reckoning of years starts from Jiayin.”

Later, Nüwa Shi and Yuanhuai Shi assisted the sovereign on his right; Gonggong served as chief minister and Huang Gen as deputy minister. Zhu Xiang Shi, titled Flying Dragon, and Haoying Shi, titled Hidden Dragon, stood to the sovereign’s left and right; Lulu Shi was in the north and Hexu Shi in the south. Kunlian Shi proclaimed to the people at the Teaching Altar that the year count began from Jiayin.

The sovereign said: “Lulu Shi, you hold the Flying Dragon post at my side. Nurture grasses and trees and keep springs and streams clear—do not miss the seasons. Daming Shi, you are in charge of dwellings. Look after people who still have no shelter; tell them they may help one another to build homes together so they do not suffer from cold. Yinkang Shi, you are in charge of water and soil so the people can settle safely and not be swept away by floods, and you must diligently maintain the roads. Hundun Shi, you hold the Hidden Dragon post at my side and devote yourself to governing the people. Kunlian Shi, you are in charge of blades, axes, and such tools—do not let wild beasts or tigers and the like harm the people.”

The sovereign also said to the chiefs of the four directions: “If you all follow my commands, the realm will be free of worry; as long as you cherish the people, the throne will not be shaken.” He added: “Do not seek comfort only for yourselves; let the people be secure. When the people are secure, you will be secure; when the people are in danger, you will be in danger as well. Keep this firmly in mind.”

According to what is recorded in the Sancang (the legendary classic of the Three Mounds), Fuxi Shi was the Later Heavenly Sovereign; Nüwa and Yuanhuai were his successors, Zhu Xiang and Haoying his sons, and Gonggong and Huang Gen his ministers. Lulu, Hexu, Kunlian, Getian, Daming, Yinkang, and Hundun were all his spirit-ministers.

In antiquity, when they served at court, the six high ministers each fulfilled their duties and jointly governed the state; when they went out to the four regions, they became local lords and rulers who governed the people—these were what were called the “Nine Heads.” They all actually lived in the same age, with no distinction of earlier or later generations; they were all divine beings.

If that is so, why do records in successive dynasties mostly treat them as figures who followed one another in time? Perhaps after Fuxi’s death, his descendants and the Nine-Head ministers all lived long lives and took turns as rulers; or perhaps the descendants of the ministers each received fiefs and founded states, continuing their ancestors’ surnames and titles.

The Hanshi Waizhuan says that from ancient times more than ten thousand feudal lords performed the fengshan rites on Mount Tai, and when Confucius investigated in person he could not identify them all. Guanzi also says that in antiquity seventy-two lords performed fengshan on Mount Tai, of whom Guan Zhong knew only twelve; the earliest among them was Lord Wuhuai. From this one can see that the emperors before Fuxi and their successive generations are already beyond full verification.

The Chunqiu Hua Cheng records that from the opening of Heaven and Earth to the “capture of the qilin” mentioned in the Spring and Autumn, a total of 3,276,000 years passed, divided into ten eras (ji): first the Era of the Nine Heads, second the Era of the Five Dragons, third the Era of Sheti, fourth the Era of Hexiong, fifth the Era of Liantong, sixth the Era of Shuming, seventh the Era of Xiufei, eighth the Era of Yinti, ninth the Era of Chantong, and tenth the Era of Liuqi. The Era of Liuqi roughly corresponds to the time of the Yellow Emperor, when the method of reckoning by the nine eras was established.

From the thirty-ninth year of King Jing of Zhou—the gengshen year of the twelfth year of Duke Ai of Lu (the year of the western hunt and capture of the qilin)—counting back to the first year of the Yellow Emperor, the dinghai year, there are only 3,930 years. Counting further from the Yellow Emperor up to the opening of Heaven and Earth, it is said there should still be more than 3,272,000 years. Thus for the reigns of emperors since the beginning, most of the intervening periods can no longer be known with certainty.

Although the material that can be checked against sources occasionally appears in writings of the various masters and in apocryphal and omen literature, its origins are often uncertain and there is no widely accepted reliable basis for it; what follows is therefore recorded provisionally, without definitive judgment.

Fu Xi

Grand Emperor Fu Xi (a legendary ruler of high antiquity), surnamed Feng, was associated with the virtue of Wood in the Five Phases. He was the first to establish a calendar and took the year jia-yin as the starting point of reckoning. Nüwa succeeded him; tradition says their line continued for forty-five thousand six hundred years.

Hetu Daixing Ji (Genealogical Records of the River Chart) states that Fu Xi was the son of Suiren Shi; because he was born following the wind, he took the surname Feng. When the dragon-horse appeared bearing the River Chart (an auspicious diagram of legend), Fu Xi began to draw the Eight Trigrams (Bagua). He ordered the Dragon-Flying clan to create the six categories of writing (the classical division of Chinese script), and the Hidden-Dragon clan to establish the sexagenary calendar (reckoning years by the ten heavenly stems and twelve earthly branches). Fu Xi made ox-drawn implements and smelted metal to manufacture tools, and taught the people to cook food; he changed the Nine-Head clan into nine pastoral domains (legendary local offices). He established offices when dragons appeared and composed music when the phoenix came. All under heaven called him “Heavenly Sovereign Grand Emperor.”

While Fu Xi held the throne, Laojun (the Lord Lao) was born into the world, dwelling in the wilds under the style Yuhua zi. Tang Ji records that when Paoxi Shi ruled the realm, our Supreme Lord Laojun (Taishang Laojun), extending salvation through the Dao, descended in transformed guise to serve as his teacher, instructing him in drawing the Eight Trigrams, distinguishing the three powers of Heaven, Earth, and humanity, helping him create written contracts and institutions, and using these to replace knot-record keeping and methods of governing affairs.

Zhu Rong

The Flame Emperor (Yandi) surnamed Jiang was associated with the virtue of Fire and took the year bing-chen as the starting point of reckoning. He first taught the people pottery and smelting, and for that reason was called the Flame Emperor.

According to the Record of Posthumous Titles in the Book of Rites, Zhurong is placed before Shennong; other commentaries reverse the order and put Shennong before Zhurong. On careful examination, Zhurong was an ancestor of the Yan Emperor (Yandi), who ruled by the virtue of fire (huode); his rank ought not to come after Shennong’s, so the account in the Book of Rites should be followed here. Gaoyang’s son Li served as huozheng (director of fire affairs), and was therefore also called Zhurong; he later became the god who presides over fire in the south. The Monthly Ordinances says: “His emperor is Yan Di; his spirit is Zhurong.” This shows that Zhurong was indeed regarded as the ancestral spirit of the fire virtue. At that time Laozi descended in Jiyin, with the style name Guangshou and the courtesy name … (the original text breaks off here).

Shennong

Shennong, also known as the Lianshan clan, was a descendant of Zhurong. He was the first to teach the people to cultivate various grains, and was therefore called Shennong (“Divine Farmer”). His line passed the throne from generation to generation for five hundred and thirty years in all.

The River Chart’s Record of Successive Surnames calls Shennong a “Human Sovereign” (renhuang). At that time Laozi descended in Jiyin under the style name Dachengzi. The Tang Annals records: when the Lianshan clan ruled the realm, the Supreme Venerable Sovereign (Taishang Laojun), to aid the world, humbled himself to become teacher to the emperors. He transmitted to them the five cycles of transformation (wuyun—the patterns of the Five Phases’ movement), arranged government by the four seasons, assisted in all affairs, and taught people to distinguish the hundred grains. He changed the custom of eating raw meat and drinking blood; reformed the practice of using clods and wooden sticks as musical instruments; taught people to leave caves and treetop dwellings and build houses with roofs and frames; taught smelting metal and firing pottery, stir-frying millet and boiling pork; and made the plow and spade (lei and si) to relieve the multitudes, developing ceramic and metallurgical arts so that the ten thousand things might benefit. Heaven sent down grain seeds as an auspicious sign; the earth brought forth crops, showing abundance.

Huangdi (Yellow Emperor)

The Youxiong clan, surnamed Gongsun, possessed the virtue of Earth (tude) and began their rule in the year dinghai. Their descendants succeeded one another for a total of one thousand five hundred and twenty years. The Hetu daixing ji (Genealogical Record of Surnames in the River Chart) calls them the “Earthly Sovereign” (Dihuang). At that time Laojun (the Supreme Lord venerated in Daoism) descended into the human world, dwelt on Mount Kongtong, and was known as Master Guangcheng.

The Tang ji (Records of the Tang) states: when the Youxiong clan held sway over the realm, our Supreme Lord Laojun secluded himself on Mount Kongtong, his spirit roaming the deep and distant dark. The Yellow Emperor came in person, performed the rites of a disciple, reverently visited his teacher, straightened his garments, hastened to one side, knelt, and asked instruction in the Great Dao.

At that time Jian’gang tyrannized the land and Chiyou raised rebellion. Laojun transformed fish and turtles into soldiers to aid the royal army, and turned clouds and rosy light into numinous powers to support the battle lines in secret. He stilled the calamity of arms at the Battle of Zhuolu and likewise halted the clash of weapons at the Battle of Banquan. Later he traveled east to the land of Green Mound and north to the region of Hongdi, received the elixir scripture (danjing—the classic on refining elixir and cultivating the Dao) in the Jade Chamber, ascended the Cauldron Lake, and rose into the vast azure heavens. Quyi (the auspicious plant said to expose the wicked) sprang up, and Mojie (another legendary plant of good omen) appeared once more. Had it not been for the power of the Great Dao, who could have brought these things about?

Examining the Yujing jing (Jade Weft Classic), there are three accounts that divide the Three Sovereigns (Sanhuang) into early, middle, and late generations, hence they are called the Nine Sovereigns (jiuhuang). The Dongzhen Dayou jing (Great Comprehensive Scripture of the Cavern of Spirit) says that each generation of the Three Sovereigns ruled for three thousand six hundred years; the Xiaoyou jing (Small Comprehensive Scripture) says that each generation of the Three Sovereigns ruled for ten thousand eight hundred years. Looking closely at these two statements, the Dayou jing speaks only of one generation of Three Sovereigns, each sovereign ruling three thousand six hundred years; the Xiaoyou jing treats all three generations of Three Sovereigns together, each sovereign ruling ten thousand eight hundred years. If the early, middle, and late generations of the Nine Sovereigns are counted together, the total span is thirty-two thousand four hundred years. Some say it is eighteen thousand years—likely a slip that wrote “thousand” for “hundred.”

Now, following the explanation in the Laozi neizhuan (Inner Biography of Laozi), it aligns exactly with both the Dayou jing and the Xiaoyou jing. As for the early and middle generations of the Three Sovereigns each lasting nine thousand nine hundred myriads of years, that refers to the grand tally of a kalpa (jie—an immensely long cosmic cycle), not merely to the lifespan of the Three Sovereigns themselves.

The so-called “later sovereigns and emperors” are recorded in ways that align with the texts Dayou and Xiaoyou. It is also said that the first three sovereigns and the middle three sovereigns each lasted nine thousand nine hundred myriad years—this is a reckoning of the total span of one great kalpa, not a claim that each of the three sovereigns individually lived that long.

As for the three sovereigns spoken of in later ages, the various biographies and records do not agree. The Dongshen jing and Xiang Jun name only the Heavenly Sovereign, Earthly Sovereign, and Human Sovereign as the three sovereigns. The Sanfen shu takes Fuxi as Heavenly Sovereign, Shennong as Human Sovereign, and the Yellow Emperor as Earthly Sovereign. Huangfu Mi’s commentary on the Chunqiu yundou shu, and the commentaries of Zheng Xuan and Gao You on the Lüshi chunqiu, all treat Paoxi, Nüwa, and Shennong as the three sovereigns. The Liji shiming ji holds that Fuxi, Zhurong, and Shennong are the three sovereigns; Kong Anguo, Wei Zhao, and Tao Hongjing take Fuxi, Shennong, and the Yellow Emperor as the three sovereigns. The Shangshu dazhuan and Ying Shao and Qiao Zhou identify Suiren, Paoxi, and Shennong as the three sovereigns; the Liaoshi holds that Youchao, Suiren, and Yixi are the three sovereigns. The Dixi pu, Zhong jing, Chusai ji, Laixiang ji, and other works each give their own versions. The traditions differ from one another, and it is hard to say lightly which is right and which is wrong.

Emperor Wu of Liang took Fuxi, Shennong, and Suiren as the three sovereigns, and the Yellow Emperor, Shaohao, Di Ku, Di Zhi, and Emperor Yao as the five emperors. He also said that Shun belonged neither to the three sovereigns nor to the five emperors, and grouped the three kings with them under the name “four generations.” That scheme is especially hard to accept. Down the ages opinions have been tangled, and there has never been a settled conclusion.

Shaohao

Shaohao, titled Jintian Shi, was a descendant of the Yellow Emperor. He rose under the virtue of Metal and began his rise in the year xinwei. His line passed down through successive generations for four hundred years in all.

Laojun (Supreme Lord Laojun) descended again upon Kongtong Mountain, known as "Suiying Liuyi" and also styled "Master Taiji." The Tang Ji records: When Jintian Shi ruled the realm, Taishang Laojun descended to the human world riding a chariot drawn by nine dragons, serving as his teacher under the title Master Taiji. Laojun expounded the canon of reverence and propriety, teaching him to align with the seasons and welcome the solar terms, clearly showing how to harmonize with the numinous. Birds displayed auspicious signs, whereupon he was commanded to establish the "Wuguan" office, assigning nine types of birds by rank to oversee the hundred officials. The sun and moon joined in harmony to manifest efficacy; the phoenix brought forth books to reveal propitious omens. All these arose from the supreme Dao and exemplified the imperial model.

Zhuanxu

Zhuanxu, also known as Gaoyang Shi, bore the surname Ji, belonged to the Water Phase, and reigned for seventy-eight years. In the first year of his reign, he divided nine types of birds to oversee the hundred officials; the sun and moon joined in harmony to manifest efficacy; the phoenix brought forth books to display propitious omens. All these arose from the supreme Dao and exemplified the imperial model.

Zhuanxu

Zhuanxu, also known as Gaoyang Shi, bore the surname Ji, belonged to the Water Phase, and reigned for seventy-eight years, with the first year of his reign being the xinmao year.

Laojun descended upon Hengshan, styled "Chijingzi." The Tang Ji records: When Gaoyang Shi ruled the realm, Taishang Laojun taught him to resolve disputes and restrain desires, thereby governing the state and settling the people; he cleansed the turmoil of the Nine Li and employed eight worthy ministers. In the Longye region there were fierce men with purple beards, as well as chieftains with serpent bodies and red hair. They wielded force and employed craft, causing upheaval: one of them struck a mountain with his head, shattering it; the heavens tilted toward the northwest, and thus the sun and moon moved westward; the earth sank toward the southeast, and rivers, lakes, and seas flowed southeastward. Laojun summoned the Six Jia divine generals and commanded the hundred numinous beings, instructing them with subtle words and admonishing them according to the principles of the Great Dao. He rode a swift azure chariot, sometimes journeying to Youling; he also traveled far in a plain crystal carriage, sometimes reaching Panmu.

Emperor Ku

Emperor Ku, also known as Gaoxin Shi, was a descendant of the Yellow Emperor, belonged to the Wood Phase, and reigned for seventy years, with the first year of his reign being the jiyou year.

Laojun descended to the human world, dwelling by the river, styled "Lutu."

Emperor Ku

Emperor Ku, also known as Gaoxin Shi, was a descendant of the Yellow Emperor, belonged to the Wood Phase, and reigned for seventy years, with the first year of his reign being the jiyou year.

When the Supreme Lord Lao descended to the human realm, he dwelt by the river and was known as Lutuzi. Tang-dynasty historical records state that during the reign of Gaoxin, who ruled the world, the Supreme Lord Lao propagated the Great Dao, taught the people, aided his contemporaries, and served as teacher to humanity. He expounded the subtle meaning of the Huangting Jing (Yellow Court Scripture), hid the sun and avoided the moon, and received the honored title “Lutu”; he moved cities and established governance for the nine regions, and composed the music Liuying (Six Splendors). He enfeoffed Gou Mang to assist the Green Emperor and commanded Ping Shou to assist the White Direction; he performed the feng and shan rites at Daiyue (Mount Tai), sealing with gold mud; he illumined the world and opened the jade mirror; he drank water from the Well of Great Vitality and traveled in the Land of Unending Day.

Emperor Yao

The Taotang clan, surname Yiqí, possessed Fire De (huode), reigned seventy years, with the first year of his reign in the wuxu year.

The Supreme Lord Lao descended to the human realm, dwelt on Mount Jiruo (a legendary immortal mountain), and was known as Wuchengzi. Tang-dynasty historical records state that during the reign of the Taotang, who ruled the world—

Emperor Yao

The Taotang clan, surname Yiqí, possessed Fire De, reigned seventy years, with the first year of his reign in the wuxu year.

The Supreme Lord Lao descended to the human realm, dwelt on Mount Jiruo, and was known as Wuchengzi. Tang-dynasty historical records state that during the reign of the Taotang, who ruled the world, the Supreme Lord Lao temporarily manifested the highest Dao, descended to serve as imperial teacher, lectured on and clarified scriptures of mysterious virtue to support profound transformation; he matched the auspicious name of Danling and aspired to rank among the immortals of Danqiu (a legendary fairyland). He wore a hide cloak for covering, took coarse food for sustenance, and sat upright upon an earthen terrace; he hung up the crane mantle (the feather robe worn by Daoist priests), drank flowing rosy wine, and gathered his spirit in contemplation within the jade garden of the immortal realm.

Emperor Shun

The Youyu clan, surname Yao, possessed Earth De (tude), served as regent for thirty years and formally reigned fifty years, with the first year of his reign in the wushen year.

Laojun descended to the human realm and dwelt at Heyang, taking the style “Yin Shouzi” (Master Yin Shou). The Tang Ji records that when the You clan (the legendary ancient sovereign Shun) ruled the realm, the Supreme Lord Laojun expounded the principles of wuwei (non-action) and explained how things part and reunite and how change unfolds. The San Miao were thereby pacified, those guilty of the “four offenses” submitted to governance, officials each fulfilled their duties and administration ran in order, and the Five Classics (wudian) of antiquity were made clear. Laojun bore the pearl that symbolizes luminous divinity and bestowed jade that shines in splendor.

The Kongzi Jiayu (Confucian Analects in the Family Sayings) records that Ji Kangzi asked Confucius: “I have heard the names of the Five Sovereigns, but I do not grasp their meaning. Who are the Five Sovereigns?” Confucius replied: “I once heard La Dan (Laozi) say that Heaven has the Five Phases—Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and Earth. Each presides over its season and generates and nourishes the myriad things; the spirits of the Five Phases are called the Five Sovereigns. When ancient rulers succeeded one another, they changed their titles and took the Five Phases as their model. The Phases take turns in charge, linking end to beginning in mutual generation, and rulers imitated this pattern. Thus when a worthy ruler passed away, he was paired in sacrifice with the spirit corresponding to each Phase: Taihao with Wood, Yandi with Fire, Huangdi with Earth, Shaohao with Metal, and Zhuanxu with Water.”

Ji Kangzi asked: “Why does Taihao begin with Wood?” Confucius said: “When the Five Phases first operate, they start from Wood. Wood belongs to the East, where the myriad things sprout and grow. Therefore rulers modeled this law and first governed the realm with the virtue of Wood; afterward they followed the order of mutual generation, each Phase succeeding the one before.”

Ji Kangzi asked again: “I have heard that Gou Mang is the official of Wood, Zhurong of Fire, Ru Shou of Metal, Xuan Ming of Water, and Hou Tu of Earth. They oversee the Five Phases, and rulers also model the Phases—why are these spirit-officials not called ‘Sovereigns’?” Confucius answered: “What are called the Five Correctors are the titles of the officials who preside over the Five Phases.”

The movement of the Five Phases assists the Lord on High in governing the myriad things, hence the title “Five Emperors”; ancient rulers such as Taihao were also included in this group, so the imperial title was retained. Shaohao’s son Chong served as Gou Mang, and [another son] served as Ru Shou; Xiu and Xi served as Xuan Ming; Zhuanxu’s son Li served as Zhu Rong; Gong Gong’s son Gou Long served as Hou Tu. These five men each exercised their talents in their appointed roles; while alive they were high lords, and after death they became honored spirits—hence the term “Five Sacrifices” (the rites honoring earth, grain, and related deities), which cannot be ranked alongside the Five Emperors.

Kangzi asked: “Why were the rulers of the eras of Taotang, Youyu, Xia, Shang, and Zhou not paired in sacrifice with the Five Emperors? Was it because their virtue fell short of the ancient sovereigns, or because there was some fixed rule?”

Confucius replied: “In antiquity many people managed water and soil and sowed the hundred grains, yet only Gou Long jointly received sacrifice as the god of the soil, while Qi became the god of grain (the deity in charge of crops)—honored in sacrifice through the ages without change. This shows they could not be treated as equal to others. Therefore, from Taihao through Zhuanxu, although many men followed the Five Phases and styled themselves kings, it was not the case that one ruler in every five generations was chosen to be paired with the Five Emperors in sacrifice. A person of outstanding virtue cannot be expected to appear exactly once every five generations.”

Liu Daoyuan of the Song, in his commentary on the “Annals of Shun” in Outlines of History Beyond the Comprehensive Mirror, said: The Six Classics nowhere record the Three Sovereigns, Five Emperors, and Three Kings as a fixed historical sequence. The Appended Remarks, Part Two of the Commentary on the Changes states: “When Paoxi passed away, Shennong arose; when Shennong passed away, the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun rose in succession.” The text speaks of generations turning over and rulers succeeding one another—it never gives numbers like “Three Sovereigns” or “Five Emperors.” Some people count from Paoxi to Shun as the Five Emperors, but Confucius never said so; one should not force a reading or invent explanations out of thin air.

The Guanzi says: “Those who grasp the Way of unity are called huang (August Ones); those who penetrate principle are called di (Emperors); those who thoroughly embody virtue are called wang (Kings); those who plan well and defeat opponents are called ba (Hegemons).” Kong Yingda held that the book Guanzi may have been compiled by later hands and was not necessarily written by Guan Zhong himself.

Some people hold that Zhuangzi and Liezi are nothing but fanciful, invented allegories, and that Han and Qin scholars admired their prose and arguments and so competed to discourse on the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors without realizing that such figures never existed in antiquity. That view can seem plausible at first glance, but when one examines the actual evidence, it hardly counts as a full verdict. The reigns and dates of rulers recorded in those books often clash with dynastic histories and calendrical reconstructions, and when one tries to align them by the sexagenary cycle they still fail to match. Whether this comes from copyists’ errors, authors deliberately seeking novelty, or a focus on the big picture with no time for detail cannot yet be settled.

When Zai Wo once asked Confucius about ancient legends, Confucius said he had only a rough hearing of them; how much more so for people farther from antiquity and less learned than the sage? When Ji Kangzi asked about the Five Emperors, Confucius replied that he had heard about them from Old Dan (Laozi) and did not say that there had been no Five Emperors in ancient times. That too shows how the sage trusted and valued ancient culture.

In the prefatory table of “Basic Annals of the Five Emperors” in Records of the Grand Historian, Sima Qian writes that scholars had long discussed the Five Emperors, but the Documents (Shangshu) records only from Yao onward. When the hundred schools spoke of the Yellow Emperor, their wording was not elegant or reliable enough for literati to build arguments on. Among materials transmitted by Confucius, Zai Yu had asked about “The Virtue of the Five Emperors” and “Genealogies of the Emperors,” yet some Ru scholars did not transmit these texts.

Sima Qian traveled west to Kongtong, north through Zhuolu, east to the sea, and south by boat along the Yangzi and Huai. He found that local elders often said the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun had acted and taught in those places and that customs differed from region to region, but the stories broadly matched what old books said. He judged that Spring and Autumn and Discourses of the States (Guoyu) had already explained “The Virtue of the Five Emperors” and “Genealogies of the Emperors” quite clearly; as long as one does not obsess over minute details, the deeds they record are not wholly groundless. Where ancient books are incomplete, related anecdotes still surface in other works. Without diligent study, deep reflection, and careful grasp of meaning, it is hard to explain this clearly to those with narrow experience. The Grand Historian read widely and personally inspected ancient sites—he deserves to be called an outstanding historian.

Yu of Xia.

The Si clan (dynastic surname of the Metal Virtue era) belonged to Metal Virtue (Jinde). Records of regnal chronology are inherently hard to explain to those with little learning or narrow experience. Grand Historian Sima Qian read widely and cross-checked ancient traditions from many sources; he truly merits praise as an outstanding historian.

Yu of Xia

Yu was of the Si clan and of Metal Virtue. His first regnal year was the year wuxu; the year began with jianyin (the month yin as the first month). The Xia line passed from generation to generation for 432 years in all.

Laojun (Taishang Laojun, supreme figure in Daoist veneration) descended to the human realm, dwelt on Mount Shang, and styled himself Zhenxingzi. The Tang Annals states: When the Xia ruled the realm, the Supreme Lord assisted the kingly Way, served as teacher to the sovereign, expounded the Way of De (Virtue/Power), and took that as the standard for governing.

Tang of Shang

Tang was of the Zi clan and of Water Virtue. His first regnal year was the year gengxu; the year began with jianchou (the month chou as the first month). He reigned thirteen years. The Shang line passed from generation to generation for 613 years in all.

Laojun descended to the human realm, dwelt on Mount Qian, and styled himself Xizezi. The Tang Annals states: When Cheng Tang ruled the realm, the Supreme Lord temporarily left the left pole of the cosmos, came down as teacher to the king, expounded the Way of longevity, and observed and followed the natural order.

These accounts also appear in the Genealogies of Emperors, Annals of Emperors and Kings, the Dongzhen scripture Dayou Jing, the Yuli Jing, the Chusai Ji, geographical gazetteers, Qiao Zhou’s Ancient Historical Inquiry, the Biographies of Immortals, and the Gazetteer of Commanderies and Kingdoms, among other works. Although Laojun took bodily form and descended according to the times to teach, he withdrew once his task was done; hence there is no clear record in the world of his birth.

Waibing: first regnal year genghai; reigned two years.

Zhongren: first regnal year yichou; reigned four years.

Taijia: first regnal year jisi; reigned thirty-three years; titled Grand Ancestor, also called Zujia.

Woding: first regnal year renyin; reigned twenty-nine years.

Taigeng: first regnal year xinwei; reigned thirty-five years.

Xiaojia: first regnal year bingwu; reigned seventeen years.

Yongji: first regnal year guihai; reigned twelve years.

In the first year of Taiwu, the year was yisi; Xinwei year; he reigned for thirty-five years.

In the first year of Xiaojia, the year was bingwu; he reigned for seventeen years.

In the first year of Yongji, the year was guihai; he reigned for twelve years.

In the first year of Taiwu, the year was yihai; his honorific title was Zhongzong; he reigned for seventy-five years.

In the first year of Zhongding, the year was gengyin; he reigned for eleven years.

In the first year of Wairen, the year was xinchou; he reigned for five years.

In the first year of Hezhijia, the year was bingwu; he reigned for nine years.

In the first year of Zuji, the year was yimao; he reigned for twenty-one years.

In the first year of Zuxin, the year was yihai; he reigned for sixteen years.

In the first year of Wojia, the year was xinmao; he reigned for twenty-two years.

In the first year of Zuding, the year was guichou; he reigned for twenty-two years.

In the first year of Nangeng, the year was yihai; he reigned for twenty-nine years.

In the first year of Yangjia, the year was jiachen; he reigned for eighteen years.

In the seventeenth year of Yangjia, the year gengshen, Laojun (the honorific title for the Supreme Old Lord in Daoism) differentiated a divine consciousness from the realm of Taqing (one of the celestial paradises in Daoist cosmology), descended in embodied form, and was entrusted to a womb in the belly of the Xuanmiao Yunu (a woman of sacred status).

In the first year of Pangeng, the year was renxu; he reigned for twenty-nine years.

In the first year of Xiaoxin, the year was xinmao; he reigned for twenty-one years.

In the first year of Xiaoyi, the year was renzi; he reigned for twenty years.

In the first year of Wuding, the year was renshen; he reigned for fifty-nine years; his honorific title was Gaozong. [Nine] Xuanmiao Yunu.

In the first year of Pangeng, the year was renxu; he reigned for twenty-nine years.

In the first year of Xiaoxin, the year was xinmao; he reigned for twenty-one years.

In the first year of Xiaoyi, the year was renzi; he reigned for twenty years.

In the first year of King Wuding, the year was renshen; he reigned fifty-nine years and was posthumously titled Gaozong. In the ninth year of Wuding, gengchen, on the fifteenth day of the second month with jianyin as the first month—that is, the full moon of the second month in the Shang calendar, equivalent to the later Shangyuan Festival—the Comprehensive Mirror Outside the Annals states that before the Xia dynasty the first month was always established at jianyin; after King Tang of Shang replaced Xia, the first month was changed to jianchou.

According to this record, Lord Lao (Laozi) was born in the ninth year of Wuding. From the seventeenth year of Yangjia, when he entered the womb in incarnation, until this time eighty-one years had passed. Liu Xiang’s Biographies of Immortals says Laozi was born in the Shang period; Ji Kang and Huangfu Mi say he was born at the end of the Shang. The Tang dynasty fixed Lord Lao’s birthday as the Zhenyuan Festival.

Yue Penggui’s account says that when King Gaozong of Shang was on the throne and King Wen of Zhou was beginning to develop the Changes, divine light entered a jade-like womb and auspicious qi condensed into golden bones; the fetus was born whole, and gestation lasted more than eighty years. After Lord Lao’s birth, more than twenty thousand days passed. In the forty-third year of Wuding, jiayin, Lord Lao descended riding a white deer, ascended to the top of a cypress in the courtyard, and then soared upward. The Grand Pure Palace (Taigong) in Bozhou still has traces associated with ascending on a white deer.

The first year of Zugeng was xinwei; he reigned seventeen years.

The first year of Zujia was wuzi; he reigned seventeen years.

The first year of Zhixin was yisi; he reigned six years.

The first year of Gengding was xinhai; he reigned twenty-one years.

The first year of Wuyi was renshen; he reigned four years. Wuyi slighted Heaven and was killed by a thunderbolt.

The first year of Taiding was bingzi; he reigned four years.

The first year of Diyi was gengchen; he reigned twenty-seven years.

The first year of King Zhou (Xin) was dingwei; he reigned twenty-seven years, until the year guiwei.

In the dingmao year, Lord Lao was born south of Mount Qi and was known as “Suanyi zi.” At that time King Wen of Zhou held the title Lord of the West and summoned him to serve as keeper of the archives—an official who managed the library and records. The Shiben (Genealogies) records that Laozi served in the Shang dynasty as historian under the pillar. Zheng Xuan’s commentary on the Analects states: “Lao Peng was a virtuous grand officer of the Shang.” Kong Yingda explains that “Lao” here refers to Lao Dan (Laozi).

King Wu of Zhou, of the Ji clan, aligned with the virtue of Wood and took the month jianzi as the first month of the year. He rose in arms in the guiyou year, overthrew the Shang, and ascended the throne, reigning for ninety-six years. His descendants then ruled in succession for a total of eight hundred sixty-five years.

Some identify Laozi (Laozi) with the office of zhuxiashi (record-keeper under the pillar). Both the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) and Liu Xin’s Qilüe (Seven Summaries) state that he served as shoucangshi (keeper of the archives) for the Zhou dynasty—a court historian in charge of canonical texts. Ge Hong’s Neizhuan (Inner Biography) says that under King Wen of Zhou he was shoucangshi, and under King Wu he was zhuxiashi. Only Liu Xiang’s Liexian Zhuan (Biographies of Immortals) records that Laozi was born in the Shang dynasty and first served as zhuxiashi under Zhou, later becoming shoucangshi. If he was born in the Shang, the periods in which he held these two posts would logically fall in the era of King Wen of Zhou. Even so, which office came first remains unsettled.

According to Yang Xiong’s Fangyan (Regional Words), it was once said that Zhou historians collated the classics and that Qin documents were also stored in the palace archives of Zhou and Qin. The Zhuangzi records that Confucius planned to go west to deposit books in the Zhou royal archive; Zilu then advised: “I have heard that among the Zhou historians who manage the classics there is one named La Dan. Matters concerning the palace where books are kept can all be asked of Laozi. If the master wishes to deposit books, he might first call on him.” This is probably because Confucius intended to deposit books, knew that Laozi had been a historian familiar with where texts were kept and well versed in ancient sayings and events, and therefore sought him out first.

The Zhouli (Rites of Zhou) records that the Zhou court had the offices of royal historian, grand historian, inner historian, outer historian, and supervising historian—the “five historians”; feudal states also had historians. Hence the Liji (Book of Rites) says that when the ruler acted, the left historian recorded it; when the ruler spoke, the left historian recorded that too. The left historian oversaw ritual propriety; the inner and grand historians were chiefs among the various historians and kept records from all quarters. The writings of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors were stored in the palace chambers, so the historian who guarded these texts was called shoucangshi.

Under King You of Zhou there was Boyang Fu; Tang Gu commented that this was Laozi in the role of zhuxiashi. Under King Lie of Zhou there was Grand Historian Yin; Xiu likewise held that this was Laozi. Grand historian was a lower grandee of Zhou; the grand historian headed the five historians and also oversaw the archives, and was therefore also called shoucangshi.

The Grand Historian (Taishi) was a lower grandee (xia dafu) of the Zhou dynasty. The duties of the five categories of historiographers were all overseen by the Grand Historian, who was responsible for recording speeches and affairs of state. The Grand Historian once worked beside the pillar in front of the ruler, so “under the pillar” (zhuxia) later also became a name for that office. Wei Zhao said that Laozi (here called Boyang) serving as a grandee meant that he held the post of Grand Historian, at the rank of lower grandee.

The Shiji records that Zhang Cang loved calendrical science and served as Censor-in-Chief under the Qin, in charge of documents “under the pillar.” According to the Zhouli, the Censor (yushi) assisted in handling documents and edicts and also kept charge of various records; the Qin system of censors was not the same as that of Zhou. The Shiben says that in the Shang Laozi served as Keeper of the Archives (shoucang shi), and in Zhou as Historian under the Pillar (zhuxia shi). Perhaps because King Wen of Zhou was still serving the Shang as a feudal lord and the state could not yet be called Zhou, Laozi first was Keeper of the Archives and only later Historian under the Pillar.

Liu Xiang’s account is that Laozi was first appointed Grand Historian; because his nature was quiet and modest, he was later transferred to another historiographer post; in old age he was dismissed and returned home. Under King Lie he again served as Grand Historian. He had served under many Zhou rulers and thus also held various historiographer posts. That is why the order of “Keeper of the Archives” and “Historian under the Pillar” differs in different accounts.

Ban Gu said Laozi was an old historiographer of Zhou who had served under the pillar and therefore enjoyed long life. On Ban Gu’s view, Laozi lived through many reigns and long held historiographer office, hence he was called the “old historiographer.” In the Sui dynasty, Palace Secretary Xue Daoheng wrote the “Hymn for the Ancestral Temple,” whose preface also says that from Fuxi down to Zhou Laozi passed through successive ages and witnessed changes in institutions and names; under Kings Wen and Wu he served as Keeper of the Archives and Historian under the Pillar. Dynasties and affairs changed again and again, yet his appearance did not alter.

In the first year of King Cheng, year wuyin, he reigned forty-seven years.

The Old Lord still held the post of Historian under the Pillar and was titled Master Jingcheng. He transmitted the Dao to the Duke of Zhou, then traveled to the far west to Great Qin, Zhuqian (India), and other lands, styling himself the Ancient Master (Guxiansheng). According to the Laozi Neizhuan:

In the age of Fuxi he was called Master Yuhua; in the age of Shennong, Master Chuanyu; in the age of Zhurong, Master Guangshou; in the age of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), Master Guangcheng; in the age of Zhuanxu, Master Chijingzi; in the age of Di Ku, Master Lutuzi; in the age of Emperor Yao of Tang, Master Wucheng; in the age of Emperor Shun of Yu, Master Yinshou; in the age of Yu of Xia, Master Ningzhen; in the age of Tang of Shang, Master Xize. He also guided King Wen and King Wu of Zhou, and in all served as teacher to roughly twelve sovereigns.

The inscription on the Qingxu Hall (Qingxu Guan), written by Xiao Ziyun, Gentleman of the Yellow Gate under the Liang dynasty, likewise says: “In the age of the vast void (Taixu), in the remote age of Yu, his title was Master Ningzhen.” Here “title” (hao) means an honorific name, and “imperial teacher” (dishi) means the sovereign’s instructor; these names are the designations of one and the same figure in different eras, as the scripture states.

Lord Lao once served as “Zhenxingzi” and “Xizezi” during the era of King Tang of Shang, and also guided King Wen and King Wu; in all he was teacher to nearly twelve sovereigns. The “Stele Inscription for the Qingxu Pavilion,” composed by Xiao Ziyun, Chamberlain for Attendants of the Liang dynasty, likewise states: the Great Void is boundless, beyond words and forms; the Dao responds to the myriad things, taking different names as circumstances vary. When Lord Lao was born, his hair was already white. In the time of Yao he was called “Wucheng”; in the time of Shun, “Yinshou.” Chijingzi (the Red Essence Master) should have appeared in the era of Zhuanxu, while “Lutuzi” is said in this stele to have emerged in the era of Shennong. Those who attain the Dao merge with the One and harbor primordial Qi (vital energy); the root of imperial rule begins here. It also says: Lord Lao roams above the Nine Heavens and, below the gate towers of the palace (signifying the court), commands the hundred numina; his realm is lofty and vast, beyond naming in words.

Older records all say that in the Shennong era Lord Lao was called “Dachengzi,” and in the era of Di Ku he was “Lutuzi”; only this stele places “Lutuzi” in the Shennong period. The Inner Traditions also say that in the Shennong era Lord Lao was called “Chuanyuzi.” Such accounts inevitably disagree in places; on the whole one should take the scriptures and transmitted texts as authoritative.

When Ge Hong compiled the Biographies of Divine Transcendents, he doubted the claim that Lord Lao had served as teacher to emperors in successive ages, holding that these stories appear only in scattered fragments and not in the formal classics of immortal biography. He also argued that Lord Lao ought not to abandon purity and loftiness to enter the turbid world, nor forsake celestial office to accept human titles and stipends. Ge Hong further pointed out: since Heaven and Earth exist, the way of cultivation exists; in every generation there are those who cultivate the Dao—why should Lord Lao alone always be the imperial teacher? Such views, he suggested, were the work of later scholars, curious and eager for novelty, seeking to elevate Lord Lao.

Yin Wencao, abbot of Haotian Abbey in the Tang, once wrote an essay criticizing Ge Hong: Ge Hong wrote the Biographies of Divine Transcendents in order to awaken those who were confused. He thought Lord Lao had attained the Dao through cultivation, thereby teaching later generations to strive in practice; if one said Laozi was a person who had achieved the Dao, people would strive to imitate him, whereas if one said he was a god born that way, people would feel they could not learn from him. Yin Wencao regarded this as merely Ge Hong’s own speculation. Ge Hong did not understand that at the beginning when Heaven and Earth were opened, besides those who attained the Dao through study and cultivation, there were also sages born of themselves who became teachers of the multitude and transmitted the Dao according to different circumstances.

The Dingzhi Jing (Scripture of Fixed Intent) states: In the beginning, when the Celestial Worthy established the teaching of great compassion, his conduct accorded with nature and secretly aligned with the principles of the Great Dao; through this he naturally apprehended the profound mystery. At that time there were originally no written words; only later were texts compiled into scriptures to instruct later generations.

Viewed in this light, Lord Lao also followed nature, studied the Dao, and served as humanity’s teacher generation after generation—what room is there for doubt? Since he is the father of great compassion, why would he decline an exalted station, stoop to a lowly position, and mingle with the turbidity of the mundane world?

Lord Lao said to Guan Yinzi: “From high antiquity until now, the ages I have passed through are as numerous as grains of sand. Whenever I have acted, I have left traces; looking back, it has truly been arduous and diligent.”

The Taixuan Jing also says: Lord Lao accumulated cultivation through many lifetimes and in the end attained the rank of supreme sage. The manner in which he taught in response to circumstances had no fixed pattern; one cannot say he was lost or unclear.

In recent times, one descent to teach the world occurred at the end of the Yin dynasty. Yu Xuan’s Chusai Ji (Record of Leaving the Frontier) says: Lord Lao concentrated his spirit in the realm of supreme mystery, divided his numinous body and manifested his form, descending generation after generation to teach. Cui Yuan of Heshan in the Laixiang Ji (Record of Lai Township) says: Lord Lao appeared in every generation. Master Ge (Ge Hong) said: Before heaven and earth were opened, Lord Lao had already served as state teacher, without interruption from age to age. Wenshi, Guigu, and Zhang Fu of Han all said: Lord Lao was born before the great void, passed through countless heaven-and-earth cycles, too many to record one by one. Are these merely scattered writings and the views of shallow scholars of later times? Ge Hong simply did not think it through carefully.

King Kang

In the first year of King Kang, year yichou, he reigned twenty-six years. Lord Lao returned again to the Zhou dynasty, styled himself Guo Shuzi, and again served as archivist under the pillar (keeper of the archives and records).

King Zhao

In the first year of King Zhao, year xinmao, he reigned fifty years. Lord Lao left his office and returned to Bo.

In the twenty-third year of King Zhao of Zhou, on the day renyi of the fifth month in the year guichou, Laozi (the Old Master) passed westward through Hangu Pass and brought Yin Xi, Commandant of the pass, into the Daoist path. Some hold that although Laozi’s exit through the pass is recorded on renyi in the fifth month of a guichou year under Zhou, it need not have occurred during King Zhao’s reign.

Others say it happened in the reign of King You of Zhou. By chronological reckoning, however, King You took the throne in the year gengshen and was overthrown by the Quan Rong after eleven years—a span in which there was no guichou year. Still others place Laozi’s departure on the eighteenth day of the fifth month, guichou, in the fortieth year of King Xuan; yet by that reckoning, in the forty-third year, bingchen, of King Xuan, Laozi was still on the Wei River and told King Xuan that the Zhou house would decline. In King You’s second year the Three Rivers shook in an earthquake, and Laozi again said Zhou would perish—King You being King Xuan’s son. If Laozi had already left the pass in King Xuan’s fortieth year, he could not still have been on the Wei in King Xuan’s forty-third, nor could he have been present at the Three Rivers earthquake under King You.

The forty-third year of King Ping of Zhou was also guichou, but the fifth month had no renyi day. Yao Changqian’s Chronicle of Emperors states that in the tenth year of King Jing, bingyin, Laozi became Confucius’s teacher, and that in the thirty-second year of King Jing, guichou, Laozi crossed Hangu Pass. Confucius, however, was born in gengxu under King Ling; by King Jing’s bingyin year he was only seventeen and could hardly already have gone to take Laozi as his teacher.

Moreover, when King Mu of Zhou traveled west, he had already heard that the immortal Yin Xi encountered Laozi and ascended in transcendence. Mu therefore admired the example they left, built Louguan (a Daoist monastery), and installed Daoist priests to conduct rites. Hence Laozi’s crossing of the pass cannot have been later than King Mu’s time. Only the account in the Neizhuan (Inner Tradition) agrees with what the Immortal Lord said; the various other opinions, being at odds with reason, cannot be accepted as fact.

In the twenty-fourth year of King Zhao, jiayin, Laozi transmitted the Great Dao to Yin Xi and entrusted him with the five thousand words of the Daode [jing]. Laozi then ascended to heaven on a hill south of Yin Xi’s dwelling. Five-colored light pierced the Purple Forbidden (Ziwei, the celestial region of the supreme deity), and water in the wells rose and overflowed. From the ninth year of King Gao of Shang to this time was two hundred seventy-four years in all.

In the yimao year, Lord Lao once again sent forth a bodily manifestation and descended to be born into the household of Li Taiguan in Shu.

The Lie Xian Zhuan (Biographies of Immortals) by Liu Xiang of the Former Han says: Laozi was born in the Shang dynasty and served the Zhou as Keeper of the Archives beneath the pillar (zhuxia shi); he was later appointed Keeper of the Repository (shoucang shi), and people of the time called him the “Recluse Gentleman.” When Confucius met Laozi and recognized him as a sage, he took him as his teacher. Later Laozi departed in a green ox cart and entered Great Qin; the Pass Keeper Yin welcomed and received him.

Ji Kang and Huangfu Mi both say Laozi was born at the end of the Shang. Ge Xiaoxian says that in the Zhou Laozi entrusted his numinous presence to the womb of Mother Li—referring precisely to this birth in Li Taiguan’s house. Some hold that because the Shang was about to fall and the Zhou was already rising, Laozi was born at the end of Shang; but if one says he only in the Zhou borrowed a womb to be born through Mother Li, that point remains unclear.

In the twenty-seventh year of King Zhao of Zhou, the year dingsi, Laozi met Yin Xi at the Qingyang market and prepared to leave the Central Plains to go west and guide the “barbarian” peoples. The Tang Ji therefore records that the Qingyang market was the place where the Supreme Heavenly Sovereign Great Emperor was born a second time.

From the time when the Dao lineage of the Shang was blocked and the virtue-teaching of the Zhou declined, Laozi hid himself in the role of court archivist, mingling with the ordinary world; later he resigned his post as Keeper of the Archives and concealed his traces. Leaving the court, he traveled west through Hangu Pass. Another account says that Laozi and Yin Xi the Perfected agreed to meet again after a thousand days. Later he prepared to leave the land of Shu for the distant region of Liusha (the “Flowing Sands”), to transform people of rough customs and the inhabitants of Sindhu (India) and other lands; he also went to the western kingdoms, making their kings his willing followers, and instructed Kings Fantuo and Azhu.

The Laozi Eulogy composed by Emperor Ming of Wei likewise says that Laozi, deeply pitying later ages, descended to be born in the land of Chen and served as Keeper of the Archives under the Zhou; after nine hundred years he went to Kunlun, again exerted transforming influence in the Hu (non-Chinese) lands, then reached the western tributary states, and finally taught and transformed India (Tianzhu), after which he moved on elsewhere.

Both the Brief Account of Wei: Western Rong and the History of the Northern Dynasties: Western Regions record that five hundred li west of the kingdom of Khotan there is a temple called Bimo, traditionally said to be the place where Laozi transformed and guided the Hu peoples. This matter appears in the Tongdian of the Tang.

In the twenty-eighth year of King Zhao of Zhou, the year wuwu, Laozi and Yin Xi the Perfected descended at Tianshui and opened the numinous response of Ling Mountain. To this day Qinzhou still has the Platform of Ascending to the West and the Hall of the Sacred Countenance.

King Mu

In the first year of King Mu of Zhou, the year xinsi, he reigned for fifty-five years and lived to the age of one hundred and five.

After Laozi had finished teaching and transforming the Hu peoples, he ascended to Heaven.

In the fourth year of King Mu of Zhou, year Jiashen, Laojun descended again to the human realm. Traveling eastward he reached Fuduo, met with the Great Emperor, and collated and assembled the registers of the immortals’ names. He then journeyed to the Western Sea, arrived in the state of Suliguo, was honored as the “Envoy of Great Radiance,” and soon ascended to heaven once more.

When King Mu heard that Yin Xi the True Person had attained the Dao and ascended, he built the Louguan (Tower Observation) for him and appointed seven Daoist priests to maintain the cult. This is recorded in the Inner Biography of King Mu and the Biography of the Masters of Louguan.

King Gong of Zhou

First year: Bingzi. He reigned twelve years.

King Yi of Zhou

First year: Wuzi. He reigned twenty-five years.

King Xiao of Zhou

First year: Guichou. He reigned fifteen years.

King Yi of Zhou (second)

First year: Wuchen. He reigned sixteen years.

Laojun, together with the Three Masters of Profound Antiquity, descended to Sanxue Mountain at Mianzhu in Shu, and transmitted the path of flying ascent to Li Zhenduo. The place was later called “Zhenduo Zhi” (Zhenduo Settlement).

King Li of Zhou

First year: Jiashen. He reigned thirty-six years.

In the twenty-first year, Jiachen, Laojun descended to Louguan and transmitted to the Daoist Song Lun the Way of the Middle Radiance, the scripture of penetrating truth, and such methods and talismans as the Lingfei Liujia Sucou Danfu.

The Gonghe Regency of Zhou

Beginning in the year Gengshen. At this time King Li was in exile abroad and the crown prince was young; the Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao jointly governed the state for fourteen years. After King Li died, they enthroned the crown prince as king—King Xuan of Zhou.

King Xuan of Zhou

First year: Jiaxu. He reigned forty-seven years.

In the forty-third year of King Xuan of Zhou (Bingchen), Laojun (Lord Lao, the honorific title in Daoism for the Supreme Lord Lao) descended upon the Wei River region and told King Xuan that the planet Jupiter was shifting northward, foretelling the decline of the Zhou dynasty. Two years later, King You of Zhou ascended the throne. Today there is Boyang Stream beside the Wei River—the very place where Laojun descended. See the Geographical Records.

At that time there was a man carrying firewood on his back, walking and singing; no one knew who he was, so they asked Laojun. Laojun said: “This is a man of Huoguo, practicing the supreme and authentic Way (the highest and purest path of cultivation).” See the Tang Illustrated Records of Responses Through the Ages.

King You

His first regnal year was Gengshen; he reigned eleven years.

In the second year of King You (Xinyou), earthquakes struck the regions of the Jing, Wei, and Luo rivers. Laojun said: “Zhou is about to perish—it will not exceed ten years. This is the limit ordained by fate.” Later Zhou was indeed destroyed by the Quanrong. See the Records of the Grand Historian.

King Ping

His first regnal year was Xinwei; he reigned fifty-one years. Laojun said: “Eastern Zhou is about to perish—it will not exceed ten years. This is the limit ordained by fate.” Later Zhou was indeed destroyed by the Quanrong. See the Records of the Grand Historian.

King Ping’s first year was Xinwei; he reigned fifty-one years and moved the capital east to Luoyang.

In the twelfth month of the thirty-third year (Guimao), Laojun again passed through the frontier pass to teach the various states. He then went to the Western Sea, Liuzhou, Linzhou, and other isles to inspect and assess the immortals. When the task was finished, he returned to the central lands. See the Scripture of the Western Ascent.

King Wei

His first regnal year was Renxu; he reigned thirty-three years.

King Zhuang

His first regnal year was Yiyou; he reigned fifteen years.

In the ninth year of King Zhuang of Zhou (guisi), on the night of the seventh day of the fourth month (by the Zhou calendar, the mao month), Shakyamuni Buddha was born. The Ruoying Jing places his birth at midnight on the eighth day of the fourth month, reckoning by the Zhou calendar; the Guoqu Xianzai Jing gives the eighth day of the second month, reckoning by the Xia calendar. At that time Laozi was six hundred and fourteen years old.

Shakyamuni was born in the ninth year of King Zhuang of Zhou, which corresponds to the seventh year of Duke Zhuang of Lu. In the fourth month of that year by the Xia calendar, the fixed stars could not be seen, yet the night was as bright as day. The Wei Shu, “Shi Lao Zhi,” and the Sui Shu, “Jingji Zhi,” record that from the Buddha’s birth to the eighth year of Wuding of Northern Wei, one thousand two hundred and thirty-seven years elapsed. The Toutuo Si Bei likewise states that during the reigns of King Zhuang of Zhou and Duke Zhuang of Lu, people witnessed nights shining like daylight. That stele appears in the Wen Xuan compiled by Crown Prince Zhaoming of Liang; its author was Wang Jin of Qi. A memorial from Prince Shaoling of Liang also mentions the occultation of the stars, a pregnancy omen in the Zhou house, the Buddha’s full-moon birth, and Emperor Ming of Han’s dream that led him to the Dharma. This is cited in the Fayuan Zhulin, compiled by a Tang monk.

King Xi

First year: gengzi; reigned five years.

King Hui

First year: yisi; reigned twenty-five years.

King Xiang

First year: gengwu; reigned thirty-three years.

King Qing

First year: guimao; reigned six years.

King Kuang

First year: jiyou; reigned six years.

In the fourth year (renzi), Shakyamuni entered nirvana (in Buddhist terms, release from birth and death and entry into quiescence). The Jinguangming Jing records that his lifespan was brief—only eighty years.

King Ding

First year: yimao; reigned twenty-one years.

King Ding once asked Laozi about immortals still living in the world. Laozi replied that on the central peak (Songshan) there was an elder called Master Gu—and that this was he himself. This appears in the Wangci Gong Zhang Sengjian and the Xunyang Ji.

King Jian

First year: bingzi; reigned fourteen years.

King Ling

First year: gengshen.

The king of Zhou asked Laojun (Laozi) whether there were any immortals in the world of his time. Laojun answered that at the Central Peak (Zhongyue) there was an “Ancient Master” (Gu Xiansheng)—and that this person was he himself. The episode appears in Wangci Gong and in Xunyang Ji by Zhang Jian.

King Jian: his first regnal year was the bingzi year; he reigned fourteen years.

King Ling: his first regnal year was the gengyin year; he reigned twenty-seven years. In the twenty-first year of his reign, the gengxu year, on the twenty-first day of the tenth month, Confucius was born.

King Jing: his first regnal year was the dingsi year; he reigned twenty-five years.

King Daowang: after he took the throne he reigned only five months.

King Jing (the “reverence” Jing): his first regnal year was the rencen year; he reigned forty-three years.

In the seventeenth year, the year wuxu, Confucius said to Nangong Jingshu: “I have heard that Laozi is broadly learned in antiquity and the present, understands the roots of ritual and music, and knows where morality and the Way ultimately lead. He can serve as my teacher. I am going to visit him now.” The next year Confucius went with Jingshu to the Zhou region and paid a call on Laozi.

The Zhuangzi records that when Confucius was fifty he went south to Pei to see Laozi. By age that would be this same year. As for Confucius asking Laozi about ritual, consulting stored books, and the like, the Book of Rites, Confucius Family Discourses, and Records of the Grand Historian all mention such events but give no year or month, so the order in which they occurred cannot be fixed.

However, Confucius Family Discourses records that Zixia once asked Confucius: “I have heard that the Changes treats the generation of human beings and the myriad things: each has its odd and even numbers, and the distribution of qi differs accordingly. Only one whose virtue is penetrating can trace things back to their root. Heaven’s number is one, earth’s number is two, and humanity stands third; three times three is nine, and nine times nine is eighty-one. ‘One’ governs the sun; the moon’s number is ten, so a human gestates ten months before birth. Eight times nine is seventy-two; the even attaches to the odd. The odd governs the stars; the stars correspond to the months, and the months govern the horse, so the horse gestates twelve months before birth. Other things are born each according to its kind.

Birds and fish arise from yin qi yet belong to the yang category, so they are born at the mao hour. Fish move in water; birds fly among the clouds. At the start of winter, swallows and sparrows enter the sea and transform into clams and shelled creatures. The saying ‘scaled creatures eat in summer and lie dormant in winter’ means that scaly animals feed in summer and hibernate in winter. Creatures that swallow have eight orifices and are oviparous; gnawing creatures have nine orifices and are viviparous. Four-legged animals have no wings; horned animals have no upper teeth. What is born by day resembles the father; what is born at night resembles the mother. Are these accounts correct?”

Confucius replied: “Yes. I once heard Laozi speak of this, and his words matched yours.”

From this it appears that Confucius regarded Laozi as broadly learned in antiquity and the present, and therefore sought instruction from him on all sorts of matters—not only ritual, the Five Phases, the Five Emperors, and the like.

Hunyuan Shengji records history according to the reigns of the Zhou kings, interwoven with accounts of Laozi’s deeds. When Confucius died, Laozi is recorded as eight hundred twenty-four years old; Kongzi Jiayu (Family Sayings of Confucius) and Zuoshi Zhuan (Zuo Tradition) are cited in support.

The Northern King ascended in the yichou year and reigned eight years; the Righteous and Fixed King ascended in the guiyou year and reigned twenty-eight years. The Biao King reigned three months; the Si King reigned five months. The Kao King ascended in the xinchou year and reigned fifteen years; the Weilie King ascended in the bingchen year and reigned twenty-four years; the An King ascended in the gengchen year and reigned twenty-six years. In the eighteenth year of An, dingyou, Duke Xian of Qin took the throne.

The Yilie King ascended in the bingwu year and reigned seven years. In the second year of Yilie, dingwei, Lord Lao (Laozi) returned to the state of Qin. Duke Xian of Qin lodged him according to ritual and received him with full courtesy, and also consulted him on calendrical methods and numerology. Thereafter Lord Lao left the pass through San Pass. These events appear in Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian).

The Xian King ascended in the guichou year; another record gives forty-eight years on the throne. In the eighth year of Xian, gengshen, Duke Xiao of Qin took the throne. Lord Lao packed his belongings and traveled, visiting Chicheng and Mengshan, and again passing through Fuduo, where he collated and gathered related material with various immortals. After that he lived in seclusion on Jingshan, Taishi Mountain, and Shaoshi Mountain. These accounts come from Wang Zinian’s Shiyi Ji (Collected Remains).

The Shenguan King ascended in the guichou year and reigned six years. King Nan moved the capital to Western Zhou, taking dingwei as the first year of his reign; by the fifty-ninth year, yisi, he presented his entire fief to Qin, and Western Zhou was thereby destroyed.

In the yimao year (the ninth year of King Zhao of Zhou), King Zhao of Qin ascended the throne. Lord Lao, together with Yin Xi and other immortals, traveled westward through Mount Nüji, Mount Yaotou, and Mount Tianzhu; afterward he left the frontier through San Pass, ascended Mount Kunlun, and returned to the Upper Palace of Ziwei. When King Zhao of Qin heard of this, he established settlements along the route where Lord Lao had passed, to mark the traces of the sage—hence the names “Lord Lao’s Resting Post” and “Yin Xi City.”

I have examined the Biography of Lord Lao, which likewise records that Lord Lao visited Mount Nüji, Mount Yaotou, and Mount Tianzhu, then departed through San Pass, ascended Mount Kunlun, and returned to the Upper Palace of Ziwei. When King Zhao of Qin learned of this, he set up towns where Lord Lao had traveled, to commemorate his sacred traces—thus the names Lord Lao’s Resting Post and Yin Xi City.

I have also consulted the Biography of Lord Lao and other historical accounts: Laozi was born in Bo in the gengchen year of King Wuding of Shang, and shortly afterward ascended to heaven riding a white deer. One hundred and eight years later, in the dingmao year of King Zhou (Di Xin), he was born again in Qizhou. By calendrical reckoning, the first year of Wuding was the renshen year, and the ninth year was indeed the gengchen year.

The biography states that Lord Lao served as Keeper of the Archives under King Wen of Zhou and was later appointed Historian under the Pillar under King Wu. King Wu’s accession is placed in the guiyou year; from the gengchen year of Wuding of Shang to that year is roughly one hundred and seventy-four years.

The biography further says that on the rencwu day of the fifth month in the guichou year of King Zhao of Zhou, Laozi prepared to leave Zhou territory; on the twelfth day of the seventh month he reached Hangu Pass and there converted Yin Xi. The first year of King Zhao is taken as the xinmao year, and the twenty-third year as the guiyou year; from guiyou to guichou is about one hundred and one years. Together with the years counted earlier, when Laozi traveled west and left the pass, about two hundred and seventy-four years had passed since the gengchen year of Wuding.

The biography also records that in the fourth month of the jiayin year, Laozi ascended to Taiwei (the celestial palace) at Louguan. In the following year, yimao, he sent a bodily manifestation to be born in Shu; two years later, in the dingsi year, he met Yin Xi at the Blue Sheep market, then traveled together to the Western Regions. In the first year of King Mu of Zhou, Lord Lao returned to the Central Plains and went east to the domain of the Emperor of Fusang, where he gathered with the immortals.

From the twenty-third year of King Zhao of Zhou (Guichou) to the first year of King Mu of Zhou (Xinsi), about twenty-eight years elapsed. By then Laozi’s incarnation in the land of Hu had been completed, and he returned to the Central Plains.

The Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji) records that in the second year of King You of Zhou (Xinyou), the three rivers shook in an earthquake; Laozi said the Zhou dynasty would fall. From King Mu’s Xinsi year to King You’s Xinyou year is roughly two hundred twenty years; counting earlier periods as well, the total is about five hundred twenty-two years.

In the twenty-third year of King Ping of Zhou (Guimao), Laozi again left the pass and traveled to the Western Sea, gathering the immortals. “Leaving the pass” here means departing the Hangu Pass region; “Western Sea” is a geographical term in ancient texts.

The Wei Shu, “Treatise on Buddhism and Daoism” (Shi Lao Zhi), states that Śākyamuni was born in the ninth year of King Zhuang of Zhou. The Spring and Autumn Annals entry for the seventh year of Duke Zhuang of Lu, fourth month, day Ximao—“the regular stars were not seen”—refers to this event. Taking King Zhuang’s first year as Yiyou, his ninth year is Guisi. From King You’s Xinyou year to Śākyamuni’s birth in Guisi is ninety-two years; with earlier periods included, about six hundred fourteen years. Śākyamuni later entered nirvana in the fourth year of King Kuang of Zhou (Renzi).

On the twenty-first day of the tenth month, winter, of the twenty-first year of King Ling of Zhou (Gengxu)—day Gengzi—Confucius was born. From King Zhuang’s Guisi year to Confucius’s birth in Gengxu is about one hundred thirty-seven years; with earlier periods, about seven hundred fifty-one years.

In the fifteenth year of King Jing of Zhou (Xinwei), Nangong Jingshu was born; Confucius was then thirty-five. In the eleventh year of King Jing (Renchen), Duke Ding of Lu took the throne and appointed Jingshu as a grand officer. Jingshu declined on the grounds of his forebears’ last wishes, saying he wished to serve Confucius. In the seventh year of Duke Ding (Wuxu), Confucius was fifty and went south to Pei to visit Laozi. By then the Old Master had finished his responsive transformations in various places and had returned to the Central Plains. From King Ling’s Gengxu year to Duke Ding’s Wuxu year is about forty-nine years; with earlier periods, about seven hundred ninety-nine years.

Biographical accounts state that King Zhao of Qin heard that Laozi was passing near Hangu Pass and had a city built for him at San Pass. In the fifty-first year of King Zhao’s reign, the Zhou dynasty fell. Calculating from the first year of King Nan of Zhou, which was the year dingwei, the ninth year was yimao—and yimao was the year King Zhao of Qin ascended the throne. At that time Laozi was about to ascend to Kunlun and return to Ziwei (the Purple Forbidden Palace, the celestial abode of the supreme deity).

From the year wuxu in the reign of King Jing of Zhou to this yimao year was roughly one hundred ninety-seven years; adding the years before that, the total comes to nine hundred ninety-six years. Laozi manifested responsively according to conditions, with no fixed pattern, and his transformations could not be fathomed; whether he ascended or descended, people could not fully grasp the truth. Examining biographies today and checking against the calendar, from the year gengchen in the reign of King Wuding of Shang to the yimao year of King Nan of Zhou, Laozi’s birth, concealment, and appearances span about nine hundred ninety-six years: one hundred seventy-four years in the Shang and eight hundred twenty-two years in the Zhou. This agrees with historical biographies and various classics.

Emperor Ming of Wei wrote in a eulogy: “Laozi served as Keeper of the Archives under the Zhou for nine hundred years.” Wu Yanghao, Erudite of the Imperial Academy in the Tang, also said: “Laozi’s transformations and numinous responses cannot be measured; born in the Shang yet holding office in the Zhou, counting from beginning to end, his span was nearly a thousand years.” Such statements are all rounded approximations.

The Records of the Grand Historian says some accounts give Laozi’s age as one hundred sixty years, others two hundred—people of Confucius’s time estimating his lifespan by guesswork, not knowing the real situation, so narratives often use phrases like “roughly” or “perhaps.” The Biographies of Immortals says that after Laozi departed he entered Great Qin (the ancient Chinese term for the Roman Empire and neighboring regions), and also that he traveled the shifting sands (the deserts of the West) together with Yin Xi, after which no one knew where they went. Huangfu Mi said Laozi went west to the shifting sands and wrote the Futu Jing to convert the Rong people (a general ancient term for western ethnic groups). The Inner Biography of Wen Shi says that after leaving the pass Laozi toured eighty-one countries, later reaching Jibin, where he appeared in the guise of teaching the Hu peoples. Liu Xiang’s eulogy says: “Laozi’s virtue accorded with Primordial Qi (Yuanshi qi), and his lifespan matched Heaven and Earth.”

Although the various biographies differ in what they say about Laojun (Lord Lao), they all praise his long life. Confucian scholars regarded talk of long life and ascension to heaven as absurd, so they only said they “did not know where he finally went”—in effect hinting that he did not die.

In the Tang, Yin Wencao wrote: “Laojun is a great sage who cultivated the Way through countless kalpas; therefore he could lodge himself among humans, blend in and hide or show himself, stay aloof from the world, transform without limit, and endure from antiquity to the present.” Zhuangzi, in the story of Qin Shi mourning Lao Dan, meant to mock those who shallowly cling to life and death. Emperor Wu of Liang therefore took Laojun for someone who became an immortal through shijie (corpse liberation, shedding the physical form and departing in transformation)—which is mistaken. Searching Laozi’s life story from end to end, there is ultimately no record of his leaving by shijie. Zhuangzi alone says this, much like his tales of Cloud General and Hong Meng: allegories spun from a theme, not fact. If we treat them as real events, then Confucius meeting Robber Zhi could be taken as true as well.

According to Wang Zinian’s Shiyi Ji (Collected Records of Forgotten Matters), Laozi in the late Zhou lived on Jingshi Mountain and once said: “I have always been among humans and have never left for a moment. Sometimes I appear as an ordinary person, sometimes as a sage; it is only that worldly people do not know. Good and evil in human conduct each bring its matching guilt or blessing, like a shadow following a form or an echo answering a sound. If one can yearn for the true Way and keep good intent in the heart, one may naturally meet me.” From this, it is all the more clear that Laozi truly did not die.

Again, the Longta Jing records that Laozi, in the Mingxia Abbey of Daluo Heaven, told the Jiutian Zhangren (Elder of the Nine Heavens, a supreme deity of the celestial realm): “I now manifest a body of responsive transformation; my realm extends through the whole person: above I appear among all heavens, below I resonate with the ten thousand things. Through many kalpas I transform again and again, teaching and delivering people. When there is a superior adept on the Way, I descend to be his teacher; sometimes I am born in the lower realm, mixed with the ten thousand things, lodging in a body that looks like an ordinary person and is hard to recognize. I change together with the Dao, respond to those with affinity, secretly carry out salvation, yet do not claim credit for it.”

When divine powers reach the state of effortless freedom and unobstructed mastery, one can descend and manifest in response to the times, generation after generation—how could one be bound by birth and death? Those of shallow insight are like people peering at the sky through a bamboo tube; when they speak such words, it is hardly surprising.

Some say Laozi once studied under Rongchengzi; others say he sought the Dao from Chang Cong. Such accounts probably mean that the perfected person honors the worthy, delights in goodness, and prefers to ask much and speak little; or they may use the form of master–disciple transmission to initiate teaching and pass it down to later ages. Could it really mean that Laozi received instruction and inherited a lineage from someone?

Old traditions record that Laozi’s descendants were illustrious for generations and never lacked office in government. Perhaps the perfected person, unwilling to probe the hidden or perform strange feats to startle the world, therefore manifested worldly success and acted in the manner of heguang tongchen—concealing brilliance and blending with the dust of the world. Now we fear that later generations of greedy and unrestrained people will take such manifestations as literal truth and commit wickedness under the name of the Daoist teaching, so these records have been removed. As for the saying about the “sixteen transformations,” the accounts are obscure; there is no need to be puzzled by them.

Emperor Qin Shi Huang

The first year of Qin Shi Huang was yimao; he reigned thirty-six years. In gengchen he first unified the realm and took the title of emperor.

In the twenty-eighth year, rencwu, Qin Shi Huang performed the feng and shan rites on Mount Tai. Then someone built a Laojun shrine south of Louguan; the First Emperor went in person to offer sacrifice. Laojun descended into the shrine and bestowed upon him the Guilin Jing (Scripture of the Ghost Forest) and talismans for commanding ghosts and spirits. This is recorded in the Louguan Zhuan (Biography of Louguan).

Emperor Wen of Former Han

The first year of Wen was renchen.

Laozi first descended on the banks of the Shaan River, taking the name Lord of the River (He Shanggong), also called the Old Man of the River. Emperor Wen visited him in person; Laozi transmitted the Daode Jing to him. North of the prefectural seat of Shanzhou there are still the He Shang Temple and Wen’s Terrace for Gazing at Immortals. This appears in the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) and Ge Hong’s Baopuzi, in the Shenxian Zhuan (Biographies of Immortals). Some accounts wrongly identify this emperor as Jing— that is an error.

Emperor Cheng

The first year of Heping was guisi.

In the second year of Heping, jiawu, Laozi descended at Quyang Deep in Langye commandery and transmitted the Taiping Jing (Scripture of Great Peace) to Gan Ji. This is recorded in the Hou Han Shu (Book of Later Han).

Emperor Ming of Later Han

Buddhism began to enter China.

Emperor Zhang

The first year of Yuanhe was jiashen.

In the first year of Han'an, the year renwu, Lord Lao descended upon Heming Mountain in Shu and transmitted to Celestial Master Zhang Daoling the Zhengyi Mengwei Milu (Secret Records of the Zhengyi Alliance and Majestic Authority). In the fifth month of the same year, Lord Lao descended again and bestowed upon him nine hundred and thirty scrolls of the Qin Qing Zhong Jing and seventy scrolls of talismanic texts. In the first year of Jian'an, the year jiashen, Lord Lao descended once more at Yuntai Mountain in Hezhou and transmitted to the Celestial Master the scriptures of the Three Caverns (San Dong), together with the methods of zhaijiao (purification ritual) for the salvation and deliverance of nine generations of ancestors. These events are recorded in the Biography of the Celestial Master and the Gazetteer of Shu.

During the reign of Emperor Huan, in the first year of Yongshou, the year yiwei, Lord Lao descended at Chengdu and transmitted to the Celestial Master the method of the Northern Dipper for reducing allotted death and extending life. The Yuju Abbey of the present Chengdu prefecture is the very place of that descent.

In the first year of the Water Longevity era of the reign of Emperor Huan of Han, yimwei (155), Laojun descended upon Chengdu and transmitted to the Celestial Master (Tianshi) the Northern Dipper (Beidou) ritual arts by which death registers could be cleared and living registers entered. The Yujure transformation site in Chengdu Prefecture today is precisely where that descent took place. Laojun also descended upon Lutang Mountain and transmitted the writs used to subdue the evil gods of the Six Heavens and to slay demons and perverse spirits. These events are recorded in the Biography of the Celestial Master and the Gazetteer of Shu.

In the eighth year of the Yanxi era, Emperor Huan of Han dispatched envoys to the region of Chen to offer sacrifice to Laojun and ordered Bian Shao to compose a stele inscription. The following year the emperor personally performed sacrifice to Laojun at the Palace of the Washing Dragon, using the music prescribed for rites to Heaven. These matters appear in the Record of the Later Han.

Emperor Ling

He ascended the throne in the first year of the Jianning era, wushen (168). Four years later, in the renzi year, the era name was changed to Jiaping; six years after that, in the wuwu year, it was changed to Guanghe; and six years later still, in the jiazi year, it was changed to Zhongping.

In the second year of Guanghe, jiwei (179), Laojun descended upon Mount Tianshan and transmitted to the immortal Ge Xuan the scriptures of the Upper Clarity, Numinous Treasure, and Great Cavern, together with the fasting methods of the three registers and seven ranks, the Wheel of Admonition, Turning the Spirit and Entering Samadhi, and other scriptures and methods. These events are recorded in the Record of Mount Tianshan and the Biography of the Taiji Immortal Bark.

King Chen of Wei

In the first year of Xianxi, jiashen (264), Laojun descended upon Lintao Commandery in Longyou and said to Wang Shi, “Under Heaven will soon be at peace.” This is recorded in the History of Jin.

Emperor An of Jin

He ascended the throne in the first year of the Long’an era, dingyou (397). Five years later, in the renyin year, the era name was changed to Yuanxing; three years after that, in the yisi year, it was changed to Yixi.

In the first year of Yuanxing, renyin (402), which was the fifth year of Hongshi under Later Qin Yao, Laojun descended to wander among the mountains and rivers and came to Mount Hua. He ordered the immortal Chenggong Xing to move his residence to Mount Song and bestowed upon him elixir for immortality. This is recorded in the History of Later Wei.

Emperor Ming of Northern Wei

He ascended the throne in the first year of the Yongxing era; fifteen years later the era name was changed to Shenrui, and two years after that to Taichang.

In the second year of Rui, the yihmao year—which corresponds to the eleventh year of the Yixi era under Emperor An of Jin—Laojun (Lord Lao) descended upon Mount Song and transmitted to the Daoist Kou Qianzhi the Yunzhong Yinsong Xinke zhi Jie (New Precepts on Chanting and Discipline in the Clouds). In the second year of Taichang, the dingsi year, Laojun descended again and bestowed upon Kou Qianzhi seventy scrolls of fulu (talismans and registers). These accounts appear in the Hou Wei Daoshi Zhi (Record of Daoism and Buddhism in Later Wei).

Emperor Taiwu

In the first year of Taiping, Laojun descended upon Mount Song and ordered Kou Qianzhi to confer upon the emperor the title “Taiping Zhenjun” (Perfect Lord of Great Peace), whereupon the emperor changed his reign title to Taiping Zhenjun. This is recorded in the Hou Wei Daoshi Zhi.

The same event is also recorded in the Wei Shu (Book of Wei): In the first year of Taiping, Laojun descended upon Mount Song and ordered Kou Qianzhi to confer upon the emperor the title Taiping Zhenjun, and the reign era was changed to Taiping Zhenjun.

Emperor Yang of Sui

First year of Daye, yichou.

In the thirteenth year of Daye, dingchou, Laojun descended upon Mount Zhongnan and told the mountain recluse Li Chunfeng that the Duke of Tang (Li Yuan, founder of the Tang) would receive the portents of the Mandate of Heaven. This appears in the Jinsuo Liuzhu Ji (Record of the Golden Lock and Flowing Pearls).

Emperor Gaozu of Tang

First year of Wude, wuyin.

In the second year of Wude, jimao, Laojun descended upon Mount Yangjiao and spoke to Ji Shanxing, asking him to memorialize the court: “I am the emperor’s ancestor. Now that the Tang enjoys sagely rule, the state and the altars of soil and grain will long endure.” This appears in the Tang Ji (Records of Tang). The text also records that in the renchen year Laojun again descended at the temple and revealed the timing for suppressing the rebels. This too is in the Tang Ji.

Emperor Gaozong

In the first year of Yonghui (650), year gengxu, seven years passed until bingchen, when the reign title was changed to Xianqing; five years later, in xinyou, the era name became Longshuo; three years after that, in jiazi, it became Linde; two years later, in bingyin, it became Qianfeng; two years after that, in wuchen, it became Zongzhang; two years later, in gengwu, it became Xianheng; four years later, in jiaxu, it became Shangyuan. Two years after that, in bingzi, the era was renamed Yifeng; three years later, in jimao, it became Tiaolu; one year later, in gengchen, it became Yonglong; one year after that, in xinsi, it became Kaiyao; and one year later, in renwu, it became Yongchun.

In the second year of Longshuo, renxu (662), the emperor went to the palace at Luoyang and had the Qing Temple built at Beidengzhi to offer sacrifice to Laozi (the Daoist honorific title for Laozi), and a jiao ritual was held in celebration. Laozi descended into the hall, with two perfected ones (immortals who had attained the Dao) attending on either side; radiance filled the steps and the altar, and everyone looked up in reverence. Palace Intendant Quan Dali and others submitted a memorial to the court and, according to what they had seen, painted auspicious images (portraits of miraculous signs). This is recorded in the memorial of Yang the Protector of Records in the Luoyang Records.

In the first year of Qianfeng, bingyin (666), when the emperor performed the feng and shan rites at Daiyue (Mount Tai), the imperial procession passed through Bozhou; the emperor went to pay homage to Laozi, personally composed the encomium text, and honored Laozi as “Emperor Xuanyuan” and Laozi’s sacred mother as “Precelestial Empress Dowager.” This comes from the Tang shu (Book of Tang).

In the third year of Yifeng, wuyin (678), the emperor ordered a Zhaijiao (purification and offering rite) at Yangqing Temple. At that time Laozi appeared on the altar and auspicious light shone all around; Laozi rode a white horse and stepped on the stones of the altar, leaving hoofprints that all present saw with their own eyes, and the court soon received the report. A congratulatory memorial stated: “Laozi’s golden form and jade-white radiance outshone the gleam of a night-luminous pearl; a white horse with a red mane left the tracks of a celestial steed’s descent.” This appears in the memorial of Sun Rui, Grand Master for Closing Court.

Empress Wu Zetian

During Wu Zetian’s reign, in the first year of the Sishèng era (year jiǎshēn), the second month saw the era name changed to Wénmíng; in the ninth month it was changed again to Guāngzhài. Wu Zetian held the regency for twenty-two years; in the year yǐsì the era name was changed to Shénlóng; the Shénlóng era was used for eighteen years.

In the first year of Wénmíng (jiǎshēn), Laojun descended at Huángtiānyuán in Hào Prefecture and ordered Hào Yuánzōng to relay to Empress Wu that she should not issue edicts rashly. This is recorded in the Tang shu (History of the Tang).

In the fourth year of Jǐnglóng (gēngxū), to quell turmoil within the palace, Laojun transformed into an old man dressed in white and practiced divination outside Chūnmíng Gate. He said: “You should take possession of the realm—this is auspicious; action within three days will be favorable.” Later, Wu built a temple at that spot. This is recorded in the Luòzhōng jì yì (Records of Strange Events in Luoyang).

Emperor Xuanzong (Míng Huáng)

First year of Kāiyuán (guǐchǒu). Twenty-nine years later, in the year rénwǔ, the era name was changed to Tiānbǎo; three years after that, in jiǎshēn, the era name was changed to Zài.

In the seventeenth year of Kāiyuán, Laojun descended at Xīnxīng Temple in Shǔ Prefecture and manifested his form on a pillar in the Buddha hall, as if carved in relief—the more it was scraped and washed, the clearer the image became. Local civil and military officials, together with Daoist priests, Buddhist monks, commoners, and nuns, jointly memorialized the throne. The memorial stated: “The image appeared on a hall pillar, deep and hard to discern, as if connected to the year of compiling history; situated within a Buddhist temple, one recalls from afar the old legend of his transformation into a barbarian.” This is recorded in the memorial of Zhāng Jìngzhōng, regional inspector of Yì Prefecture.

In the twenty-ninth year of Kāiyuán, Laojun appeared outside Dānfèng Gate and said to Tián Tóngxiù: “When I formerly entered the shifting sands, I hid a Golden Spirit Talisman (jīn líng fú) in Yǐn Xǐ’s old residence. You may report to the emperor and ask him to send someone to retrieve it.” Emperor Xuanzong dispatched envoys to search the site of old Héngǔ Pass and indeed recovered the Golden Spirit Talisman. This is recorded in the Tang shu.

In the second year of Tianbao (743), in the first month of the guimao year, the emperor bestowed an honorific title upon Laojun (the Supreme Lord Laozi, venerated in Daoism), naming him “Great Sage Ancestor Emperor of the Mysterious Origin.” In the twelfth month, the emperor went to Huaqing Palace; Laojun appeared on Chaoyuan Pavilion, and the pavilion was renamed Jiangsheng Pavilion. This is recorded in the History of the Tang.

In the seventh year of Tianbao (748), in the wuzi year, the emperor again bestowed an honorific title upon Laojun, naming him “Sage Ancestor Emperor of the Great Dao and Mysterious Origin.”

In the ninth year of Tianbao (750), in the gengyin year, Laojun descended upon Mount Taibai and told the hermit Wang Xuanyi that there was a precious true talisman in Baoxian Cave. The emperor ordered the Minister of Justice Wang Chui and others to search for it, and they indeed found it. This is recorded in the History of the Tang.

In the thirteenth year of Tianbao (754), in the jiawu year, on the day guiyou in the second month, the emperor went to the Palace of Grand Purity to pay homage and offer tribute, and again bestowed an honorific title upon Laojun, naming him “Great Sage Ancestor, Most High Emperor of the Great Dao, Golden Gate, Mysterious Heaven, and Primordial Sovereign.” This is recorded in the History of the Tang.

In the fifteenth year of Tianbao (756), in the bingshen year, the emperor went to Shu. Laojun appeared beside the Black Water in Hanzhong Commandery, and the emperor ordered a stone image carved at the site of the manifestation. Later Laojun again appeared riding a white deer on Changling in Lizhou, showing an omen of recovering the mountainous region. The emperor issued an edict to build Ziran Guan (a temple for veneration of Daoist deities) at the place of manifestation. These events are also recorded in the History of the Tang.

Emperor Suzong

In the fifteenth year of Tianbao (756), in the bingshen year, the reign title was changed to Zhide; three years later, in the wuxu year, it was changed to Qianyuan; two years after that, in the gengzi year, it was changed to Shangyuan.

In the second year of Zhide (757), in the dingyou year, Laojun descended upon Yunlong Cliff in Tonghua Commandery; the manifested form reached from the ground to the sky, with light and color clearly distinct. The emperor ordered his image painted. Emperor Ming (Xuanzong) composed an encomium that reads: “By day a pearl-like form appeared; auspicious colors floated in the air; the Daoist and Buddhist paths, as well as the human and celestial realms, all bowed in reverence. I ordered it painted with care so that every commandery and kingdom might behold it.” This is recorded in the Tang Preface to the Auspicious Encomium of the Retired Emperor.

Emperor Jingzong

In the first year of Baoli (825), in the yisi year.

In the second year of the Baoli reign of the Tang (the Bingwu year), Laozi descended upon the imperial roadway before the Taiping Palace and indicated the place where Zheng Jian of Chang’an County had fallen into a well. This is recorded in a stele inscription composed by Wei Chuhou and written by Liu Gongquan.

Emperor Yizong of Tang

In the first year of the Xiantong reign (the Gengchen year).

In the tenth year of Xiantong (the Jichou year), Pang Xun led more than three thousand men in an attempt to plunder the Taiping Palace. At that time several hundred households had taken refuge inside the palace; they all saw Laozi moving through the air. In a short while black mist spread until it blotted out the sun; the rebels lost their way and trampled one another, and Pang Xun also drowned. This is recorded in a memorial submitted by Li Wei, military commissioner of Bian Prefecture.

Emperor Zhenzong of Song

In the first year of the Xiangfu era (the Wushen year).

In the seventh year of the Dazhong Xiangfu era (the Jiayin year), Emperor Zhenzong went to Bozhou, paid homage at the Taiping Palace, personally presented canon rolls and precious offerings, and honored Laozi with the title “Emperor of the Supreme Laozi of Primordial Virtue.” This is drawn from Songchao Shishi (Facts of the Song Dynasty).

Emperor Huizong of Song

In the first year of the Zhenghe reign (the Xinmao year).

In the second year of Zhenghe (the Renchen year), Laozi, riding a white horse and borne on auspicious clouds, descended to the Yuchen Abbey on Mount Mao and transmitted the Tiantong Jing (Scripture of the Heavenly Child), with supplementary phrasing added by Liang Guangying. Other descents and manifestations whose dates are not given in the biographies are likewise entered in this register. In addition, efficacious events such as emanations of light, auspicious signs, dreams, and transmitted messages—though not occasions on which Laozi appeared in person in embodied form—are also included in the register.

The Supreme Old Lord (Taishang Laojun) is the patriarch of the Great Dao and the root of the Three Powers—Heaven, Earth, and Humanity. Before Taiji (the Supreme Ultimate) had taken shape, Heaven and Earth were empty and still, with nothing in them. The source of the Dao opened from here; the dark, chaotic primal Qi (vital energy) gathered into form, and faint signs and light gradually appeared. Within it lay true essential Qi (Jing); spirit (Shen) arose from it in the natural course of things. Forced to give it a name, one calls it “Xuhuang” (the Virtual Emperor).

Xuhuang secretly presides over mysterious creation, so that the Great Dao moves and governs the world. One Qi divided into three Qi, called “Mysterious (Xuan), Origin (Yuan), and Beginning (Shi)”; the three Qi blended, gradually filled out and became manifest, and became the start of the ten thousand things. People do not know where it comes from, so they reluctantly call it “Origin (Yuan)”; they do not know when it began, so they reluctantly call it “Beginning (Shi)”—hence the name “Yuanshi Tianzun” (Primordial Heavenly Worthy).

The three Qi mutually beget one another; the nine Qi merge; they beget the heavens and form the world, becoming the origin of the ten thousand things. People cannot know how vast it is, so they reluctantly call it “Grand (Tai)”; they cannot know how high it is, so they reluctantly call it “Supreme (Shang).” It stands at the head of the limitless (Wuji), so people look up and call it “Old (Lao)”; it governs the ten thousand things without selfishness or self, so it is called “Lord (Jun).” Therefore it is called “Yuanshang Santian Xuanyuan Shi Sanqi Taishang Laojun”—the Supreme Old Lord of the three Qi of the Mysterious Origin at the beginning of the three heavens above the origin.

At the beginning, one Qi divided into three Qi and formed the three heavens; the three Qi together produced nine Qi and formed the nine heavens.

Below Great Luo Heaven arise Qingwei Heaven, Yuyu Heaven, and Dachi Heaven; these three together are called the realm of the Three Pure Ones (Sanqing). Below the Three Pure Ones realm arise Judan Heaven, Chanshan Heaven, Xuyan Heaven, Douyan Heaven, Bujiaoyue Heaven, Dongyuan Heaven, Fanfu Heaven, Qingming Heaven, and Wuxiang Heaven—these nine are called the Nine Great Brahma Heavens. Each of the Nine Great Brahma Heavens further divides into three smaller heavens, for thirty-six heavens in all. Other lesser Brahma heavens all belong to these greater Brahma heavens.

The Nine Black Heavens are: Ronghei, Yanhei, Yanhei, Haohei, Jinghei, Daohei, Hunhei, Donghei, and Haohei.

Below them are the Four Min Heavens: Taiji Pingyu Heaven, Longbian Fandu Heaven, Yulong Tengsheng Heaven, and Taixu Changrong Heaven. These four are also called the “species-human heavens”; it is said that at the beginning of a cosmic cycle, celestial beings descended here and became the ancestors of humankind. Buddhism calls them the four dhyana heavens.

These four receive above the three thousand three hundred million billion xi of the Grand Clarity realm, and connect below to the fifty-five million five hundred fifty-five thousand xi of the Eight Brahma Heavens. Here “xi” is a unit for measuring the extent of heaven and earth; one xi is roughly three thousand li. The Four Min Heavens lie outside the three realms, beyond the scope of yin-yang transformation, so they have no fixed lifespan and are not destroyed by the three calamities of water, fire, and wind.

Below this the cosmos is divided into the three realms: six heavens in the desire realm, eighteen in the form realm, and four in the formless realm.

Below them are the Eight Brahma Heavens: Shiqing Heaven, Qingyuan Heaven, Shidan Heaven, Taidan Heaven, Shisu Heaven, Taisu Heaven, Shixuan Heaven, and Taixuan Heaven.

Below them is the human world, including the Northern Pure Tranquil World, the Northeast Chang’an World, the Eastern Receiving Goodness World, the Southeast Employing Worthies World, the Southern Abandoning Worthies World, the Southwest Benevolent Tranquil World, the Western Pure Conduct World, and the Northwest Extending Worthies World.

Below, nine strata of the earthly realm are laid out, congealing into mountain ranges and melting together into seas.

The first stratum is a moist, luminous domain; the second is firm yet moist; the third has an oily sheen; the fourth is richly moistening; the fifth is moist like golden grain; the sixth is moist yet hard as diamond or iron; the seventh is constrained by water; the eighth is moistened by great winds; the ninth is a mesh of structure (gangwei) where caves and springs abound and colors cannot be seen. “Lei” (stacked tiers) denotes layer upon layer of realms; each tier consists of one layer of earth, one of water, and one of wind, arranged in order from top to bottom.

The refined essence of yang forms the sun; the refined essence of yin forms the moon. The vital qi (qi) of the sun, moon, and Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) divides and becomes the stars. When yin and yang interpenetrate, the myriad things begin to move and transform, and plants together with every kind of living being arise and multiply in succession.

The Kaihua Zhipin Jing (Scripture on Opening Transformation and Establishing Categories) states: In a realm without form or name, in chaotic obscurity, I opened the subtle heaven-and-earth, scattering numinous qi and breath. From Daluo Tian (the supreme heaven of Daoist cosmology) downward I generated the three realms, then the nine heavens, and established the nine emperors as the subtle law of the Three Treasures; I marked the stages of cultivation with the twenty-seven heavens and took the thirty-six sections as the root of the three realms, and below that formed the abodes of the thirty-six heavens. Then came the thirty-two heavens and thirty-two emperors, secretly driving opening and transformation, dividing the lower world into the three realms, and spanning the Northern Dipper constellation system and the twenty-eight lunar mansions, with the motion of the five stars manifesting the five directions. Clear, light qi rose upward; heavy, turbid qi sank and condensed—thus below arose the nine earths, and in the middle the nine kinds of human beings. Heaven, earth, and humanity were thereby complete.

Hence yang harmony and upright qi give birth to supreme sages and high perfected ones (zhen); soft, tranquil qi gives birth to Yuanjun holy consorts, immortal princesses, and jade maidens; firm, fierce qi gives birth to heaven’s strongmen, divine soldiers, and officer ranks; yin-yang and Five Phases qi give birth to men and women; mixed and disordered qi gives birth to birds and beasts. All things inherit one source yet differ from one another; each is shaped according to the transforming qi that formed it.

At the end of a great kalpa, from the Nine Earths upward to the Formless Realm (heavenly realms beyond material form), the three great calamities occur together and all things are destroyed. Above the Heaven of Seed People (the heavenly realm that calamities cannot reach), there is no harm. After this, primordial qi and darkness merge again, and heaven and earth return to chaos once more. When the kalpa passes, heaven and earth open anew; celestial beings descend by command to become the ancestors of humankind—some as rulers, some as ministers—spreading the Great Dao, establishing teaching, and instructing sentient beings according to the age. Through countless vast kalpas, the pattern is the same.

The Shangqing scriptures say: Heaven has twelve guiding principles (gang), and earth has twelve cycles (ji). When heaven’s principles revolve, three hundred sixty degrees make one yang bo (a celestial anomaly in the motion of the heavens); when earth’s cycles shift, three thousand six hundred degrees make one yin shi (a terrestrial anomaly in the movement of earthly qi). Heaven’s principles complete one circuit every three hundred thirty days; earth’s cycles advance one degree every three thousand three hundred days. Heaven and earth together total nine thousand nine hundred degrees—called the mingling of heaven and earth’s radiance, also named “Great Yang Nine” and “Great Hundred Six,” that is, the great kalpa and the great cycle.

By this reckoning, roughly every three hundred thirty years a yang bo appears—this is the minor Yang Nine calamity. One million eighty-nine thousand years is when heaven’s principles complete one hundred circuits and earth’s cycles advance three thousand three hundred degrees—the time when great cycles alternate. Heaven moves while earth is still; yang qi is swift while yin qi is slow, hence the difference between yang bo and yin shi. Then heaven’s qi reaches the extreme of great yin, and earth’s qi reaches the extreme of great yang: when yang reaches its limit, yang bo occurs; when yin reaches its limit, blockage occurs. When yang is at its peak, its refined essence becomes water; when yin is at its peak, its refined essence becomes fire. First great fire burns, then great floods sweep— from below the Nine Heavens down to within the Nine Earths, even gold and jade melt, and nothing fine remains. Then primordial qi gathers anew—this is called chaos.

When chaos divides again, the sages of the Three Heavens descend, and the seed people of the Four Heavens come to the lower realm to teach sentient beings, just as at the opening of this kalpa the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors ruled the world in succession. Such changes of heaven and earth are collectively called “yuanxi separation and reunion.” Lord Lao has passed through countless cycles of separation-and-reunion kalpas; therefore the Xisheng Jing says: “When heaven and earth shift, kalpas follow in succession; knowing this myself, I have truly endured much toil.” It speaks of this matter.

The Fengsu Tong says: ten thousand is wan, one hundred thousand is yi, one billion is zhao, ten zhao is jing, ten jing is gai, ten gai is zai. Zai means so vast that even the great earth cannot bear it.

Also according to the Jiutian Shengshen Zhang, when the great cycle approaches and the count of jia-shen ends, the Three Officials (divine offices governing heaven, earth, and water) will take up the brush to examine and assess people’s good and evil, merit and fault. From the Red Brightness era until the first year of the High Sovereign, those who received ordination according to the Yuanyang Jade Casket (the sacred document recording names in the registers of salvation) should number two hundred forty thousand persons. After the Kaihuang era, counting to the jia-shen year, the heavens select immortal officers; posts in the immortal bureaus are vacant and understaffed. According to the Yuanyang Jade Calendar, they will further examine people of the three generations, choosing those with sincere hearts who accumulated merit and established accomplishment, were recommended by the three realms and protected by the Five Emperors, and whose names are recorded in heaven—one hundred thousand to fill immortal offices, and another one hundred twenty thousand as reserve officers. After the Three Officials’ review agrees, all will have their names registered in advance as persons to be born in the new kalpa of the Four Heavens.

Moreover, the Nine Dark Depths (the yin underworld) receive the Nine Dragon talisman command of the Azure Officer of the Eastern Flower, rescuing the souls of men and women dead in the nine depths. For those who in life had good conduct, whose merit was complete and who should receive deliverance, three hundred twenty thousand are chosen as the people of the great flourishing age of “Great You” after the jia-shen year kalpa calamities are cleared. Every kalpa follows such arrangements; all receive their mandate from Lord Lao.

The shape of Heaven and Earth is like an egg: a layer of deep black Qi surrounds them, much like the halo around the sun. There are five hundred fifty-five trillion five hundred fifty-five billion five hundred fifty-five such layers of Heaven and Earth. Within each layer are celestial phenomena and terrestrial features, the movement of Yin-Yang and the Five Phases, and ranks of spirits; from this all things grow, each holding the authority to generate beings and guarding the root of creation.

Therefore Laozi in the celestial realm is honored above all sages, and in the human world is lord of all teachings. “Laozi” is the form in which the Dao appears; his responsive manifestations are not limited to one shape, and his designations are without end. Sometimes he is called by thirty-six titles, sometimes seventy-two names; he also bears such titles as Nine Heavens August Sovereign, Dongzhen Diyi Sovereign, Exalted Jade Emperor, Great Emperor of Long Life, Taiping Zhenzhen Taiyi Miaohei August Lord, Nine Mysterious August Lord, Great Dharma King of the Great Thousand, Nine Spirits Laozi, Supreme Left Mysterious True Person, Shangqing Golden Gate Three Caverns Wondrous Scripture Great Dharma Master, Exalted Great Dharma King, Xuanyi Zhending Light, Golden Gate Later Sage Lord, Nine Elders Immortal Capital Lord, Nine Black Elder, Supreme Elder, the twelve hundred official lords, Taiping Shangjing Lord, Father of Wuwei, Mother of the Ten Thousand Things, and others.

At his birth, the spirits of the ten directions praised him as “Empty Mist Crowned with Wisdom, Supreme Honored One, Emperor and Teacher, Great Man, Great Immortal Honored One, Father of Heaven and Humans, Superior Person of Wuwei, Greatly Compassionate Benevolent One, True Origin Teaching Lord,” and the like. Heaven and humans also extolled him with ten names: Lord of Wuwei, Supreme Mysterious Elder, Supreme Lord Laozi, Exalted Laozi, Heavenly Sovereign Great Emperor Immortal Honored One, Father of Heaven and Humans, Superior Person of Wuwei, Greatly Compassionate Benevolent One, True Origin Teaching Lord, Heavenly Sovereign Great Emperor.

Besides these, he holds titles such as Supreme True Wuji Great Dao, Natural Primordial Supreme Heavenly Worthy, Dao Lord, Supreme Heavenly Truth, Heavenly Elder, Celestial Master (Tianshi), Yellow Elder, Mysterious Ancestor, Teacher of the Age, Spirit Person, True Person, Immortal, Perfect Person, Great Person, Dao Person, Sage, and others. From “Heavenly Truth” downward in the list above, each designation consists of two characters.

The Supreme Sacred of Dongzhen Truth of the Grand Lord (Laojun Dongzhenji Sheng)—a supreme divine being venerated in Daoism—originally had no fixed form: when hidden, he became black qi; when revealed, he took human shape. At times he condensed into a true bodily form in the Great Void (Tai Xu, the vast formless cosmic origin), his body boundless and his countenance complete in majesty, with nothing above to support him and nothing below to tread upon. At times he appeared above clouds and mist, his body radiating golden light, attended and guarded by many perfected ones (zhenren), and honored by the hundred spirits.

At times he sat upon a lotus, wearing a crown adorned with the seven luminaries (seven celestial bodies) and exquisite treasures, robed in a nine-colored li-luo garment, with a circular halo behind his neck illuminating heaven and earth. At times he dwelt in golden halls and palaces, with pearl and jade curtains hanging all around, as myriad celestial emperors came to pay homage and divine soldiers escorted his chariot. At times he showed a golden face and jade-like form, dressed in yellow garments and embroidered coverings; at times he wore white robes and a black crown, riding a red-maned white horse.

At times he descended to the ten heavens (the celestial realms in Daoist cosmology), governing all beings, dwelling in palaces such as Taiwei, Gouchen, and Zifang, and becoming the Celestial Emperor (Tiandi).

At times in spring he transformed into Shangjing Jun, nine thousand zhang in height, wearing a splendid crown decorated with the seven essences and treasures, dressed in garments of black and yellow with a blue brocade flying skirt, holding a tiger tally, seated upon seven-colored clouds. In summer he became Laoqian, wearing a nine-dragon crown, robed in yellow patterned garments and a yellow feather skirt, holding a golden tablet, standing upon purple clouds. In autumn he became a youth in five-colored garments, sometimes riding a lion, sometimes seated upon azure clouds. In winter he became light in azure, black, and green, bright and dim mingling together. Then he returned to the black qi within the Golden Gate (Jinque, the golden palace of heaven) and again received refinement from the essence of Feixuan Tongchen.

He could also manifest as the Great Emperor of Profound Heaven (Xuantian Dadi); the Daoist scriptures say he transformed eighty-two times to become Zhenwu (True Warrior). The invocation text for the Protecting Sage True Lord (Yousheng Zhenjun) therefore says: “We reverently invoke the Great Sage of Profound Heaven (Xuantian Dasheng)—the utmost numinous spirit transformed from the qi of ren and gui in the north, the bodily form manifested by the True Venerable of the Golden Gate (Jinque Zhenzun), titled the Supreme General Zhenwu (True Warrior).”

His divine powers were free and unobstructed; he manifested according to the responsiveness of sentient beings: he could appear white or black, square or round, bent or straight, tall or short, old or young, as one or as myriads. His form shifted in every direction without fixed pattern, with no settled appearance. Sometimes he manifested as twelve hundred Lords Lao, appearing in the heavens; sometimes as one hundred eighty Daojun (venerated Daoist deities), guiding ordinary people into the way of immortals. He divided his numinous body and sent forth his radiance, reaching everywhere in an instant—yet the body of the True One (his true, undivided essence) remained always still and clear, dwelling in the Taiqing Taiji Palace.

Lord Lao was born on a jiazi day in the ninth month of the first year of the Shanghe era, gengyin year, between the Li Valley of Tiancheng Lingjing Mountain in the Northern Xuanyu Kingdom of Yudan, in the chamber of Shangxuan Lingmu Jiuxuan. When Shangxuan Lingmu first conceived, she dreamed that dark clouds and the sun and moon encircled her body, and the six qi (the six vital breaths that constitute heaven, earth, and the myriad things) shook her spirit like lightning, and she became pregnant. On the day Lord Lao was born, three suns appeared in the sky. He therefore took Gu as his surname and Yaojing as his given name; he was also named Hong, styled Ziguan, and also named Xuanshui, styled Shanyuan.

“Shanghe” (Upper Harmony) is a reign title in the celestial chronology, alongside others such as Chiming, Zhuling, Qinghan, Tianhan, Kaihuang, and Shanghuang. Ordinary people know only that the sexagenary cycle was established by Dalao and that reign titles began with Emperor Wu of Han, so they dismiss celestial titles like Shanghe as fantasy. They do not realize that Heaven had its own reckoning of years countless kalpas before the present, though mortals had no way to know it. Figures such as Guiguzi, Beiguo Zi, Celestial Master Zhang, and Immortal Lord Ge later matched celestial era names to human history. Could these sages, versed in past and present and probing the hidden, have been unaware that there were no human reign titles before the Qin and Han? The laws established at the opening of Heaven and Earth and the shifts of successive ages were all arranged in advance by Heaven; at the proper times Heaven also sent celestial zhen (divine immortals of the heavens) to descend and teach the Way. It was not that people in the world could precede the Dao and originate everything. Those who cultivate the Way should reflect on this carefully.

Thereupon he gathered soul and spirit, guarded embryonic breath and the primordial spirit, reined in essence and settled blood and qi, so that fluids were ample and sinews and vessels firm; he swallowed the radiance of sun and moon, ingested mist and rosy clouds, and chewed feigen—the flying root, a legendary immortal herb. Inner virtue fulfilled and outer entanglements left behind, his body could divide into myriad forms and change without limit. Jade Pure Lord, the Purple Forbidden Upper Zhen Heavenly Emperor of the celestial realm, sent the Eight Sceneries Jade Carriage to welcome him, escorted him to the Upper Pure Palace, and conferred the Rui-gang Cinnabar Jade Phoenix Seal and Golden Zhen Jade Radiance, granting the Divine Tiger Talisman and wings for flight, together with a crimson brocade dragon skirt, green collar and tiger belt, and round divine crown. He received the celestial book and was enfeoffed as Emperor Lord of the Golden Gate and Later Sage.

In the first year of the Longhan era (an ancient period in Daoist sacred chronology), Laojun sent forth an emanation to the Great Fu Tang Realm at the center, where he transmitted true writings inscribed in red—sacred characters—and instructed the people there so that they all attained longevity.

Later Laojun came to the Chiming Realm at the Southern Pole, where he taught true writings refined by fire; that place was therefore called the Court of Cave Yang. There was a Pool of Flowing Fire in which people refined and nourished their bodies until they all turned golden. Above stood the Palace of Southern Goodness; below was the Mansion of Crimson Mound, which presided over the generation of life.

Laojun said that through the five kalpas—Longhan, Chiming, Shanghuang, Yankang, and Kaihuang—the Qi of Shiqing, Danguang, Zhongling, Suhua, and Xuanyang circulated in turn. As these forms of Qi revolved and transformed, they shaped the jade chronicle. From Longhan onward, across countless aeons, the vast chaos was boundless and dim; records from that time cannot be verified. Only when the Chiming age opened the celestial books did the classics become open to inquiry.

True writings are characters formed from the refined essence of the true Qi of the five directions. Their shapes have eight corners with light radiating outward; sometimes they resemble cloud-seal script (Daoist characters written like curling clouds), sometimes the forms of birds and beasts—they are what we now call talismanic characters, the script by which celestial immortals send messages and authenticate one another. All of this is also recorded in the Scriptures of the Three Caverns.

Laojun also came to the Fuli Realm in the heaven of the Eastern Pole, the Azure Void, and wrote the true writings in the Forest of Sky Azure, where they appeared as purple characters. Wind in the forest became music; birds that ate the leaves gained long life. These characters likewise served as credentials for messages among celestial immortals. This too is recorded in the Scriptures of the Three Caverns.

In the eastern extreme, in the realm of Biluo Heaven (the heaven at the farthest east) and in the land of Fuli, the True Script was inscribed among trees of empty green, forming characters in purple. When the wind stirred the grove it gave forth sound; birds that ate the leaves showed patterned plumage on their bodies, and people who obtained the birds’ feathers could fly. The people there lived long without dying, dwelt in peace and joy, and followed nature without forced striving.

In the western extreme, in the world of Weiluo and the jade land of Xina, the True Script was revealed on Mount Fulu to deliver the people of that region. A jade pool formed of itself there, and the breath of golden essence flowed and shone; those who drank from the pool emitted a golden radiance from their bodies and shared the same span of life as Heaven.

In the northern land of Yudan, the True Script was written in the Dongling Guan (a temple where the Dao is honored and cultivated), to save sentient beings. Below the temple lay a cold pool from which numinous spring water flowed of its own; those who drank it gained endless longevity.

The people of these five regional lands all received the Lingbao teaching of Laojun (the Supreme Venerable), and thereby attained long life. He then commanded the Five Old Emperors of Heaven (the divine lords who guard the five directions) to hold the five regions in turn, to spread the Dao and teach, so that the myriad things would be harmonious and at peace.

The Bibliographical Treatise in the History of the Sui states: Yuanshi Tianzun (the Primordial Heavenly Worthy) was born before Taiwu (the primordial void before heaven and earth took form), endowed with the breath of nature—clear, empty, and unfathomably deep—so that none could know how far his realm extended. Even when heaven and earth were destroyed and the kalpas reached their end, the Heavenly Worthy remained, never perishing. Whenever heaven and earth were newly opened, he would appear sometimes upon the Jade Capital, sometimes in the wilds of Qiongsang, transmitting the secret essentials of the Dao—what is called “opening the kalpa to deliver people” (preaching the way to save beings when a new cosmic cycle begins). Such openings of the kalpa were not limited to a single occasion.