《要修科仪戒律钞》Vol. 5

To console you in your suffering from the cold. Are you well? I am as usual. For now, I cannot come to see you, and my heart is full of sighs and anxious thoughts. Take good care of yourself. I will keep this letter brief. Written by Master So-and-so.

A letter to elder fellow students, with the envelope addressed: “To Elder Brother and Sister So-and-so, fellow students; respectfully, So-and-so.”

On such-and-such a day of such-and-such a month, So-and-so reports: In early spring, I think of you from afar and respectfully ask after your circumstances. I imagine you too have many new concerns. We have not been apart long, yet my longing has already grown. Your greeting, received on such-and-such a day, brought me some comfort. But I have not received a letter from you lately, and I still worry about you. The weather is still cold; I wonder how you are keeping and how your daily life is going. By the grace of those who watch over me, I am generally well. I have simply had no chance to see you, and my thoughts and concern for you have grown all the stronger. I hope you will take good care of your health. I write this briefly and cannot express myself fully. With respect, I bow again.

A letter to younger fellow students, headed: “I ask after you as well. You are on my mind. It is still cold; I wonder how you are keeping and how your daily life is going. I am generally well, but I have had no chance to see you, and my thoughts and concern for you have grown all the stronger. Take good care of your health. I write this briefly and cannot express myself fully. With respect, I bow again.”

A letter to younger fellow students, headed: “To younger fellow students, So-and-so; respectfully, So-and-so.”

On such-and-such a day of such-and-such a month, So-and-so replies: It is early spring, and we have been apart for some time. My longing for you often grows deeper. It is still cold; I wonder how you have been lately. My health is somewhat poor and weakened, and I have been occupied with many matters, so I have not been able to see you. My thoughts of you have grown all the stronger. Take good care of yourself. I will say no more in this letter. So-and-so replies.

A letter to an uncle or aunt. The heading reads: “From your younger brother, So-and-so, to my uncle and aunt.” For an unmarried paternal aunt, write: “To my paternal aunt, So-and-so, still at home.” The body may begin: “Respectfully, your younger brother, So-and-so.” A woman may write: “Respectfully, your daughter, So-and-so.”

A letter to an elder brother or sister, headed: “From your younger sibling, So-and-so, to my elder brother and sister.” To an elder sister, write: “Respectfully, to my elder sister, So-and-so.”

For an older relative of the same clan who is no longer within the mourning kinship degrees, write: “Respectfully, to my senior uncle, So-and-so.”

A letter to a male cousin, headed: “To my cousin, So-and-so; respectfully, So-and-so.”

A letter to a younger brother or sister, headed: “To my younger brother, So-and-so.” For a younger sister, write: “To my younger sister, So-and-so.” The same forms apply to cousins of the same generation. If they are one’s own siblings and both parents have died, write: “Respectfully, to my senior uncle, So-and-so.”

A letter to a male cousin, headed: “To my cousin, So-and-so; respectfully, So-and-so.”

When writing to younger brothers or sisters, the envelope or opening should read, respectively, “For my younger brother, [name], to read” or “For my younger sister, [surname and name], to read.” The same applies to cousins of the same generation. If writing to one’s own brother or sister and both parents have passed away, one may write, “At the start of spring, I think of you from afar and hope my dear sibling is well.” To a cousin, write, “My longing for you grows all the more.”

When writing to a maternal uncle, his wife, or a maternal aunt, use the heading: “Respectfully addressed to my younger maternal uncle, [name]; from [sender], in a brief letter.”

When writing to a nephew or niece, use the heading: “[Name], to read.”

When writing to a young child, use the heading: “Respectfully presented to [name], of the [surname] family.” Begin the letter, “[Sender] respectfully writes: At the start of spring, I think of you from afar…” and close with “Respectfully, in brief.” Such letters omit the sender’s surname and are signed “[Sender], presented.”

When writing to someone of the same generation, use the heading: “Presented to [name], of the [surname] family.” Begin, “[Sender] respectfully writes: At the start of spring…” and close with “Sent in brief.” Such letters omit the sender’s surname and are signed “[Sender], presented.”

When writing to a familiar person with whom one has a less close relationship, use the heading: “In brief, to [name], of the [surname] family.” Omit the surname in the body of the letter and sign “[Sender], in brief.”

When writing to someone with whom one has the most distant relationship, use only the recipient’s surname and title in the heading. The letter may read: “I have not received a letter from you lately, and my thoughts have been much occupied with longing for you. I was glad to receive your letter, sent on [date]. As the weather is still cold, I wonder how you have been. My health has been poor of late, making it difficult for us to meet; I can only lament this. Please take good care of yourself. I will say no more for now.” Close with “[Sender], in brief.”

Second: Mourning Condolence Protocol

When sending a letter of condolence to an official such as a provincial governor or county magistrate, or to another person of high standing, use the heading: “Adept [name] of [temple], respectfully writes.” A marginal note explains that a provincial governor may be addressed as “Illustrious Lord,” and a county magistrate as “Illustrious Prefect.”

The letter may read:

“On [date], [sender] respectfully writes. An unexpected misfortune has befallen you: your mother (or wife), [title and name], has passed away, and I am deeply grieved. If the deceased held an official rank of third grade or higher, use the term ‘passed away in office.’ Thinking of your profound grief and lamentation, your cries and anguish, and how sorrow leaves you unable to rest, I am filled with sympathy. I respectfully send this letter, though it cannot fully express my grief. Respectfully, in brief.”

When offering condolences to a teacher who has suffered the loss of a parent, use the heading: “Disciple [name], respectfully writes.” A marginal note explains that the letter should be presented “before the honored teacher’s seat,” meaning before the teacher’s spirit tablet or funerary seat.

On such-and-such a day of such-and-such a month, so-and-so bowed his head to the ground and bowed again. Misfortune came suddenly: your honored father and honored mother passed away one after the other. In grief and longing, my heart feels as though cut by a knife, and I can scarcely contain myself. No matter how loudly we weep now, nothing can bring them back. Grief pierces the five viscera and tears at the heart; it is truly unbearable. Having suffered such a calamity, what can one do? I was unable to come at once to pay my respects and offer condolences, which makes my grief all the more bitter. I send these words in haste and cannot express everything. So-and-so bows again.

A letter of condolence to fellow disciples on the death of their master’s parents. The letter should be addressed: “Before the spirit tablet of the most filial So-and-so.” If the deceased shared the same surname as someone in the prefecture, one may write: “So-and-so has come to offer condolences.” If the father is still living and the mother has died, write: “In grief.”

In a letter of condolence for the death of someone’s father or mother, one may write:

Your honored father or honored lady did not enjoy a long life, but passed away suddenly and can no longer receive your filial care. Thinking of your deep affection and sorrowful grief, you can only cry out and remember them; such anguish and pain make it hard to find peace. It is truly heartbreaking—what can one do? I could not come in person to comfort you. I can only hope you will restrain your grief; my heart is overwhelmed with sorrow and choked with tears. I have sent someone with this letter of condolence. In grief and haste, I cannot express everything. A Daoist offers these condolences.

A letter notifying fellow students, elder brothers, and elder sisters of the death of their master. The letter should be addressed: “To fellow student Elder Brother So-and-so; a brief letter from So-and-so.”

On such-and-such a day of such-and-such a month, So-and-so sends this letter: Misfortune has come upon me without cause; calamity has fallen on my own household. Your honored teacher fell ill. I had already informed you of the illness, but the protection of the spirits was not granted, and on such-and-such a day he suddenly passed away. At this, I cry out to Heaven and strike the ground, grief cutting to the bone; I cannot contain myself. Thinking of what has happened, I can only mourn in sorrow, yet there is nothing I can do. The pain is so extreme that it is unbearable; I cry out until my voice nearly fails. I send this letter in grief and confusion, unable to express everything. So-and-so bows again.

A letter notifying fellow students, younger brothers, and younger sisters of the death of their master. The letter should be addressed: “To fellow students Younger Brothers and Sisters So-and-so; a notice from So-and-so.”

On such-and-such a day of such-and-such a month, So-and-so writes to inform you: Misfortune has come upon me without cause; calamity… The pain is so extreme that it is unbearable; I cry out until my voice nearly fails. I send this letter in grief and confusion, unable to express everything. So-and-so bows again.

On a certain day of a certain month, someone reported: Through no fault of my own, I have brought calamity upon myself. The disaster has not only failed to leave me, but has also entangled my late revered master. I grieve and cry out, beating my chest and stamping my feet, with pain reaching to my heart and lungs. Unable to control myself, I can only weep and choke back my sobs; my spirit is bewildered, and I cannot speak in an orderly way.

A Fellow Disciple’s Death: Reporting to the Master

On a certain day of a certain month, someone respectfully submitted a letter, saying: Calamity struck suddenly, and my fellow disciple, so-and-so, died young. My grief is like a knife cutting into me, and I cannot control myself. Whenever I think of what happened, I am overcome with sorrow. How can I bear it? How can I ease this pain? I have not yet been able to come and pay my respects to you, which makes me even more choked with grief. I offer this account; the letter cannot give all the details. So-and-so bows again.

Third Rite for Illness

Er Meng says: The Instructions from the Gate of the Immortal Lord records that when a Daoist is gravely ill and near death, they should bathe in fragrant water and put on their headdress and ceremonial robes as usual. The scriptures and ritual objects they have received and maintained should be placed before the room, where an altar should be set up and offerings presented. They should invite senior members of the Daoist community who are respected for their De to come, observe the precepts of purification, and recite scriptures. They should also repent for every offense committed since receiving their body. They must conceal nothing, but openly acknowledge and confess their wrongs, so as to dispel karmic offenses and pray for blessings.

Master Zhang Xu says that one may recite the Scripture of Salvation one hundred to two hundred times. The Immortal Lord says that if scriptures and ritual teachings need to be handed over or entrusted to another person, each instruction should be written out in a document and copied in full, without concealment. The names and titles of the scriptures should also be listed separately and presented in a memorial to the Most High, the revered deity of Daoism, with nothing withheld.

The Jade Register of the Central Origin says: Among the rites for honoring one’s master, if the master suffers hardship, disciples should all feel sorrow in their hearts; in their daily comings and goings, they should not laugh and rejoice.

The Jade Register also says: When the master is ill, disciples should all attend at their side and personally keep watch over the master’s breathing, as they would care for their parents.

The Jade Register also says: When the master meets with calamity, disciples should lead their fellow disciples in holding a purification rite and praying for protection from the gods, thereby accumulating merit.

The Qianzhen Ke says: Monastics and laypeople differ in some respects, but there are no fixed rules for dealing with illness and death. One should follow the prescribed rites. During illness, the scriptures should be chanted without pause, day and night, and incense burned. At the approach of death, the Bell of Impermanence should be struck to see the deceased off, and the “Five Refinements of the Living Corpse” rite—a Daoist funerary and deliverance ritual—should be performed.

During an illness, attend to the needs of everyone in the monastery, visit the sick often, and keep an eye on the kitchen so that meals are brought to them as early as possible. When people are gravely ill, few can calmly face the fact that their life is coming to an end. Their blessings and allotted vitality have been exhausted, yet they still try to hide from death. This shows that the merit they accumulated in life is not enough to rely on. To panic at the last moment only wastes thought and hastens death.

At this time, the room may be cleaned and swept, and the doors and windows opened. Let virtuous guides—people of integrity who can lead others in cultivation—visit and offer one another words that help them face the end of life calmly: All things in the world are impermanent; what could remain unchanged forever? If an estimate based on the person’s allotted lifespan shows that little time remains, the sick person may be moved to the Hall of Transformation, where those near death are placed and rites of deliverance are performed.

The Hall of Transformation may be built in the northwest corner of the monastery grounds, with its own courtyard and hall. It should have three bays and five structural frames, and face northwest. On a raised platform inside, make an image of Ascending to the Void: a deity seated on a lotus, life-size, with the left hand pointing toward Heaven’s Gate and two Perfected Ones standing in attendance on either side.

When the sick person feels that their breath is about to cease, move them into the hall and place them behind the deity’s seat. Make a banner from a single piece of yellow patterned cloth, two zhang and four chi long. Tie its middle around the waist of the Perfected One on the left, and place the banner’s end in the sick person’s hand. Have the person focus on right-minded thoughts and pray to ascend with the two Perfected Ones through Heaven’s Gate to the Golden Palace, the dwelling of the Celestial Emperor. If their lifespan has not yet run its course, they should continue to accumulate blessings and do good. For a sick man, place his head toward the Perfected One on the left; for a sick woman, toward the one on the right.

Once someone enters this hall, it is difficult for them to recover safely and return to where they were. Those close to death often say that they are not yet seriously ill; this is only attachment to life and wishful thinking. Would someone who understands the principles of life and death really cling to either leaving or staying?

Daoist regulations stipulate that when male or female Daoist officials have grown old and ill and are nearing death, they should entrust their household affairs and possessions to close, trustworthy disciples. If the master leaves a will, the possessions are to be handled according to its instructions. If there is no will, the remaining possessions should be itemized and recorded, then discussed with disciples who know the circumstances, and used for meritorious works and funeral expenses. If there are no disciples, the Daoist community should decide how to handle them. If there is no Daoist community either, the Daoist order should take charge. The possessions must not be handed over for use by secular relatives such as brothers, grandchildren, or nephews.

If the master’s parents or the master’s own teacher are designated in the will to receive the possessions, the will should be followed. If they did not live together and the will did not authorize it, taking the possessions without permission constitutes one of the “Five Rebellious Offenses” (a grave transgression). If the matter cannot be settled privately, it should be referred to the authorities.

Fourth: The Initial Rites of Encoffining the Newly Deceased

When someone dies, there is no need to bathe the body or first place it on a bed. Lay two mats directly on the ground, with the head facing south, and do not move the body again. Dress it in the hand garments, socks, cap, and clothes customarily worn in life. Tie the Fulu worn when going out around the left elbow, and place the bell and seal by the right elbow. Then cover the body with the lower quilt (the bedding beneath it) and the upper quilt.

While the body lies in state, set a white rice porridge offering on its eastern side, level with the shoulders. After the offering, lay straw mats on the ground on both sides: male mourners stand on the left, and female mourners on the right. There is no need to place a pearl in the deceased’s mouth as in secular funerary customs, nor to perform a soul-summoning rite. The wine libation is also performed on the eastern side of the body. The ritual text may say: “In the year of [the reign of] Emperor [title], on the first day of the [month] of [year], your disciple [name] respectfully prepares pure wine and vegetable offerings to pay homage to the spirit of the revered master…” When the rite is over, mourners may grieve and weep freely. This is the initial encoffining rite.

During the grand encoffining—the rite of placing the body in the coffin—there is no need to burn incense, scatter dust, or bathe the deceased. Simply dress the deceased in robes and a headdress like those worn during a purification retreat. First set the coffin on lime, catalpa wood, and a Seven-Star Board, then prepare the burial items, such as a sheng basket and a rooster-call pillow. Four people carry the quilt and place the body in the coffin. Put the transmission document on the left, the talisman on the right, and the mirror near the head.

In former times, the scriptures and methods carried by the deceased were placed at the front of the coffin and stood upright in a li vessel. Today, some people place them outside the coffin on a table beside the head; this is also acceptable. The grand encoffining offering is then performed, using food that the deceased ate while alive. Spread a mat on the west side of the body and arrange the offerings and fruits and vegetables on it. The text of the offering prayer is omitted. After the rite, mourners weep and make the offering, then draw up a record. Place the food used in the rite in a grain jar and set it at the head of the coffin.

In former times, the transfer document—a paper sent with the deceased to the underworld—was written on white silk. Today, paper may also be used. The burial goods should be listed in this order: first the objects the deceased wore in life, then the items provided for the burial, and finally the transfer document prepared by the Daoist priest.

The identities of the male and female Daoist priests from the prefecture, commandery, county, and village, and from the monastery, are respectfully recorded here, along with the scriptures and methods received by the Three Caverns disciple So-and-so:

The scriptures and methods include the Register of the Administration of the Dao, the Precepts of the Five Thousand Words, and others.

These scriptures and methods were received from a certain master.

The Natural Covenant, the True Text of the Five Elders in Red Script, and the Three Grades of the Three Sovereigns’ Upper Clarity Scripture.

These scriptures and methods were received from a certain master.

The number of disciples who received the Lingbao methods and the number who received the Shangqing methods are as follows. The scriptures carried into the tomb by the Three Caverns disciple So-and-so are respectfully listed here:

The One Hundred and Eight Three Sovereigns’ Upper Clarity Scripture.

This scripture was received from a certain master.

The number of disciples who received the Lingbao methods and the number who received the Shangqing methods are as follows. The scriptures carried into the tomb by the Three Caverns disciple So-and-so are respectfully listed here:

The Text of the One Hundred and Eighty Precepts, the Register of the Two Offices of Immortals and Spirits, as well as the True Texts, transmission documents, talismans, seals, and other items.

These items are placed in the coffin with the deceased.

A certain volume of the Upper Clarity Scripture, a certain volume of the Seven Transmissions, the Five Methods worn as regalia, and various Shangqing texts worn as regalia.

Together, these are placed in one case, comprising a certain number of scrolls, and carried with the deceased into the tomb as an offering.

Carefully list the seasonal garments carried by the Three Caverns disciples—disciples who study the Three Caverns scriptures—as well as their supplies, such as paper and brushes. Specify each garment and item individually.

All the items listed above are to be placed in the coffin with the disciple.

Inkstone, brush, paper, hand towel, ink, writing knife (used to scrape bamboo or wooden slips or prepare writing materials), memorial-writing desk, and incense burner.

All the items listed above are to be placed in the tomb with the disciple.

In total: a number of items, including scriptures and ritual robes.

In a certain Jiazi year, on a certain day after the first day of a certain month: heavenly memorial desk, incense burner.

All the items listed above are to be placed in the tomb with the disciple.

In total: a number of items, including scriptures and ritual robes.

In a certain Jiazi year, on a certain day after the first day of a certain month, the Celestial Elder issues this document to inform the following: Tianyi, Dier, Meng, Zhong, and Ji (the first, middle, and final months of each season), the Five Route Generals, the elders of Haoli (underworld spirits associated with burial grounds), the Two Thousand Bushels under the Earth, the Assistant of Andu, the King of Wuyi, the True Officials of the local domain, the River Earl and his aquatic administration, the supervisors of the Soul Gate, the pavilion chief of the tomb gate, the officers of mountains, rivers, and marshes, and the emissaries of the Direct Talisman:

There is now a Three Caverns disciple named So-and-so, a man born in a certain prefecture, commandery, county, township, and village, aged a certain number of years. On a certain day and at a certain hour of this month, his lifespan ended and he suddenly passed away. His soul has ascended to the Celestial Bureau, and his body has returned to the earth. He is now to be buried in a brick tomb at a certain mountain in a certain township and village.

While alive, this man left the secular world and followed a master, resolving to seek the Dao and transcend the world. He traveled in search of instruction and received and carried the Great Scriptures, talismans, charts, proclamations, transmissions, and other methods of the Shangqing Three Caverns. Now his lifespan has ended and he has suddenly passed away. His soul has ascended to the Celestial Bureau, and his body has returned to the earth. He is now to be buried in a brick tomb at a certain mountain in a certain township and village.

The ritual objects he received during life are also to be returned to the Great Yin, the Daoist realm of the underworld. In addition, his seasonal garments, ornaments, and daily-use objects, comprising a number of kinds, together with a cedarwood coffin and burial supplies, have all been prepared for his interment and final rites.

When this talismanic document arrives, promptly and properly secure the body and carefully guard the scriptures and ritual treasures. Take an inventory of and receive the caps, robes, and belts. Restrain and instruct the forces under your respective command to support, receive, and escort the deceased. Do not delay or detain him; ensure his journey is entirely unobstructed and that he arrives directly at the burial place. Do not allow ghosts of other surnames in or around the tomb, or in any direction to the east, west, south, or north, to impersonate him by using his name or falsely claiming his identity, or to take the opportunity to seize his possessions unlawfully. Let all parties understand and carry out this talismanic command; none may disobey. This command is issued in accordance with the statutes of the Ghost Methods of the Great Mysterious Capital and the Edicts of Nüqing.

The foregoing may be appropriately expanded or abridged according to the circumstances of the times.

The Immortal Lord said: It is best for Daoists’ scriptures and ritual implements to be placed in advance in pure, secluded places such as famous mountains and blessed lands. This avoids any need for talismanic commands or decrees and ensures that no relevant rules are violated. All arrangements should follow the codes, including the Statutes and Ordinances of the Ghosts of the Great Mystery Capital and the Edicts of the Lady Qing.

The foregoing may be appropriately expanded or abridged according to the circumstances of the times.

The Immortal Lord said: It is best for Daoists’ scriptures and ritual implements to be placed in advance in pure, secluded places such as famous mountains and blessed lands, but they need not be buried together with the deceased. Nowadays, some people who become disciples and receive teachings have not yet assembled all the scriptures. Their disciples may not even be able to identify the scriptures copied and transmitted by their masters. Why, then, insist on burying scriptures with the deceased? And why hide them in famous mountains ahead of time? Scriptures should be kept for future generations and passed down from one generation to the next. Fulu (talismans and registers) may be placed in the tomb with the coffin. The method to use can be decided according to the circumstances.

Among the personal effects, items placed at the rear inside the coffin need not include funeral goods such as grain pouches and waist cords, as in popular custom. After the ritual is complete, close the coffin lid and set it properly in place according to the liturgical rules. Then arrange and offer the ritual implements to be buried at the southern end of the coffin. When incense is burned, all Daoists should wear caps and ritual robes. One person presides at the southern end of the coffin, recites praises honoring the Three Treasures—the Dao, the scriptures, and the masters revered in Daoism—and then performs three bows.

End of volume fifteen of Collected Essentials on Ritual Procedures and Precepts for Cultivation.

Collected Essentials on Ritual Procedures and Precepts for Cultivation, volume sixteen

Compiled by the Three Caverns Daoist Zhu Faman

Threefold Chant in the Brahma Style

Text of Repentance and Prostration

We respectfully proclaim: The Most Holy and Lofty Perfected Ones, in their compassion, pity the beings of the Six Realms. With profound, still wisdom, they cherish the beings of the Four Births—womb-born, egg-born, moisture-born, and transformation-born. The feelings and thoughts of living beings sink into the river of desire, while their awareness falls into a sea of suffering. The roots and conditions of fate shaped by good and evil remain unsevered; retribution follows through life and death. Blessings and calamities depend on one another, and change has no end.

Though the fire of wisdom shines without fail, its sacred light cannot reach beings sunk in the sea of suffering. Though the jeweled vessel sails continually upon the waters, they still cannot cross over. Thus, born into this world, people do not truly control their own bodies.

The deceased, so-and-so, has already seen the Dao and heard the teachings, upheld the precepts, and practiced the scriptures. The deceased cultivated the spirit with phoenix seals, the written forms of Daoist talismans, and purified body and mind with dragon chapters, Daoist scriptures or talismanic writings. The deceased’s aspirations transcended the Ten Realms, and wisdom entered the Nine Mysteries, the deep and wondrous realms of the Dao. The deceased understood that both this life and the next are empty, and knew that the body is merely a temporary gathering of the Four Great Elements: earth, water, fire, and wind. Yet the time for attaining immortality has not fully ripened, and further transformation and elevation are still needed. We fear only that karmic hindrances may still bind the living and the dead, or that transgressions and errors may have brought about karmic consequences. Therefore, all must rely on fields of merit, the foundations of good deeds and cultivated blessings, and await the accumulation of virtue.

Accordingly, the assembly of practitioners bows in unison and offers sincere devotion on behalf of the deceased members of so-and-so’s family within the five degrees of mourning kinship, and those associated with the spiritual path guided by the Three Masters and the deities. With single-minded reverence, they pay homage to the Supreme, Infinite Great Dao and the saints who manifest in the ten directions. They pray that these holy beings will send down their divine power to deliver the deceased and rescue suffering souls, release them from the consequences of sin, and enable them all to wander through the Pure Land, cultivate their spirits in the immortal palaces, receive immortal titles in Jade Capital, and attain the immortal fruit in the Golden Palaces, until at last they unite with the supremely true and unsurpassed Great Dao.

I often reflect that the sages have descended into the human world, guiding living beings in many ways, while true immortals continually reveal their forms and leave traces of their sacred presence. At times they appear in a particular guise; at times they leave behind teachings. Their purpose is to guide ordinary people and spare them suffering.

When I think of living beings struggling through birth and death, their minds and spirits grow weary. They abandon their bodies and endure their fate, while their spirits suffer hardship and humiliation. They do not yet understand that the circumstances they endure arise from causes and conditions in the past. How, then, could they know where they are headed? If they continue to wander in confusion and forget the way back, they will keep cycling through rebirth. Without compassionate deliverance, they will ultimately sink into the consequences of their sins.

Today, I, so-and-so (the person making the prayer in this ritual), have borne an uncommon aspiration since childhood. I followed my master in seeking the Dao, studied the scriptures, practiced the Daoist teachings, widely bestowed kindness, and accumulated merit. Yet even with merit already gained, it may not suffice to bring fulfillment in both the underworld and the world of the living. For this reason, I must also pray for blessings and aid.

May everyone present together awaken the Mahayana aspiration and practice the path of the superior adept. Let us all focus our prayers on the emperors and rulers of the lands in the ten directions, their officials and subjects, the masters who transmit the Dao, and those who have left worldly life to cultivate the Way. With bowed heads, we entrust ourselves to the Three Pure Ones (Sanqing), pay our respects, and give thanks for the wondrous scriptures of the thirty-six divisions; the golden slips and jade characters, symbols of precious and sacred writings; the dragon script and phoenix patterns; the nine grades of true words; and the orthodox teachings of the five directions. Above all, we pray that the mysterious power of the Dao may widely deliver the living beings of this world.

May all those engaged in public and private affairs attain the state of true immortals and share in wisdom and awakening. May they penetrate the four directions and become fully clear and complete, endowed with the six supernatural powers. May they widely proclaim the teachings of the Three Vehicles and deliver beings of the five paths, granting every living being freedom, until all together approach the sacred place of the Dao, where the Way is cultivated and realized.

In this world, a human life is brief. The body is formed from the union of the four great elements—earth, water, fire, and wind—and is neither real nor enduring. The Five Constant Virtues that people follow also grow shallow and false as circumstances change. Life moves ever onward like flowing water and vanishes in an instant like a flash of fire on a stone: it is as hard to hold on to as a white horse racing past a gap, while the sun’s shadow slips away in the blink of an eye. A thousand years seem like a moment, and a hundred-year life is like a dream. Even someone as long-lived as Peng Zu must eventually pass away with the changing of all things. Unless one is an immortal sage who has attained the Dao and rides a dragon, who can escape death alone? When the appointed end has arrived, who can turn it back by force?

Now so-and-so has left this body, and the bonds with family and friends can no longer continue. Scenes from life still seem to lie before us, yet there is no one left to meet or speak with. This brings grief not only to family and friends, but also moves passersby to sigh. From now on, there is a lasting farewell to the human world, and the bonds of a lifetime part like flowing water. May everyone present give rise to a heart of great compassion and extend it throughout the ten directions. May all sentient beings, the gods of heaven and the earth deities, adversaries and kin alike, be treated without distinction. May those who suffer in this world and the sinful souls in hell also be remembered. All beings that can be named and classified—including those born from the womb, from eggs, through transformation, or from moisture—should together bow and entrust themselves.

May everyone pay respects to the Great Master of the Mysterious Realm and the assembly of perfected sages. May they release the five-colored radiance of their wisdom through the six spiritual powers, saving the unseen realms and the human world alike, so that all beings may find peace and joy. May harmful ties be exhausted and good karma fulfilled, and may all sentient beings of the four modes of birth take refuge in the Three Treasures: the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. After completing three prostrations, perform three ritual bows.

The doctrine of past lives has its truth: human lifespans inevitably run their course. The great and worthy delight in upholding the scriptures and precepts.

These are all the meanings of the “Two Mengs.”

After the three ritual bows, perform the rites of mourning and consolation according to the practice of the Two Mengs, then read the transfer document, used in burial or ritual observances, to avoid repeating the recitation. When the three ritual bows are complete, one person recites the transfer document. There is no need to add a separate farewell in the manner of secular etiquette, since the document itself conveys its meaning. After it is read, place it in the ge vessel at the front of the coffin, a container or ritual object inside the coffin. Those inside and outside the coffin then perform the farewell rites. After bowing in farewell, close the coffin lid, but do not yet drive in the nails; immediately submit the memorial. Once the memorial is complete, drive in the nails, weep, arrange the zongfa, the hairstyle or attire used in mourning rites, and perform the rites of mourning and consolation.

Format of the Memorial

Write the transfer document for the relevant parties, along with the lists of ritual robes and items prescribed in the preceding scripture, on separate sheets of paper for the memorial. Begin by carefully writing: “In such-and-such prefecture, county, township, and village, the male-born disciple of the Great Cavern, so-and-so…” Then write: “Tai Xuan Du Zhengyi Pingqi…” followed by the other titles.

A careful review of the contents listed in the document: A male disciple of the Three Caverns (Dongzhen/Dongxuan/Dongshen), named so-and-so, entered the Dao from birth and was fortunate to receive the highest and most wondrous Daoist teachings. His charts, registers, talismans, and seals were also largely complete. Yet he failed to withdraw from the world to practice and recite the scriptures, and failed to quiet his mind and guard the One. Instead, he moved among the crowds and became stained by worldly toil. His offenses grew grave, and now his allotted lifespan has ended, and his spirit-consciousness has left his body.

On a certain day and at a certain hour this month, he took leave of Heaven and Earth and returned for a long stay among the earth officials, the divine functionaries who govern affairs below ground. Since he possessed scriptures, ritual treasures, talismans and charts, ritual implements, clothing, bedding, and other such things in life, his body is now to be prepared for burial and his tomb sealed today at a certain hour. To prevent the living from incurring punishment by violating funerary taboos, and to keep ghosts formed from residual Qi, or spirits of mountains and rivers, from obstructing the deceased and preventing him from reaching the Dao, we are also concerned that the underworld officials who govern the seasons, the elders of Haoli—the legendary dwelling place of the dead—the mound commissioners and tomb wardens who oversee graves, and the underworld officials of the rank of two thousand shi may be disturbed. We therefore list the scriptures, burial objects, and other items individually in this document, and respectfully prostrate ourselves to submit this memorial.

We are also concerned that these underworld officials may not be at peace. We therefore list the scriptures and burial objects individually, prostrate ourselves, and submit this memorial to the corpse-attending emissaries, the officials in charge of sealing the coffin, and the other divine functionaries. We ask them to come and oversee the burial, and to settle the remains and spirit-consciousness, so that the deceased may dwell in Haoli for a long time and be reborn according to his karma. Once the matter is completed, we ask the divine officials to return to the Celestial Bureau, receive their customary rewards, and be promoted in rank, and not to harbor resentment over this matter. If there is any grievance, whether caused by an offense on the part of the living or the dead, we ask that it be forgiven. We beseech the Highest One, the Daoist title for the supreme divine being, to judge the matter with clear discernment.

The above is the “Memorial for the Burial Rite,” a memorial submitted as burial approaches. It must be presided over and carried out by a senior Daoist who has received the Burial Register, a Daoist register related to funerary rites. Since the text records the titles of scriptures, it must not be shown to outsiders and should be burned after a day or two.

Unless someone possesses profound virtue and great renown, disciples do not ordinarily perform the three prostrations and present the three pledges at the encoffining, and it is difficult to have all these rites observed on a single occasion. The petitions offered in the memorial must therefore be clear and precise; if any part of the ritual is mishandled, there will be nothing to rely upon. Here, in accordance with liturgical rules, we set out the “Three Refuges” (the rite of taking refuge in the Three Treasures), briefly stating its essential points.

After the deceased has been placed in the coffin, first prepare the transfer document (a written petition conveying the deceased’s case to the higher realms) according to the method transmitted by Master Meng. Then spread a mat at the head of the coffin, burn incense, and strike the small handbell three times. When the encoffining is complete, kneel upright and recount the circumstances of the deceased’s life.

With reverence, say: The Great Dao was originally without life, yet life arose, and with it came death. Human life is like lightning between clouds or the fleeting image of a city on the sea: it vanishes in an instant, and death never makes an appointment. The underworld is unfathomable; no one knows where they will go after death. People meet briefly, depend on one another, and regard one another as family, yet their thoughts are always changing, and nothing can endure forever. The past is continually slipping away, bringing sorrow.

Today, the deceased, so-and-so, was fortunate to be born in a sacred and enlightened age, to hear the scriptures and encounter the Dao. With sincere devotion, they followed the Dao and practiced the true teachings, bowing morning and evening to the Dragon Writings (Daoist scriptures or sacred documents), and paying homage at dawn and dusk to the Phoenix Seals (Daoist talismans and registers). They had hoped to attain the immortal Dao and ascend into the clouds, but their years were cut short, as Confucius lamented that flowing water hastens human aging and Zhuangzi described the premature death of a mountain tree. Once the deceased departed this life, they were separated from family and friends for a long time. Remembering their former daily life, we know we can never see them again; looking at their clothes and bedding, we cannot hold back our tears. The burial garments have been arranged, and mourning clothes prepared, so we have chosen an auspicious time to place them in the coffin. In accordance with the transfer document used in funeral rites, we have set out each item of the written petition. After reading the document, chant the Three Refuges.

At this time, the deceased should take refuge in the Great Dao of the Ten Directions (the Dao extending throughout the ten directions of the worlds). We pray that the Great Dao will send down its divine might, uproot the roots of suffering accumulated over seven generations, and release the deceased from the bonds of the Three Paths (the three evil realms of hell, hungry ghosts, and animals), allowing them to wander in the wondrous gardens of the hidden and mysterious, refine their spirit, and become an immortal official. Finally, bow in homage to the supremely true, infinite Great Dao.

They should pray for the deceased to take refuge in the venerable scriptures of the Thirty-Six Sections, asking that these jade characters and golden chapters—the exalted scriptures—nourish the deceased’s spirit and innate nature; that dragon writings and phoenix seals—the forms of Daoist scriptures and talismans—purify the mind and spirit, so that the deceased may forever leave Northern Deng, the legendary realm of the dead, and dwell eternally in the Southern Pole, a symbol of longevity and the immortal realm. During the rite, they bow before the Dharma Treasures of the Ancestral Mystery and Naturalness, treasures revered in Daoism.

They should also pray for the deceased to take refuge in the Great Masters of the Profound Mystery, those who attained the Dao under the Later Sage, so that the light of the seven awakenings may shine forth and illuminate the wisdom of the six supernatural powers. May they save all beings in the underworld and the human world, and bring aid to the living and the dead. During the rite, they bow before the boundless ranks of sages throughout the ten directions.

After the rite, move the written document to the head of the coffin. The head of the bereaved household then drives in the nails and secures the lid. If the body is to remain at rest for a time on the day of the funeral, move the coffin into the main hall and hang a white cloth curtain in front of it. Three days after the body has been formally placed in the coffin and it has been sealed, the mourners put on mourning clothes. Then set up a spirit bed to the left of the coffin, with curtains facing east. Provide a screen, table, bedding, garments, and other items, arranging them as they were in the deceased’s lifetime. Offer meals twice a day, morning and midday.

Before putting on mourning clothes, the filial son binds his hair with a cloth band, spreads a mat before the spirit, and kneels facing north, with the east as the honored side. He weeps day and night. When it is time to put on mourning clothes, he goes before the spirit and bows twice, touching his head to the ground. After bowing, he goes to the coffin and weeps with all his grief, then returns to the southern end of the spirit bed and leans against it as he weeps. Those who weep less intensely lean and weep before the spirit facing west, with the north as the honored side. They perform the prescribed bows and receive the condolences and words of comfort from visitors.

The author observes that following these practices as described would be hard to understand: should the filial son face north or west? The uncertainty could easily confuse people, and visitors coming to offer condolences might also be left in doubt. The rites are therefore adjusted after careful consideration. Before putting on mourning clothes, the filial son binds his hair with a cloth band. A white cloth curtain hangs before the spirit, with men on the left and women on the right. Once the mourning clothes have been put on after three days, place the spirit tablet to the south of the coffin’s head, with a screen, table, and bedding. This makes the arrangement clear to visitors and makes it more fitting to place the filial sons on the left and right. The rites established by Master Zhang are similar.

Rite for Putting on Mourning Clothes, Section Six

Receive the ordination and complete the registers. This means accepting the ritual ordination and completing it through the bestowal of the full registers.

The Three-Five Original Destiny (a designation associated with Daoist ordination registers and the reception of a ritual jurisdiction) includes the Eight Vouchers and the Ten Registers. The Eight Vouchers are the Voucher for Settled Resolve, the Voucher for Ascending to the Mysterious, the Voucher for Selling One’s Son, the Voucher for Begging for a Child, and the four Shangqing Vouchers: the Blood Voucher, the Immortal Voucher, the Great Deliverance Voucher, and the Spirit-Communing Voucher. The Ten Registers include the Register for Removing Fulfillment, the Three-Five Register, the Original Destiny Register, the Register for Beheading Evil, the Register for Breaking Demons and Summoning a Hundred Ghosts, the Register of the Duzhang and the Bi Seal, the Register of the Nine Provinces’ Earth Gods, the Four Sections of the Great Mystery, the River Chart Register, the Green Armor Register, the Great Prohibition Register of Dongye, and the Register of the Ten Generals.

When receiving a ritual jurisdiction, one must wait until the prescribed period for the registers has ended before performing the mourning investiture rite. Under the Lesser Meng rite, disciples mourn for three months, and men and women alike wear garments and headwear made from cloth of fifteen sheng. The Greater Meng rite has neither the Eight Vouchers nor the Ten Registers. The lineage of Lord Shijing has the Ten Registers but not the Eight Vouchers. The rites of the Greater Meng and Lord Shijing traditions are called “dispelling ignorance,” meaning to awaken the unenlightened and guide them into the Dao. The kindness shown through this instruction is profound.

There is no investiture rite when one raises the lament and receives condolences. The Yi says, “The childlike unenlightened come seeking me; I do not go seeking them.” If they are not awakened, they will ultimately be obscured by ignorance. The Shengxuan Jing also says, “The former masters and the later masters should all be honored.” Since this is so, how could their rites of respect be treated differently simply because the periods of mourning are the same? For this reason, mourning for three months under the Lesser Meng rite is considered more fitting.

For the Wuqianwen, the One Hundred and Eighty Great Precepts, the Zhengao, and related transmissions concerning the Five Sacred Peaks, the Six Jia, and the prohibition of entry into mountains, both Meng rites use the same mourning attire: five months of mourning. Men and women wear lower garments made from cloth of eleven sheng and caps made from cloth of twelve sheng. Today people no longer wear caps; they wear armor garments instead and perform the rite prohibiting entry into mountains.

The mourning regulations described above were jointly established by the Two Mengs: for a minor merit mourning period of five months, men and women alike use cloth of eleven-sheng count for the lower garment and cloth of twelve-sheng count for the cap. People today do not make a cap, but wear only a headcloth, to save expense.

According to Confucian ritual, when mourning, one changes from one’s customary auspicious clothing into mourning clothes. In ordinary times, one wears a cap on the head, a robe on the upper body, and a skirt below. Under the Two Mengs’ regulations, cloth of twelve-sheng count is used for the cap, and coarse cloth of eleven-sheng count for the robe and skirt. Lord Shijing, however, says that this kind of mourning is all minor merit mourning for five months: men use silk to make a headcloth, while women wear a skirt that has been bleached and processed. Since people have now switched to wearing headcloths, why not simply make them from silk?

Those who study the Daoist arts wear coarse cloth garments in ordinary life. After their teacher dies, changing into bleached and processed clothing is neither reasonable nor in keeping with human feeling. If the prescribed mourning period is minor merit mourning for five months, how can silk be used for mourning clothes? The “Ritual for Mourning Garments” says that the fibers of the hemp used for sima mourning are as fine as silk, but the cloth is still made of hemp, which is why it is called sima. The threads used for minor merit mourning are fine and take more work to weave, hence the name “minor merit”; those used for major merit mourning are coarse and take less work to weave, hence the name “major merit.” Although Lord Shijing gives this explanation, I do not accept it. Please follow the Two Mengs’ regulations: before burial, wear a cloth cap and coarse cloth robe; after burial, change to a cloth headcloth and cloth mourning garments.

The scriptures and talismans referred to here include the “Natural,” the “Central Covenant,” the “Three Sovereigns,” the “Five Talismans,” the “Seven Transmissions,” and the “Treasures of the Spirit.” The “Real Spirit” mentioned here is the Scripture of the Cavern of Spirit.

The system described above was also jointly established by the Two Mengs: for major merit mourning, lasting nine months, men and women alike use cloth of seven-sheng count for their garments and cloth of eleven-sheng count for their caps. Lord Shijing only specifies the nine-month mourning period and does not state the cloth counts.

The “Great Covenant of the Numinous Treasure” and the “Three Grades of the True Scripture.” “True Scripture” refers to the “Great Cavern True Scripture of Highest Clarity”; “three grades” refers to the Daoist scriptures bestowed by Highest Clarity. The relevant scripture catalog originally listed two entries, which have been recorded together.

In the Great Covenant of the Lingbao tradition—a solemn oath accompanying the transmission of Lingbao Daoist methods—and in the “three grades of true scriptures,” the term “true scriptures” refers to the Shangqing Great Cavern Scripture. The “three grades” are the Daoist scriptures transmitted in the Shangqing tradition. Their titles fall into two groups, totaling thirty-five scrolls. The “three registers” are, first, the Register of the Eight Su Plain Chants; second, the Jade Register of the August Sovereign; and third, the Register of the Orthodox Law of the Three Heavens. The “three flights” are the flights of the sun, moon, and stars, also known as the Three Radiances. By receiving the Shangqing method of the Three Flights, one can ascend to the realms of Jade Clarity, Highest Clarity, and Great Clarity. Those who receive this method are called disciples of the Three Radiances.

All these kinds of transmission follow the same rules during the two Meng observances, whether these refer to the relevant months or to ritual procedures. During mourning, one wears the one-year mourning dress of unhemmed coarse cloth: both men and women make their garments from four-grade cloth and their caps from seven-grade cloth. One observes inward mourning for three years and does not attend banquets or musical performances. If, as mentioned earlier, the Five Thousand Words, the Natural Great Covenant, and the other three scriptural methods were all received from the same master, one must wear the heaviest mourning dress for three years. In food and drink, speech, what one sees and hears, and one’s daily life and rest, one follows the rites prescribed for a filial child. When the mourning period ends, one changes into festive dress, without performing a separate purification rite.

Today, some who pay homage to a master of the Great Covenant let their hair down and mourn for only a year. Among those who pay homage to a Shangqing master, some observe no mourning at all, some mourn for three months, and others say that nine months are required. These people not only fail to understand what the “three grades, three flights, and three registers” are; they do not even know which scripture the “three grades” refer to. Relying only on accounts passed down through seven generations, they treat them as a collateral branch of the Shangqing tradition and therefore prescribe nine months of mourning. This is because they have never seen the scripture scrolls and have not read them thoroughly. Masters, eager to broaden the scope of their transmissions, teach carelessly, while disciples rush to compete for the reception of purple registers. Master Tao said, “The ancients thought that knowing the surface was already quite good. As I see it now, they had only secondhand learning.” This is indeed so. How could someone receive the Shangqing method, read the scriptures, and still fail to understand them? If one does not understand the method, how can one neglect one’s master? The Shangqing method and the Great Covenant method are both transmissions of true scriptures, and both call for the more demanding mourning observance. Each person should consider this carefully; the two Meng observances have deliberated on the matter for a long time.

Scripture masters and register masters.

According to “the Two Meng Masters above,” when disciples mourn their teachers, the mourning observance should be determined by the closeness of the teacher-disciple relationship. A scripture teacher wears the lesser mourning garment, while a register teacher—one who transmits precepts, registers, and ritual methods—wears the greater mourning garment; the depth of each teacher’s relationship with the disciple should also be considered. If the disciple mourns the master for three years, the register teacher mourns for one mourning period (about a year), and the scripture teacher wears the greater mourning garment. If the disciple mourns the master for one period, the register teacher wears the greater mourning garment and the scripture teacher the lesser. If the disciple mourns the master in the greater garment, the register teacher wears the lesser and the scripture teacher mourns for three days. If the disciple mourns the master in the lesser garment, the register teacher mourns for three months, and the scripture teacher does not mourn. If the master is only a register teacher, the disciple’s observances toward him are all lighter; if the relationship between master and disciple is also distant, the observances may be reduced accordingly.

Fellow Disciples

According to “the upper text,” the two Meng Masters prescribe the same observance: fellow disciples mourn one another for three months, wearing hemp mourning garments.

Teachers Mourning Disciples

According to “the Two Meng Masters above,” a teacher’s mourning for a disciple is one grade lower than the disciple’s mourning for the teacher: if the disciple mourns the teacher for three years, the teacher mourns for one period; if the disciple wears the nine-month mourning garment, the teacher also mourns for nine months; if the disciple wears the five-month garment, the teacher also mourns for five months; and if the disciple wears the three-month garment, the teacher also mourns for three months. Lord Shijing says that a teacher’s mourning in return for a disciple should match the disciple’s observance, except that the teacher does not undo the hair knot. As for the common ritual rule that “the inferior is constrained by the superior,” the Two Meng Masters’ view should be followed. If the teacher is very old or physically unable to bear the mourning garments, inward grief alone is sufficient.

The Two Meng Masters say that disciples within the community mourn their master because the scriptures say the master can free people from birth and death, and that this kindness outweighs that of one’s birth parents. Yet the Daoist community’s mourning rites differ from common ritual practice. Since they do not include the outward expressions of grief and suffering found in common mourning rites, there is no need to remove the relevant passages from the scriptures. All other grades of mourning are determined according to the closeness and weight of the relationship. Lord Shijing says that when a teacher mourns a disciple in return, anyone who raised the disciple, helped them grow, and delivered them from suffering should undo their hair knot. Regardless of the rank of the disciple’s ritual office, if the teacher is to wear mourning garments, they may be tailored as circumstances require.

Funeral Procession Rite, Chapter Seven

If the deceased was a renowned person of virtue, five stone tablets could be prepared in advance in accordance with the provisions of the Zhen Jing and the Wulian Shengshi Jing. The specific procedure followed the scriptures and rites and is not described further here.

On the day of burial, during the funeral rites, the scriptures and ritual treasures were carried into the tomb, arranged and offered according to the prescribed ceremony. Incense, flowers, banners, canopies, musical instruments, and a chanting procession were set out in the order laid down by the scriptures and rites; the original text gives no further details. As the procession moved, banners and flowers went first, followed by the coffin and ritual food, with the funeral carriage behind them. Among those accompanying the coffin, the chief mourner of higher rank and in deeper mourning walked ahead of those of lower rank and lighter mourning. If ordinary people were also present, the chief mourners walked at the rear. For a funeral procession by boat, elders of higher rank walked at the back. In general, the front of the procession should be arranged auspiciously and the rear solemnly, with the order adjusted as circumstances required.

At the burial site, the rites were arranged as prescribed. First, the coffin was placed in the tomb and the scriptures set before it and offered according to ritual. A spirit couch was placed beside the tomb, with an altar to its right. The male chief mourners stood on the left side of the burial ground and the female chief mourners on the right. Following the “Seven Alignments” rite, the Daoist priests faced the tomb and, before the scriptures, performed the rites of practice, repentance, praise and chanting, and offering incense. Once everything had been arranged and the ritual meal concluded, the disciples read the eulogy before the altar, then gave themselves over to mourning. When the wailing ended, they rose and performed the farewell rite. Finally, the scriptures were placed in the tomb. If the journey was long, the arrangements were adjusted to the circumstances and the time.

After the coffin had been placed in the tomb, a stone couch was set at its head, with a table placed on it for the items needed for chanting praise and offering incense. Once the rites had been arranged and the ritual meal concluded, the disciples read the eulogy before the altar. After mourning, they rose and performed the farewell rite, then placed the scriptures in the tomb. If the journey was long, the arrangements were again adjusted to the circumstances.

Once the coffin has been set in place, place a stone bed at its head and set a small table on it. Put the scriptures and ritual implements buried with the deceased on the table. Place an immortal youth on the left and a jade maiden on the right. Set the divine soldiers and horses on both sides of the tomb entrance, near the front. Also arrange square containers and set out small tables, paper, brush, inkstone, ink, hand towels, incense, and other items. The filial sons then pay their respects together and take their leave. After the tomb has been sealed, they perform the rites of condolence and consolation, then return. All these ritual procedures were established by the two Mengs.

The full table arrangement was a folk custom of the time, and its details should depend on the family’s means. A thorough search of Daoist scriptures reveals no uniform rule on this matter; this is indeed the case. Water for restoring the soul is used to bring the soul and spirit back, while fire for settling the po is used to calm the soul and po. In ancient times, people used the open wilderness as a coffin and outer coffin, while Zhuang Zhou took Heaven and Earth as his outer coffin. Is funerary practice really only a matter of adhering to ritual rules and fixed ceremonial standards for all to see? If one valued De (Virtue/Power) in life, then after death one should regard the physical form lightly. Procedures should adapt to circumstances, increasing or decreasing with the times; there is no need to cling to fixed numerical rules such as one, three, or four items.

Ritual for Settling the Spirit, Section Eight

The two Mengs say: Next, arrange the spirit bed. The bed should be five feet long and face south, with a screen, curtains, and canopy. Arrange the clothing according to the conventions for the four seasons. Place a stool in front of the bed, then set out incense, hand towels, a hu tablet (a tablet held during ritual), a comb, and other items. The details may be adjusted according to circumstances and the season; there is no need to adhere to fixed numerical rules.

Ritual for Settling the Spirit, Section Eight

The Two Meng say: Next is the method for arranging the spirit bed. The bed should be five feet long, with its head facing south. Hang a screen, curtains, and a canopy, and prepare clothing according to the arrangements for each season. Place a small table in front of the bed, with an incense burner, lamps and candles, a hand towel, a tablet, a comb, a brush, and clothing on it. In the morning, set out the small table and bedding; in the evening, move them to another bed, lay out a mat, and put out a pillow and quilt. Gather them away again at dawn. Offer food at both the morning and midday meals. Also prepare willow twigs for rinsing the mouth, clean water, and a hand towel, tending to the deceased’s needs just as in life. Display and prepare all the items required for each season.

The Two Meng say: If a duke or prince, a father or uncle, or a teacher comes to pay respects, the bereaved son should go outside the gate to welcome them, then return to the spirit hall by another route. He leans against the bed on its eastern side and weeps, with the north considered the place of honor. Relatives in lighter mourning lean and weep facing north in front of the bed, with the east considered the place of honor. When elders take their places among the visitors, the east is likewise the place of honor for the seating. The bereaved son bows low and weeps, crying out five times, then kneels to receive their condolences. The elder takes the bereaved son’s hand to console him; the bereaved son then bows twice. When the rites are complete, he sees the elder back to the place where he was welcomed, then returns to lean beside the spirit bed and weep.

If an ordinary visitor in heavier mourning comes to pay respects, no bowing is required. A visitor in the next lighter grade of mourning need only lean and weep on the eastern side of the spirit bed. After the visitor has wept in condolence, the bereaved son kneels to receive the condolences and clasps the visitor’s hand in greeting. Once the visitor has left, the bereaved son weeps again. When someone of the same generation comes to pay respects, the bereaved son sits in order and weeps as he receives the condolences. A visitor of lower standing performs the rites but does not clasp hands; one shown a measure of respect kneels and clasps hands; someone of equal standing stands, leans against the spirit bed, and clasps hands. If the visitor is related to the bereaved family, after offering condolences they should also lean and weep before the spirit bed, expressing their grief fully before leaving. If the visitor has not seen the bereaved son since the death, then even if they are of equal standing, they must lean and weep before the spirit bed and receive the condolences.

Rite for a Disciple’s Return to His Own Abbey (Ninth)

The Two Meng say: If returning to one’s own abbey (the Daoist temple to which a Daoist belongs) outside a festival period, set a low bed beneath the north wall, with its head facing south and the west as the place of honor. The disciple sits, weeps, and receives condolences. If the visitor is an elder, the disciple kneels to receive the condolences and clasps hands; if the visitor is of the same generation, the disciple should also lean and weep before the spirit bed and receive the condolences.

The two Masters Meng say: If mourners do not arrive during the prescribed period and the bereaved family has returned to its usual home, place a low bed beneath the north wall and sit facing south, with the west side as the seat of honor. The filial son sits and weeps as he receives condolences. If a visitor is an elder of higher standing, the filial son should kneel to receive the condolences and clasp the visitor’s hand; if the visitor is of equal standing, he receives the condolences seated. Set the visitor’s place beneath the west wall, where a five-foot-long bed is placed with its head facing east. The visitor faces east and takes a place on the bed in order, with the north side as the seat of honor. After bowing forward and weeping five times, the filial son rises and returns the salute. He then kneels and clasps the visitor’s hand, following the same procedure as before. Nowadays, if no temporary spirit tablet is set up, condolences may also be received in an empty hall.

In the place where the filial son lives, set a plain low bed. Remove the existing screens and curtains, surround the bed with a mat woven from reeds, and hang a white cloth curtain over the doorway. Wear straw sandals and speak little; when face to face with others, do not initiate conversation.

Rite for Removing Mourning Garments, Section Ten

The two Masters Meng say: From the seventh-day, fourteenth-day, and twenty-first-day observances through the hundredth day and the anniversary, merit-making rites may be performed as one sees fit. After these observances, no other offerings are set before the spirit tablet in the morning or evening; only incense is maintained. At the second anniversary, the incense may also be removed and the mourning garments taken off. Alas, even so, one should still speak little; when face to face with others, do not initiate conversation.

Er Meng said: From the seventh day, through the second and third seven-day periods, and on to the hundredth day and the first anniversary, the family may perform merit-making rites to aid the deceased as they see fit. After these memorial periods have passed, there is no need to set out offerings before the spirit tablet morning and evening; incense may simply be kept burning. The incense may also be removed at the second anniversary.

The phrase “may also be removed” suggests that in some cases it is not removed. But if the deceased had no outstanding virtue, why keep a spirit couch in place for so long? Master Zhang said: Incense should be kept burning before the spirit tablet, and disciples—here meaning followers or family members—should mourn and make offerings morning and evening. For three days, hold vegetarian offerings; perform the purification rite at noon, and continue serving food through the fourth day. A basin of clear water should be set out for all these rites. After the hundredth-day memorial, remove the spirit seat and take off the mourning clothes, according to the degree of mourning required.

If the deceased was a person of virtue and renown, a hundred days may not be enough to express grief fully. In our time, when someone of exceptional virtue is honored by both the court and the people, even after the body has been buried and the spirit has ascended to Heaven, people continue to remember and admire them where they lived, and to pay their respects before the spirit tablet. How long to keep the tablet in place cannot be decided by one rule for all. If any disciple received the deepest transmission of the teachings and wears the three-year mourning garb of the most severe grade, the tablet may remain until the second anniversary. If the disciples mourn for one year, it may remain for one year; if they mourn for nine months, for nine months; if for five months, for five months; and if for three months, the tablet may remain for a hundred days.

If the family is extremely poor and there are no descendants, a spirit tablet and offering table may be left without anyone to make offerings, gathering dust and grime over time. It is easy to set them up but difficult to remove them later. If doing so is emotionally unbearable, they may be dealt with at an appropriate time, according to the circumstances. If the deceased had no particular distinction or renown and left no descendants, and the burial has been properly arranged, the rites for seeing them off may follow the usual practice; there is no need to set up a separate spirit tablet. If throughout life the deceased took no part in worldly affairs and kept out of the limelight, with a reputation as insubstantial as a bubble and a body as fleeting as a dream, then, having sought no elaborate burial, they need no offering table. If the deceased left instructions, follow them in light of those instructions and the circumstances.