《意林》Vol. 2

When the King of Qin learned that Jing Ke had arrived, he was delighted. He stood before the palace steps, holding a halberd, and arranged his guards in formation to receive him. Jing Ke carried a box containing Fan Yuqi’s head and brought the map as well. His anger made his hair stand on end beneath his cap, and he sang a mournful song. Everyone who heard it wept. Jing Ke and Qin Wuyang climbed into the carriage and never looked back.

When Jing Ke reached Xianyang, the King of Qin again received him with delight before the palace steps. Jing Ke presented the box containing Fan Yuqi’s head, then the map, and the assembled ministers cried, “Long live the king!” Qin Wuyang was terrified. Jing Ke turned and smiled at him, then stepped forward and explained, “The barbarians of the northern frontier are ignorant and have never seen the Son of Heaven. I hope Your Majesty will be lenient and allow him to finish his task in your presence.” The King of Qin said, “Jing Ke, rise and present the map of Dukang.”

Jing Ke unrolled the map. When it was fully opened, a dagger appeared. He seized the King of Qin’s sleeve with his left hand and thrust the dagger toward the king’s chest with his right, shouting, “Follow my plan and you will live; refuse, and you will die.” The King of Qin said, “Let me hear the qin before I die.” He summoned a palace attendant to play. The music sang: “A thin silk robe can be torn apart with one hand; an eight-foot screen can be leapt over; the sword leaning beside the carriage shaft can be drawn with the hands behind the back.”

Jing Ke did not understand the hints in the music. Following its instructions, the King of Qin drew his sword with his hands behind his back and cut off Jing Ke’s hands. Leaning against a pillar, Jing Ke laughed loudly, sat with his legs spread, and still tore his clothes and leapt over the screen. He also repeated the words, “The sword leaning beside the carriage shaft can be drawn with the hands behind the back.” Then he cursed: “I was tricked by that boy, and the deed went unfinished.”

Five Scrolls of Guiguzi, with a commentary by Le Shi, named Tai.

Taken as a whole, this book says that in the Zhou dynasty there lived a hero and recluse who stayed in Ghost Valley and called himself Master of Ghost Valley. No record survives of his native place, family, or personal name. This account was invented by Su Qin when he wrote the man’s biography. The name “Ghost Valley” carries a profound meaning, much like “Mr. No Such Person,” whom Sima Xiangru invented.

From antiquity to the present, principles have remained consistent, yet change without end, each thing reaching its own outcome. There is Yin and Yang, softness and firmness, opening and closing, relaxation and tension. Thus, sages grasp the pivotal points in the changes of things and carefully observe the sequence in which events unfold. The mouth is the gateway of the mind; wisdom and strategy are expressed through it.

Some people hear news from afar and at once feel longing; others approach, yet do not try to stop them. In the world, there are no demands that remain fixed forever, and in carrying out affairs there is no teacher whose guidance never changes.

When a bundle of firewood is carried toward a blaze, the dry wood catches first. When water is poured over level ground, the damp places are soaked first. This shows that things of similar nature respond to one another.

The wise need not personally do what they are unskilled at; they can draw on what fools are good at. They need not personally do what they handle clumsily; they can make use of what fools do with ease. Walls collapse at their cracks, and timber is damaged at its knots.

When others act, I remain still; when others speak, I listen attentively. Whether to hold firm or withdraw is for me to decide. Knowing one’s own nature reduces entanglements; understanding one’s allotted life leaves no cause for worry. When worry and entanglement have been dispelled, the heart becomes calm; when the heart is calm, benevolence and righteousness can shine forth. To care for the people through De is like plants and trees encountering a favorable season; to transform people through benevolence is like rain from heaven, nourishing plants and trees.

The Yin Wenzi consists of two scrolls, and Liu Yin wrote a commentary on it.

The preface says: Wenzi was a descendant of the Yin clan of the Zhou dynasty. By the time of King Xuan of Qi, he was living at Jixia, the scholarly center in Linzi, the capital of Qi. I first arrived in the capital near the end of the Huangchu era. Miao Xibo showed me this book, so I took the liberty of arranging and collating it.

There are three kinds of names. The first names things, such as square, round, white, and black. The second expresses praise or blame, such as good and bad, noble and lowly. The third consists of terms used to compare or describe people, such as worthy and foolish, loving and resentful.

There are four kinds of standards. The first are institutions that cannot be changed at will, such as the distinctions between ruler and minister, and between higher and lower ranks. The second are systems for measuring differences and assigning grades, such as able and incapable, superior and inferior, same and different. The third are systems for governing the people, such as rewards and punishments. The fourth are standards of fair measurement, such as musical pitches, length measures, weights and balances, and units of capacity.

Some arguments may be sound, yet bring no benefit to governance; a gentleman does not speak of them. Some abilities may be put to use, yet bring no benefit to a task; a gentleman does not exercise them. In making tools, it is not individual ingenuity that is prized, but the ability to make them ingeniously together with others. Yet nowadays some people want to be the only one who appears worthy in their work, the only one who shows skill in handling affairs, to outdo everyone in debate, and to surpass everyone in courage.

Tian Pian said, “There is no scholar under Heaven who does not try to gain entry to the households of the powerful, even going so far as to place his wife and children under their protection. They are bound to seek office at the courts of the feudal lords, because fame and profit draw them in.”

Peng Meng said, “In the wild, pheasants and rabbits are pursued by everyone because they belong to no one. In the market, pigs and sheep are packed together, yet no one chases them, because they already have owners.”

Two clever people cannot command one another; two people of high status cannot lord it over one another; and two skilled debaters cannot silence one another. This is because their strength is equal and their positions alike.

If one acts solely through cleverness, one’s plans often fail. If one acts solely through dullness and ignorance, one is sure to go against reason. Only by alternating between discernment and reserve, between making things apparent and keeping them concealed, can one win the support of the people.

If salaries are too meager, one cannot expect people to quell disorder. If rewards are too small, one cannot expect people to risk their lives in danger. Those in high positions must be cautious.

Yin Wenzi went to see King Xuan of Qi. The king said nothing, but sighed. Yin Wenzi asked, “Why do you sigh?” The king replied, “I lament that there are so few worthy people in my state.” Yin Wenzi said, “If everyone in the state were worthy, who would be beneath you, and who would carry out your work? Each person has a role, so those in high positions must be cautious.”

Someone named his eldest son “Thief” and his younger son “Ou.” When the eldest son went out, his father ran after him, shouting, “Thief!” The officials heard and thought he was calling for someone to catch a thief, so they seized the eldest son and tied him up. The father hurriedly called, “Ou!” intending to explain things to the officials. But in his panic, he could not get the sound right and kept repeating, “Ou, Ou!” The officials mistook this for an order to beat the eldest son, so they set upon him and nearly beat him to death.

The heart is the key to every kind of wisdom; all things must be sought within it. To cultivate one’s nature without understanding Heaven’s mandate is like trying to return home without having a house.

When a noble person does good, good fortune will follow; when a petty person does evil, misfortune will follow.

Music was how the former kings expressed joy; warfare was how they expressed anger.

A boat drifting with the river, with no mooring to hold it fast, cannot possibly remain steady.

The joints in the human body number three hundred and sixty, corresponding to the number of Heaven. The body, formed of bone and flesh, is solid like the earth; its openings and blood vessels are like rivers and valleys. Eating too much sweet food benefits the muscles but harms the bones. Eating too much bitter food benefits the bones but harms the sinews. Eating too much pungent food benefits the sinews but harms Qi (vital energy).

When Yang Qi stirs, thunder and lightning arise; when Yin Qi gathers, snow and frost form. Those skilled in speaking of ancient events connect them to the present; those who can recount distant events also examine what is at hand. Principles are set forth for the wise. A horse shows its worth in the hands of a skilled driver; the worthy need a wise ruler to employ them, and the eloquent use their skill in argument to understand and make sense of things.

The Qin dynasty made harsh laws and punishments the foundation of its rule, and so met with calamity, like a nest overturned and its eggs shattered.

Wen Gong planted rice, and Zengzi tended sheep. Even the clever have things they are not good at; in some respects, they do less well than the slow-witted. Land near a river is damp, and trees near a mountain grow tall. Clouds rise in the mountains, bringing life to the hills; the four great rivers flow east together, and none of their many tributaries flow west.

When people all join in condemning or praising someone, they can make a floating stone sink in water and wood sink to the bottom. When evil weeds smother one another, they can even call what is straight crooked.

Dogs do not bark wildly at night, and parrots do not call out at night. There is no clamor in the home, no troublesome business in the offices; the village settlements seem almost deserted, there are no lawsuits in the countryside, and the elderly have no worries. This is what good rule by a noble person looks like.

Pouring wine from a jade cup and adorning things with carved gold locust wood are ways to show off to petty people; they do not make one truly prosperous.

Emperor Gao (Gaozu of Han) did not appoint members of his own clan to powerful posts close to him, and was therefore able to put down rebellions. Wherever the court’s laws reached, all obeyed; wherever its armies campaigned, all submitted. Even when Empress Lü wielded power alone, the state and its altars of soil and grain did not collapse.

The Book of Han says that a dynasty’s mandate lasts as long as a belt; the Gongyang Commentary says it is as brief as a copper coin. A ruler skilled in governing will ensure that scholars serve both inside and outside the court, that oxen and horses are plentiful on the roads, and that birds and beasts flourish in the mountains and forests. From flying birds above to insects and fish below, all are properly provided for, as the earth bears the myriad things and the sea receives a hundred rivers.

The territory under Your Majesty’s rule extends east and west across the places where people travel, and from north to south encompasses climates suited to both cold and heat. The lands occupied by the Xiongnu are not even as large as a single county.

To issue orders at the wrong time is called “harming Heaven.” To burn forests and cut down trees out of season is called “harming Earth.” To judge cases and impose punishments unjustly is called “harming the people.”

Those who are cold find coarse cloth garments beneficial; those who are hungry find even bran and chaff tasty. When the Second Emperor of Qin came to the throne, people throughout the realm craned their necks, waiting to see how he would govern. This shows that governing the people is not difficult; what is difficult is governing them well. To judge cases and impose punishments unjustly is called “harming the people.”

Those who are cold feel comfortable even in coarse cloth; those who are hungry find wine lees and coarse grain delicious. After the Second Emperor of Qin took the throne, people throughout the realm craned their necks, waiting to see how he would govern. Thus, when the people are already exhausted, governing them is in some ways easier.

The ruler and his ministers are like the sun and the stars; the exalted and the lowly are like white and black. The ruler directs his subjects as the body directs the arms, and the arms direct the fingers. The Son of Heaven is like the hall; ministers serving among the people are like its beams and pillars; the people are like its foundations. If the bonds of order and institutions are unstable, it is like crossing a river without mooring ropes: if a boat meets wind and waves midstream, it is bound to capsize.

Those who mine copper neglect their fields; those who secretly cast coins lose time needed for farming.

During the Jianwu era of Emperor Guangwu of Han, checkpoints were established at Hangu, Linjin, and other places to guard against the lords east of Mount Xiao. It would have been better to pacify the regions, so that there would be no place in the realm requiring defense and people could travel freely throughout it.

One cannot live among upright people without being influenced and becoming upright oneself, just as someone raised in Chu cannot fail to learn the local dialect.

There are four ways in which one’s bearing should be expressed. When handling affairs of state at court, one’s bearing should be clear and solemn. During sacrifices, one’s mind should be focused and calm. When commanding troops, one’s resolve should be firm and stern. At funerals, one’s feelings should be sorrowful and full of grief.

There are also four ways of speaking. At court, one should speak respectfully and properly. During sacrifices, one should speak gently and with gravity. When giving commands in the military, one’s voice should be loud and forceful. At funerals, one should speak with sorrow.

The ruler of the Di Kingdom sent an envoy to Chu. The king of Chu boasted to the envoy about the Zhanghua Terrace, saying it was so tall that one had to stop three times to rest while climbing to the top. The king asked, “Does Di also have such a tall terrace?” The envoy replied, “The house where the king of Di lives has a thatched roof, and even its eaves are left untrimmed; its timbers are undecorated. Yet he still thinks that those who build houses work too hard, while those who live in them enjoy too much comfort.” After hearing this, the king of Chu began an extensive building project.

The final phrase, “Twenty-six volumes of the Lüshi Chunqiu,” is a title or volume-number notation.

A fascination with beautiful faces and the music of Zheng and Wei is like wearing away one’s life with an axe. Gorging on fatty meat and drinking strong wine to excess is like eating food that corrodes the stomach and intestines. When thunder rumbles, cover your ears; when lightning flashes, shield your eyes. Better not to hear a loathsome sound than to hear it, and better not to see a loathsome sight than to see it. Force someone to laugh, and they will not be happy; force someone to cry, and they will not be sad, for neither feeling comes from the heart.

Running water does not grow foul, and a door hinge is not eaten by insects—both remain so because they are always in motion. The human body and vital essence likewise need to move and circulate. Spring water gathers into a stream that flows onward day and night. The upper reaches do not run dry because of this, nor do the lower reaches overflow.

To hear but not learn is worse than being deaf; to see but not learn is worse than being blind.

If the Rong people—a term used in ancient times for certain groups in the west or north—were born in Chu, and the people of Chu were born among the Rong, the people of Chu would speak the Rong language, and the Rong would speak the language of Chu. A person’s language is shaped by their surroundings. Even a ruler who has lost his state may, through instruction, become a wise ruler.

Because birds carry cherries in their beaks, cherries are also called “beak-held peaches.”

Ferocity and a taste for fighting are vicious traits; weapons are inauspicious objects. Even a sharp sword is no different from a dull one if its thrust cannot reach its target.

Water flows down from the mountains and eventually enters the sea. To dislike the mountains yet wish the water to reach the sea is to ignore that the course of the water is determined by differences in elevation.

People say that dodder, a parasitic plant, has no roots because its roots are intertwined and hard to distinguish. “Meiling” is the same kind of case. A lodestone attracts a needle, drawing it toward itself. When a sage faces south and takes his place—the direction from which a ruler traditionally presided—the people of the world admire him and rally to his side.

When King Wen of Zhou sent someone to survey the land, they found a skeleton. He ordered his officials to dress it in clothes and bury it. Hearing of this, people throughout the realm praised King Wen’s virtue, saying that his compassion extended even to the dead.

In the state of Qi, there were two men fond of fighting, one living in the eastern quarter and the other in the western quarter. By chance, they met and drank together. Someone asked, “Shouldn’t wine be served with meat?” Each man drew his knife, cut off a piece of his own flesh, and offered it to the other. In the end, both died as a result.

A stone can be broken, but its hardness cannot be taken from it; cinnabar can be worn away, but its redness cannot be taken from it. This is because their natures were endowed by Heaven.

In the state of Lu, there was a man with an ugly appearance. When his father went out and saw a handsome man named Shang Duo, he returned home and said to a neighbor, “Shang Duo is not as good-looking as my son.” Even the most handsome person seems inferior to one’s own child in a father’s eyes. Those who love their children often fail to see their flaws.

There was a man whose body smelled unpleasant. His relatives, brothers, wife, concubines, and acquaintances could not bear to be around him, so he had no choice but to hide by the seashore. Yet someone there liked his smell and followed him day and night, unwilling to leave.

Zhao Xiangzi attacked the state of Di and won. As he raised his cup to drink, a worried expression appeared on his face. He said, “Rivers may be vast, but their waters do not take more than three days to recede. Now, in a single morning, I have captured two cities in Di. I fear that my own downfall is near.” When Confucius heard this, he remarked, “Worry can bring a person to prosperity; joy may lead to ruin.”

After Guan Zhong was captured by Lu, the people of Lu sent him back to Qi in a prisoner’s cart, with laborers pulling it. The laborers sang as they hauled the cart. Guan Zhong feared that Lu might change its mind and stop them, and he also wanted to reach Qi as quickly as possible. So he said to the laborers, “I’ll sing for you, and you can sing along.” The laborers no longer felt tired, and they traveled much faster. Guan Zhong may well be called skilled at making use of circumstances. He went along with the laborers’ wishes and used song to spur them on, thereby hastening his escape.

Those who possess the Dao value inferring the distant from the near, the past from the present, and what cannot be seen from what can. Thus, by observing the shadows cast beneath a hall, one can infer the movement of the sun and moon; by seeing ice form in a jar, one can know that the world has grown cold; and by tasting a piece of wild animal meat, one can know the flavor of the whole catch.

Someone was about to cross a river, holding an infant and intending to throw him into the water. When asked why, he replied, “The child’s father is good at swimming.” But a father’s skill at swimming does not mean his son can swim too. This is like affairs of state in Chu: one cannot conclude that others have the same abilities simply because certain people have them, or because they are in similar circumstances.

I do not want to associate with people who are less capable than I am, nor do I want to spend time with those who are my equals, because neither can benefit me.

Zhou Dan, the Duke of Zhou, said, “When a noble person is not appreciated by those who do not understand him, he may hold back for a time. When he meets someone who understands him, he can fulfill his ambitions.”

A cave one xun deep—a unit of length in ancient times—is beyond the reach of a person’s arm. Human understanding, too, has its limits.

When Yue Yang returned from attacking the state of Zhongshan, his face showed that he expected praise for his achievements. Marquis Wen of Wei brought out two baskets of letters denouncing Yue Yang and showed them to him. Yue Yang turned north and bowed twice. “A single inch-thick letter would have been enough,” he said. “Why fill two baskets?”

A person running alongside a fine horse cannot outrun it. But seated in a chariot, the person can guide the horse, and the horse cannot outrun the person. If a ruler personally competes with his ministers for official posts and handles government affairs himself, it is like racing a fine horse on foot: it is the wrong way to proceed.

The eyes can see things only with the help of light. In the same way, the mind can discern what is right only with the help of reason.

A worm without bones cannot understand what ice is like. It is born in spring and dies in autumn, and has never seen winter ice.

At a distance of ten li, the ear cannot hear; behind curtains and walls, the eye cannot see; and when people are three mu apart, neither can know what is happening in the other’s mind. How, then, could one restrain and enlighten people far away—pacifying Duowu in the south, bringing Shoumi in the west into submission, and pacifying Mier in the north? Duowu, Shoumi, and Mier are names for remote regions on the borders.

Guan Yiwu, or Guan Zhong, and Baili Xi were able ministers who helped establish hegemony. To cross a great river, one relies on a boat; to travel a long distance, one relies on a fine horse. When the king of Chu asked Zhan He, a Daoist recluse, how to govern a state, Zhan He replied, “I have heard of ways to cultivate oneself, but not of ways to govern a state.” The foundation of governing a state, he meant, lies in cultivating oneself.

Guan Zhong said, “A noble person has three expressions: joyful delight, as when listening to bells, drums, and music; sorrowful calm, as when wearing mourning clothes; and vigorous intensity, as when facing war and weapons.”

The Wei River rose in flood, and a rich man drowned. Someone recovered his body and demanded a large sum from the family before agreeing to return it. The family told Deng Xi. Deng Xi said, “Don’t be anxious. He won’t be able to sell it to anyone else.”

After someone fished out a corpse, he worried that no one would come to redeem it, so he told Deng Xi what had happened. A wealthy man had drowned, and the corpse collector demanded a large sum from the man’s family before agreeing to return the body. The rich man’s relatives told Deng Xi. Deng Xi said, “Just leave it for now. No one will come to buy that corpse.” The corpse collector worried that he would not be able to sell it, so he went to ask Deng Xi. Deng Xi said, “You leave it for now, too. There is nowhere else the family can obtain a corpse; the rich man’s family will certainly come to redeem it.”

The value of words lies in their not going against one’s inner thoughts; speech is meant to express what one has at heart. When words contradict one’s true intentions, they bring misfortune. If you try to measure timber by the rules of a carpenter’s ink line, you may still fail to build a palace, because suitable materials are hard to find.

Take hold of the main cord, and the myriad meshes of the net will open; grasp the net’s master cord, and every mesh will spread out. Governing the people is the same: the key is to grasp the essentials. When water is stored in a ravine a thousand fathoms deep, once it surges down, who can withstand it?

Rong Yi left Qi for Lu. The weather was bitterly cold, and he and one of his disciples stayed outside the city. As the cold grew more severe, Rong Yi said to his disciple, “You can give me your clothes and save my life. I am a scholar of the state, treasured by all under Heaven; you have no talent and are not worth treasuring.” The disciple replied, “How can someone without talent give his clothes to a scholar of the state?” Rong Yi sighed, then took off his clothes and gave them to the disciple. At midnight, Rong Yi froze to death, and the disciple survived.

When Yan Zi encountered the disaster of Cui Zhu’s rebellion, he grabbed the handrail and climbed into his carriage. As the driver was about to flee, Yan Zi said, “Slow down. Don’t panic. Running fast does not guarantee survival, and going slowly does not mean you will die. A deer may be born in the mountains, yet its fate may lie in the kitchen. My life, too, now has its appointed place.”

When a dragon appears, rain follows; when its body moves, its shadow moves with it. Things of the same kind attract one another; breaths that are alike converge, and sounds that resemble one another answer each other. Thus, striking instruments tuned to the notes gong, shang, and the others can produce corresponding sounds. When a ruler’s De cannot reach the people and their wishes cannot be voiced, the Qi of the state is stifled and blocked. When trees are stifled, worms arise; when water is obstructed, it grows foul. When a state is stifled and blocked, all kinds of calamities gather.

Heaven appears vast and distant, yet the sun, moon, and stars, along with clouds, Qi, and dew, never cease their movement. The earth appears immense, yet its springs, plants, birds, and beasts never rest.

A hat adorns the head; clothes adorn the body.

If people today were to cut off their heads just to change their hats, or sacrifice their lives just to change their clothes, they would truly have no idea what they were doing. The way people pursue profit is just as senseless.

The Yellow Emperor held a position of great honor, yet in the end he died. Yao and Shun were wise and virtuous, yet in the end they died. Meng Ben, famed in ancient times for his courage and strength, was exceptionally brave, yet in the end he died. Those who appraise jade worry that stones may look like jade; those who appraise swords worry that ordinary swords may look like the famous Wu and Ganjiang swords. A wise ruler worries that smooth talkers may look like people of real understanding. Rulers who bring their states to ruin may appear wise, and ministers who bring their states to ruin may appear loyal.

As Zixia passed through the state of Wei, he heard someone reading a history book aloud: “The Jin army had three pigs cross the river.” Zixia said, “It should be ‘jǐhài,’ not ‘three pigs.’” The point is that the characters in ancient books can look alike, so when copied, “jǐhài” can easily be mistaken for “three pigs.”

Receiving ten fine horses is not as valuable as finding one Bole, a skilled judge of horses. Receiving ten fine swords is not as valuable as finding one Ouyezi, a master swordsmith. Gaining a thousand li of land is not as valuable as gaining one worthy person.

Not wearing leather clothes in summer does not mean one fails to value them; it is because the weather is more than warm enough. Not using a sunshade in winter does not mean one fails to value it; it is because the weather is already more than cold and overcast enough. A lamp illuminates only one corner, leaving half the room in darkness. When the bones and joints mature too early, the body and mind can no longer continue to grow.

Lü Buwei served as chancellor during the reign of Qin Shi Huang. He gathered Confucian scholars to compile the Lüshi Chunqiu, which consists of the Twelve Almanacs, Eight Surveys, and Six Treatises. He displayed the book in Xianyang and offered a thousand gold coins to anyone who could add or remove a single character, but no one dared alter its wording. The section on ritual in the “Twelve Almanacs” is not copied here.

The Huainanzi consists of twenty-two volumes.

Pouring hot water onto boiling water will only make it more turbulent. This is like whipping and beating an injured horse in the hope of teaching it discipline. Even Yi Yin, the worthy minister of the Shang, and Zaofu, the skilled charioteer, could not reform it. Acting through stratagem and force alone ultimately brings toil without achievement.

When the color white appears, the five…

Pouring boiling water onto hot soup only makes it boil more fiercely. This is like whipping a dog that bites or beating a frightened horse in an attempt to teach it a lesson. Even Yi Yin, the worthy minister of the Shang dynasty, and Zao Fu, the skilled charioteer, could not tame them. Those who leave everything to fate ultimately only waste their effort.

Only once white is established can the five colors appear; only once the Dao (the Way), the root of all things, is established can all things come into being. A deaf person who learns to sing cannot take pleasure in the song. If the heart has not understood, yet one forces oneself to imitate—like a deaf person singing—the voice comes from the mouth but soon fades without a trace.

When spring comes, ice melts into water; when winter arrives, water freezes into ice again.

Take the Dao as a fishing rod, De (Virtue, conduct in accord with the Dao) as the fishing line, ritual and music as the hook, and benevolence and righteousness as the bait. Cast them into rivers and set them in the sea, and all things will gain something.

The city of Liyang became a lake overnight. Liyang was a county in Huainan. According to legend, someone warned the county magistrate Wu: “If you see blood on the city gate, leave at once and do not look back.” Later, the gatekeeper reported that dirty blood had stained the threshold. Wu climbed the northern mountain; the county town indeed sank beneath the water, and Wu eventually turned to stone.

The Qilin boats of Yue and the swift ships of Shu cannot sail without water. The Wuhao bow and the Xizi crossbow cannot shoot without a string.

When a ruler executes the violent and cruel, there will be many gales. When laws are harsh, there will be many insect plagues. When the innocent are killed indiscriminately, widespread drought will follow. When government orders are issued at the wrong time, heavy rains will be frequent.

In the south there is an herb of immortality; in the north there is ice that never melts.

Those who feed on water swim well and endure the cold: they are fish. Those who feed on earth have no heart yet are beneficial: they are earthworms. Those who feed on wood are strong but dull: they are elk. Those who feed on mulberry leaves and spin silk are silkworms. Those who feed on meat are fierce and ferocious: they are tigers and leopards. Those who feed on Qi (vital energy) are numinous and long-lived, like turtles and snakes, as well as Wang Qiao and Chi Song, legendary immortals. Those who feed on grain are intelligent, but their lives are short.

Children born during the day resemble their fathers; children born at dusk resemble their mothers.

One warrior is enough to stand as the finest champion of three armies.

The sage is like a mirror: it does not go out to greet things or deliberately keep them from leaving. It reflects things truthfully as they appear, yet does not store them in the heart.

It is better to make fire for yourself than to ask someone else for it; better to dig your own well than to rely on someone else to draw water.

Yi asked the Queen Mother of the West for the medicine of immortality. Chang’e secretly swallowed it, without knowing where the medicine had come from. A living person has a body seven feet tall; after death, all that remains is earth in a coffin. How can anyone know what is delightful, beneficial, or harmful?

Though Heaven and Earth are vast, they can still be measured by length and distance. The movements of the stars and moon, too, can be calculated using the pitch calendar—the ancient system for determining musical pitches, solar terms, and dates.

When Cangjie invented writing, millet fell from the sky, and ghosts wept at night. Cangjie was the Yellow Emperor’s official historian. Once writing appeared, deceit and falsehood also arose among people; legend says this is why the ghosts wept.

Today’s rulers have little De, yet increase the severity of punishments. This is like holding a slingshot and trying to attract crows, or wielding a dog-catching pole and trying to tame a dog. “Jia shui” refers to a type of clamping torture device.

Those who rely on carts and horses can reach a thousand li without tiring their feet; those who travel by boat can cross rivers and seas without walking or swimming. But if they fail to act in accordance with their own judgment and abilities, the axle will break or the boat will be damaged by the water. They should not blame the wood or stone, but reflect on whether they used them well. Why is this? Because human judgment always has its limits.

Few debts are easy to repay; few duties are easy to fulfill.

When the wind blows fiercely, waves rise; when trees grow thick, crows gather. This is how things set one another in motion.

King Wen of Zhou was intelligent and eager to seek advice, so he became a sage. King Wu of Zhou was brave and eager to seek advice, so he won victory.

When one has the strength to bear a task, lifting it does not feel difficult. When one has the ability to handle something, doing it does not feel hard.

Among all things under Heaven, nothing is more dangerous than xidu, aconite—a poisonous plant that can also be used as medicine. Yet skilled physicians still keep it because it has its uses. If even plants of the wild cannot be casually discarded, how much less should people be?

A tree trunk ten arm-spans around can support a roof weighing a thousand jun; a wooden peg only five cun long can hold a door shut. What matters is not the size of the material, but whether it is placed where it belongs. Suppose Confucius and Mozi were to govern the world, and everyone followed the teachings of either the Confucians or the Mohists. If they grasped the essentials of governing, they too could succeed.

The sage’s Dao is like a place where wine is set out at a busy crossroads. Those who pass by each pour and take as much as they choose. Though some take more and others less, each receives the amount that suits them. (“Crossroads” refers to an intersection where roads meet from every direction.)

A three-month-old infant does not yet understand what is beneficial or harmful, yet its loving mother cares for it. This comes from her nature.

A loving father’s care for his child and a sage king’s care for the people are like fire naturally giving off heat and ice naturally giving off cold: they arise from their inherent nature. When a task requires effort, people rely on the strength of the many, as when a boat catches fire and everyone works together to put it out.

A cart cannot travel without a three-inch pin to secure its wheels; a door cannot be fastened firmly without a five-inch bolt. A gentleman, too, needs suitable means of support.

Governing a state is like tuning strings: if the large string is too slack and the small string too tight, the zither and lute cannot sound in harmony.

Governing a state is like setting a net: lift its main cord, and all the meshes open together.

Excessive desire harms moral principles; excessive worry damages wisdom; excessive fear impedes courage.

Tigers and leopards are shot because of the markings on their bodies; monkeys and apes invite trouble because of their agility. Thus Zilu died because of his bravery, while both young and old have fallen into difficulties because of their cleverness. Trying to blow dust away without getting any dust on oneself, or to wade through water without getting wet, is impossible.

Spacious, lofty houses and connected, open rooms are places where people feel at ease, but birds feel uneasy when they fly inside. Deep woods and thickets of medicinal herbs frighten people, while birds feel at home there. Deep ravines, steep slopes, and the tops of tall trees are places monkeys and apes enjoy, but people tremble when they go there.

Roll round and square objects across the ground: the round ones roll into low places, while the square ones stop on higher ground.

Someone wearing a mask of mourning weeps on hearing a song; someone wearing a mask of joy laughs on seeing others weep. One who forces themself to cry may look sorrowful without feeling grief within; one who forces themself to laugh may wear a smile without feeling happy inside.

When straw dogs and clay dragons are first made, they are dressed in brocade and fine silk. Once their purpose has been served, they are discarded in the dirt. Straw dogs are used in sacrifices and to avert misfortune; clay dragons are used to pray for rain. Examine the principles at work and understand what things are used for, and you will see that though their names and practices differ, the principles they seek are connected. It is like slaughtering an ox and cooking its meat into many different flavors: in the end, the ingredients all come from the same ox.

Cut down a camphor tree: some of its wood is made into coffins, some into beams and pillars, but it all comes from the same tree.

Desolation is the master of bodily form; silence is the root through which sound reaches all things. The names differ, but the principle they express is the same. It is like slaughtering an ox and cooking its meat: one can bring out many different flavors, but all come from a single ox.

When camphor trees are felled, some are made into coffins and some into beams and pillars. In the end, they all come from the same tree.

Desolation is the master of bodily form; silence is the root of sound.

A guest went to call on Ziqian. Ziqian said, “You have been discourteous in three ways: you laughed when you saw me, which was disrespectful; our friendship is still shallow, yet you speak as if it were deep, which invites trouble; and you did not address me by name when you spoke, which violates proper etiquette.” The guest was the same person throughout, yet at times he was regarded as a gentleman and at times as a petty man. The difference lay in the perspective from which he was viewed.

If people insist on waiting until they have a Flying Hare at their waist, with a chariot drawn by Flying Hares, before they will ride, then no one in the world will ever ride. If they will marry only beauties like Mao Qiang and Xi Shi, they will end their lives without a household. If they will appoint only the outstanding figures of antiquity, then they will have no one to appoint. A fine horse can travel a thousand li in a day, but a poor horse driven for ten days can reach the same destination. So in employing people, one must not rely only on a few who are exceptionally gifted. When crows are desperate, they peck at people; when wild beasts are desperate, they charge; and when people are driven to desperation, they resort to deceit. However severe the punishments and harsh the laws, they cannot put an end to wrongdoing.

Speaking of Dao and De is like the movement of the sun and moon. Whether in Jiangnan or north of the Yellow River, their course cannot be changed; even traveling a thousand li cannot shift their position.

People’s choices and the latitude they allow in matters of etiquette are like houses: the family on the east calls it “west,” and the family on the west calls it “east.” Yet when someone knocks at the door asking for a fire, anyone who has a surplus at home will share it. That is why people in the forests do not trade firewood for other goods, and people by the lakes do not trade fish: they already have plenty.

Do not take advantage of others, and do not drive them into danger.

Shu Xiang said that a Mohist scholar wanted to meet King Hui of Qin, but could not see him for three years. When he arrived in Chu, the king took an immediate liking to him. Sometimes something is hard to obtain nearby but easy to find far away; at other times it is hard to obtain far away but easy to find nearby. Therefore, devote yourself wholeheartedly to a single undertaking. A great man’s conduct should not be concealed.

Before the prey is caught, one worries that there are too few wounds; after it is caught, one worries that there are too many.

In the marriages of the ancients, the groom did not call himself the host of the wedding. He would always say that his parents and brothers were arranging the marriage. Since Shun married without informing his father, Gusou, he did not follow the proper rites.

King Wen of Zhou installed Boyikao as a feudal lord, contrary to the established system. Ritual rules said that a man should start a family at thirty, yet King Wen had a child at sixteen—also contrary to convention.

There are established principles for governing a state: making the people’s welfare the basis of policy, grounding institutions in education, and giving priority to ensuring that orders are carried out. If something benefits the people, one need not necessarily imitate the ancients; if one can handle affairs properly, one need not necessarily copy old precedents. Laws and institutions should be shaped to fit circumstances. Changing ancient practices is not necessarily wrong, and following old customs is not especially praiseworthy. A hundred rivers may have different sources, yet all eventually flow into the sea; the various schools of thought may take different paths, yet all aim to achieve good governance.

A blind person walking along the road will turn left when someone points left, and right when someone points right. If he meets a gentleman, he may be led along a level path; if he meets a petty person, he may fall into a ditch.

When you face one way, you cannot see the wall behind you; when you look south, you cannot see the north. Only those who are not bound to a fixed direction can reach every place.

When a father falls into the water, his son may grab him by the hair and pull him out. This is not arrogance or disrespect; it is a way to save him from death. The highest form of reward need not cost anything, and appropriate punishment is never imposed indiscriminately.

When a boat encounters a strong wind, a person who sees the waves and fears drowning may leap into the water instead. This does not mean that he does not value life or fears death; rather, his all-consuming fear of death makes him forget how to preserve his life. Human desires can have the same effect.

A small stream can fill a pot or a washbasin, while a river cannot fill a leaky wine cup. A drunk person who enters the Huai River may think it is only an ordinary ditch; seeing a city gate, he may imagine its opening is only seven feet wide. This happens because wine has thrown his mind and spirit into confusion. People blinded by desire can be the same way.

Horses and rabbits can bring people into danger, and when they die, they are buried with only a coffin lid over them. Oxen, by contrast, serve people well, yet when they die they are sent off in a grand funeral cart. This shows that people’s judgments and treatment of things are not always reasonable.

The method of warfare is to appear weak, then prevail through strength; to show the enemy one’s weakness, then seize the moment to bring one’s power to bear. If you intend to advance west, make a show of moving east. Let the enemy know where your forces appear to be headed, but not their true route. Move like a spirit, leaving no trace; like flowing water, giving no sign; like lightning, striking so swiftly that the enemy has no time to prepare.

Beside towering walls and deep moats, arrows and stones fell like rain. Across broad marshes and plains, the two sides clashed at close quarters. Soldiers fought bravely to be first because rewards were reliable and punishments clear. In scorching heat, the generals who excelled at commanding troops in ancient times did not use umbrellas for shade; in bitter cold, they did not wear fur coats. After the army dug a well, they waited until everyone could draw water before drinking. They waited until everyone had food before eating, sharing hunger and thirst with the soldiers. When they reached a place within range of arrows and stones, the generals faced danger alongside their troops.

Nothing is more repellent to glue and lacquer than each other: they repel one another, and once stuck together, cannot return to their original state. Nothing is more drawn to each other than ice and charcoal: they are mutually responsive. When ice meets charcoal, it melts, and so can return to its original state.

Orchids growing in a secluded mountain valley do not stop giving off their fragrance because no one wears them. A boat moored on a river does not stop floating because no one rides in it.

When someone married off her daughter, she warned her, “Whatever you do, don’t do good deeds.” The daughter asked why. Her mother said, “If you don’t even do good, how could you do evil?”

People imprisoned in jail hope their days will pass slowly; those about to be executed at the place of punishment hope their days will pass quickly.

If you marry your daughter to a man with wasting-thirst disease (a condition marked by excessive thirst and urination), people will say she brought about her husband’s death when he dies.

A fox-fur coat, made from the white fur beneath a fox’s forelegs, is worn by the Son of Heaven. If you were to advise the fox, it would be better to flee to the marshes than remain in danger.

First secure the warp threads, then weave in the weft, and you can make a curtain. Weave the weft first and then try to secure the warp, and you will not be able to make clothing. When a matchmaker arranges a marriage, the matchmaker may bring the couple together, but cannot thereby create affection between husband and wife. It is the same in dealing with others: being introduced by someone does not mean you have become close. Hiring a cart while wearing a sheepskin coat is contrary to ordinary sense; wearing a marten-fur coat while carrying a basket on your back is stranger still.

A noble person does not associate with those unlike themselves, just as the sun and moon do not respond to things whose nature is incompatible with their own.

Conduct that violates ritual propriety is absurd even when it merely pretends to follow ritual propriety. It is like avoiding a madman while chasing after him, a thief asking a beggar how to steal, or someone squatting as they recite the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents.

Paint a portrait of Meng Ben, the ancient warrior, and give him large eyes: people will fear him. Paint a portrait of Xi Shi, the ancient beauty, and make her face beautiful: people will love her. A horse that looks like a deer might be worth a thousand gold pieces, but nowhere in the world is there a deer worth a thousand gold pieces.

The eyes of Meng Ben, an ancient warrior, were painted large and fierce, naturally inspiring fear in those who saw them. Xi Shi, a famous beauty of antiquity, was painted with a lovely face, naturally delighting those who saw her.

Things that are equally filthy all look like mud.

When everyone is bent, there is no room for a single upright person; when everyone is crooked, there is no room for a single straight one. Thus, when people are numerous and powerful, they devour wolves; when wolves are numerous and powerful, they devour people.

A man from Ying, the capital of Chu, bought a roof beam and then bought a wheel hub from someone else. Though the dimensions were large enough, the length was unsuitable.

A pregnant woman saw a rabbit, and when her child was born, it had a cleft lip.

When Duke Wen of Jin threw away an old mat, his minister Jiu Fan asked to leave. Duke Wen discarded the blackened mat as an old thing, and Jiu Fan therefore resigned, believing that Duke Wen was about to receive Heaven’s pardon but would consequently kill more people. Some also say that after Heaven’s pardon, more people would be allowed to live. Everyone hoped for the same outcome, yet the punishments differed in severity.

A dwarf asked a tall man, “How high is the sky?” The tall man replied, “I don’t know.” The dwarf said, “You are closer to the sky than I am. When asking about something, one should ask someone who is closer to it.”

A man sold his mother. When the buyer came to ask about her, he said, “This mother is old; I hope you will treat her kindly.” He had committed a grossly unjust act, yet wanted to use it to display a little kindness. When a madman injures someone, people do not blame him, because illness has deprived him of a clear mind.

Beautiful women differ in their figures and features, yet all can delight the eye. Pears, oranges, dates, and chestnuts taste different, yet all suit the palate.

A single game of chess cannot reveal the whole of a person’s intelligence; playing just one string cannot express all one’s sorrow. A child born after his father’s death does not miss his father, because he never shared a bond of affection with him.

When the water and supplies for bathing are ready, ants and lice bid one another farewell. When a great building is completed, little birds that once ducked beneath it congratulate one another.

The angler waits quietly; the net caster moves back and forth; the person using a fish basket presses it down over the water; and another kind of fisher lifts up their implement. Their methods differ, but their aim is the same: to catch fish.

Water from the fields flows into the sea, and words whispered beside the ear can travel a thousand miles.

Light summer clothes are still left out when winter comes. One carries one’s clothes while wading ashore, yet does not put them on. This is failing to adapt to changing circumstances.

Dimples look attractive on the cheeks but ugly on the forehead. Embroidery makes a suitable quilt, but an embroidered hat looks inelegant. When clouds rise among the mountains, the bases of pillars grow damp; when narrow lingzhi grows, dodder withers.

Dodder can grow without roots of its own, snakes can crawl without feet, fish can hear without ears, and cicadas can sing without mouths. Even if cranes live for a thousand years, their joy eventually comes to an end; insects born at dawn and dead by dusk can still enjoy life to the fullest for the one day they have. Embroidery makes a fine quilt, but as a hat it looks vulgar. Mountain clouds rise in vapor, dampening pillars and foundations; when a narrow-leaved orchid sprouts, the dodder withers.

A luminous pearl is an affliction to the mussel, but a benefit to people.

The light of a hundred stars is no match for a single full moon; ten open windows do not brighten a room as much as one doorway.

Wearing a rain cape to put out a fire and digging a channel to stop flowing water will only spread the damage.

While still in the egg, a swan can be broken with a light touch. Once its wings have grown, it can bear the sky on its back and fly near the highest heavens. Even if one wishes to raise it and keep it close, that is no longer possible.

A halberd is for attacking a city; a mirror is for seeing one’s reflection. An official given a halberd uses it to cut greens, while a blind person given a mirror uses it as a cover for a wine cup.

Yao had eyebrows shaped like the character for “eight.” Someone cooked macaque meat for a neighbor, who thought it was dog meat and found it delicious. Later, on learning that it had been macaque, the neighbor fell to the ground and vomited. Clearly, the neighbor had not truly known how to distinguish flavors.

In the state of Deng, a musician falsely claimed to be Li Qi, and everyone eagerly learned his tunes. Later, when they discovered he was not Li Qi, they all abandoned the tunes. Clearly, they had not understood how to appreciate music in the first place. Li Qi was a man of Zhao skilled in musical pitch.

Silkworms raised for a second season can bring greater returns, but the law still forbids it because they damage the mulberry leaves. Once volunteer rice seedlings have ripened, farmers hoe them out, refusing to let a small immediate gain jeopardize the greater harvest. “Volunteer rice” means seedlings that grow on their own from grains fallen to the ground.

Butchers eat shepherd’s purse soup; cart makers often walk; potters use chipped basins; carpenters live in cramped houses. When a boat capsizes, one sees who is good at swimming; when a horse bolts, one sees who is a skilled driver.

When a forest grows dense, axes go in to cut it down; once a target is set up, bows and arrows are aimed at it.

The Wenyuange edition records: “Confucius was very strong and could lift the bolt of a city gate, yet he did not wish to become known for his strength.”

The Wenyuange edition has “dog” where the graph “Heaven” appears.

The Wenyuange edition has “mother” where the graph “not” appears; the same applies below.

The original has “compare”; this has been corrected to “this” in accordance with the Wenyuange edition.

The original has “not”; this has been corrected to “mother” in accordance with the Wenyuange edition.

Volume Three of the Yilin.

Volume Three of the Yilin.

Ma Zong of Fufeng, courtesy name Yuanhui, compiled the work.

The Discourses on Salt and Iron comprises ten volumes.

These remarks were made by men of letters in debates with high officials.

Those skilled at defeating an enemy need not fight; those skilled at waging war need not mobilize troops; those skilled at commanding an army need not arrange battle formations. If artisans do not leave home to work, utensils will become scarce; if merchants do not travel to trade, precious goods will run out. Rivers and fields cannot fill a leaking wine vessel, and mountains, forests, and seas cannot satisfy excessive desire.

A home near the marketplace is more likely to become prosperous. Wealth comes from planning and method, not merely from toil in the fields. A skilled singer can lead an audience to sing along; a skilled creator can inspire others to carry on his work. Confucius held firmly to principle but did not know how to adapt, and so he suffered hunger and hardship at Liqiu, a place name. Lush grass will not grow beneath a dense forest, nor will crops thrive among large clods of earth.

A long journey requires a cart, and crossing the sea requires a boat; achieving fame requires resources. Ou Ye, the legendary master swordsmith, could rely on the ruler’s support to cast bronze and iron objects such as gold furnaces and great bells, but could not cast vessels such as pots, tripods, plates, and bowls by himself. Though fragrant bait is delicious, turtles and dragons hide deep when they smell it, while luan birds and phoenixes fly far away when they see it. A basket full of jade fragments does not thereby become a treasure. The seventy disciples of Confucius left their parents and gave up their livelihoods, carrying their belongings as they followed him. Confucius made his living by teaching rather than farming, yet the wider his learning spread, the more disorder arose—just as a basket full of jade fragments still cannot become a treasure. If one cannot bring stability to the state and benefit the people, why value fine writing and elegant phrases alone?

Having food but being unable to eat it does nothing to ease hunger; seeing a worthy person but being unable to appoint them does nothing to improve governance. A singer does not seek a beautiful voice above all, but values keeping the beat. A speaker does not seek elegant phrasing above all, but gives priority to the facts.

High ministers are examples for the realm and models for its moral instruction: they should assist a wise ruler above and govern the people in accordance with enlightened teaching below. Scholars clutch withered bamboo slips and cling to empty words, unable to judge whether it is fitting to advance or withdraw, to accept or refuse, and ignorant of the changes of the times. Strong winds often sweep through the woods, and sycophantic words often surround the wealthy and powerful.

In ancient times, the noble-minded cultivated their De (Virtue), while petty men sought profit. Today, people shamelessly show off their eloquence in pursuit of achievement. When a nine-story tower collapses, even Lu Ban, the famous ancient craftsman, cannot set it upright; when wicked flatterers enter the court, even Yi Yin and Lü Wang, the worthy ministers of antiquity, can do little to turn things around. Government affairs are complicated, and flatterers are plentiful.

The wealthy and powerful buy official posts, wear blue sashes and carry silver turtle seals, hold the power of life and death, and determine the people’s fate. They ride in carriages and palanquins, drive fine horses, and travel with a line of mounted attendants, yet know nothing of the hardship of carrying loads on one’s shoulders and walking. The relationship between the Central Plains and the frontier is like that between the limbs and the heart: when the skin on the outside is chilled, the heart and belly fall ill too. Use benevolence and righteousness to repel incursions, strengthen the frontier through De (Virtue), and place worthy people on guard; then foreign enemies will find it difficult to invade.

The Qin dynasty’s laws were more numerous than the autumn growth of bitter herbs, and its nets were tighter than congealed grease. Yet those above and below deceived one another, and treachery and fraud still flourished. When the stables caught fire, Confucius first asked whether anyone had been hurt and did not ask about the horses, showing that he valued human life more than livestock. Qin law prescribed death for stealing a horse and punishment for stealing an ox; such laws were excessively harsh.

When the wind blows east, the grass bends west; when the wind blows west, the grass bends east. A ruler’s influence on the people is like the wind bending the grass.

Yu saw a criminal and got down from his carriage, weeping. His attendants said, “This man acted without respect and so was convicted. Why does Your Majesty grieve for him?” Yu replied, “In the days when Yao ruled, the people all made Yao’s intentions their own. Now they each act according to their own intentions. That is why I grieve.”

Duke Jing of Qi went hunting. On the way up a mountain, he saw a tiger; on the way down, he saw a snake. He asked Yanzi, “Is this an ill omen?” Yanzi replied, “To have worthy people and not recognize them, to recognize them but not appoint them, or to appoint them but not trust them—these are ill omens. The mountain is the tiger’s home, and the marsh is the snake’s lair. What is inauspicious about encountering them?” When Yanzi was serving Duke Jing, the duke felt cold one morning and asked him to bring him some hot food. Yanzi replied, “I, Yan Ying, am not a minister who serves food and drink. I am a minister who assists the state.”

Duke Ping of Jin asked Shi Kuang, “I am already seventy and want to study, but I fear it is too late. What should I do?” Shi Kuang replied, “The sun is about to set. Could you not light a candle? I have heard that studying in youth is like the light of the rising sun; studying in one’s prime is like the light of the midday sun; and studying in old age is like the light of a candle. Surely that is better than groping in the dark?” Duke Ping said, “Well said!”

Zengzi wore ragged clothes while farming. The ruler of Lu sent someone to offer him an estate, whose land revenues would provide his stipend. Zengzi refused, saying, “I have heard that when you accept something from another, you become wary of that person; when you give something to another, you are apt to become arrogant toward them. How can I know the ruler will not become arrogant toward me? And how can I know I will not become wary of him?” So he did not accept it.

An official’s person belongs to the ruler, while his stipend should be devoted to supporting his parents. A loyal minister does not serve two rulers; a chaste woman does not marry two husbands.

A person may live without walls around their home and yet no one will come to destroy or harm it; they may travel without an escort and yet no one will bully or attack them. Such is the conduct of a noble person.

King Zhuang of Chu gave a banquet for his ministers. During the feast, the candles went out, and someone took the opportunity in the darkness to tug at the clothing of one of the king’s consorts. She broke off the man’s hat tassel and told King Zhuang. But he said, “When people are given wine, they may lose their composure once they are drunk.” He then ordered all the ministers to remove their hat tassels. When the candles were relit, it was impossible to tell who had tugged at the woman’s clothing.

King Zhuang of Chu held a banquet to reward his ministers with wine. During the feast, the candles went out, and someone took advantage of the darkness to tug at a beautiful woman’s clothing. She snapped off the tassel on his hat and told King Zhuang. The king said, “I gave everyone wine and let them get drunk because I wanted to reveal the women’s virtue. I will not pursue this matter.” He then ordered his attendants not to relight the lamps and added, “Anyone who drinks with me tonight and does not snap off his hat tassel will not have enjoyed himself fully.” All the ministers broke off their tassels, and only then did King Zhuang have the lamps lit again. Later, when King Zhuang fought the state of Jin, the minister who had tugged at the woman’s clothing fought bravely in five battles, repaying the king’s generosity.

After Yang Hu was found guilty in the state of Wei, he went north to see Zhao Jianzi and said, “From now on, I will never recommend anyone again. More than half the people here in the hall were recommended by me, yet now they are harming me.” Zhao Jianzi replied, “Those who plant peach and plum trees can rest in their shade in summer; those who plant thorny plants will be wounded by them come autumn. The people you recommended were thorny herbs. From now on, choose good people before recommending them.”

Those who govern should neither ingratiate themselves with people nor reject them outright, and should not make promises lightly when they are unsure they can keep them. In dealing with wealth, it is best to remain upright; in dealing with rank and riches, it is best to uphold fairness. Whoever can preserve integrity and fairness leaves no one room to attack him.

In governing a state, the key is not to have vast territory but to win the people’s support. In assisting a ruler, the key is not to have many followers but to secure the service of worthy and outstanding talent.

King Xuan of Qi asked Chunyu Kun, “Tell me, sir, what do I like?” Chunyu Kun replied, “The ancient kings had four interests, but Your Majesty has only three of them. The ancients liked horses, and Your Majesty likes horses; the ancients liked jade, and Your Majesty likes jade; the ancients liked beautiful women, and Your Majesty likes beautiful women. The ancients liked worthy men, but Your Majesty does not like worthy men.” King Xuan said, “There are no worthy men in my state. If there were, I would like them too.” Chunyu Kun replied, “Courier horses, black horses, qilin, and fine steeds are all rare, yet Your Majesty seeks them out. Leopard and elephant cubs are also rare, yet Your Majesty seeks them out. Beautiful women like Mao Qiang and Xi Shi are rare too, yet Your Majesty seeks them out. Why, then, do you alone not seek out worthy men?”

Yang Hui went to see Zhao Jianzi and said, “I have been expelled from my hometown three times and have served five rulers, leaving each one after a time. I heard that you value worthy men, so I have come especially to see you.” The people around Zhao Jianzi said, “Being expelled from his hometown three times means the people there would not accept him; leaving five rulers after serving them means he was disloyal to his superiors.” Zhao Jianzi, however, said, “That is good.”

Yang Hui went to see Zhao Jianzi and said, “I have been driven away from my hometown three times, and I have left the service of five rulers. I heard that you value worthy men, so I have come especially to see you.” Someone in Zhao Jianzi’s entourage said, “Being driven away from his hometown three times shows that people did not accept him. Leaving the service of five rulers shows that he was disloyal to those above him.” Zhao Jianzi replied, “Beautiful women are always envied by the plain; in troubled times, men of high virtue are often shunned; and upright conduct is always hated by those who twist things for evil ends.” He then appointed Yang Hui as his chief minister.

After a garment was finished, one part of its front was deliberately left incomplete. After a palace was built, one corner was deliberately left unfinished. This showed that things should not be made perfectly complete, for spirits and demons harm those who are complacent.

The Duke of Zhou earnestly admonished his son Boqin so that he would not let Lu’s status make him arrogant toward others.

A state faces five calamities, none of them caused by severe cold: first, improper government orders; second, harsh and oppressive rule; third, the leaking of plans; fourth, the state’s ruin through a lack of single-minded reverence; and fifth, neglecting domestic affairs while devoting oneself to expansion abroad.

When serving in office, one may not deliberately seek power, yet power comes of its own accord. Once one has power, one may not deliberately seek wealth, yet wealth comes of its own accord. Once one has wealth, one may not deliberately seek honor, yet honor comes of its own accord. After attaining high status, one may not deliberately seek arrogance, yet arrogance grows of its own accord. Once arrogant, one may not deliberately invite punishment, yet punishment comes of its own accord.

There was a reverent man in Lu who, even at the age of seventy, was more humble than ever. The ruler of Lu asked him, “Now that you are old, surely you can relax your vigilance a little?” He replied, “A gentleman earns a good name through reverence; a petty person avoids punishment through it. A single careless word may lead one to misspeak and stumble. Even the finest meal can cause someone to choke. A wild goose may soar into the sky and still be brought down by a skilled archer; a tiger or leopard may be fierce, yet people still eat its flesh. Few praise others, while many criticize them. How could I fail to remain reverent?”

A poor harvest and illness among the people do not, by themselves, constitute the greatest danger. The real danger to a state is when ministers receive generous stipends but do not do their utmost to offer remonstrance, and when those close to the ruler fear punishment and dare not speak the truth.

Zhao Xiangzi said to Zilu, “I once asked Confucius, ‘You have served seventy rulers. Was not one of them worthy?’ Confucius did not answer. Why was that?” Zilu replied, “If you set up the loudest bell in the world and struck it with a wooden staff, could you make it sound?” Those who are skilled at moving about at night may not be able to rise early. What flourishes in one place may decline in another; what the left side excels at, the right side may lack.

People’s rank may be high or low, and their true feelings become apparent; it is also through facing life and death that one can see the nature of a relationship. Words are like weapons: strength in one place may mean weakness in another; when the left grows longer, the right seems shorter.

Words are like weapons: speaking at the wrong moment can wound the speaker.

Wherever cinnabar is placed, it stains red; wherever lacquer is placed, it stains black. Therefore, the noble person is careful in choosing the environment they inhabit.

Birds cherish their feathers, and tigers and leopards cherish their claws, because these help protect them.

As kindness and virtue accumulate, they become affection; as affection accumulates, it becomes benevolence; as benevolence accumulates, it forms the spiritual foundation of the mind. The subtle workings of the spirits are the foundation of the Way of Heaven.

After Yan Zi became a high minister, his wives and concubines wore no silk, and his horses were not fed fine grain. Someone asked him, “How can the state appear splendid if you live this way?” Yan Zi replied, “I have heard of bringing splendor to the state through virtue, but never by adorning it with wives, concubines, and horses.”

Zhao Jianzi rode in a dilapidated carriage, on a thin horse, wearing a coarse sheepskin coat. His steward advised him, “A new carriage would ride more steadily, a well-fed horse would run faster, and a fox-fur coat would keep you warmer. You should replace them.” Zhao Jianzi said, “When a noble person wears fine things, they become more modest; when a petty person wears fine things, they become more arrogant.”

Zi Gong asked Zi Shi, “Why don’t you study the Book of Songs?” Zi Shi replied, “My parents expect me to be filial, my siblings expect me to be loving, and my friends expect me to be trustworthy. When would I have time to study poetry?” Zi Gong said, “I will set aside the Book of Songs and learn from you.” Through Zi Gong’s words, the passage praises Zi Shi for putting filial piety, affection among siblings, and trustworthiness into practice in daily life.

In the fourth year of the Heping era, Liu Xiang, Waterworks Commissioner and Grand Master of Remonstrance, submitted a memorial saying, “The higher the tune, the fewer can sing along. Water can carry a boat, but it can also overturn one.” The latter saying uses the relationship between water and a boat to show that a force capable of bringing something to success may also cause its downfall.

When Master Chu Qiu was seventy, he went to see Mengchang Jun wearing a fur coat. Mengchang Jun said, “You are advanced in years, sir. What can you teach me?” Master Chu Qiu replied, “If you wanted me to chase carriages and horses, pursue deer, or wrestle tigers, I truly am too old for that. But if you want me to resolve difficult questions and dispel uncertainty, I am still young—so what does age matter?” Mengchang Jun listened and looked ashamed.

The King of Wei planned to build a platform that would soar into the clouds. He issued an order: “Anyone who dares to remonstrate will be put to death.” Xu Wan entered to see him with a bamboo hat on his back and a winnowing basket and carrying basket in his hands. He said, “I hear Your Majesty intends to build this lofty platform, and I would be glad to lend a hand. I have heard that heaven is fifteen thousand li from earth. The platform would therefore have to be at least seven thousand five hundred li high, with a base eight thousand li wide. Your Majesty’s entire realm would not be enough to make its foundation. You would have to raise troops against the other lords and seize all their lands, and even that would not suffice. You would then have to attack the Western Yi peoples before you had enough land. After that, you would still need to gather all the timber and labor. If all this can be done, then the platform can be built.” The King of Wei listened in silence. In the end, he abandoned the plan.

A chancellor in the state of Zheng was offered a fish but refused to accept it. Someone asked, “You enjoy eating fish. Why not take it?” He replied, “It is precisely because I enjoy fish that I refuse. If I accept it, I may lose my office. Without my salary, I would have no money to buy fish. By refusing it and keeping my salary, I can afford to eat fish all my life.”

When the wisdom of the old guides and the abilities of the young assist one another, affairs of state can surely be governed successfully. When A Ziqi was sixteen, the ruler of Qi appointed him to govern the district of A. Before long, the ruler regretted his decision and sent someone to bring him back. When the messenger returned, he said, “A Ziqi will surely govern A well. Everyone who traveled with us has gone gray.” After taking office, A Ziqi melted down the weapons in the government storehouses and made them into farm tools. When the state of Wei heard that a youth was governing the district, and that its storehouses held no weapons and its granaries no grain, it sent troops to attack. The people of A fought back fiercely with their own weapons: fathers led their sons, and elder brothers their younger brothers. In the end, they defeated the Wei army.

Seeking a teacher is better than seeking learning. A teacher is a model for others. Someone who strives to emulate Yan Hui may be said to belong to Yan Hui’s kind. A person who hopes his horse will excel like a fine steed thereby makes it one of the fine steeds.

The poet’s fu—a literary form that elaborates on things—is elegant and conforms to standards; the fu writer’s …

Seeking out a renowned teacher is better than simply pursuing learning. A teacher serves as a model for others. Those who admire Yan Hui may be counted among disciples like Yan Hui; horses that admire a thousand-li steed may also become fine companions among horses. A poet’s fu is ornate yet conforms to proper standards, while a fu writer’s work, though ornate, may not necessarily follow the rules. If fu composition were taught in Confucius’s school, Jia Yi would already have entered the inner chambers, while Sima Xiangru’s mastery would be deeper still.

What are the “four dignities”? Dignity in speech accords with proper standards; dignity in conduct is virtue; dignity in appearance commands respect; and refined tastes show discernment. What are the “four frivolities”? Careless speech brings worry; careless conduct invites wrongdoing; a disrespectful appearance brings disgrace; and shallow tastes invite ridicule.

When a knife is blunt and a writing brush is hard to use, they should be sharpened and set in order. If the heavens could be measured, all the things they cover would seem shallow and small; if the earth could be measured, all the things it supports would seem limited. No text speaks of Heaven with greater subtlety than the Book of Changes; none speaks of Earth with greater detail than the Book of Documents; none describes things more skillfully than the Book of Songs; and none treats affairs more precisely than the Spring and Autumn Annals.

Confucius was once a minister driven out of Lu; Boyi and Shuqi were men who starved on Mount Shouyang. They did not change their aims or bring shame upon themselves. They neither went to extremes nor drifted with the current, so whether their conduct was worthy of emulation has long been a matter for inquiry. Confucius’s learning flowed together like streams from every direction, coursed across the Central States, and finally emptied into the sea.

Ten Scrolls of the Taixuan Jing, composed by Yang Xiong, with commentary by Yu Fan

Eagles gather in the forest, while otters dive into the springs. The turtledove perches in the forest and mocks the many other birds. The writings of Liu An, Prince of Huainan, are rich in elegant language but have little substance. The hegemony of Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin followed one another like the sun and the moon. Confucius’s learning in literary composition is complete, while Laozi’s learning in profound principles is deep. Mountains, rivers, lakes, and marshes gather all things, and all things in turn flow toward them. When a gentleman gains office, he flourishes; when he loses office, he remains good. When a petty person gains office, he runs wild; when he loses it, he comes to ruin.

Seventeen Scrolls of the New Treatise, composed by Huan Tan

The Three Sovereigns governed the world through the Dao; the Five Emperors taught the people through De; the Three Kings governed through benevolence and righteousness; and the Five Hegemons relied on schemes and clever tactics. The Three Sovereigns did not govern by relying on laws and punishments; this is what made them “sovereigns.” Establishing laws and governing by them was the political way of later ages.

The Three Sovereigns governed the world through the Dao (the Way); the Five Emperors taught and transformed the people through De (Virtue/Power); the Three Kings relied on benevolence and righteousness; and the Five Hegemons employed schemes and clever stratagems. When there are no laws or punishments, the ruler is called a “Sovereign.” When laws exist but punishments are not applied, the ruler is called an “Emperor.” When the ruler rewards the good, punishes the wicked, and has the feudal lords come to court and obey his commands, he is called a “King.” When he raises troops, mobilizes the people, and makes alliances, he is called a “Hegemon.”

The word “king” carries the meaning of drawing people to oneself. It describes a ruler whose kindness is generous and unhurried, so that people throughout the world willingly submit to him. The Kingly Way is pure and complete, and such is its virtue; the Hegemonic Way is mixed and impure, and such are its achievements. Both once possessed the world, ruled over its people, and passed their undertakings on to their descendants; in practical outcome, they were the same. One who seeks to establish a kingly rule but fails may instead go on to establish a hegemonic rule.

In governing a state, assisting the ruler is fundamental. Those appointed as ministers and aides should all be selected for their great abilities. Men of great ability are the ruler’s arms and legs—his indispensable assistants—and his wings and feathers, enabling him to exercise his talents in governing.

A bright mirror refers to tortoiseshell and yarrow stalks used in divination; standards refer to measuring vessels; weights and balances refer to rods and rulers used to measure length. Outstanding men of earlier generations established achievements and left behind reputations; their portraits were painted in palace halls and government offices. Such men are the treasures of the state, beyond all measure in value. Even heaps of He’s jade discs and Xia jade pendants, or chests full of Suihou pearls and luminous jade, cannot compare with them. In what age were there no worthy ministers like Yi Yin, Guan Zhong, Zhang Liang, and Chen Ping? But if a ruler knows only that he himself is wise and does not recognize worthy ministers, he should not employ them.

There are five grades of worthy talent. Those who carefully and diligently manage their households and are accommodating and friendly among their relatives and neighbors are local worthies. Those who work diligently, are intelligent and perceptive, and are familiar with documents and histories are county worthies. Those who are honest and trustworthy, upright and impartial in conduct, and able to govern subordinates and assist superiors are commandery and provincial worthies. Those who understand the classics, are eminent in both reputation and conduct, can handle government affairs with tolerance and calm, and firmly uphold principle are ministers fit to assist the ruler. Those whose abilities are exceptionally outstanding and unlike those of ordinary people, who excel at strategic planning and can deliberate on the affairs of the age and establish great achievements, are worthies of the realm.

Had Jia Yi not suffered demotion and frustration, his literary talent would not have fully emerged. Had the Prince of Huainan not possessed abundant wealth and status, he could not have widely gathered worthy men to write books and expound their ideas. Had Sima Qian not held office overseeing records and documents, he could not have set out the history of ancient and modern times in such detail. Had Yang Xiong not suffered demotion and frustration, his literary talent, too, would not have emerged.

When I once served as the chief official responsible for instruction under Wang Xi, a man killed his mother. The court issued an edict ordering his body to be burned. I felt the matter should not be publicly proclaimed. Now I have heard a remark from Zhong Weng that I find most strange: if someone slanders me and you believe it, then I will have reason to fear you.

At the time, I submitted a memorial saying: During Emperor Xuan’s reign, the ministers and senior officials were discussing affairs at court. The prime minister brought up the owl, saying that when it grows up, it eats its own mother, and can fly only after doing so. A worthy man present replied, “I have only heard that when crows grow up, they feed their mothers in return.” The prime minister was deeply ashamed. People consequently held the prime minister in contempt and praised the worthy man, because his words helped to guide people’s conduct. Even birds and beasts conceal such things; how much more should human beings? It should not be made public.

Without a foot of water, a dragon cannot rise into the sky; without a foot of land, even a sage cannot rule the world.

Prophecies—cryptic sayings foretelling good or ill—come from the River Chart and the Luo Writing. They contain only a few omens and signs, which were originally hard to understand. Later people recklessly added to them and falsely claimed that Confucius had spoken those words. This was a grave mistake.

Zhang Zihou said, “Yang Ziyun (Yang Xiong) is the Confucius of the Western Way, yet he was reduced to such poverty.” I replied, “Yang Ziyun is also the Confucius of the Eastern Way. Was Zhongni (Confucius) in the past the sage of Lu alone? Confucius was also the sage of Qi and Chu.”

Pictures drawn on water and carvings made on ice both vanish with the passing of time.

Confucius taught scholars in four fields—virtue, speech, government, and learning—adapting to each person’s interests. It was like a marketplace displaying all kinds of goods: those who wanted to buy something would naturally come. I heard a man from Shuli say, “When people hear that Chang’an is delightful, they go outside, turn west toward Chang’an, and smile; when meat tastes delicious, they drool in front of a butcher’s shop.” Though ordinary people may not be able to recognize a sage, they are moved to admire one all the same.

Yan Yuan’s life was short, perhaps because he admired Confucius so deeply that he exhausted his allotted years too soon. Imagine an ordinary horse harnessed alongside a fine horse, keeping pace with it until evening. The fine horse calls out and eats as usual, but the ordinary horse lowers its head and will not eat. How is this different from the great disparity in talent and virtue between Yan Yuan and Confucius?

When I was young, I read Yang Ziyun (Yang Xiong)’s elegant writings and wanted to compose works that could follow in his footsteps. I once wrote a short rhapsody, but while planning a grander piece I exhausted myself with thought and fell ill. Yang Ziyun also said that when Emperor Cheng ordered him to write the “Rhapsody on Sweet Springs,” he suddenly collapsed after finishing it. This shows that excessive worry and thought can damage the spirit.

Zhuang Zhou was gravely ill, and his disciples gathered around him, weeping. He said, “When I die, what difference does it make who dies first and who dies later? Even if one lived another hundred years, death could not ultimately be avoided. Why cling to a few more moments?”

Zigong asked Qu Boyu, a senior official of the state of Wei during the Spring and Autumn period, “How do you govern the state?” Qu Boyu replied, “By not trying deliberately to govern, one can govern it well.” The ancient version of the Classic of Filial Piety comprised one scroll, twenty chapters, and 1,872 characters. More than four hundred characters in the versions used today differ from the ancient text.

The Zuo Commentary says, “The Classic and its Commentary are like the outer and inner layers of a garment; they complement each other to make a whole.” What made Yao worthy of praise for modeling himself on the Dao of Heaven was his ability to appoint the two sages Shun and Yu.

Liu Zizheng (Liu Xiang), his son Liu Jun, and Jun’s brother Boyu were all learned men, and they particularly valued the Zuo Commentary. They taught it to their descendants, and even the women of the household recited the book. Yet this approach also had an aspect of rigidity. Lift the net’s headrope, and all its meshes open together; lift a robe by its collar, and its thousands of hairs fall neatly into place. In governing a great state, one should likewise grasp the guiding principle so that every part can be brought into orderly alignment.

Using the worthy to attack the worthy is called vexation; using the unworthy to attack the unworthy is called disorder.

Wang Pingzhong said that the Zhou Genealogy records that in the fifth year of King Ding of Zhou, the Yellow River changed course and left its former channel. The places the river flows through today are not the channel Yu the Great had excavated.

Yang Ziyun was skilled at writing rhapsodies, and Wang Junda was an expert in weapons. I wanted to learn from both of them. Yang Ziyun said, “Only after reading a thousand rhapsodies can one write a good rhapsody.” Wang Junda said, “Only after seeing a thousand swords can one truly understand swords.” An, a person’s name, said, “Those who study deeply, as though they have become one with their craft, often rely on more than simply learning from a master.”

The Five Blessings are longevity, wealth, honor, peace and joy, and many descendants.

A centipede can move freely because its many legs all exert force together.

The Marquis of Quyang invited the adept Ximen, and Junhui learned from him methods for delaying old age. Junhui said, “They say a tortoise can live for three thousand years and a crane for a thousand. Given the capacities of human beings, why should our lives be shorter than those of insects and birds?” I replied, “Who has lived alongside tortoises and cranes long enough to know for themselves exactly how many years they live?”

Someone asked, “Why does a sage not learn to become an immortal, but instead allows himself to die?” The reply was, “Sages shed their physical forms and depart as immortals. They say they have died so that the people may understand that human life must eventually come to an end.”

In ancient times, when Shennong and Fuxi ruled the world, they made zithers from paulownia wood. Each zither was three feet, six inches, and six fen long, symbolizing the number of seasonal markers in a year; one inch and eight fen thick, symbolizing the numbers three and six; and six fen wide, symbolizing the Six Yang Pitch Pipes, the six yang pitches among the twelve ancient pipes used to establish musical tones. The top of the instrument was rounded and tapered, symbolizing Heaven; its underside was square and straight, symbolizing Earth. It was wider at the top and narrower below, symbolizing the rites of higher and lower rank.

The word “qin” carries the meaning of restraining improper thoughts. The sages of antiquity played the zither to cultivate their nature. When circumstances were difficult, they perfected themselves alone and did not change their principles; this was called “Cao” (“Conduct”). When they attained success and influence, they benefited all under Heaven, and everything they did flowed freely; this was called “Chang” (“Flourishing”). Yao’s Chang Jing has been lost. Shun’s zither music was refined and subtle; Weizi’s was refined and mellow; and Jizi’s was mellow and stirring.

People of upright character and exceptional virtue and ability do not always find good opportunities for advancement in public service. Whether a person is worthy or unworthy depends on their abilities and virtue; whether they meet a wise ruler and receive an opportunity depends on the turns of fortune. High ability and pure virtue do not necessarily bring status, just as ordinary ability and flawed conduct do not necessarily bring low station.

Some people of similar character encounter different rulers. Yi Yin and Jizi are examples. Both were outstanding ministers of their time: Yi Yin served Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty, as prime minister, while Jizi, under King Zhou of Shang, was reduced to slavery. This shows that people differ in whether they encounter opportunity. Clean things are easily dusted over, and white things readily stained; flies often soil white silk. Dogs in the city bark incessantly at something strange because they find it strange.

A man who plays the zither may wish to break Boya’s fingers, while a charioteer may wish to cripple Wang Liang, because they resent anyone who surpasses them. To call jade a stone, or a stone mere gravel, is to slander it. A jade seeker breaks open stone to extract the jade. Those who select talent, too, should set aside what is bad and choose what is good—but this cannot be accomplished by human intention alone. The wise attribute gain and loss to Heaven’s decree. Acquiring wealth and status is like digging a ditch or chopping wood: the more one digs, the deeper the ditch becomes; the more one chops, the more firewood one gathers. Yet a flood may come before the ditch is finished, or a fire may break out before enough wood has been collected.

Being content with poverty can help one avoid disaster, but one should still spur oneself to work diligently in pursuit of prosperity, and seek high station through ability and upright conduct. When farmers work hard, they reap a plentiful harvest; when merchants travel far to trade, they earn substantial profits. Those destined for wealth often have great physical strength; those destined for high station often possess exceptional intelligence—like a thousand-mile horse, whose strength, eyesight, neck, and hooves are all well matched.

The gate of the city of Lu had long been in disrepair and was about to collapse. Confucius hurried past it. Someone with him said, “It has been like this for a long time.” Confucius replied, “That is precisely what worries me: it has been like this for so long. If it suddenly collapses, someone will suffer.” If an insect falls into a vessel, people pour out the wine and refuse to drink it; if a rat gnaws at a basket of cooked rice, people throw the rice away and refuse to eat it.

The Mohists say that death is not governed by fate; the Confucians say that it is. The commandery of Liyang became a lake overnight, and Bai Qi buried alive four hundred thousand Zhao soldiers at Changping. Were these events all destined to happen? Those who uphold the doctrine of fate would say: those people were destined to drown, so they gathered at Liyang; they were destined to be crushed to death, so they gathered on the plain.

When Liu Bang (the Duke of Pei) first raised an army, people fought among themselves and many were caught up in the conflict. Was all of this predestined? Those who advocate the theory of fixed fate say that some people were destined to drown, which is why they gathered at Liyang; others were destined to be crushed to death, which is why they gathered at Pingyuan. When Liu Bang first raised his army, he once entered a market in the Feng and Pei area, where someone remarked that many of those present would later be enfeoffed as marquises.

People’s fate is bound up with the state, while the fate of things is influenced by people. The people of Qi are easygoing by nature, those of Qin are casual and lax in their dealings, those of Chu are quick-tempered, and those of Yan are alert and courageous. People from these four regions travel among one another and migrate back and forth.

Zhang Cigong married the daughter of a nearby shaman. A diviner said her appearance foretold high rank. Zhang Cigong later rose to the office of chancellor. This shows that it was Zhang Cigong who was destined for prominence, and that was why he was matched with this woman.

People believe that homes can be auspicious or inauspicious, and that there are favorable years for moving. I believe the workings of Heaven are hard to fathom. Even when someone violates a taboo, it may simply be that their fate was already auspicious or inauspicious. Physiognomists said that Ying Bu, who was tattooed as a punishment and later became a king, would first suffer punishment and then become king; that Wei Qing, a famous general of the Han dynasty, would be enfeoffed; that Zhou Yafu would die of hunger; and that Deng Tong, a favored courtier, would fall into poverty and starve. These claims were all based on each person’s bones and bodily features.

When King Wen of Zhou was in his mother’s womb, he already had four nipples. This was not something he acquired by cultivating virtue as an adult; he was born that way. As a child, Hou Ji played at planting trees, and Confucius played with the ritual vessels known as zu and dou as soon as he could walk. Stone is hard by nature, and orchids are fragrant by nature. If a person is born endowed with benevolent Qi, they will achieve something as they grow.

Mosquitoes and gadflies are weaker than oxen and horses, yet they still trouble them because they have the advantage. A bull with a girth of ten armspans can be driven by a herdboy, and an elephant several ren tall can be controlled with a hook by a small boy from Yue. This is because they are in a disadvantageous position.

When Confucius blew a pitch pipe—a bamboo tube used in ancient times to establish musical notes—he knew he was descended from the Yin-Shang. Xiang Yu had double pupils, and Shun was descended from the Miao. Sages have their own ancestry. How could Emperor Yao or Liu Bang, the Han founder, have been sons of dragons?

Duke Jing of Song spoke three kind words and received good fortune in return. The Crown Prince Dan of Yan was held captive by Qin. Millet fell from the sky, and horses grew horns. When the wife of Qiliang wept, the city wall collapsed. During a drought, Tang of Shang cut off his hair as an offering to pray for rain. When Zhuo Gong of Nanyang served as magistrate of Weishi County, locusts did not enter his jurisdiction. Sun Shuao buried two snakes and thereby accumulated hidden merit. All these claims are false.

If a dragon hiding among the trees can still be struck down by heavenly thunder, then it is not truly divine. If dragons really possess divine power, they should not end up as dragon liver or leopard fetuses for people to eat. From this we can see that thunder forms when water and fire clash with each other. The claim that dragons rise up when they hear thunder is probably just a story of this kind.

The claim that the Shang army collapsed without bloodshed when King Wu of Zhou attacked King Zhou of Shang is false. Oil lamps were lit at dawn, and blood flowed across the battlefield in rivers, sweeping up even wooden pestles. How could anyone say that no weapons were drawn and no blood was shed? When the Han army destroyed Wang Mang, its troops fought their way to the Jiantai terrace, and the blood ran deep enough to cover their toes. No war fought with the forces of the realm has ever been without bloodshed.

King Zhou of Shang is said to have piled up wine lees into a “mound of lees” and gathered wine into a “wine pool,” where three thousand people drank like oxen. They drank through the night until they lost track of time. It is also said that they transported wine by cart and ate roasted meat on horseback, with one hundred and twenty days counting as a month. Judging from what may actually have happened, King Zhou perhaps simply spilled wine all over the ground, which was then called a “wine pool”; the lees left over from brewing piled up and were called a “mound of lees.” The stories of making a pool from wine, hauling wine by cart, and hanging meat like a forest may have given rise to the claim that people ate roasted meat on horseback. Men and women ran naked through the woods in pursuit of one another. The attendants considered this behavior disgraceful, so they exaggerated and claimed there were three thousand people, though in fact there were not.

Some say that after Jing Ke attempted to assassinate the King of Qin, the king exterminated Jing Ke’s nine generations of kin and killed everyone in the entire lane where he lived, leaving it deserted. By reason, although Qin Shi Huang was cruel, he would not have killed everyone who lived in Jing Ke’s lane. Qin Shi Huang once went to the Liangshan Palace and saw that Li Si’s carriage and retinue were unusually grand. He found this strange. When someone secretly told Li Si, Li Si reduced the size of his retinue. Qin Shi Huang did not know who had informed Li Si, so he killed only the people who were with him at the time. This suggests that he may not have killed everyone in Jing Ke’s lane either.

Legend has it that Lu Ban carved a large wooden goose that could fly for three days without landing. He also made a wooden cart for his mother, with a wooden figure to drive it; once its mechanism was set in motion, the cart drove away and never returned. These stories are probably not true. Confucius traveled among the various states and is said to have visited and advised more than seventy of them.

Consider Confucius’s journey from the state of Wei back to Lu, his going hungry in Chen, his hiding his tracks in Wei, and his being driven out of Song after someone cut down a tree. Taken together, these episodes involve no more than ten states.

Zigao observed the mourning period for three years, weeping until his eyes bled and never even showing his teeth. This means that he did not laugh or joke; but how could anyone have gone the whole time without ever showing their teeth? Qin Xi struck his head against the ground as he urged Duke Mu of Qin to recommend Baili Xi. “Smashing his head” probably just means that he kowtowed until he bled.

When Zuyi remonstrated with King Zhou, he said, “There is no one in the realm who does not wish for Your Majesty’s downfall.” This may have been an exaggeration, perhaps intended to make King Zhou afraid. If everyone in the realm had wanted him to fall, the four quarters would have broken apart and the situation collapsed. They would not still have fought the Zhou army until the blood ran deep enough to float a pestle used for pounding grain.

Confucius asked Zigong, “Compared with Yan Hui, which of you is the better?” Zigong replied, “Yan Hui can hear one thing and infer ten.” If Confucius already knew that Yan Yuan surpassed Zigong, there was no need to ask. And since he did ask, how could Zigong dare say that he was better than Yan Hui? Perhaps Confucius was concerned that Zigong envied Yan Hui, so he asked the question to restrain him.

“Li” refers to Confucius’s son, Kong Li. When Kong Li died, he was given a coffin but no outer coffin, the casing placed around the coffin. Some have questioned this: Kong Li was a senior official at the time and had a carriage drawn by three horses, so why not sell one horse to buy an outer coffin? When he was a scholar-official, he had a two-horse carriage; why not sell one horse and use the money to help the people from the inn where he had once stayed? The old inn had no right to expect assistance, and failing to provide it would not have violated ritual. Yet to bury his son without an outer coffin while sparing no expense to help old acquaintances—is this not to value gratitude to old friends while slighting the ritual owed to a father and son? Did Confucius refuse to sell his horses and carriage to provide funeral goods for his son because he was greedy for money while in office?

Boyi and Shuqi were elder brothers born to a concubine. After others took their throne from them, they starved to death on Mount Shouyang. The question raised here is that they did not yield the throne to an elder brother born to a concubine, so how can they be called worthy men?

Gonggong and Zhuanxu fought for dominion over the realm. After losing, Gonggong angrily struck Mount Buzhou, breaking the pillar of heaven and snapping the cords that held the earth in place. Nüwa smelted five-colored stones to mend the sky, then cut off a giant turtle’s legs to support the four corners. The question raised here is: if Gonggong had the strength to break a mountain peak, why did he lose the war? If Nüwa could mend the sky with stones, was the sky really made of jade and stone? And if mountains served as pillars for the sky, how could a turtle’s legs support it? If the turtle was large enough to hold up the sky, Nüwa would have found it hard to kill—and it might even have killed her. How, then, could she use its legs to mend the sky?

The Gate of Heaven lies in the north, and the Earth’s Gate in the east.

Yangzhou and Yanzhou lie at the lowest elevations, so when the great floods come, these two regions suffer the worst damage. In the legend of Nüwa mending the sky, if the giant ao—a mythical turtle—were truly enormous, Nüwa could not kill it; instead, it would kill her. How, then, could she mend the sky? The Gate of Heaven is in the north, and the Earth’s Portal is in the east. [Yangzhou and Yanzhou are low-lying and suffer the worst flooding.]

The sun, moon, and stars in the sky are called “patterns”; the mountains, rivers, hills, and valleys on earth are called “forms.” Earthly Qi rises, while celestial phenomena appear below. When the Qi of heaven and earth meet, all things come to life. Heaven and earth are like husband and wife. The southern part of the sky is high and the northern part low: when the sun rises, it is high and can be seen; when it sets, it is low and cannot be seen. The sky is shaped like a tilted canopy. If the canopy rested on the ground, it could not turn; only when suspended can it revolve.

The sun does not sink beneath the earth. Imagine someone walking across a plain at night with a torch. After walking ten li, the torchlight can no longer be seen, but the flame has not gone out. The sun is the same.

Clouds, mist, rain, and snow all arise from the earth; they do not descend from the sky. In summer, mist forms; in winter, frost forms. When the weather is warm, moisture becomes rain; when it is cold, it becomes snow.

Talented people rush about in step with the ways of the world, while those who hold fast to their principles often withdraw and flee when circumstances grow difficult. Those who bustle about in the world grow more and more cunning; those who withdraw increasingly seem clumsy. This is not because they lack intelligence, but because they are familiar with different things. In Qi Commandery, embroidery has been a family trade for generations, and there is no local woman who cannot embroider. Xiangyi is renowned for brocade weaving, and its women are all skilled with their hands. They have simply watched and practiced so often that the work has become second nature.

People at court are called capable officials at a young age because they are familiar with the affairs of the court. Women in Qi Commandery are skilled at embroidery, and women in Xiangyi at brocade weaving, for the same reason: they learn by seeing and hearing, and by practicing repeatedly. People at court treat fields as places to cultivate, knives and writing brushes as farming tools, and documents as matters of agriculture and sericulture. It is like children growing up in a household: they learn its routines and details, and often know them better than a guest does. Even learned men such as Confucius and Mozi might not be able to tell them apart clearly.

Someone with no money who wants to buy something will not be given the goods by the seller. Someone with no learning who seeks an official post is in the same position as a person without money trying to buy goods: success is hard to come by. To understand antiquity but not the present is called “sinking on dry land”—being out of step with the times and unable to put one’s abilities to use. To understand the present but not antiquity is like being blind. At first glance, the hoof of a thousand-li horse looks no different from that of an ordinary horse. Only when it races a thousand li across level ground can its ability be seen.

Some people have minds as abundant as springs and virtue as weighty as mountains, yet lack the power to recommend themselves. Others are unwilling to recommend them, so they can only live in seclusion down some remote lane, with no chance to rise to prominence. However outstanding their talent, without anyone to recognize it they may be as useless as an empty vessel. And if they have no learning that the court can put to use, the court will not employ them.

Ban Gu, Jia Kui, Yang Xiong, Fu Yi, and others who served in the Orchid Terrace, the court’s library and historical office, had fine reputations and excelled at writing, yet not all of them were able to make full use of their abilities. One who can explain a single classic is a Confucian scholar; one who has read widely across the ancient and present is a learned man; one who gathers and arranges books and biographies and can use them to submit reports and records is a man of letters. Only those who think deeply, compose works of substance, and write coherent chapters are great Confucian scholars, learned men whose writings are exceptional.

People such as Liu Zizheng (Liu Xiang) and his son, Yang Ziyun (Yang Xiong), and Huan Junshan (Huan Tan) were as if King Wen, King Wu, and the Duke of Zhou had all appeared in the world at once. Ban Shupi (Ban Biao) continued the Records of the Grand Historian (the Shiji) with more than a hundred chapters. His accounts are so detailed that readers sometimes mistake them for Sima Qian’s work. Compared with Ban Shupi, Ban Mengjian’s (Ban Gu’s) writing was far more than five hundred li apart.

A tortoise lives for three hundred years before its body grows to the size of a copper coin; a divining stalk takes seventy years to grow before it produces a single stem. These are both numinous creatures. They grow slowly, and so they can live for a long time. A worthy Confucian scholar in the world is like a numinous tortoise. Maples and paulownias grow quickly, so their wood is soft and not very hard. Sandalwood and yue trees take longer to mature; their wood is tough and strong, and can be used for axles.

Swift currents and shallow rapids can sweep up sand and turn stones, but the great rocks remain unmoved. This is because the rocks are heavy and the sand is light. Great Confucian scholars and petty officials of the common sort live in the world at the same time, and they differ in much the same way.

Heaven’s intent is lodged in the breast of the sage, while its warnings and revelations are expressed through the sage’s words. If there were no sages in the world, how could people know Heaven’s intent?

People between Heaven and Earth are like fleas and lice in a garment, or ants in a nest.

On the first day of the first month, one observes the winds from the four directions: a south wind foretells drought, a north wind foretells flooding, an east wind foretells pestilence, and a west wind… The original text ends here unfinished.

At the spring dawn sacrifice, omens of disaster can be divined from the winds blowing from the four directions: a south wind foretells drought, a north wind foretells floods, an east wind foretells pestilence, and a west wind foretells war.

When the Qin state was about to perish, its city gates collapsed. Huo Guang, too, once fell from power, and even thatched walls can be destroyed. How, then, should we explain the story of Qi Liang’s wife, whose weeping brought down a city wall?

When a hunting dog goes missing in the mountains and woods, a person who calls its name loudly will hear it answer and come back. Though humans and dogs are not of the same kind, they can respond to one another because the dog recognizes its master.

When the east wind arrives, wine swells up and overflows. On examining its flavor, we find that wine tends toward sourness. The east belongs to Wood, and Wood corresponds to the sour flavor; thus, when the east wind arrives, the wine overflows.

When an amnesty is about to be announced and prisoners released, the keys begin to shake beforehand. This is regarded as a response that signals the coming event.

After silkworms form their cocoons, the pitch of the Shang string changes; when the new grain ripens and comes in, the old grain diminishes. Based on this, the scripture says that when a child is born, the parents’ original Qi grows weak.

“Debating the Dragon” refers to the settling of a dispute about dragons. Liu Zizheng (Liu Xiang) and Dong Zhongshu both discussed dragons without fully resolving the question. The Lunheng brought the debate to a close, which is why it is called “Debating the Dragon.”

Anglers carve wood into the shape of a fish, paint it red, and let it float on the water. As the wooden fish rises and dips with the waves, real fish take it for one of their own and gather around it. If this is so, how could the claim that an earthen dragon can summon rain be impossible?

Shao Zhengmao lived at the same time as Confucius in the state of Lu. Confucius taught his followers, who gathered at his school and left three times over; only Yan Yuan stayed, because he knew Confucius was a sage.

Quyi is said to be an unusual plant that grows in courtyards and points toward anyone who is treacherous or corrupt. If it could truly identify people this way, why did Shun need to ask Gao Yao to explain how to recognize worthy people?

Floods and droughts occurred even during the reigns of Yao and Tang. Could these disasters have been caused by the policies of the two sage rulers? They were natural outcomes of the workings of Heaven’s Way and changes in the cosmic cycles. Just as a loving father cannot ensure that every child in his family will be filial, so too.

A man named Ming in Langya once wanted his elder brother to have enough to eat. The younger brother tied himself up, bowed to the starving people, and offered to be punished in his brother’s place. Moved by his sense of righteousness, the starving people spared both brothers. Later, when the elder brother died, the younger brother raised his orphaned children. During a famine, he even killed his own child to save his brother’s child. Xu Junsheng of Linhuai also once killed his own child during a famine to save his elder brother’s orphans.

People prize magpies and look down on parrots because magpies are rarely seen, while parrots are more common. Painters like to depict people of high antiquity rather than people of the Qin and Han dynasties because they value the ancient past.

Yang Xiong (courtesy name Ziyun), a scholar of the Western Han, wrote the Taixuan and the Fayan, but Zhang Bosong refused to read them. Since he lived in the same age as Yang Xiong, he looked down on Yang’s writings. Had Yang Xiong lived in the Zhou dynasty, his works would probably have been kept in the Golden Coffer, where important texts were stored.

When King Wu of Zhou marched against King Zhou of Shang, the Grand Duke (Jiang Taigong) secretly devised a plan: he gave children elixirs that turned their bodies red and made them grow taller, then taught them to say, “The Yin dynasty is about to fall.” When the Shang people saw the children covered in red, they took them for heavenly spirits. Hearing them say that the Shang would fall, they concluded that its destruction was ordained. Later, the people of Zhou became reluctant to speak of the incident.

The ancient emperors accomplished great deeds, and they needed gifted ministers to praise them in writing and record their merits. Without the aid of clouds and rain, a dragon cannot rise into the heavens; skilled writers are like the clouds and rain of a state. Writing records people’s actions and spreads their virtues. How could it be merely a matter of playing with the brush and mastering ornate language?

Human life is formed from Jing-Qi, the refined energy that sustains life, and Jing-Qi depends on the blood vessels for its formation. After death, the blood vessels dry up, Jing-Qi disperses, and flesh and bone turn to dust. How, then, could the dead become ghosts? If people were told that the dead have no awareness, the sages feared they might stop honoring their parents, so they did not openly say that the dead were insentient. In truth, the dead have no awareness.

People avoid holding certain ceremonies in the fifth month, believing this will harm their parents. Yet Tian Wen, the Lord of Mengchang, was born in the fifth month and did not bring harm to his father, Tian Ying. Someone sharpening a knife beside a well might fear it would fall in: the character for “punishment” is written with the character for “knife” beside the character for “well.” The sharpener’s fear of punishment is merely an association in the mind.

Do not sleep lying on your back, for that posture resembles a corpse.

Do not set things down directly, for they will not be securely joined or supported.

A saying goes that washing one’s hair on a Zi day will make people like you, while washing it on a Mao day will turn your hair white. But the days on which one washes one’s hair do not determine whether people like or dislike one, or whether one’s hair is black or white. If a mother born on a Chou day washed her hair on a Zi day, would that make people like her? If fifteen boys washed their hair on a Mao day, would their hair turn white?

Zilu went to see Confucius and said, “People can divine using a person’s shoulder bone or an ox’s hip bone. Why, then, use a turtle shell?” Confucius replied, “The ‘elder’ is someone of advanced years; the ‘turtle’ is something old. When faced with a difficult question, one should consult someone who is older and more experienced.”

“Cao Turtle” has nothing supernatural about it; it merely borrows this name. When King Wu of Zhou set out to punish King Zhou of Shang, divination produced an extremely inauspicious omen. The Grand Duke pushed aside the tortoise shell and milfoil stalks and said, “How can dry bones and dead grass know good fortune from bad?”

The gates of merchants’ homes should not face south, and the gates of travelers’ homes should not face north. If every hall faces south, what is there to criticize about such an arrangement?

Sages can foresee events from a thousand years ago and see clearly what will happen ten thousand generations hence. As Confucius was about to die, he left a written statement: “A man will claim to be Qin Shi Huang, show me his appearance, and wear my clothes inside out. Later, he will die at Shaqiu.” Qin Shi Huang did indeed arrive at Shaqiu and die there. Confucius also said, “Dong Zhongshu will disrupt my teachings.” Later, Dong Zhongshu expounded the Spring and Autumn Annals and wrote biographies. Confucius also said, “The Hu will bring about the fall of the Qin.” Later, Hu Hai brought about the fall of the Qin. These are examples of Confucius foreseeing events ten thousand generations hence. His ability to infer the lineage of the Shang dynasty’s successors from musical pitch, by contrast, shows that he could foresee events from a thousand years before his time.

“Tang” means vast and boundless; the people could not sum it up in a single fitting name. “Yu” means joy, “Xia” means vastness, “Yin” means uprightness, and “Zhou” means completeness and thoroughness. When the mind is wholly absorbed in something, one may fail to see Mount Tai right before one’s eyes. Those who know where a roof leaks stand beneath the eaves; those who know whether government is stable stand among the people; and to identify errors in people’s arguments, one must consult the writings of the various schools.

The Lunheng is meant to weigh things and distinguish truth from falsehood. It is not written merely to criticize literary works or pursue ornate language, but to correct worldly conventions.

Wang Chong was from Shangyu in Kuaiji, and his courtesy name was Zhongren. His book states its views plainly and is easy to understand, but its language does not cater to popular taste. Though stones are plentiful, jade is rare; though fish are plentiful, dragons are rare. That is why what is seldom seen is prized. Some people objected that Wang Chong’s book was too long and its contents too weighty. Wang Chong replied, “A long work is better than a short one; wealth is better than poverty. No one in the world can produce even a single argument, while I have hundreds of essays.”

Others’ homes contain not even a single written character, while I have tens of thousands. Which of us, then, is more precious? Chong, who held office in the second year of the Zhanghe era, moved his family to escape danger. After that, he stopped writing for many years. By the age of seventy—the time when one might retire from public service—his hair had turned white and his teeth had fallen out. His old friends were passing away one by one, his family was poor and lacked the means to support him, and nothing in his life brought him satisfaction. So he wrote Nurturing Nature, a work in sixty chapters.

Correct Discourses, in five volumes, by Cui Yuanshi

Ministers trusted by the ruler often keep silent, seeking only to preserve their stipends. Ministers who have fallen out of favor may speak their minds, but their low status means their counsel goes unheeded. As a result, the court’s institutions grow lax at the top, while worthy men below languish without hope of advancement. The ruler’s government steadily declines, like a decrepit carriage.

Correct Discourses, in five volumes, by Cui Yuanshi

The ruler’s trusted ministers prudently keep their mouths shut, seeking only to preserve their stipends. Ministers who have fallen out of favor may speak up, but their words are dismissed because of their low status. Thus, the court’s guiding order slackens at the top, while worthy people below grow troubled and resentful. The ruler’s governance declines day by day, like a broken-down carriage. If a skilled craftsperson could be brought in to repair it—joining the broken parts and driving wedges into what has come loose—the carriage could be made sound again.

There is no ruler in the world who does not wish to have worthy people like Confucius and Mencius assist him. Yet even when such people are found, he may not value them. Those who are upright and steadfast do not twist the Way to suit the times, nor act falsely to win a reputation. They are ashamed to earn praise from the “village worthies”—people who seem honest and kind but actually curry favor by following convention—and they do not form factions for private gain. Unless “Lu Zhongni (Confucius)” or “Zou Mengke (Mencius)” were written on their faces, rulers of their own time would find it hard to recognize such people.

Worthy people capable of shaping an age are often suppressed in their own time, yet remembered by later generations. If we use the past to judge the future, how can the course of worldly affairs be easy to predict? If one fails to become king, one may still retreat and become a hegemon; if one fails to become a hegemon, what will come in the end? Farming and raising silkworms are hard work with little return, while crafts and trade are easier and more profitable. So farmers put down their tools and take up carving, and women workers leave their looms to do embroidery.

Those below imitate what those above do: that is what is meant by transforming the people through teaching. Offering a ruler plans for war in a time of peace is like giving medicine to someone who is not sick.

Long ago, someone sought a reputation for generosity by giving his land to his younger brother. Before long, he fell into poverty and, abusing his authority, forced his brother to lend him money. That was wrong.

The ruler spreads a great net over all under Heaven to gather scholars from every quarter. People of the same kind then cluster together and flock to him like moths to a flame. Those skilled at judging the times follow one after another, while others are pressured into following too. As a result, the ruler’s faction takes shape below, and the ruler himself is isolated above. Horses that are not fed regularly cannot run long distances; scholars who are not selected and cultivated in ordinary times cannot be put to use in a crisis.

In the story of Lord Ye’s fondness for dragons, the thief who exposed wrongdoing and caught robbers was still not esteemed by the gentlemen. If a state does not uphold the Way, or its craftsmen do not follow their measures, its ruin cannot be far off. A ruler who sets no rewards or punishments yet hopes to bring peace to all under Heaven is like someone who does not comb their hair but expects it to be neat: it cannot be done.

The masters of technique say, “When branches and leaves flourish in winter, they are sure to wither in spring.” A proverb says, “Official documents from the prefectures and commanderies arrive like thunderclaps; when an edict comes, people merely hang it on the wall.” The people’s hearts must be cleansed, and customs of empty display and falsehood swept away.

The ten juan of the Qianfulun (Discourses of a Recluse) were written by Wang Fu, whose courtesy name was Jiexin.

Benevolence and righteousness cannot increase day after day like the rising moon, but people always want their wealth and possessions to grow daily. This is what I deplore. One person sees a shadow and cries out; many others hear the cry and join in. This failing of blind conformity in the world has indeed been with us for a long time.

A common trouble for infants is eating too much; a common misfortune for powerful ministers is losing favor. A common mistake of parents is to dote on the child they favor, while a common failing of rulers is to indulge their favorites.

Within ten paces, there must be flourishing plants; even a small place of ten households must have outstanding talent. Jade is polished with stone, metal is worked with tools, brocade is washed with fish, and cloth is washed with plant ash. Things may be crude by nature, but with proper treatment they can be made better. An enlightened ruler listens widely to different opinions; a foolish, benighted ruler trusts only one side. In governing a state, nothing is more important for a ruler than finding worthy people; and the most direct way to find them is to examine their actual achievements in office.

As the saying goes, “Crooked wood resents the straight cord; those accustomed to heavy punishments resent clear and orderly laws.”

To know whether someone is on the verge of falling ill, see whether they have lost their appetite. To know whether a state is on the verge of ruin, see whether its ruler refuses to employ worthy people. The sick person does not lack good food; illness makes it impossible to eat, and in the end the person dies for that reason. A state does not lack worthy people; its ruler simply cannot put them to use, and so it soon perishes. Governing a state without finding truly worthy people is like treating an illness without finding the right medicine. A serious illness calls for the finest ginseng, but if radish is used in its place, the condition worsens. The problem is not that the medicine has no power, but that the wrong medicine was chosen.

When rulers of earlier times wished to pardon criminals, they first sent people on horseback to inspect the streets and markets in different places and listen to what ordinary people by the roadside had to say. If everyone thought the pardon should be granted, it was called a “Heavenly Pardon,” and only then would the ruler issue it.

Emperor Xiaoming of Han once asked, “Why has no one submitted a memorial this morning?” His attendants replied, “Because today is a ‘day of opposing branches.’” People at the time believed that the day of opposing branches was unsuitable for conducting business. Emperor Xiaoming said, “The people have come from far away to submit memorials at the palace gate. We should not make them come all this way for nothing because of this date.” He therefore ordered the officials who received memorials not to turn people away on account of the day. This shows that Emperor Xiaoming cared for the people and valued their time.

A wise and enlightened ruler should govern with broad reach and care for the people equally, favoring neither those close to him nor neglecting those who are distant. The people’s fortunes and misfortunes, blessings and calamities, should all be shared by the ruler. Simply drawing back curtains to block a breeze, or reaching out to move sand and dam a river, does nothing to address the matter and only brings needless harm upon oneself. It is like a ruler who does not order his generals to sweep away invading enemies, but instead lets each prefecture and county raise troops again and again.

When Bian Que treated illness, he first examined the body for blockages and stagnation, then cleared what was obstructed. He strengthened what was weak and drained what was excessive. This is like a frontier that must not be left neglected for long, lest enemies find an opening.

Members of the same clan may live in the same house in succession: some prosper, while others meet disaster. People of the same clan may also hold the same office in succession: some are promoted, while others are dismissed. The state flourished under King Cheng and King Kang of Zhou, but declined under King You and King Li of Zhou. This shows that good and ill fortune, prosperity and decline, depend on people’s actions, not on where they live.

Shi Kuang said, “Those associated with the color red do not live long; powerful clans are prone to extinction.” Surnames originated in various ways: some came from official posts, some from titles, some from residences, and some from place names. The surnames Sima, Situ, Zhonghang, and Xiájūn came from official posts; Shumen, Xidu, Nangong, and Beiguo came from residences; and Sanwu, Wulu, Qingniu, and Baima came from place names.

Jisheng and Zaofu served King Mu of Zhou because they were skilled charioteers. When the king traveled to the Western Sea and was so delighted that he forgot to return, the Xu Yan king seized the opportunity to rebel. Zaofu drove his chariot a thousand li in a single day to hurry back and suppress the revolt. King Mu granted Zaofu the land of Zhao, and Zaofu’s descendants consequently took Zhao as their surname.

Brothers often grow more distant from one another over successive generations, while friends may grow closer across generations. Such is human nature. People compete to attach themselves to the rich and powerful, and to abandon the poor and lowly. Association with the wealthy and powerful can bring recommendations and assistance from above, and material benefits from below. Association with the poor and lowly, by contrast, may require costly relief and loans on a large scale, or at the very least lead to losses from lending money and goods.

Even if a corrupt official passes by in a chariot drawn by four horses, a virtuous scholar may regard it as an honor; how much more so if associating with him brings real benefits? Yet even if a worthy recluse, whose character rivals that of Yan Hui and Min Ziqian, arrives at the door in coarse clothes, the attendants may think it unbecoming; how much more so if associating with him brings real losses? Thus the rich and powerful readily win favorable treatment from others, while the poor and lowly struggle to receive what is fair.

Wearing fine clothes is called extravagant and presumptuous; wearing shabby clothes is called destitute and down-and-out. Walking slowly is called weakness from hunger; walking quickly is called fleeing one’s responsibilities. Arriving without waiting to be received is called arrogant and discourteous; calling too often is called coming to beg for food. Visiting without a clear purpose is called having ulterior motives; bringing a gift is called wanting to borrow money. Excessive humility is called spinelessness; a forceful manner is called a lack of virtue. Such circumstances make it hard for the poor and lowly to get by, and the hardship they endure is truly severe.

Nowadays, some people speak smoothly but act with rectitude; they speak of the right way while harboring evil thoughts. A ruler governing the realm should first address the root and then attend to the details. If he carefully sets his heart aright and restrains his conduct, wicked deeds will not arise.

Ancient books on the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors usually name Fuxi and Shennong as two of the Three Sovereigns. For the third, some name Suiren and others Nüwa. I have also heard that in ancient times there were the Heavenly Sovereign, the Earthly Sovereign, and the Human Sovereign, but accounts of them are uncertain.

End of Volume Three of the Yilin

Volume Four of the Yilin

Compiled by Ma Zong of Fufeng (Tang dynasty), Yuanhui

Fengsu Tong, thirty-one volumes, Ying Zhu [a colophon identifying the title, volume count, and author]

The customs of the world are shaped by such factors as warm and cold climates, easy or difficult terrain, the quality of spring water, and the strength or tenderness of plants and trees. People in each place also adapt their ways of life to these differences. Thus, customs may vary from one hundred li to the next, and differ even more over a thousand li.

During the Zhou and Qin periods, officials known as “Aides’ Chariot Envoys” were often sent out in the eighth month to collect the different sayings of each region and preserve them in the palace archives. After the Qin dynasty fell, nearly all these records were lost. Yan Junping of Shu left more than a thousand words. Lin Wenweng Ruocai wrote the Gengzhu, which Yang Xiong annotated. The book, it is said, was continued over twenty-seven years and came to nine thousand characters. Zhang Lian praised it as a work that could endure alongside the sun and moon and would never be discarded. Though I have little talent, I venture to place myself alongside these authors.

The name “Shennong” may be explained this way: “Shen” means sincerity, and “nong” means depth. To call him Shennong is to say that his De was as profound as that of the spirits. The Five Emperors were Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Diku, Yao, and Shun. “Huang” means brightness; “zhuan” means single-mindedness, and “xu” means sincerity; “ku” means examination; “yao” means lofty; and “shun” means to carry out and cultivate. The name Shun thus speaks of putting De into practice and continuing Yao’s work.

The royal titles of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties refer respectively to Yu of Xia, Tang of Yin, and King Wu of Zhou. “Yu” means to assist, and “Tang” means flourishing. “King” carries the sense of being the one to whom people turn: it refers to the person to whom all under Heaven give their allegiance. The Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period were Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin, Duke Xiang of Song, and King Zhuang of Chu. “Bo” means prominent or elder; it describes how they established themselves as the foremost lords among the states of the five directions and achieved illustrious deeds. “Ba” means to hold power, referring to their control of the affairs of all under Heaven.

During the reign of King Zhao of Qin, the Queen Dowager once governed as regent. At the time, some people argued that local officials should not be replaced too frequently. The Book of Documents discusses the assessment of officials’ performance. Confucius said that if someone were appointed, results would be visible after a year and achievements would follow after three. Only after Zheng’s Zichan had governed for three years did the people begin to praise him. If even worthy and sage rulers need time to put their policies into effect, how much more so people of ordinary ability? If officials are replaced too often, will government affairs and order on the roads not fall into confusion? The institutions of antiquity also state: “If someone were to appoint me, results would be visible after a year and achievements would follow after three.”

Zheng Zichan was praised by the people only after he had governed for three years. Even a wise and worthy sage must put policies into effect gradually; how much more so must this be true of someone of ordinary ability? If policies are changed frequently, how could the Way of governance avoid falling into confusion?

In ancient times, there were no slaves or bondservants. They were all people who had committed crimes. The term “slave” referred to someone of low rank; “bondwoman” referred to a woman of low status.

A proverb says, “The road to office is long; half those who die do so in resentment.” In the past, when society was peaceful, even if fair-minded and generous gentlemen tried cases and judged them with care, some people still complained. How much more so is this true today? Ying Zhu lived during the Three Kingdoms period, and this saying dates from that time.

When Emperor Guangwu moved the capital to Luoyang, his carts carried bamboo slips and paper books, two thousand loads in all. Later, Dong Zhuo brought ruin upon the court, and the emperor fled west. In the ensuing chaos, the court’s books were transported in seventy carts. Heavy rain fell along the way, and half the books were abandoned. Dong Zhuo then burned the palaces, temples, and towers, reducing the canonical texts to ash. Some of the books that survived were even used as wrapping or curtains. The teachings handed down by the former kings nearly vanished altogether.

A proverb says that when people are rewarded for their service, the reward is always gold. But in Sunzi’s Art of War, the phrase “spending a thousand gold pieces each day” means one million coins. When Chen Ping sought to persuade the state of Chu, he once used a thousand gold pieces to give gifts to the two lords of the Shu family. The fifty jin of “gold” mentioned here also means actual gold. Another account holds that one jin of gold was worth ten thousand coins.

Among the common people, there was a custom of not raising three children born in a single birth. People said that this resembled the breeding of livestock and would bring harm to the parents. Yet according to the Spring and Autumn Annals and Discourses of the States, in the time of the King of Yue, the state provided grain to families who had two children and a wet nurse to those who had three. Later, Yue defeated the powerful state of Wu. What harm, then, was there in this practice?

Among the common people, a father and child born in the same month were considered inauspicious, as people said this would bring harm to the father. Yet the Zuo Tradition records that Duke Huan of Lu had a son born in the same month as himself, and the child was named “Born Together.”

Emperor Ming of Han was also born in the same month as Emperor Guangwu.

Among the common people, women were forbidden to return to their parents’ homes, because people said doing so would bring decline. In fact, in ancient times women were often exchanged for boys from other families, which is why they were forbidden to go back.

At the Fengshan sacrifice on Mount Tai, a popular story said that a golden casket and jade document on the mountain could foretell the length of a person’s life. When Emperor Wu of Han discovered that it read “eighteen,” he turned it upside down and read it as “eighty.”

It is said that when Emperor Wu of Han went to Mount Tai to perform the Feng and Shan sacrifices, he erected a stone stele twelve feet high, inscribed with these words: “Serve Heaven in accordance with ritual; conduct yourself in the world in accordance with righteousness; serve your father with filial devotion; make your name through benevolence and virtue.” People throughout the land all took these words as their guide and embraced them wholeheartedly. The names carved into stone were meant to proclaim achievements. Yet Emperor Wu was already thirty-seven at the time, so how could it also be said that he lived eighteen years longer? If the inscription were read backward, the spirits would not bestow blessings. The author says that he once held office in the Eastern Marchmount, serving there for six years with a sense of shame. He went several times to pray and ask his elders, and also climbed Mount Tai, but everyone he heard from said that no one had ever obtained the golden casket and jade tablets—the fabled secret documents said to record one’s lifespan.

Dongfang Shuo was said to be the essence of the Great White Star. In the time of the Yellow Emperor, he took the form of Feng Hou; in the time of Emperor Yao, he became Wuchengzi. Later, he was born in the state of Yue, where he was Fan Li, and in the state of Qi, where he was Zhe Yizi. This account portrays him as endlessly changing. The author examines the matter and says that Dongfang Shuo was a witty and quick-minded man. Common people therefore attached strange tales to him. How could he have been a spirit?

Boye Yuanfu of Pengcheng was the son of Bochu, who had once served as Chamberlain for the Palace Revenues. Some said that Yuanfu was born while his father was in mourning. His father believed that, having reached an advanced age without an heir, he would be committing the greatest act of unfiliality, so he raised the child. Since a gentleman does not conceal his own faults, he gave the child “Fu” as his courtesy name. The author examines the matter and says that Yuanfu’s given name was He, his mother was from Runan, and his grandfather, named Jing, had served as Palace Attendant. Yuanfu was born during Emperor An’s reign, and the officials all came to offer their congratulations. His grandfather was old and had at last gained a grandson. Delighted by this happy event, he named the child “He” and gave him the courtesy name “Yuanfu.”

Bochu had governed three commanderies. After his wife died young, he refused to marry again. As he lay dying, he told his son, “Bury me here; do not move your mother’s coffin here. If the dead retain awareness, it will not be difficult for us to visit one another. If the dead have no awareness, there is no need for this extra effort.” The author asks: if Bochu was so upright and austere, how could he have fathered a child during mourning and named him “He”?

The father of Wang Shuhan of Runan, Zifang, went away on a journey and did not return for more than twenty years.

When Shuhan was serving as a Gentleman of the Palace Secretariat, someone reported that Zifang had died in Runan. Shuhan sent his elder brother Borsan to attend to the funeral and issued an order authorizing mourning clothes. He also sent 200,000 cash as a funeral gift. Later, when Zifang returned from Cangwu, Shuhan went to court to ask that the money be returned and admitted that he had been at fault for believing a false report. Emperor Ling issued an edict calling on the ministers, generals, and senior officials to discuss the matter together. The Erudite Ren Min argued that people generally lived to about seventy, and Zifang was of the same generation as Shuhan’s father. On hearing that he had died, Shuhan could reasonably have observed mourning rites. Zifang had been far away; although someone had identified where he was, there was no way to verify the report, so Shuhan should not be punished for it. The court then ordered the funeral gift returned and restored Shuhan to his former post.

Zhang Miao of Runan visited Du Shi while Du Shi’s family was celebrating a wedding. After drinking, the two joked around. Zhang Miao tied Du Shi up and struck him twenty times, then hung him upside down by his toes. Du Shi died as a result. When Bao Yu tried the case, he said that the two had been fooling around after drinking. Judging by Zhang Miao’s original intent, he had not meant to harm Du Shi, so the death should be treated as accidental.

Zhou Wengzhong of Runan’s wife gave birth to a daughter. By chance, a butcher’s wife gave birth to a son, and Zhou Wengzhong’s wife secretly paid her to exchange the babies. Later, when Zhou Wengzhong became governor of Beihai, he went to sweep his ancestors’ graves and brought along his son and Zhou Guang, a clerk who could see spirits. On their return, Zhou Guang told him, “At the sacrifice, I saw only the butcher, dressed in worn-out clothes and holding a knife as he cut meat. There was also someone wearing a blue official seal and sash, pacing back and forth in the east chamber. Why was that?” Zhou Wengzhong took up a sword and demanded an explanation from his wife. She confessed to exchanging the babies. Zhou Wengzhong said, “Everyone with children hopes they will make offerings and carry on the family line. If our ancestors will not accept the offerings, what use is there in raising someone else’s son?” He had the boy returned to the butcher’s home by carriage, then brought his own daughter back. By then, the daughter had married a seller of baked cakes. Zhou Wengzhong brought her home and arranged for her to marry Li Wensi of Anping. Li Wensi later rose to become governor of Nanyang. The story illustrates that spirits do not accept sacrifices from those outside the family line: how could raising someone else’s child take the place of one’s own descendants?

A wealthy man in Chenliu reached the age of ninety without having a son, so he married a woman from a farming family. They spent one night together, and the wealthy man died soon afterward. Later, the woman gave birth to a boy. When the child grew up, the wealthy man’s daughter said, “My father died the very night he married her. This child cannot be my father’s son.” The two sides then fought over the family estate, and the dispute went unresolved for years. When Prime Minister You Ji heard the case, he said, “The old man searched for a son and couldn’t even find his shadow. How could he withstand the cold?” By playing on the ideas of “having no shadow” and “not withstanding the cold,” he meant that the wealthy man was old and frail, making it hard to believe he could have fathered the child.

At the time, it was the eighth month. Someone had the children of the same age take off their clothes to see who could best endure the cold. Only the old man’s child cried out that he was cold. Then, at noon, they watched him and found that he indeed cast no shadow. So they gave him the property. Someone in Yingchuan said, “The old man visited the child and saw that he cast no shadow and could not endure the cold.”

In Yingchuan, two brothers lived together, and the wives in both households were pregnant. The elder brother’s wife had lost her unborn child several months earlier, but had told no one. When her younger sister-in-law went into labor, the two women lay together in the birthing room. After the younger woman gave birth to a boy, the elder brother’s wife stole the child during the night. The two households then disputed the child for three years, with no judgment reached. Chancellor Huang Ba ordered the child placed in front of the hall, ten paces from each woman, and commanded them to compete to carry him away. The elder woman grabbed him tightly, and the child began to cry loudly. Fearing she might hurt him, the younger woman let go. The elder woman looked pleased, while the younger woman was deeply distressed. Huang Ba said, “This is the younger woman’s child.” He then investigated and interrogated the elder woman, who confessed.

In Linhuai, a man took a piece of juan silk to the market to sell. When it began to rain, he draped the silk over himself for shelter. Another man later asked him to make room for a small corner beneath it. After the rain stopped, the two men argued over the silk. Chancellor Xue Xuan said, “This silk is worth only a few hundred coins. Why argue endlessly over it?” He cut it down the middle and gave each man half, then secretly watched their reactions. The owner of the silk kept protesting his innocence, while the other man eventually looked pleased. From this, Xue Xuan saw the truth. After questioning him, the other man confessed.

The name of the Duke of Zhou’s music was “Shao.” “Shao” carries the sense of weighing and following the way of the ancestors. The name of King Wu’s music was “Wu,” symbolizing his achievement in pacifying the realm. Shun’s music was called “Shao”: the word means “to continue,” expressing that he carried on the achievements of Yao. Yao’s music was called “Dazhang,” with “zhang” meaning “to make manifest.” The music of Emperor Ku was called “Wuying,” with “ying” referring to flowers. Liu Xiang said, “Shang means ‘to make manifest.’ Once all things have matured, their patterns can be made clear. Jue means ‘to touch’: all things stir against the earth and send up tender shoots like pointed horns. Gong means ‘to dwell at the center’; zhi means ‘blessing’: as all things flourish, blessings increase along with them. Yu means ‘a roof that covers’: all things gather and are stored away, as though sheltered beneath a roof.”

Listening to the Gong note makes people gentle and earnest, with broad-minded hearts. Listening to the Shang note makes them upright and principled, fond of what is right. Listening to the Jue note makes them orderly and disciplined, and respectful of ritual. Listening to the Zhi note makes them compassionate and loving toward many. Listening to the Yu note makes them skilled at cultivating their nature and fond of fame.

The pipa is an instrument devised by musicians in recent times; it is not known who invented it. It is played by hand, which is why it was named “pipa.” It is three chi and five cun long, modeled on Heaven and Earth, humanity, and the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water). Its four strings symbolize the four seasons.

The Book of Changes says, “It is beneficial to meet a great person.” Here, “great person” and “sage” have the same meaning.

The Analects says, “The gentleman advances upward.” Zang Sunhe said, “If a person of great understanding appears in later generations, it will probably be Confucius.” A Ru is someone able to distinguish the worthy and wise from the foolish, in both ancient and modern times. During the reign of Emperor Zhang of the Han dynasty, Jia Kui was called a “learned Ru.” People of the time also said, “If you have questions without end, go ask Jia the Long-Headed.” The Book of Rites says that when five people lodge outdoors, the eldest must sit apart on a separate mat. It is inappropriate nowadays to call the powerful and wealthy “elders.”

The Guanzi says, “The teacher gives instruction, and the disciples follow and learn.” Here, “teacher” does not mean someone who understands the ancient Way; it is simply a term for an instructor. Since there is more than one student or disciple, they are called “the assembled students.” Someone said, “The teacher should be like a sober person, while those seeking instruction are like the drunk.” The meaning is that students are often in a state of confusion, while the clear-minded teacher sits in the place of honor and is called the “libationer.” The Book of Rites says that at a drinking gathering, one must first offer a libation to honor the ancestors. Later, “libationer” also came to refer to the person who holds the highest position.

When Xun Qing was in Qi, he was the most revered teacher there and was therefore honored with the title “libationer among the scholars.” The Book of Songs says that the men of Yin were strong and agile. “Talented scholars” refers to handsome and outstanding people; “refined scholars” to those with broad and penetrating knowledge; “steadfast scholars” to those of firm integrity who do not readily change their aspirations; and “reclusive scholars” to those who withdraw from the world yet speak freely in debate. The Book of Changes says, “To lead the people, one must uphold what is right, and the leader should be a person of high virtue and standing; then it will be auspicious.”

A ruler or an ordinary person should respect elders not merely because of their age, but because their Virtue surpasses that of others. A young person of exceptional talent is called a “maoshi”; someone handsome and quick-witted is called a “junxiu.” A person of refined judgment and broad learning is called a “yashi”; someone principled who does not readily abandon their convictions is called a “lieshi”; and someone who withdraws to the mountains and forests and speaks frankly and freely is called a “chushi.”

The Book of Changes says: “The Zhen hexagram of the Army: appoint an elder to lead, and there will be good fortune.” This means that command of troops or responsibility for public affairs should be entrusted to an elder of dependable Virtue. The Commentary says that Virtue is what one relies upon, and nothing is more dependable than keeping faith: trustworthiness merits reliance and can bring blessings to others.

The Rites says that ten chi make one zhang. A “zhangren” refers to a tall, grown man. “Fu” can mean skin; here it describes someone perceptive and able to spread instruction widely, which is why such a man is called a “zhangfu.”

The Analects mentions “ordinary men and women.” The Commentary says that one day and one night make a day, and one man and one woman make a household. In ancient times, clothing was often made from two bolts of fabric, hence the term “pi”; as the materials used for clothing changed in later generations, the terminology changed as well.

A person should rise and transform like a dragon, rather than be constrained by local customs. Someone who sees good conduct but does not improve themselves is called a “vulgar person.” The Rites mentions “jian buxiao.” According to the old interpretation, children whose appearance was coarse and unlike their parents were called “buxiao”; later, people also used “buxiao” as a humble way to refer to themselves.

“Wulai” refers to someone who does no respectable work and behaves recklessly, and is therefore not worthy of reliance. Emperor Gaozu of Han once said to the Supreme Emperor: “You thought I was good for nothing and could not be relied upon.”

Zhu Tian, courtesy name Boxiu, a native of Zhongshan and an official in charge of the ministerial department, was summoned by the court to take up his post. On the way, he contracted a febrile illness and passed by the home of his friend Xie Zhu. Xie Zhu refused to take him in. Zhu Tian reached Ji Commandery and lodged at an inn. After six or seven days, his students saw that his illness was worsening and wanted to report it to the head of Ji Commandery. Zhu Tian said, “Even my friend would not take me in, and the commandery governor does not know me. What good would telling him do? Life and death are governed by fate; there is no need to seek a doctor or take medicine.” The students nevertheless made a report in secret to the commandery governor, Ying Rong. Greatly alarmed when he heard the news, Ying Rong hurried to where Zhu Tian was ill and wept as he said, “Boxiu is a rare talent in this world, destined one day to serve as a pillar of the state. How can he lie unnoticed at an inn, with no one knowing?” Ying Rong then personally drove a carriage to bring Zhu Tian back and cared for him himself. Zhu Tian’s condition gradually improved.

Rong said to Boxiu, “I hide none of the good or ill news; worry and fear well up together in my heart. I have already prepared the funeral articles, and when I look at them, I feel both grief and joy.” Boxiu stayed at the post station for several dozen days, then left and quietly took up lodging at an inn without telling anyone. Rong went to fetch him himself, driving the carriage, and personally cared for him during his illness. Boxiu gradually recovered.

Rong again said to Boxiu, “I hide none of the good or ill news; worry and fear well up together in my heart. I have already prepared the funeral articles, and when I look at them, I feel both grief and joy.” After staying at the post station for several dozen days, Boxiu left. Later, he served as Attendant-in-Ordinary and Director of the Department of State Affairs, then as the Sili, an official responsible for overseeing the capital region. He recommended that Rong succeed him. He successively administered five commanderies, and after resigning from office, devoted himself to writing, never imagining that the central government would summon him.

In ancient times, people lived in thatched huts and slept outdoors. In winter they stayed on the south side of a mountain, and in summer on its north side.

Zhang Zijiao, a Filial and Incorrupt official from Pengcheng, remarked, “If the names of rulers and ministers cannot be used interchangeably, then King Mu of Zhou was named Man, yet by the time of King Ding there was a man called Wangsun Man.”

King Li was named Hu, and a son of King Zhuang was also named Hu.

There is a popular saying that officials who take office in the fifth month cannot be promoted when their term ends. This year, a Mao-cai, a candidate recommended for office under the Han, was appointed magistrate of Xiao County and took up his post in the fifth month.