《鬼谷子》

The Guiguzi is a classic included in the “Collected Works of the Masters” section of the Daoist Canon of China.

The work is divided into three volumes. The first volume contains “Opening and Closing,” “Response,” “Inner Bonding,” and “Countering Incipient Change.” The middle volume contains “Flying Clamp,” “Conforming and Opposing,” “Assessing,” “Influencing,” “Weighing,” “Planning,” “Deciding,” and “Words of Guidance.” The chapters “Turning the Ball” and “Disrupting Disorder” have been lost. The final volume is “The Seven Chapters of the Inner Canon and Hidden Talisman.”

First Volume

Chapter One: Opening and Closing

“Opening” means drawing out or initiating; “closing” means shutting away or concealing. When discussing principles with others, sometimes one should guide them to speak, allowing them to express views that accord with one’s own. At other times, one should hold back for a while, so that they can voice their differing opinions themselves.

In examining the ancient Way, the sages lived between Heaven and Earth and observed human feelings and worldly affairs. On that basis, they established teachings. By following and studying the ancient Way, they guided the people.

The sages walked ahead of others because they could use the understanding of those who knew first to enlighten those who knew later, and the awakening of those who perceived first to enlighten those who perceived later. In this way, they became guides for all beings.

By observing the patterns of opening and closing in Yin-Yang, one can name the myriad things. Yang energy opens and impels things to grow; Yin energy closes and brings things into form. Once things have come into being and become visible, names are needed to distinguish them.

One must understand the crucial points of survival and extinction. Only by never forgetting the danger of perishing can one preserve life; believing oneself already secure may itself lead to ruin. The key to foreseeing changes in fortune and misfortune lies in knowing how to grasp the right moment. Thus, one must understand the gateways of survival and extinction.

By calculating the patterns that govern the myriad things from beginning to end, and understanding the principles of the human heart, one can detect the first signs of change.

All things in the world come into being and eventually pass away, and the human heart, too, has its own governing principles. The signs revealed as things change are always clear. If one observes them deeply, nothing subtle or hidden remains beyond insight; one can then devise plans and strategies and see through the workings of things.

Grasp and hold fast to the key to survival and decline. Here, “gateway” means the crucial point on which the survival or decline of a thing depends. The sage understands the patterns of things, can discern this crucial point, and holds fast to it, enabling people to avoid decline and move toward survival.

In conducting themselves in the world, sages from ancient times to the present have followed the same fundamental principle: avoid decline and move toward survival.

Things change without end, yet each ultimately has its own destination. The fundamental principle is consistent, but the specific methods differ; hence change is without end. Yet change has its own order and is not chaotic; hence each thing has its destination.

At times, one uses a yielding, Yin approach; at times, a firm, Yang approach. At times, one opens; at times, one closes. At times, one relaxes; at times, one tightens. These methods differ, and so do the ways of carrying out instruction and governance.

Therefore, the sage always holds fast to the key to survival and decline, and carefully considers the order in which different methods should be applied. Though policies and forms of instruction vary, they share the same focus on grasping the crucial point. What should come first must come first; what should come later must come later.

Weigh strategies, assess abilities, and compare the strengths and weaknesses of each person’s skills. Here, “measure” refers to strategy, “ability” to talent, and “skills and techniques” to various practical crafts. When appointing people, the sage weighs the strengths and weaknesses of their strategies and abilities, examines the strengths and limitations of their skills, and assigns them roles according to their individual talents.

People differ in virtue and lack of virtue, intelligence and foolishness, courage and timidity, benevolence and fidelity to duty. Accordingly, one may draw them close or keep them at a distance, promote them or set them aside, treat them with contempt or respect, and then guide them through Wuwei (non-action). Here, “Wuwei” means that those in high positions do not interfere in every matter, but let each person take responsibility according to their abilities and disposition.

Examine whether someone is capable and whether their character is genuine or superficial. Then follow their preferences and desires to understand their aims.

Before appointing a worthy person, determine whether they have real ability and whether their character is trustworthy. Then assign duties according to their preferences and desires, so that you can see whether their aims are genuine.

When someone presents an account of a matter, you can gently question or challenge them, or change the subject to test what they have said and uncover the facts. Once you understand the facts, draw the conversation to a temporary close and shift its direction to see what benefit the matter they described might bring.

At times, open yourself up and tell the other person what you are thinking; at other times, hold back and reveal nothing for the moment. Opening up brings you into accord with the other person and allows them to speak fully. Holding back maintains distance, making it possible to discern their true intentions.

To determine whether something can be carried out, carefully examine the plans involved and investigate why the parties’ views agree or differ.

Plans may diverge or be combined. As long as the other person remains committed to something, first follow their aims and learn more about them.

Although schemes may differ in whether they divide or unite, as long as one holds to certain principles, one should first go along with the other person’s wishes in order to discern whether things will ultimately lead to success or failure.

When seeking to move another person’s intentions, careful consideration is essential; when seeking to make them restrain themselves and keep things concealed, secrecy is essential. Both care and secrecy must be subtle and precise, and accord with reason.

What is called duo is probing the other person’s true circumstances; what is called he is examining and testing the sincerity of their intentions. After probing, one must distinguish what to accept and what to reject, because circumstances may be genuine or false. After examining, one must test and constrain, because sincerity may not last.

One must see clearly the relative importance, gains, and losses on every side, then weigh and arrange matters accordingly. The sage makes plans based on these circumstances: if a matter meets the proper measure, the sage devises an appropriate strategy, giving due place to what is weighty and what is slight, and has the other person act according to the plan. If it does not meet the measure, the sage makes other plans and seeks a way to change the situation.

Thus duo may mean putting someone forward for use, or taking them in; he may mean examining and then accepting, or shutting someone out and discarding them. Here, duo and he refer to probing, restraint, and decisions about advancing or withdrawing.

He and pi (opening) are also used to describe the workings of Heaven and Earth: closing and storing correspond to Kun, while opening corresponds to Qian.

Closing a gate is called Kun (the receptive); opening it is called Qian (the creative). This is the principle by which Heaven and Earth operate.

By mastering the way of opening and closing, one can follow the changes of Yin and Yang and the opening and closing of the four seasons, thereby setting the transformations of all things in motion. Changes in Yin and Yang, the alternation of the seasons, and the rise and decline of all things all follow the way of opening and closing: some flourish through opening, while others decline through closing.

Reversal, recurrence, and transformation all arise from this. By applying the way of opening and closing, one can make something issue from the other party, turn back from there, and return to oneself. One can also bring about a change in something at the other party, while allowing its original state to appear in oneself. All of this comes from the way of opening and closing.

The way of opening and closing is an important means by which the Great Dao transforms and nurtures all things. It is also key to changes in speech and circumstances, so one must examine changes in advance. Without opening and closing, the Great Dao cannot transform things; without changes in speech, it is difficult to respond to circumstances. However weighty one’s words or affairs may be, success or failure ultimately depends on change, so one must assess matters beforehand. Good and ill fortune are tied to this as well.

The mouth is the gateway of the heart, and the heart governs the spirit. The heart’s intentions are expressed through the mouth, so the mouth is the gateway of the heart; the spirit is governed by the heart, so the heart governs the spirit.

Intentions, emotions, likes, desires, thoughts, and plans all pass through this gateway. They should therefore be regulated by the way of opening and closing: one must know when to let them be expressed and when to restrain them. Speaking is “opening” and belongs to Yang; closing the mouth and remaining silent is “closing” and belongs to Yin.

By bringing Yin and Yang into harmony, one can grasp the pattern by which things proceed from beginning to end.

When one understands the proper measure for opening and closing, Yin and Yang can be brought into harmony; when one arranges what comes before and after appropriately, the beginning and ending of affairs each have their proper order.

Thus, speaking of longevity, peace and happiness, wealth, high status, renown, pleasures, material gain, success, and joy follows the side of harmony and treats these things as the beginnings of affairs. They can all make people want to go on living, so they are called “beginnings” and also “Yang.”

Speaking of death, trouble, poverty, low status, suffering, disgrace, loss, failure, frustration, harm, punishment, killing, and execution follows the side of ending and treats these things as the conclusions of affairs. They all make people want to escape or end their lives, so they are called “Yin” and also “endings.”

Persuasion that follows the Yang category is called “beginning”: it starts things with words of benefit and appeal. Persuasion that follows the Yin category is called “ending”: it plans things with words of disadvantage and fear. A speaker may speak from either a Yin or a Yang perspective; the listener should understand the speaker’s intent.

When using probing methods to discern a person’s mind, one can test them with both Yin and Yang approaches: sometimes stirring their thoughts, sometimes holding back one’s words for a time. By probing with words that accord with their desires or touch on their fears, one can reveal their true inclinations.

When speaking to someone whose spirit is buoyant and who seeks advancement, guide them in the direction of lofty and far-reaching aims. When speaking to someone whose spirit is low and who tends to withdraw, begin with what is humble and modest. Humble words can uncover the person’s thoughts about small matters; lofty words can uncover their ambitions for great matters.

Yin speech is humble and modest, hence the saying, “Seek the small by going low.” Yang speech is lofty and far-reaching, hence the saying, “Seek the great by reaching high.”

From this, one can extend the principles of Yin and Yang to discern minds of every scale, large or small. Thus, whatever the situation—advancing, withdrawing, or responding—there is a way to proceed. This method can be used to persuade an individual, a family, a state, or the whole world.

The small can be so small that nothing is smaller; the great can be so great that it has no bounds.

When Yin reaches its fullest expression, there is nothing it cannot contain; when Yang reaches its fullest expression, there is nothing it cannot reveal.

Increase and decrease, departure and closeness, estrangement and return—all must be managed according to the changes of Yin and Yang.

When people follow what is right and help one another flourish, this is called “increase.” When circumstances cause them to harm one another, this is called “decrease.” When their principles conflict, they should part; when their aims align, they may draw close. To depart and sever the relationship completely is called “separation”; to depart and then return is called “return.” None of these situations falls outside the patterns of Yin-Yang change, so each should be handled in accordance with the principles of Yin and Yang.

Yang is active and moves; Yin is still and concealed. Yang stirs and becomes manifest, while Yin gathers in response and returns to concealment. Yang Qi cycles back and forth, running through the beginning and end of things; when Yin Qi reaches its extreme, it turns and gives rise to Yang.

This means that those above and below help one another flourish through the mutual generation of Yin and Yang.

Using Yang’s movement to advance matters enables virtue to grow between people; responding through Yin’s stillness enables circumstances to align. Yang stirs and becomes manifest, while Yin gathers in response and returns to concealment. Yang Qi cycles back and forth; when Yin Qi reaches its extreme, it turns and gives rise to Yang.

This means that those above and below help one another flourish through the mutual generation of Yin and Yang.

Yang is active and can make virtue grow between people; Yin is still and watchful, enabling circumstances to align. To seek Yin through Yang, one must embrace the other with virtue; to connect Yang through Yin, one must exert force.

This means that those in higher positions provide their subordinates with rank and stipends, while subordinates serve those above them with their support.

Yin and Yang seek one another through “opening and closing”—the art of opening and shutting, advancing and withdrawing.

Those above and below can seek one another because opening and closing establish their relationship.

This is the pattern of Yin-Yang change in Heaven and Earth, and it also explains how to handle human affairs. Since it reflects Heaven and Earth and takes Yin and Yang as its model, it can also guide relations between people.

It is the precursor to the emergence of all things and may be called “the gateway of the round and the square.” The roundness of Heaven and the squareness of Earth symbolize the relationship between those above and below. When the principles of opening and closing are fully developed, the myriad things come into being. Thus it is the precursor to all affairs, and the gateway through which the ways of those above and below enter and depart.

The phrase “the gateway of the round and the square” in “Chapter Two: Response” means the same thing: the roundness of Heaven and the squareness of Earth symbolize the relationship between those above and below. When the principles of opening and closing are fully developed, the myriad things come into being. Thus it is the precursor to all affairs, and the gateway through which the ways of those above and below enter and depart.

The way to listen to someone’s words is this: if anything they say is unreasonable, question them in return. Once questioned, they will think again and must respond.

In ancient times, those who could bring about great transformations in the myriad things came into being together with the formless Dao.

“Great transformation” refers to the ancient sages using the Great Dao to guide and transform all things. “Formless” refers to the Dao. Since the Dao drives the transformations of all things, the Dao and the myriad things come into being together, yet the Dao has no fixed form.

Look back to observe the past, then use the past to verify the present. Learn about antiquity by looking back, then use the lessons of antiquity to verify the present. Know yourself by observing others.

The sages examine people’s words and actions, while also reflecting on themselves. They handle matters with care and caution, and check them repeatedly. To understand the future, they first observe the past; to understand the present, they first examine antiquity; to understand others, they first measure them against themselves. Thus their plans omit no important point, and their actions succeed.

If the principles of movement and stillness, emptiness and actuality cannot be discerned from present circumstances, return to examples from antiquity for confirmation. Movement and stillness refer to advancing and withdrawing in one’s conduct; emptiness and actuality refer to what is false and what is true. If these principles do not accord with what is before us, we should return to antiquity and examine it.

Some matters can be confirmed only through repeated examination. This is precisely what the sages intend. When something does not accord with reason, look back to the people and events connected with it to find the cause. Only by checking the evidence can the outcome be clearly seen in the present. To understand the present, begin by examining antiquity. This is precisely what the sages intend.

This must be examined with care.

If the examination is not thorough, errors will arise in the details. Therefore, it must be examined with care.

When another person speaks, that is action; when you remain silent, that is stillness. Listen to what the other person says and discern its meaning.

By observing movement from a state of stillness, the situation becomes clearer. By inferring the meaning behind someone’s words from what they say, understanding becomes clearer as well.

If the other person says something that does not accord with reason, do not reject it at once. Instead, ask questions and probe further, allowing them to reason it out for themselves. In this way, a response that accords with reason will emerge naturally.

Words contain signs that can be observed, and events bear similarities that can be compared. By attending to these signs and similarities, one can observe the sequence in which events unfold.

Once the underlying principle becomes evident, words take on concrete images, and matters can be compared with one another. For things that have already appeared in a recognizable form and can be compared, we must further observe how they develop, so that the principle is fully brought to light. Here, “image” refers to the forms and patterns things display; “comparison” means comparing them with one another.

“Image” means using things to show a principle; “comparison” means using words to draw parallels. We must seek out how an unseen principle is expressed in speech. A principle is profound and subtle, and thus has no form of its own. Yet without words it cannot be made clear, so we must seek audible speech from within the formless principle. Here, “sound” means speech, and “comparison” means analogy.

Words used to draw someone into speaking can reveal what they truly think if they fit the matter at hand. To catch fish, one puts out bait; to elicit someone’s words, one must first offer a topic. Once the topic is raised, the other person responds. Just as fish swim toward bait, this is called “angling for words.” When words accord with the matter, this is called “fitting the matter.” By laying out words and examining them against what is true, one can learn the other person’s actual circumstances.

This is like setting out many traps to catch wild animals: place nets in different spots and wait, and the animals will be caught. Guide someone with reasoning that fits the matter, and their true thoughts will reveal themselves. This is the “net” used to probe others.

Set the net and wait, and the animals will naturally be caught; use reasoning that fits the matter, and the other person’s thoughts will naturally emerge. Once the principle is clear, the worthy can be distinguished from the unworthy. Even if the other person tries to hide their thoughts, there is nowhere to conceal them. That is why this is called the “net for catching people.”

Keep this “net for catching people” at hand, and use it to guide others in dealing with concrete affairs. If they do not cooperate, and their words cannot be tested through comparison, change the original method and equipment, then find another way to guide them.

When changing methods, you can use concrete examples and images to move the other person, so that what you say accords with their wishes. This makes their true condition visible; you can then follow their circumstances to guide and manage them. Here, “responding” carries the sense of matching or accord; “herding” means guiding and controlling someone in accordance with their circumstances.

Begin by tentatively raising a topic. Let the other person respond and add to it. Both sides’ words should be supported by relevant examples and comparisons; this establishes a basis for judgment.

Probe the other person repeatedly, and let them respond and make their position clearer. In this way, a strategy can unfold step by step. When a conversation offers concrete examples for comparison, words are less likely to go astray. This provides a basis for governing a state or a family.

Examine these words repeatedly and verify them step by step, then consider them from both sides. This allows every matter to be stated accurately, without speaking amiss.

The point is that when words supported by comparable examples can establish a basis for judgment, they must then be checked repeatedly and examined from both sides, leaving no room for error or reckless claims. Only by handling matters this way can one speak appropriately and avoid mistakes.

The sage guides the foolish and the wise by different methods, so that the truth of every matter can be discovered and doubt dispelled.

When guiding the foolish, the sage first gets them to restrain and conceal their intentions, so as to determine whether they are sincere. When guiding the wise, the sage finds a way to stir them, so that their true thoughts come fully to light. Both methods reveal the facts, leaving nothing vague or doubtful.

In ancient times, those skilled at listening in reverse could discover another person’s true feelings as though transforming themselves like spirits and ghosts.

“Listening in reverse” means not rushing to express an opinion, but quietly listening and observing the other person. Those skilled at it can set aside their preconceptions and avoid being constrained by what they already know. They can therefore see what is subtle and uncover the other person’s true feelings. The affairs of spirits and ghosts are deep and hard to fathom, so the text uses “transforming like spirits and ghosts” to describe this ability.

When observing words and adapting to change, one must act in accordance with reason. Then, when taking the measure of and examining the other person, one must also proceed carefully.

If one can observe words and adapt to change in accordance with reason, then one can also use thorough methods to take the measure of and examine the other person.

If the examination is not thorough, the facts cannot be clearly understood. Without a clear understanding of the facts, the basis for judgment cannot be established with due care.

Only careful examination can clarify the facts; only when the facts are clear can the basis for judgment be established securely.

When the examples and comparisons offered by the other person change, one must question them with contrary words, then fall silent and listen to the reply.

In other words, when the other person’s account or comparisons shift, raise an objection from the opposite point of view to prompt them to explain what they truly think. Then withhold your own opinion and listen quietly to their reply.

When the other person’s account or comparisons shift, question them with contrary words so they will first reveal their thoughts; then remain silent and listen.

If you want to hear what the other person has to say, first keep silent yourself. If you want them to open their heart, first hold back. If you want them to appear wise, first humble yourself. If you want them to gain something, first give.

This is a way of drawing out another person’s true response by acting in the opposite way. So, if you want them to speak, first be quiet; if you want them to express themselves freely, first hold back; if you want them to rise above you, first take the lower position; if you want them to gain something, first give. In this way, the facts can be brought to light, and it becomes difficult for the other person to hide who they are.

To get someone to reveal what is on their mind, you can first use an analogy drawn from something similar, then guide the conversation and observe their words. Things with similar sounds answer one another; in the end, what is true converges on the same principle.

To draw out another person’s intentions, first use an analogy to stir them. Once their thoughts have been stirred, they may begin to speak. Then guide them through points of similarity and observe their words. As when one crane calls in the darkness and another, hearing the same sound, answers: in this way, the two can test one another against what is true.

A conversation may begin with something concerning yourself or something concerning the other person. Some subjects are suited to serving those above you; others are suited to guiding those below you.

By listening in this way, you can distinguish truth from falsehood in what is said, notice where views agree or differ, and learn the other person’s real intentions and whether they are being deceptive. All of this can be discerned through the methods of conversation described above.

A person’s behavior, speech, or silence all reveal the feelings within. Their patterns of expression can also be discerned from these, whether they are pleased or angry.

With all these methods, first understand the other person’s feelings, then determine how to respond.

By examining a person through their reactions, you can see where they place their intentions. Those who understand this method can learn about others by observing their feelings.

One must first become calm in order to hear what another person says, examine the matters they discuss, assess the myriad things, and distinguish their strengths and weaknesses, truth and falsehood. The purpose is to check what one has heard again and again, and through this to discern where the other person’s true feelings and concerns lie. This is called “trust.” To understand someone, one must begin by seeing clearly what they care about; this is why the method is used.

When listening to another person, first calm yourself. Once you have heard their words clearly, examine the matters they discuss. At times, assess the order of the myriad things; at other times, distinguish their strengths and weaknesses.

Even when someone is not speaking about matters that are urgent at the moment, subtle signs can still be discerned, allowing you to infer how similar situations may unfold.

By listening to someone’s words, you can understand their feelings. If you probe deeply into their heart, you can grasp their true thoughts. Then your assessment of their abilities and your inferences about their intentions will not go astray. This is like matching tally tokens that fit together, or like the omens shown by the legendary divine serpent Tengshe, whose signs of fortune and misfortune never fail. It is also like Hou Yi, the legendary master archer: when he draws his bow and releases an arrow, it strikes the target. Listening to words and discerning feelings works in the same way; these are the comparisons used to explain it.

The first step in understanding others is to understand yourself; only then can you understand them. To understand others is wisdom; to understand yourself is insight. Wisdom arises from insight. Therefore, if you wish to understand others, you must first understand yourself.

When two people know one another, they are like a pair of companion fish, the bi-mu. Their outward forms correspond to each other like light and shadow. When you understand yourself, the other person can also be understood by you; through this, the two come to know one another, and the principles of sages and worthies come into accord. Once those principles accord, they reveal themselves naturally, just as a shadow appears when light is present.

To observe someone’s words without error is like a lodestone drawing an iron needle, or a tongue licking scraps of meat from a burned bone. When one examines the worthy with the clear sight of a sage, how could one go wrong?

In dealings with others, conceal your intentions with great subtlety, but observe and discern their true circumstances swiftly.

When sages deal with one another, their methods are exceedingly subtle. They lose no time in discerning one another’s feelings and intentions.

At times, this method resembles Yin; at times, Yang. At times, it is like a circle; at times, a square.

The principles governing relations between superiors and subordinates are like those between an arm and the body: they work together and cannot be separated. This principle has existed since ancient times. When the two sides bring out the best in each other, they are like Yin and Yang in harmony; when their differences become apparent, they are like the circle and the square, each with its own shape.

Before the other person’s attitude has become clear, guide them with a flexible, accommodating approach. Once the situation is plain, deal with it by clear and appropriate means.

That is, while the other person’s intentions remain hidden, guide them by a flexible, accommodating Way. Once those intentions are revealed and they have emerged from concealment, assign them duties according to clear standards.

Whether promoting or dismissing someone, placing them to the left or to the right, apply the principles of flexibility and rectitude.

This passage concerns the art of employing people: whether raising someone to a higher position or removing them, diminishing their status or honoring them, act according to the principles of the circle and the square described above.

If you do not first establish your principles, it will be difficult to manage others properly.

If the principles governing flexibility and rectitude, advancement and withdrawal, are not settled in advance, there can be no proper way to manage people.

When affairs are handled poorly, one is said to lack an understanding of human relations and to have strayed from the Way.

To act inappropriately is like grasping the tip while disrupting the root, or forcing a round handle into a square hole. Such actions fail to grasp human relations and also violate the Way.

First establish your principles with care, then manage others accordingly. Plan and act without revealing your traces, so that no one can see how you proceed. This is called the “Celestial Spirit.”

When you establish your principles with care and manage others accordingly, your De (Virtue/Power) becomes deep and far-reaching, and its influence spreads widely. Its workings leave no trace and follow no fixed method. People see its effects but cannot trace them to their source. It operates in everyday life, though people may not even notice it. This is why it is called the “Celestial Spirit.”

Inner Binding, Chapter Three: “Inner Binding” means firmly securing a relationship or agreement from within. The text following the chapter title explains that “binding” means making things secure. Once you have obtained what you need, you must forge the relationship into a firm bond that cannot be broken.

“Binding” means using some method to hold a relationship fast and make it firm. Once the relationship has been established, it must also be brought to a complete state in which the two sides do not part.

When ruler and minister, or superiors and subordinates, deal with one another, what matters is whether their intentions are in harmony. If they are, then even at a great distance they will feel close and remain attached. If one does not accord with the other’s intentions, then even standing nearby may not lead to being entrusted with important duties. By following the other person’s affairs and intentions, one may sometimes make him turn back and seek you precisely by leaving him. If someone keeps coming before another, yet is not received, then when he is far away and only his voice can be heard, the other may instead miss him. When this remains true even after the two have parted, it shows that a bond runs deep within the relationship.

Such a bond must be formed inwardly. Some people connect through morality and righteousness; others through friendship, factions, or material goods; still others through beauty, appearance, and sensual pleasures. When their inner feelings do not accord, people may grow distant even while close at hand. If one leaves and the other turns back to seek him, it is because the fundamental relationship between them still endures and their feelings and understanding are in accord. To miss someone upon hearing his voice from afar, or to seek him again after he has left, are both signs of inner harmony, mutual regard, and a bond formed long ago at the deepest level.

When people are bound through morality, they may appear to be ruler and minister, yet in truth the minister is also like a teacher to the ruler. When they are bound through friendship, they may be called ruler and minister, yet in truth they are friends. When they are bound through material goods or sensual pleasures, they resemble Feizhong and E Lai, the ministers of Jie and Zhou, who maintained their ties through private gain or sensual indulgence.

Those skilled in using such relationships can make the other person act according to their wishes: they can enter or withdraw, draw near or keep their distance, approach or depart, seek something or make someone miss them, as they choose. All these ways of advancing and withdrawing, of drawing close and keeping apart, follow the other person’s inclinations. In this way, one secures a place in the ruler’s heart and prevents outsiders from driving a wedge between them.

It is like a mother quail following her young: when she goes out, no one knows; when she comes in, she leaves no trace. She comes and goes alone, and no one can stop her.

“Nursing the Mother” refers to the way a queen ant raises her young: she lays eggs and tends the larvae inside the nest, shielding the entrance with a cover. There is no gap in her comings and goings, and outside forces can hardly obstruct her. Ministers skilled at offering counsel to a ruler should likewise be tactful and accommodating, securing a firm relationship with the ruler and leaving no opening for others to exploit.

“Entering” means presenting one’s proposals to the ruler so that the ruler accepts them and establishes a relationship with oneself; “driving forward” means putting one’s plans into action. After offering advice, a plan can be carried out only if one has won the ruler’s agreement.

Those who offer counsel must be skilled at quietly discerning the ruler’s intentions. In planning, they should follow the circumstances and the ruler’s wishes. They should first weigh the advantages and drawbacks in their own minds, then explain the gains and losses clearly to guide the ruler’s thinking. Their proposals should suit the moment and accord with the ruler’s plans. By carefully considering the pros and cons before speaking, establishing their standing with the ruler, and then responding at the right moment, they can bring their counsel into line with the ruler’s wishes.

If one’s plan does not accord with the ruler’s thinking, it cannot be put into effect. One must then reassess the present circumstances, adjust the plan in a feasible direction, and look for a way to change course. By adapting one’s approach to win the ruler’s acceptance, one can find a way to achieve one’s aim, much as an object can be drawn out through a tube.

Strike the tubes so that they separate from one another. Seek the underlying truth through change, and the inner truth will then accord.

When discussing what has happened, begin by following the account already in circulation. When advising about what is to come, speak in response to changing circumstances.

Past events have already come to light, so when discussing them, it is best to follow the facts. Future events have not yet emerged, so when advising about them, it is best to understand change and respond flexibly.

Those skilled at adapting can carefully assess the lay of the land and thereby understand the Way of Heaven. They follow the changing seasons, bringing the spirits and forces involved in Yin-Yang transformation into accord with Yin-Yang.

“Skill in change” here means being adept at recognizing change and understanding how things work. By understanding the lay of the land, one can infer the Way of Heaven; by understanding the Way of Heaven, one can follow the patterns of the seasons. To “bring the spirits into accord with Yin-Yang” means to understand the Way of Heaven and Earth, and thereby align the workings of the spirits with the movement of Yin-Yang.

Only then can one govern the people. By observing what they plan, one can understand their intentions.

Only after understanding the lay of the land, comprehending the Way of Heaven, following the seasons, and aligning Yin-Yang can one govern the people. To govern them, one must observe how they make plans and thereby understand their aims and intentions.

When things do not accord, it shows that something remains unknown.

When you understand, you can accord with the other party; when you do not understand, you cannot.

When two parties seem to accord but cannot remain firmly united, it is because they are close on the surface but distant at heart.

If things do not accord, the sage will not devise plans on someone’s behalf. “Not according” is like fitting a square peg into a round hole: the two cannot fit together. So the sage makes no plans for such a situation.

Thus, distance joined with closeness shows that the parties share an inner bond; proximity joined with estrangement shows that their intentions do not accord.

If you approach someone but your advice is not accepted, your strategy is unsuitable. If you leave and they later return to seek your counsel, it shows that your approach suits their needs.

If something said at the time does not touch the heart of the matter, but surprises people after the event has passed, this is called “an event arriving at midday”: only afterward does the statement prove true.

When someone comes before you, yet you refuse to accept or follow his advice, it is because the method used is ill suited to the time. When you hear news of someone far away and begin to miss and worry about him, this shows that your plans are already in accord, and only a decision remains. Here, “longing for one another” means that each understands the other’s intentions.

Thus it is said: if you do not understand the kind and circumstances of a matter, acting rashly will bring obstruction. If you have not grasped the other party’s true situation, trying to persuade them will bring rejection. To persuade without understanding the circumstances is like facing north in your carriage while setting out for the state of Chu. Chen Miao was criticized for trying to persuade the state of Qin in this way.

Only by grasping the other party’s true situation can you control how you respond. Once you understand the circumstances, you are like a wild goose riding the strong wind or a fish swimming into the sea: your actions proceed freely, with nothing to obstruct them. You can then master the manner and measure of your actions. This method lets you advance or withdraw at will, expand or draw back.

When the sages act, they first use this method to understand the circumstances, then judge all things accordingly. They plan on the basis of what is actually so, and can therefore foresee whether something can be done. The reason all things remain connected rather than falling apart is likewise that each is understood in its particular circumstances.

Only with an understanding of the circumstances can one put into practice matters such as Dao and De, benevolence and righteousness, ritual and music, and strategy. First, cite passages from the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents, then weave them together with one’s own account. Next, adjust and revise them in light of the circumstances at the time, and then deliberate over what should be discarded and what should be adopted.

If you want to draw close to someone and work with them, begin with the state of their inner mind. If you want to distance yourself and part ways, begin with their outward circumstances. Here, “inner” refers to a person’s inward intentions, and “outer” to their outward conduct. When you understand the circumstances, relations naturally tend toward accord; when you do not, they tend toward estrangement. This is the general principle.

Whether observing what is inward or outward, you must clarify the facts and patterns, infer what may happen next, and, when difficulties arise, distinguish the issues and make a judgment.

Those who are skilled at observing circumstances both within and beyond themselves can clearly discern the principles and patterns of change, anticipate what is likely to happen, and, when difficulties arise, distinguish what comes first and sort out the confusion.

Only when plans are free of error can achievements be established and De (virtue and power) fulfilled.

Once one understands the patterns of change, plans are less likely to go awry. And only when plans do not go awry is it possible to establish achievements and fulfill De.

Governing the people and organizing their productive affairs is called “bringing order within and making all things accord.” This means regulating and coordinating domestic administration so that all parties work in harmony.

Clarify the roles of ruler and ministers so that there is order between those above and below; arrange taxes and other affairs so that near and distant regions are treated alike. When there is order above and below, responsibilities are clear; when near and distant regions are treated equally, labor service is easier to organize. This establishes the foundations of government, and is therefore called “bringing order within and making all things accord.”

When the ruler is benighted and fails to fulfill his duties, while the people are in disorder and fail to notice the first signs of calamity, this is called “bringing disorder in its wake.”

When a benighted ruler neglects affairs of state and the people are in disarray, unaware that calamity is taking root, the realm loses the order proper to a state, and the ruler becomes a figurehead. Others who are equally benighted may seize the opportunity to act, while those who slight the ruler gain influence. This is why it is called “bringing disorder in its wake.”

If you are convinced that you are in the right and no longer heed the counsel of worthy people outside your circle, then proclaim your reputation far and wide, using this to sound out the other party’s intentions.

If the ruler’s summons comes of its own accord, meet it and take hold of the opportunity.

If the ruler’s intentions are benevolent and you happen to receive a summons, accept it and seize the opportunity to advance your own principles.

If you wish to leave, tender your resignation when the other party is in a precarious position.

Like a bird circling in flight before it alights: if you have already resolved to leave, you can take the opportunity to tender your resignation.

Adapt to changing circumstances and respond as they unfold, so that no one can tell who is directing events. Withdraw and take a position apart; this is the course that accords with the larger situation.

When advancing, withdrawing, choosing, or setting something aside, weigh repeatedly whether it is appropriate, adapting to changing circumstances like a turning wheel. Even those around you will not know what you intend to do. To act in this way and then withdraw may be called the great principle for preserving oneself. “Yi” means a principle.

Chapter Four: Addressing the Cracks

“Di” means to resist or mend a sound part; “xi” means a crack or gap. A wall may collapse because of a gap, and a vessel may be damaged by a crack. If a crack is found and repaired in time, the wall or vessel can be saved from destruction. If it can no longer be saved, dismantle it in keeping with the circumstances and make other arrangements. The same principle can be applied to handling affairs among people.

All things follow their own natural patterns, and events, too, undergo gathering and separation.

The gathering and separation discussed here are both natural patterns.

Some things are close at hand yet hard to see clearly; others are far away yet can be foreseen. What is close at hand may remain unclear because one has not carefully examined another person’s words. What is far away may be understood by looking back at past events and using them to test what is to come.

By examining words and observing actions, one can see what is happening nearby. By looking back at past events and reasoning about the future, one can understand what will happen at a distance. The principles of ancient times and the present are connected. Thus, examining the past allows one to test the future. This is what it means to “look back at the past to verify the future.”

“Xi” refers to a crack. A crack forms and grows, eventually becoming a large opening.

As the opening widens, collapse draws near, so one must resist it and make repairs in time.

When a crack first begins to show, it can be promptly plugged, stopped from widening, brought to a halt, concealed, or used to gain control of the situation. This is the principle for dealing with cracks.

“Revealing” means the sign that a gap is about to appear: the faint trace of an event just beginning to show itself. When a sign takes shape within, one can withstand and block it; when it comes from outside, one can withstand and drive it away; when it arises below, one can withstand and quell it. If it has only just begun to sprout and remains tiny, one can withstand and conceal it; if it has developed to the point where it is difficult to govern, one can withstand it and bring it under control. Only by understanding these five situations deeply can one grasp the principle of resisting signs and averting calamity.

When a crisis emerges, the sage can perceive it and privately grasp the means of responding. He follows the changing course of events to devise plans and offer counsel, making his strategy thorough and effective, and thereby discerning subtle signs.

Those who can see the course of events and know change in advance are called sages. As soon as a crisis begins to show itself, they perceive it clearly and respond with wisdom and insight, so they can privately grasp the means of dealing with it. They follow change in devising plans, adapt their reasoning to circumstances, and understand strategy. In this way, they coordinate the whole situation, discern subtle signs, and prepare for them in advance.

Events often begin with traces as fine as an autumn hair, yet later may shake the foundations of Mount Tai.

Liu Bang, the Han founder, was born a commoner and later ascended the throne. Tang of Shang at first held only a hundred li of territory, but later ruled all under Heaven. “Jing” means beginning; “hui” means setting in motion.

When governance affects the situation beyond the state, and the seed of disorder has begun to sprout, planning should proceed from the principle of resisting signs and grasping openings. In this way, one does not miss the right moment. Once the signs and openings have appeared, one can plan and act on that basis.

When the world is in turmoil, there is no enlightened ruler above, and the lords and nobles lack virtue, petty men seize the opportunity to gain power. They slander and do evil; the worthy are not appointed; sages flee and hide; and those who seek profit, deceive, and feign virtue rise everywhere. Rulers and ministers grow suspicious of one another, and the state collapses like crumbling earth as they attack one another. Fathers and sons are separated, their relations turning hostile and ending in enmity. This is what it means for the seed of disorder to have appeared.

This means that when signs of disorder and political instability appear in the realm, they become portents of a state’s rise or decline. “Attacking and striking” refers to states waging war on and assaulting one another.

When the sage perceives these signs, they respond by applying laws and standards. If the age can still be governed, they seek to prevent calamity and contain trouble. If it can no longer be governed, they take advantage of the situation to gain the realm. Their responses vary: sometimes they act one way, sometimes another; sometimes they help the other party govern, and sometimes they seize the opportunity to replace it.

“One way” means preventing trouble; “another” means taking advantage of circumstances to gain the realm. “Reversing the course” means helping the other party govern, while “overturning it” means taking advantage of the situation to acquire its state.

In the era of the Five Emperors, political affairs were handled by preventing calamity and bringing peace to the realm. In the era of the Three Kings, they were handled by taking advantage of circumstances to gain the realm.

In the era of the Five Emperors, the realm could still be governed, so the aim was to prevent disorder; hence the practice of abdication. In the era of the Three Kings, the realm had become difficult to govern, so the aim was to take advantage of circumstances to gain it; hence the wars of conquest.

The feudal lords waged war on one another beyond counting. In such times, those who could judge the moment and respond appropriately held the advantage. This refers to the age of the Five Hegemons in the Spring and Autumn period. “Right” here means occupying the higher position and holding the advantage.

In the workings of Heaven and Earth, things gather and separate, end and begin. In the intervals that must arise between them, one must remain alert and observe carefully.

“Gathering and separating” refers to Pi and Tai, adversity and flourishing. The Dao of Heaven and Earth, too, undergoes changes between adversity and flourishing, creating openings that can be taken advantage of—how much more so in human affairs? That is why careful observation is essential.

One must observe these changes through “opening and closing,” the art of adapting to shifts. Those who can apply this principle are sages.

“Opening and closing” also refers to changes between adversity and flourishing. Those who can perceive the Great Dao and use it to manage human affairs are sages.

Sages are the agents of Heaven and Earth.

Sages act in accordance with the time ordained by Heaven; that is why they are called the agents of Heaven and Earth.

When no opportunity for action is available in the world, they remain hidden and wait for the right moment. When an opportunity arises and action becomes possible, they make plans accordingly. In this way, they align themselves with the larger course of events above and examine and respond to human affairs below.

What is meant by “joining above” is to use resistance and obstruction to create difficulties for the other party, then guide matters in accordance with the circumstances, thereby helping bring the situation under control. What is meant by “restraining those below” is to gain leverage over the other party through resistance, leaving them unable to act freely and compelled to obey, under one’s control.

By adapting to circumstances and acting in accordance with reason, one can safeguard the way of the spirits on behalf of Heaven and Earth. In other words, those who follow this principle can occupy the position of ruler; they can therefore also uphold the rites of Heaven and Earth and keep the way of the spirits alive.

This concludes the upper scroll of the Guiguzi.

“Fly” means to spread someone’s reputation through praise and commendation. “Restrain” means to check and bind someone so that it is difficult for them to break free. In other words, when seeking capable people, first enhance and publicize their reputation, prompting them to reveal their thoughts and exert themselves fully, without holding anything back. Then guide and constrain them by appealing to their preferences, making it difficult for them to change their minds.

Assessing someone’s power and strategic skill, and examining their abilities, serves to draw talent from afar and attract talent nearby. First understand their schemes and capabilities; then use the spread of their reputation to recruit them. Whether they are far away or close at hand, this can bring them to you. The way King Zhao of Yan honored Guo Wei is an example of this approach.

Once capable people from near and far have arrived, establish rules for rewards and punishments, and use them to organize and manage affairs. After the situation and system have been set in place, first examine whether the parties’ relationships are aligned, then distinguish right from wrong in their words and opinions.

You must also discern what people say in private and in public: what is said outwardly may be vague and insincere, while what lies within concerns their true intentions. From this, judge whether someone possesses Daoist methods and talent, and how capable they are.

On this basis, devise plans that determine whether people’s circumstances will be safe or perilous, and decide whom to draw near and whom to keep at a distance.

Examine the similarities and differences between people, distinguish right from wrong, and clarify what is hidden within and what appears outwardly. Learn what the other person possesses and what they lack, then plan with them for safety and danger, gain and loss, and decide whether to draw close or keep one’s distance. In this way, the capable can be distinguished from the incapable.

Next, weigh and assess the other person. If you find that their words and conduct need adjustment, use this as a basis for testing and understanding them further, then put them to use.

Weighing determines heaviness and lightness; measuring determines length and shortness. Once these qualities are clear, use the compass and square to correct them and help straighten what is bent or askew. In this way, you can test, examine, and employ the other person.

Use “hook-and-clamp” language—words that draw out and control another person’s speech and conduct—to elicit their true feelings as circumstances change, then bring them under constraint. “Hooking” means prompting someone to reveal what they have at heart; “flying” means praising someone outwardly to draw out their genuine thoughts. People differ in their innate capacities, so hook-and-clamp language must be tailored to each person. Once you have learned the other person’s true feelings, find a way to constrain them so that they cannot easily withdraw or change their position. Hence the terms “hook-and-clamp” and “flying hook-and-clamp.”

Hook-and-clamp language must shift flexibly: at times, go along with what the other person says and show agreement; at others, take a different angle and offer a contrary view.

If these words fail to move the other person, first summon them, then examine them gradually and question them repeatedly. Once they arrive, gain a full understanding of their abilities and resources so that you know what they can do. Some may also accept guidance in this process and change their position.

Sometimes, although the other person lays all his circumstances bare, he remains unmoved. In that case, one criticizes the weaknesses he has revealed. Some onlookers may then turn to follow, saying that he does not know how to adapt to change.

Sometimes one uses the other person’s grave mistakes as grounds for criticism; sometimes one makes the criticism itself a burden weighing him down.

Sometimes, after the other person lays out his circumstances, his weaknesses emerge naturally. One then criticizes those weaknesses, and onlookers may turn to follow, saying that he does not know how to adapt to change.

Sometimes one uses the other person’s grave mistakes as grounds for criticism; sometimes one makes the criticism itself a burden weighing him down.

Sometimes, when the other person’s circumstances have been laid bare and his weaknesses emerge naturally, one uses his grave mistakes as grounds for criticism. Sometimes one names his weaknesses one by one, making them plain; this is making criticism a burden weighing him down. Because this person is difficult to sway, one may intensify the criticism or address him directly, thereby prodding and guiding him to yield and accept influence.

To employ these methods, one may sometimes offer him money, fine jade, precious jewels, jade discs, and other valuable objects, as well as various ornaments.

The point here is that if someone has already yielded and accepted influence, and is being considered for appointment, one should first understand his temperament, conduct, and preferences. Then one can test him with money or ornaments to find out whether he covets wealth.

One may also assess his abilities and test him by setting up a situation involving gains and losses, choices and trade-offs.

First judge the level of his ability, then arrange a situation requiring him to advance or withdraw and make choices, so as to discover his true intentions and plans.

Sometimes one can observe his conduct and bring him under control when he reveals hesitation or a flaw.

That is, observe him discreetly as he carries out his duties, and restrain him when he shows hesitation or makes a mistake, in order to learn whether he is courageous or timid.

All these practices belong to the methods of “probing the subtle fissures” (dixi)—detecting and exploiting the tiny cracks and contradictions between things to carry out a strategy.

To apply these methods to affairs of state, one must assess the situation and the abilities of all parties, observe the waxing and waning of Heaven’s timing, judge the size and hazards of the terrain and the ease or difficulty of travel and communication, learn how many people and resources are available, and determine which feudal lords are close or distant, and which love or hate one another.

Applied to affairs throughout the realm, the art of “flying and clamping” means using subtle words to make alliances with and control the various parties, thereby assisting the ruler. One must assess a ruler’s power and abilities, and judge whether he can accept assistance and accomplish great things. One must also examine whether the times are waxing or waning, the extent of the territory, and the size of the population, then determine whether the proper time, favorable terrain, and popular support are in place, and whether circumstances are favorable or adverse. One must also understand which feudal lords are close to one another and which are at odds, and judge how many are willing to form an alliance.

Examine the other person’s intentions closely and discover what he likes and dislikes; then begin your persuasion with whatever matters most to him. Use the words of “flying and clamping” to draw out his preferences, then guide and constrain him by following those preferences.

Once you have discerned the other person’s thoughts and likes and dislikes, tailor your persuasion to what matters most to him. Then use the words of “flying and clamping” to probe his preferences. When you understand what he likes, guide him in step with those inclinations until he accepts your position. So long as you do not go against his preferences, what persuasion could fail?

When applying this method to an individual or a feudal lord, assess the other person’s wisdom and abilities, and evaluate his talent, strength, and momentum. Use this assessment to decide how best to respond: sometimes move to meet him, sometimes follow behind; use words to restrain and reconcile him, then act appropriately in accordance with his wishes. This is how “flying and clamping” is used to bind and draw someone in.

The “hinge” is the mechanism that controls a door’s opening and closing; the “trigger” is the mechanism that controls the firing of a crossbow. The meaning is this: first understand the feudal lords’ plans and abilities, then devise a method for controlling when they act, when they hold back, and when they set things in motion. Depending on the circumstances, sometimes move first to accommodate them, sometimes follow after, thereby drawing their intentions along and bringing relations into harmony. In this way, one can master the feudal lords’ power and strengthen one’s influence over them. This is “binding through flying and clamping”: using this art to bind and draw people in.

Applied to people, this method seems to involve going empty-handed, yet in practice one can return with something gained. Once you have bound someone to you, do not let the relationship break. By examining his words closely, you can draw him in and lead him to choose an alliance across the north-south axis or the east-west axis. You can also guide him into submission and bind him, direct him to act westward, southward, or northward, make him change course, or even have him act in the opposite direction.

When applied to other people, this means examining and employing them through the method of “flying and pinning”: first praising someone, then drawing them in and bringing them under control. Praise first raises the person’s standing, making them easier to guide. One may induce them to comply, lead them to adopt strategies of alliance and opposition, draw them in and restrain them, send them west, south, or north, or make them change direction and act repeatedly.

Applying this method to others also means examining and employing them by means of praise. First, praise them to lower their guard and open their hearts, revealing their true intentions and drawing them to your side. This is called “going empty and returning full”: you go to them first with empty words, and they come back bearing genuine feeling. Once you understand their true circumstances, bind them to you through words and relationships so they do not leave. Then let them speak at length, so you can investigate what they say. In this way, whether they comply, adopt strategies of alliance and opposition, submit to restraint, turn in different directions, or advance and retreat repeatedly, they remain within your influence, with almost none failing to obey.

Even when circumstances fluctuate, one can recover without losing the proper measure.

Even when defeated, one must be able to rally again without departing from the proper discipline. This is the final stage of the method of “flying and pinning.”

Bringing Things Together, Chapter Six

The Great Dao—the fundamental principle of nature—has become obscured, and the correct way can no longer be practiced openly. Therefore, one must plan to bring things together here, often beginning elsewhere so as not to arouse suspicion; only then can one accomplish one’s aims. When Yi Yin and Lü Shang entered government to assist their rulers, they too acted in this way.

Approaching, withdrawing, reversing course, and other such methods may differ, but with careful planning one can still find the right way to bring them into alignment.

Change and movement turn like linked rings, each with its own circumstances. As one repeatedly seeks and responds, one must devise methods suited to the particular matter at hand.

Therefore, when sages live between Heaven and Earth, establish themselves in the world, govern affairs, carry out instruction, and spread their reputation, they must all respond to the moment when things converge. They observe whether the timing is right, make advance judgments based on the actual extent and changes of circumstances, and then adapt and transform in response.

“More and less” refers to which aspects of governing are suited to increase and which to reduce. First determine what should be increased and what reduced, then make adjustments accordingly. This is what is meant by “acting on the basis of prior understanding.” It means using the principle of “doubling and reversal”—examining and comparing both sides of a matter—to make a judgment. “Transformation” means changing one’s original approach and adapting to the prevailing circumstances.

In the world, no one remains honored forever, and in carrying out affairs there is no teacher whose authority is fixed forever.

Only those with benevolence and virtue are worthy of honor, so no one remains honored forever. Anyone who can establish a good way may serve as a teacher, so there is no teacher whose authority is fixed forever.

The sage can always do what ought to be done and listen to what ought to be heard.

Those who are skilled at adapting and judging the times can bring affairs to completion; hence, there is nothing that cannot be done. Words that do not accord with the facts and have no basis are not to be heeded; hence, there are no words that must be heard.

Someone who has brought an undertaking to success and whose plans are sound may be appointed to lead it.

Such a person can both bring the undertaking to completion and make plans that accord with reason. The people may join in raising up someone like this and appointing them to lead.

If a plan serves one side, it must conflict with the other; one cannot be loyal to both sides at once.

Since a plan that serves one side departs from the other, the same loyal plan cannot be applied to both.

Therefore, one must use “reverse counteraction” (fǎnchǔ)—planning in the opposite direction to make the other party uncertain—as the primary method.

Since a plan cannot serve both sides at once, one should respond by taking the opposite approach. “Reverse counteraction” means that if you want the other party to turn and agree with one side, you must first take the opposite course with the other side. “Counteraction” means planting doubts and confusing the other party, so that those unaware of what is happening do not detect the arrangement.

When this method is applied to the realm, it must be adapted to the realm’s circumstances; applied to a state, to the state’s circumstances; applied to a family, to the family’s circumstances; and applied to an individual, to that person’s nature, abilities, and force of character. Whether the scale is large or small, or the action involves advancing or withdrawing, the principles of its use are the same.

Here, “use” means putting the method of reverse counteraction into practice; “assess” means examining the other party’s undertakings and actual circumstances; and “align” means drawing close to the other party. In practicing reverse counteraction, one must show closeness and accommodate the other party in accordance with their undertakings and situation. This keeps an unenlightened leader from detecting the strategy and allows it to be carried out. Although the specific approach varies with the scale of the undertaking and whether one advances or withdraws, in every case one must act according to the actual circumstances and follow the common principle of drawing close to and accommodating the other party. Hence, the principles of its use are the same.

Before using the art of feiqian—drawing someone in and gaining influence over them through praise, closeness, and similar means—you must first settle your plans and strategies, then put them into practice.

When preparing to use a strategy of probing and testing someone, you must likewise decide on your plan before acting, and use feiqian to fill in the gaps and bring the various parts into alignment.

In ancient times, those skilled at judging closeness and distance, compliance and defection, could unite the forces of the four quarters under Heaven and then use feiqian.

When preparing to use a strategy of probing and testing, you must again settle your plan before acting, then use feiqian to fill in the gaps and bring the parts into alignment.

Those in ancient times who understood the principles of defection and allegiance would unite the various powers under Heaven and bring the feudal lords together, placing them where they could form alliances. They would then seek to change the balance of power and redirect people’s loyalties, before finally seeking an alliance with a true ruler.

In other words, those who understood where people’s loyalties lay would first unite the four quarters and bring the feudal lords together, putting them in a position to form alliances with one another. They would then seek to change and guide the situation. Only after everyone’s allegiance had settled would they look for a ruler truly worthy of their service and make an alliance with him.

Thus, Yi Yin sought out Tang of Shang five times and Jie of Xia five times before eventually pledging allegiance to Tang. Lü Shang sought out King Wen of Zhou three times and also entered the lands of Yin three times, but could not put his abilities to use there. He later pledged allegiance to King Wen.

Yi Yin sought Jie because he was convinced that Heaven’s Mandate had settled on him and had no doubts in his heart. Only once Jie too had come to trust him could Yi Yin pledge allegiance to the true ruler.

This is the key to understanding how to use Heaven’s Mandate as a guiding force: when the time comes to pledge allegiance, there is no hesitation.

Because Heaven’s Mandate was believed to have settled on Yin, Tang of Shang, and King Wen, neither Yi Yin nor Lü Shang had doubts when pledging allegiance to the ruler each had chosen.

Without the insight of a sage who understands profound principles, one cannot meet the demands of the times. Without painstaking thought, one cannot trace a matter to its source. Without focused attention to the facts, it is difficult to accomplish anything. And without keen intelligence, one cannot serve Yin, Tang of Shang, or King Wen.

Without the insight of a sage who understands profound principles, one cannot meet the demands of the times. Without painstaking thought, one cannot trace a matter to its source. Without focused attention to the facts, it is difficult to accomplish anything. Without keen intelligence, one cannot command troops; without a sincere and loyal heart, one cannot understand people. Therefore, when applying the way of aligning with another’s nature, you must first assess your own abilities, understand the strengths and limits of your judgment and capacity, and determine where the other person surpasses you and where they fall short.

The way of forming alliances and aligning interests cannot be used against someone who surpasses you, but it can be used with someone who falls short of you. So first determine where the other person is inferior to you, then act.

In this way, one can advance or withdraw, form vertical alliances or horizontal ones. Once one has examined and assessed those who are less capable, and learned how to respond to circumstances as they arise, one can decide for oneself whether to advance or retreat, and how to form alliances.

“Assessing and Weighing” (Chuai Pian), Chapter Seven

In ancient times, those skilled at mastering the situation under Heaven always measured the strength of each side and gauged the true intentions of the feudal lords. If they measured strength carelessly, they could not distinguish between strong and weak, or between what mattered more and less. If they gauged intentions carelessly, they could not discern changes that others kept hidden.

What does it mean to measure strength? It means comparing the size of each side’s forces; calculating how many people can be mobilized and whether supplies and wealth are sufficient; estimating the population and the abundance or scarcity of resources; distinguishing between rugged and level terrain, and identifying what is advantageous or harmful; assessing whether a strategy is far reaching or limited; judging whether ruler and ministers are close or distant, and whether each is worthy or unworthy; comparing the talents of their guests and advisers; observing the good and ill fortune brought by the seasons; analyzing which ties between the feudal lords can be put to use and which cannot; and examining how the people’s sentiments change—whether they rally behind a ruler or turn away, whether the situation is stable or perilous, and what the people favor or dislike. These circumstances must all be examined repeatedly before one can know what course is most fitting. This is called weighing power and influence.

The realities of the world are revealed in the condition of each side’s forces. Those skilled at weighing power and influence can understand these realities. Once they understand them and put that understanding to use, what could they fail to accomplish?

To discern someone’s feelings and intentions, approach them when they are extremely happy and try to discover what they desire. Approach them when they are gripped by intense fear, and you can learn what they detest most. Once desire surfaces, it is difficult for the heart to conceal itself; once aversion surfaces, true feelings are likewise hard to hide. Changes in their emotions and desires will then become apparent.

When human nature is stirred by overwhelming joy, desire emerges; when it is gripped by overwhelming fear, aversion becomes clear. By following these revealed emotions, one can investigate until they are fully understood. When joy or aversion reaches its extreme, the heart can scarcely keep its secrets. Thus, a person’s emotions and desires are revealed as joy and fear shift.

If someone’s feelings still show no change after being stirred by joy or aversion, set that person aside for the time being and do not discuss the matter with them. Then, gradually ask those close to them to learn what they feel at ease with and what matters to them.

Changes in a person’s inner feelings appear in their outward bearing. One can therefore often infer hidden emotions from outward signs. Reading someone’s appearance to judge what lies within is the method known as “probing and discerning feelings”: observing outward signs and inferring inner intentions.

When devising plans for the affairs of state, assess power and advantage; when persuading a ruler, examine and discern his feelings and intentions. Any plan or consideration concerning human desires and emotions should begin here.

In this way, the other person may be elevated or degraded, valued or disregarded, rewarded or harmed, brought to success or made to fail. The principles behind these outcomes are the same.

If one can carefully assess and reason out another person’s intentions, then status and success or failure can all be brought under one’s control. Every one of these outcomes is caused by such assessment and reasoning, which is why their principles are the same.

Thus, even with the governing principles of the ancient kings, or the strategies of sages and wise men, without probing people’s hearts there is no way to uncover another person’s hidden thoughts. This is the foundation of planning and the method of persuasion.

The principles of the ancient kings and the strategies of sages and wise men may be broad and profound, but without applying the reasoning that comes from probing people’s hearts, how could one uncover another person’s secret thoughts? Probing the human heart is therefore the foundation of strategy and the method that persuasion follows.

To deal with people constantly while giving them no chance to act first is the hardest thing to do.

By mastering the art of probing people’s hearts and possessing exceptional insight, one can keep others from acting first in human affairs. One can also investigate the subtlest signs of things and trace every change, and so act before events unfold. Only someone deeply versed in what is hidden and subtle can do this. That is why it is so difficult.

So the greatest difficulty in probing people’s hearts lies in maintaining one’s grasp and observation over time; plans and deliberations must seize the right moment.

The human heart is harder to fathom than treacherous mountains and rivers, and harder to understand than the signs of the heavens. Is it not difficult, then, to gauge the human heart and keep observing it? That is why the greatest difficulty in probing people’s hearts lies in maintaining one’s grasp and observation. Plans and deliberations arise from the human heart, so one must understand the changes in timing within it; this is precisely what makes the task so difficult.

Thus, by observing signs as fine as silk threads and the minute movements of insects, one sees that they all contain potential benefit or harm, and may each become the beginning of an event. The skill of recognizing an incident in its earliest traces lies in drawing on the momentum of things as they first arise.

Even the tiniest insects have a desire to pursue benefit and avoid harm: accommodate them, and they are pleased; oppose them, and they become angry. How much more so with people, and with spirits and deities? Benefit and harm are therefore unavoidable features of the way things are, and events always change according to whether one accommodates or resists. Pursuing benefit brings gain; resisting brings misfortune. This is a general principle. By observing these patterns, one can see the key to accomplishing things. Those who act must examine subtle signs and changes in circumstances. Thus, the key to success lies in grasping the subtle shifts in the course of events.

After discerning another person’s feelings, one must also shape one’s words to suit that person’s intentions. Only when one’s words are properly arranged can one proceed to persuade.

Chapter Eight: Mó

“Mó” means to test or stir another person’s intentions. The signs through which inner feelings become visible provide the basis for discernment.

First, one must discern another person’s feelings, then stir them by offering what that person desires. In this way, “mó” extends the practice of “chuai,” or probing. “Inner signs” refers to desires arising within the heart and producing indications that can be verified. Those who probe judge inner feelings from outward signs; hence, signs provide the basis for discernment.

Probing has its own method, and that method must remain concealed. Probing is used to gauge another person’s feelings, while stirring them is meant to make signs of the inner mind emerge. The principles behind probing and stirring must first be established. Since this method involves using one’s own feelings to infer another’s, and feelings are inherently hidden and difficult to fathom, the method itself must also be concealed.

Stir another person only slightly, using something that person desires to test and observe them. The signs within will then respond. Once the person responds, they will inevitably take some action.

Once you understand another person’s feelings and inclinations, you can quietly guide and test them by appealing to what they want. When they get what they desire, their emotions will naturally respond. By observing and probing those reactions, you can tell whether their inner thoughts match their outward behavior. Once signs of their inner thoughts appear, they will often want to do what they themselves wish to do.

At that point, you must quietly withdraw. This is called blocking the paths by which you might be observed and concealing the first traces of your intentions. Hide your expression and keep your true feelings from showing, so that others cannot detect them. In this way, the matter can be brought to completion without inviting misfortune.

Once the ruler has acted and success seems close, the ministers should follow the momentum. In serving, a minister’s priority is to keep his own contribution unseen and bring the matter to a proper conclusion. He should therefore withdraw at the right moment and give the credit to the ruler. Otherwise, he may bring misfortune upon himself.

If you do not follow this strategy, then you should give the credit to the ruler. To do so is to block the paths by which you might be observed, conceal the first traces of your intentions, hide your actions, and keep your true feelings from showing. When feelings are not revealed and traces are concealed, how could others know? Since they do not understand how the matter was brought about, they have no way to obstruct it. Thus it can be accomplished without inviting misfortune.

One side quietly guides; the other reveals a response. Act in accordance with that response, and nothing will be beyond your ability to accomplish.

The guidance is exceedingly subtle, while the other person’s response emerges naturally. Onlookers see only the results that come to light, not the subtle guidance behind them. Used in this way, all the credit goes to the other person, and the matter is easily accomplished.

In ancient times, those skilled in this kind of guidance were like anglers standing at the edge of a deep pool, lowering bait on a hook: they were sure to catch fish. Thus it is said that those who direct affairs accomplish things day after day, yet others do not know the plans behind them. Those who command armies win repeatedly, yet others do not feel threatened.

Anglers expose the bait but conceal the hook. The fish cannot see the hook, yet in the end they are caught. The wise let others see the results but conceal the guidance behind them. Others do not know how it was done, yet they go along with what has been set in motion. Thus it is said that those who direct affairs achieve results day after day without others knowing. Victory in battle, too, comes from skillful guidance. When that guidance is deeply concealed, others cannot detect it and so have no reason to fear it. Thus it is said that those who command armies win repeatedly, yet others do not feel threatened.

When the sage makes plans, he works carefully in secret, and so appears mysterious. Once the task is complete, its results emerge in the open, and so appear clear.

The plan is concealed from view. In everyday use, people do not notice it; it seems mysterious and unfathomable, and is therefore called “spirit.” Once the task is complete and the achievement accomplished, the results are plainly visible, and are therefore called “clarity.”

To govern and bring matters to completion means to benefit the people without their understanding where the benefit comes from. Those who understand the principles at work can grasp why things unfold as they do. To lead an army to victory means to convince people and make clear why victory was won. Thus, the sage can win the people’s allegiance, and all under Heaven compare him to the spirits.

The sage embodies the Dao and establishes teachings, carrying them out in harmony with the workings of Heaven and Earth. He veils his radiance and conceals his traces, acting unseen while revealing his benevolence. People therefore benefit in peace, though they may not know where those benefits come from. They follow the Dao, though they may not understand the reasons behind it, and so they compare the sage to the spirits.

The sage often settles disputes without fighting or expending troops, and the people do not know why they revere him. All under Heaven therefore compare him to the spirits. A skilled commander can remove a threat while it is still only a thought taking shape, and makes non-contention his way of waging war. No weapons are raised; the highest De (Virtue) quietly takes effect. The people each find their proper place and follow their natural course, yet do not know why they hold the commander in awe. They therefore compare this state to the work of the spirits.

People differ in temperament, and their emotions rise and fall. The text lists ten ways of “mo”: anger, joy, action, integrity, trust, gain, deference, and the three it names as calm, uprightness, and reputation. Here, “mo” means a way of probing someone’s intentions by observing and eliciting their emotions and responses. Anger arises from accumulated resentment or judgments about good and evil, right and wrong. Joy is delight made visible. Action means putting matters into effect. Integrity means purity and uprightness. Trust means being clear and credible. Gain means seeking some advantage. Deference means humility or ingratiating submission. Of the remaining terms, calm means composure, uprightness means being correct, and reputation concerns one’s standing and renown. The sage reads people’s minds from these signs and acts in response to the first indications of change in things, sometimes remaining still and sometimes taking action. By stopping harmful intentions before they take shape, his transforming influence spreads far and wide. People are changed by it, though they may not know why.

Only when one’s reputation becomes widely known can one be said to have “come to prominence”; only when an undertaking succeeds can one be said to have “accomplished” it.

The abilities that the sage alone is skilled at using are, in fact, possessed by everyone. Most people fail to achieve success with them because they use them in the wrong way.

The ten matters discussed earlier are abilities the sage alone can use to assess situations and respond to them, thereby accomplishing undertakings. Ordinary people also possess these abilities, but they use them inappropriately and contrary to reason, and so they do not succeed.

Planning is hardest to make thorough; persuasion is hardest when it comes to getting someone to listen fully; and carrying something through is hardest when it comes to ensuring success. Only the sage can handle these three well. Incomplete planning leaves dangers overlooked and harms the outcome. If, in persuading someone, you fail to understand their feelings fully, you may go against their wishes and arouse suspicion. And if you cannot see an undertaking through, it is like stopping a basketful of earth short of completing a mound by just one basket: in the end, the work is abandoned halfway. Each of these three has its own difficulty. Perhaps only the sage can take them on without finding them difficult.

Therefore, planning must be thorough, and in persuading someone, one must choose a person who can communicate with and understand one. Then the two sides’ intentions can fit closely together, without any gap between them. When presenting a plan to someone who can understand you, one should receive their views with an open mind, like a stone dropped into water as the current opens and streams flow together. In this way, how could any gap remain? This is what it means for the two sides to fit together without a space between them.

For an undertaking to succeed, it must accord with certain patterns. Thus, reason, pattern, and timing must align for things to proceed smoothly. For a plan to bear fruit, one must first examine the patterns and measures governing things and bring the plan into accord with them. When reason, pattern, and timing come together, an undertaking can succeed and lasting merit can be established.

For persuasion to be heard, it must accord with the other person’s feelings and wishes. Thus, only when the two sides’ intentions are in harmony will the other person comply.

All things gather according to their kind. When firewood is brought near a fire, the dry pieces burn first; when water is poured over level ground, the damp places are wetted first. This is how things of the same kind respond to one another, following their corresponding tendencies. The same is true when inner intentions and outward assessment correspond: find the matching kind, and the other person will respond, just as water flows toward damp places and fire turns toward dry things.

Thus, if you test someone with something similar to what they themselves use, their outward response will be similar as well.

A person’s true thoughts are revealed through outward reactions. Test someone with something familiar to them, something they accept, and they will respond, just as water flows toward damp places and flames toward dry things.

So even when you test someone with something of the same kind, they may still not respond. If you then test them with something they desire, you may still get no response. This is the “Way of Acting Alone”: the methods used to probe someone must be applied flexibly.

Perhaps only a sage is truly skilled at probing. That is why this is called the “Way of Acting Alone.”

When signs begin to appear, it is not too late to act. By not clinging to credit after success, one can sustain progress and gradually bring things to completion.

If you see a sign and act, how could you be too late? After success, if you do not cling to credit, why hold on to it for long? By doing these two things, you can gradually bring the world under the influence of your teaching.

Chapter Nine: Weighing and Persuasion

Persuasion means setting out one’s case to another person; the persuader must also obtain from that person whatever can be put to use.

“To persuade” means setting out one’s case to another; “resources” means obtaining from another the means one needs.

Polishing one’s words means using language to win another person’s acceptance. Since language is the means, it must be adjusted to suit the circumstances.

When responding to another, one aims for words that serve the exchange. If words are chosen only to keep the conversation flowing, what is discussed may become shallow.

When responding to another, one aims for words that serve the exchange. If words are chosen only to keep the conversation flowing, what is discussed may become shallow.

Explaining a principle is meant to clarify the facts. Once the facts are clear, the grounds for verification also become apparent.

Examining what actually happened is meant to clarify the principle. Once truth and falsehood have been distinguished, the corresponding evidence will emerge.

Some things are said repeatedly in order to refute one another.

What is difficult to say directly can be discussed through refutation. Such discussion aims to draw out the clues the other person has concealed.

When the two sides’ words do not agree, they must question and challenge one another repeatedly, so they can return to what was said earlier and discuss it. What is called “revisiting the argument” means examining a principle closely and explaining a matter clearly, so that subtle signs can be discerned and understood. In this sense, “revisiting the argument” is like fishing: it seeks what is hidden and obscure. Seeking principles that are profound and subtle is called “fishing.”

“Flattering words” are words of ingratiation. “Ingratiating” means catering to another person’s feelings and desires in order to win a reputation for loyalty; hence the phrase “ingratiating oneself to appear loyal.”

“Adulatory words” are words of praise. “Expansive” refers to laying out an abundance of words in order to win a reputation for wisdom; hence the phrase “being expansive to appear wise.”

In the phrase “to be unrestrained and thereby appear courageous,” “unrestrained” means acting freely without hesitation, in order to win a reputation for courage. Hence the phrase “being unrestrained to appear courageous.” (The wording in this passage seems to contain an error. Judging by the explanation that follows, “unrestrained” refers precisely to acting freely without hesitation.)

“Words of feigned sorrow” are words that pretend to be mournful. “Sorrow” means grief: it refers to speaking while putting on an air of distress. “Deliberation” means planning, choosing, and proposing strategies in order to win a reputation for keeping faith; hence the phrase “deliberating to appear trustworthy.”

“Words of feigned calm” are words that pretend to be composed and peaceful. “Reversal” means first presenting one’s own position as inadequate, then using that move to shut down others’ objections and win a reputation for prevailing in debate; hence the phrase “reversing one’s position to prevail.”

Catering to another person’s feelings and desires is called “ingratiation”; laying out an abundance of words is called “expansiveness”; planning, choosing, and proposing strategies is called “deliberation”; acting freely without hesitation is called “being unrestrained”; and first presenting one’s own position as inadequate, then blocking others’ objections, is called “reversal.”

If you are actually in the wrong but do not realize it, and instead argue inwardly, attack another person’s faults, silence them, and accuse them of being mistaken, this conduct is called “reversal.”

Thus, the mouth is a gate for probing subtle circumstances and also an instrument for restraining and controlling feelings and intentions. The ears and eyes assist the mind, enabling it to observe, inquire, and uncover deceit. Let the mouth, ears, and eyes work in coordination before responding, and then act along a favorable course.

The mouth is used to produce speech, so it is the hub through which words are conveyed and controlled. Whether feelings and intentions can be expressed appropriately also depends on this hub; the mouth therefore governs how they are opened and closed. The ears and eyes help the mind understand things, so they are its assistants. With their help, the mind can detect subtle details and see through another person’s deceit, so the ears and eyes enable one to discern what is hidden and expose what is false.

When the ears, mind, and eyes work in harmony and respond to one another, action succeeds and what one undertakes goes smoothly. One can proceed without failure because one’s actions accord with what is appropriate. Thus, only when ears, mind, and eyes coordinate and answer one another can one act in accordance with what is advantageous.

Words may cross and intertwine without becoming disordered; actions may turn and proceed without losing their way; circumstances may change without bringing danger. The key is to grasp the essentials and understand how things work.

Once the essentials are clear and the principles understood, one can respond flexibly without making mistakes. Then, even when words are numerous and tangled, they will not cause confusion; even when actions follow winding paths, one will not lose one’s way; and even when circumstances shift and conventions change, one will not fall into danger.

A person without eyes cannot be shown the five colors; a person without ears cannot be told about the five tones. The five colors are for those who can see, and the five tones are for those who can hear. By taking the eyes and ears as examples, this passage explains that people must have the corresponding capacity to perceive in order to understand what is conveyed.

One cannot go and persuade someone when there is nothing in that person to awaken; someone will not come to listen when there is no basis for receiving what is taught. When communication proves impossible, the sage does not force the matter. If someone is benighted and closed off, with no way to awaken them, there is no need to go and persuade them. If someone’s understanding is too narrow to receive instruction, they will not come seeking guidance. Narrowness and benightedness both lead to a blockage in communication, so the sage does not waste effort in such circumstances.

The ancients said, “The mouth may be used for eating, but one must not speak carelessly.” This is because speech is subject to many taboos and cautions. Public opinion can even melt metal, and words often go astray.

Food nourishes the body when it enters the mouth, so it may be eaten. Words, however, can sometimes bring all kinds of trouble, so one should not speak carelessly. Speech may violate taboos, and for that reason there are many things one must avoid saying. Metal is naturally very hard, yet the words of a crowd can melt it. This is because people often speak with private motives and prejudices. Thus, speech is often distorted by the partiality of the human mind.

It is human nature that, when people speak, they hope others will be willing to listen; when they set out to do something, they hope it will succeed.

To make others willing to listen, the key is to speak in a way that accords with their wishes. To make something succeed, the key is to act in accordance with how things work. These are the basic starting points for speech and action.

Therefore, the wise do not rely solely on their own shortcomings; they draw on the strengths of the foolish. They do not depend only on what they themselves do poorly; they make use of the abilities at which the foolish excel. In this way, they avoid getting into difficulty.

The wise person’s shortcomings are not necessarily better than the foolish person’s strengths, so one should draw on those strengths. Nor are the things the wise person does poorly necessarily better than the skills the foolish person has mastered, so one should make use of those skills. If one can regularly set aside one’s own shortcomings and areas of weakness, and instead adopt the strengths and specialties of others, one will avoid getting into difficulty.

When discussing what is advantageous, build on the other person’s strengths; when discussing what is harmful, steer clear of the other person’s weaknesses.

If people can build on strengths where there is advantage, and avoid sources of harm as well as their own weaknesses, their words will be more readily heard and their actions more likely to succeed.

Crustaceans are formidable because they have hard, thick shells. Stinging creatures use their venomous stingers when they move. Birds and beasts, too, know how to make use of their strengths. Those skilled in persuasion should learn from them: they must know how to use their various abilities.

Crustaceans shelter and protect themselves with their hard, thick shells, while stinging creatures defend themselves with venomous stingers. Each uses its own strengths to protect itself and so avoids harm. Other birds and beasts, too, know how to use their strengths to preserve themselves. Inspired by this, those skilled in persuasion should also recognize and use the abilities suited to them.

Speech has five faults: frailty, resentment, sorrow, anger, and joy. When a person’s words take on any one of these, they lose balance and calm, and expression no longer flows smoothly.

“Frailty” arises when the spirit is weak and Shen and Qi are depleted. When the mind and spirit are unsettled, speech becomes listless and lifeless. “Resentment” arises when the heart is agitated and a person loses their bearings; deep resentment makes speech confused and excessive. “Sorrow” arises when thoughts are knotted and cannot find clear expression; sorrow weighs on the heart, and speech becomes blocked and halting. “Anger” arises when emotion builds up and drives a person to act rashly, making self-restraint difficult; in anger, speech easily gets out of control. “Joy” arises when emotion sways the mind and words become scattered, losing sight of the point.

These five emotions are suitable for expression only when used appropriately and to good effect. If they cannot be used appropriately and beneficially, they should be restrained rather than allowed to influence one’s words.

Therefore, when speaking with an intelligent person, draw on broad knowledge; with a simple and unassuming person, rely on clear distinctions; with someone skilled in argument, get to the point; with a person of high rank, adapt to the circumstances; with someone wealthy, speak of far-reaching ambitions; with someone poor, speak of practical benefits; with a person of low status, adopt a humble manner; with someone brave, appeal to their decisiveness; and with someone at fault, address the sharp point of the problem. This is how to adapt one’s speech to different people, though people often do the opposite.

These are principles for choosing words suited to one’s audience. To ignore them and do the reverse is to go against reason and may even invite harm. Therefore, when speaking with an intelligent person, use these principles to clarify the Way; when speaking with someone who is not intelligent, use them to guide that person. Yet it is often difficult to help those who do not understand the Way grasp and apply these methods.

When speaking with the wise, clarify the principles to enlighten them; when speaking with the unwise, teach them through simple, accessible principles. But people have long been confused, and it is not easy to guide them. This is why the task is difficult.

Words fall into many categories, and circumstances often change with the times. Thus, if one speaks throughout the day without straying from the proper categories of words, one can handle affairs without confusion.

Words differ in their order and flow, which is why they fall into many categories. Circumstances change with the times, which is why there are many changes. As long as words stay within their appropriate categories, affairs can be handled without disorder.

To handle affairs throughout the day without changing or straying from the root is to hold fast to something within the heart. Thus, the value of wisdom lies in not acting recklessly.

When affairs are orderly, stability can be maintained; when stability is maintained, fundamental principles can endure unchanged. The ability to guide things along their constant course without allowing them to change lightly is the work of wisdom. Wisdom is therefore precious because it enables people to avoid reckless action.

When listening to opinions, what matters is sharp hearing; when applying wisdom, what matters is clear discernment; when choosing one’s words, what matters is the power to surprise and prevail.

Sharp hearing prevents confusion between truth and falsehood; clear discernment distinguishes what can be done from what cannot; striking words provide grounds for judging right and wrong. When all three are achieved, affairs can be completed and achievements established. They must therefore be taken seriously.

Chapter Ten: Planning

Whenever one plans on someone else’s behalf, there are methods to follow and principles at work. Find the conditions on which a matter depends, then use them to investigate its underlying pattern; in this way, its true circumstances can be understood. Once those circumstances are clear, one can make a plan, and there will be no undertaking that cannot be accomplished. After carefully examining the situation, establish three standards of assessment: high, middle, and low. Then judge the matter in light of those standards. To examine the true circumstances, one should make plans in accordance with these methods.

There is a method for planning matters. Only by grasping their causes can one understand their patterns; by following those patterns, one can clarify the true state of affairs. Once the facts are understood, planning becomes easier and success more likely. After examining the facts carefully, establish three standards of judgment: high, middle, and low. Compare them with one another to verify the circumstances; only then can an unexpected strategy take shape.

In making judgments, assess people’s abilities and capacities, and discern each person’s situation and inclinations. An unexpected strategy does not arise from nowhere. Since antiquity, such strategies have come from responding to actual circumstances.

People who share the same feelings and are close to one another often become allies because they pursue the same course of action. The ancients used south-pointing chariots to find their direction; acting without first examining the facts is like traveling without knowing which way to go. When people share a goal yet grow distant from one another, it is because one of them has been unfairly harmed.

When people who share the same feelings want to plan and accomplish something together, they often grow closer afterward if they succeed together. But if one benefits while the other suffers, they will inevitably grow distant. This is the natural course of things.

People who share the same hatred of someone or something often grow closer if they suffer harm together. If they grow distant, it is usually because one of them has been unfairly harmed. When people who share a common hatred both suffer, their feelings draw them together; if one escapes harm while the other is hurt, they grow distant afterward. This, too, is the natural course of things.

Thus, when people benefit one another, they grow close; when they harm one another, they grow distant. This pattern appears again and again. These principles can be used to discern what people have in common and how they differ; the underlying categories are broadly alike.

Walls collapse at their cracks, and wood breaks at its knots: these are their respective weak points. If cracks and knots cause walls and wood to fail, then surely changes in human affairs, too, often emerge from the points where people’s similarities and differences divide them.

Changes in affairs arise from specific matters. Matters prompt planning; planning produces strategies; strategies lead to discussion; and discussion, in turn, gives rise to arguments. Trees break at knots and cracks. These, perhaps, are where things have their respective limits and crucial points.

Trees often break at knots or fissures. How much more, then, do changes in human affairs arise from points of similarity and difference? Thus, changes each have their own limits and causes.

Every matter begins at a root and has its own origin. Just as branches, blossoms, and leaves grow from the roots of plants, changes in things can give rise to undertakings. To bring an undertaking to completion, one must first devise a strategy; to form a strategy, one must deliberate and explain it. Whether discussion and argument are apt must be tested through decisions about when to advance, when to withdraw, and what to accept or reject. Once such choices are made, standards for action must be set accordingly. All kinds of affairs and differing measures can be handled by following this shared principle.

The benevolent take little account of material goods. Profit cannot entice them, but they can be entrusted with expenses. The brave do not fear hardship. Calamity cannot intimidate them, but they can be charged with danger. The wise understand principles and patterns. False words cannot deceive them, but principles can be explained to them so that they may establish achievements. These three kinds of people are three kinds of talent who can be put to good use.

Entrust expenses to those who take little account of material goods, and the resources will serve their proper purpose. Charge those who do not fear hardship with danger, and danger may be turned into safety. Let those who understand principles establish achievements, and those achievements may be brought to completion. By making good use of all three kinds of talent, one can spread one’s reputation far and wide. Is that merely a matter of gaining twelve chariots?

The foolish are easily misled, the unworthy easily intimidated, and the greedy easily enticed. Each should be dealt with according to the circumstances.

Apply the three strengths above to address the three weaknesses, and one can accomplish undertakings and establish achievements. A strategist must let each matter prompt reflection, understand the differences involved, and then assess them. That is why one must adapt to the circumstances.

Strength is built up gradually from weakness; abundance is built up gradually from scarcity. This is how the Dao (the Way) works.

The soft and weak can overcome the hard and strong. So by continually accumulating weakness, one can turn it into strength. What is straight may appear bent; so by continually accumulating bends, one can turn them into straightness. Taking little can lead to gaining much; so by continually accumulating what is lacking, one can become abundant. This shows that turning weakness into strength, bends into straightness, and what is lacking into plenty is precisely the method employed by the Dao (the Way). That is why it is said that the Dao continually unfolds through change.

Therefore, when someone is close to you outwardly but distant inwardly, persuade them by starting with their inner feelings. When someone is close inwardly but distant in appearance, persuade them by starting with the outward relationship.

If two people seem close on the surface but are actually distant in their hearts, persuade them by addressing their inner feelings and removing the divide. If they are truly close inwardly but merely appear distant outwardly, persuade them by addressing their relationship and dispelling the appearance of distance.

Guide them by following their doubts and helping their thinking change. If they have already come to a realization, affirm it by building on what they understand. Draw conclusions from what they say, and bring matters to a result by working with the way events are unfolding.

If they show what they dislike, use it to assess the situation. If they reveal their worries, use them to point out problems and remove hidden dangers.

If their dislike and worries have been dispelled, but they grow arrogant because they believe they have won, find a way to unsettle them, making them feel fearful and imperiled so that they take action. If this still does not change them, allude to evidence that can correct them, then confirm it with corresponding signs.

Finally, surround them and block their escape routes, leaving them confused and disoriented. This is called a stratagem.

Even after influence has been exerted, guidance offered, and evidence presented for verification, some people still do not know how to adapt. Such people may be beyond saving. You can restrain them, block their escape routes, throw them into confusion and uncertainty, and then seize the moment to break through. To deal with people like this, one can use stratagems.

When using stratagems, acting in private is better than acting openly, and forming a firm alliance is better than acting in private. When an alliance is unbreakable, neither side leaves an opening for the other to exploit.

Public discussion brings matters before the court and turns them into a dispute among many people. Since no one wants to take responsibility for a mistake, it becomes difficult to get anything done. Private deliberations remain within closed doors; when they are discreet, confidential, and free of leaks, success becomes possible. That is why acting in private is better than acting openly. Even secret planning is not as effective as making an agreement and forming an alliance with the other party. When two people are of one mind, outsiders have no grounds to pursue them. How could anyone find a weakness between them?

Following the usual course is less effective than prevailing through an unusual stratagem. Once a stratagem is put into practice, its effects spread continually and are difficult to stop.

The usual approach follows common principles and preserves established precedents, so it is difficult to make rapid progress. An unusual stratagem breaks with convention while remaining true to what is right, bringing action into accord with the moment. That is why prevailing through an unusual stratagem is better than following the usual course. Once put into effect, a stratagem can spread everywhere, and no one can predict where it will stop. Hence the saying: “Once an unusual stratagem takes hold, it spreads continually and is difficult to stop.”

Therefore, when persuading a ruler, speak to him of unusual stratagems; when persuading a minister, speak to him of private alliances.

Speaking to a ruler of unusual stratagems may lead to extraordinary achievements. Speaking to a minister of private alliances can help him preserve himself.

If you are within the court but speak of affairs outside it, others will distance themselves from you. If you are outside the court but speak of matters that are deeply secret and sensitive, you will invite danger.

Those within the court who speak of external affairs will be distanced from others again if their words are leaked. Those outside the court who speak of matters that are close at hand and secret will likewise find themselves in danger again.

Do not impose on others what those close to them would not accept, and do not insist on teaching others what they do not understand.

Although something may seem minor, if the other person is unwilling, do not force it on them; otherwise, they will become resentful and angry. When teaching someone, begin from what they already understand. Teaching them something beyond their grasp is like trying to dispel darkness with darkness. What good could come of that?

When someone likes something, learn and respond in ways that accord with that preference. When someone dislikes something, avoid bringing it up. Thus, quietly align yourself with the other person’s wishes, then openly win their trust and response.

Follow what others like and avoid what they dislike, while quietly conducting yourself accordingly. As long as you do not go against their wishes, they will feel pleased and openly express their gratitude. So, quietly align yourself with the other person, then openly win their response.

To bring someone down, first let them have their way; let them do so in order to seize the chance to control them. If you want to remove someone, you must first allow them to act freely, letting their faults and misdeeds grow to their full extent. Once these are fully exposed, you can deal with them according to the law. So, letting someone have their way is a means of seizing the chance to control them.

When someone’s expression and bearing seem neither especially good nor especially bad, they can often be entrusted with one’s true feelings. Here, “appearance” means observing someone’s outward expression and bearing in order to understand their inner thoughts. If a person is calm and steady, does not lavish praise on good deeds, and does not condemn bad deeds rashly, they can be entrusted with one’s true feelings.

Only someone who can understand what is happening and be made aware of it can be included in planning. A planner will not enlist someone who cannot understand or be made aware. If the other person is generous and discreet, they can be informed and brought into the planning. If they are not discreet enough to be told, the planner will not rely on them.

So, in handling affairs, what matters is taking the initiative and directing others, not being directed by them. To direct others is to hold power; to be directed by others is to have even one’s fate decided by someone else.

The sage acts without revealing what lies within; the fool acts in ways that lay everything bare.

The principles by which a sage acts are to be clear within and restrained in outward expression. A fool, by contrast, is dark within and showy on the outside.

People with wisdom find it easy to get things done; those who lack wisdom find it difficult. From this we can see that what has already fallen apart cannot be treated as though it still stands, and what is in danger cannot be treated as safe. To turn danger into safety and recover from defeat, what matters is using wisdom, not acting recklessly.

Wise people are generous and understanding, so matters are easily brought to completion. The foolish are suspicious and anxious, so it is hard to make progress. A lack of wisdom can also invite disaster and ruin: when matters are difficult to manage, capable and worthy people cannot put their plans into practice, and what is already doomed continues to collapse while what is in danger becomes more precarious. Restoring a failing situation and bringing an emergency under control is truly difficult. If one hopes to recover from defeat and stabilize a crisis, when everyone else is powerless, only a wise person can succeed. Thus what matters is to avoid rash action and make good use of wisdom.

Wisdom can be applied where others cannot notice or see what is happening; only the wise can do this. Thus what matters is to avoid rash action and make good use of wisdom.

The wise can act on things that others cannot see or imagine. That is why wisdom is especially precious.

Once wisdom has been brought to bear, determine whether something can be done, then choose how to handle it. If you can judge and manage the matter yourself, use it to benefit yourself. If you cannot see it clearly, choose an appropriate way to handle it so that you can help others.

This means that when using wisdom, consider yourself first, then others: judge whether something can be done and choose accordingly to plan for yourself; when you face a situation you cannot see clearly, choose an appropriate course of action to help others. It is like Bole, the skilled judge of horses, teaching someone close to him how to recognize an inferior horse, while teaching someone he dislikes how to recognize a thousand-mile horse.

Thus the principles of the sage kings of antiquity were once expressed in subtle terms: the transformations of Heaven and Earth are profound and mysterious, and the laws established by sages are likewise concealed from view. The Dao of the sages is not concerned only with loyalty, trustworthiness, benevolence, and righteousness; what matters is acting with balance and impartiality.

The way of the former kings lay in keeping things deeply concealed and not revealing them lightly. The words handed down by the ancients also show this principle: the workings and transformations of Heaven and Earth are wondrous because they are lofty and profound; when sages establish and put Daoist arts into practice, they too prize concealment. Concealment means that one’s inner nature accords with the Way of centrality and correctness, naturally aligning with the Dao. It does not refer merely to benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness. Therefore, the Dao should not be understood only in terms of loyalty, trustworthiness, benevolence, and righteousness.

Once you understand this principle, you can discuss profound matters with someone. When a strategist understands and grasps its underlying logic, you can speak with them in depth and explore the matter fully.

With further insight, you can discuss how to care for people both near and far. Here, “nurture” means to raise and cultivate. Understanding this principle enables one to hold an important position, care for and settle people near and far, and guide them toward lasting stability.

Chapter Eleven: Making Decisions

When deciding a matter on someone else’s behalf, one often needs to begin with what still troubles them. Using this approach well can bring benefit; using it poorly can invite disaster. Someone skilled at examining a person’s doubts can use them to guide that person and learn what they truly think.

People need decisions because they have doubts, so one should begin with those doubts. People generally pursue benefit and do what is good, while disliking hardship and danger. But when the principles of benefit and harm remain unclear, doubts arise. Someone skilled at addressing doubts can guide the other person, uncover their intentions, and then judge whether a course of action is feasible.

If the other person eventually stops doubting and considers the matter beneficial, they will accept it. If the benefit is removed, they will not accept it. This is where the use of an unusual strategy takes hold. Here, “confusion” means doubt, and “partiality” means what is improper. The passage says that a decision-maker must understand how the other person weighs benefits and harms in order to make a choice.

When the mind is troubled by doubt, understanding becomes confused; when judgment is unsound, action goes astray. Only by dispelling confusion and correcting error can action proceed smoothly and successfully, bringing benefit and good fortune. If these benefits are disregarded, those in doubt will not accept a suitable arrangement. Others place their hopes in strange methods, deliberately seeking the unusual and changing the established ways; this is called “the extraordinary.”

If something that would ordinarily serve the good is secretly entrusted to the side of evil, people will not accept it; instead, they will grow more distant.

In other words, those in doubt originally seek the benefits of goodness. Yet the person arranging matters conceals the true intention to pursue good and instead pretends to have evil intentions. As a result, the other party not only rejects the arrangement but grows even more distant.

Thus, some methods cause people to lose benefits, while others bring them harm. Both outcomes result from mishandling affairs.

Of the two methods mentioned earlier, one abandons benefit and the other feigns evil intent. Since those in doubt do not accept the arrangement, matters cannot proceed smoothly, and the result is a loss of benefit or the infliction of harm. These are all errors in arranging affairs.

The sage can bring matters to completion in five ways: sometimes openly influencing people through virtue; sometimes employing stratagems in secret; sometimes relying on trustworthiness; sometimes acting discreetly; and sometimes handling things in the usual, steady manner.

The sage is skilled at adapting to circumstances, discerning the principles of things, and arranging how to handle each matter according to its situation. When matters are already clear and their principles understood, the sage openly guides people through virtue. When circumstances are hidden and words are false, the sage employs stratagems in secret. When the principles are clear and intentions upright, the sage acts with trustworthiness. When dealing with petty wrongdoing or a danger still slight, the sage conceals it and handles it cautiously. Matters that follow established custom are handled in the usual, steady way.

Yang is to advise openly with a single statement; Yin is to plan in secret with two statements. In ordinary affairs, one grasps the crucial point according to convention and applies it flexibly. The other four methods, too, should all be carried out with care and subtlety.

Here, “encouragement” means exhorting and making an effort. Yang represents the way of the ruler, hence “one”: the ruler’s way takes non-action as its guiding principle. Yin represents the way of the ministers, hence “two”: the ministers’ way makes active service its practical method. The ruler should take calmness and simplicity as his foundation, while ministers should be skilled at grasping what is essential and managing affairs. These four—“one,” “two,” “calmness and simplicity,” and “the pivot”—are interconnected. Only by understanding their subtleties and aligning them with the principles of the situation can matters proceed smoothly and be handled without difficulty.

Next, weigh matters against what happened in the past, test them against what might occur in the future, and examine them in light of ordinary reason. If you judge that something is truly feasible, decide accordingly.

Once the ranks and duties of ruler and ministers have been established, one can examine the past, test the future, and consult ordinary principles to weigh what is right and wrong in a matter. If it accords with reason, arrange for it to be carried out.

When a matter concerns princes, dukes, or other eminent figures, and their standing is lofty and they can achieve a good name, decide on it if you judge it feasible.

If something can be accomplished easily, with little effort, put it into practice if you judge it feasible. This is a way to gain benefit without incurring expense.

Even if a task requires hard work, if it truly must be done and you judge it feasible, put it into practice. This means recognizing that there is no alternative, accepting the situation calmly, and acting in accordance with its course.

If something can avert disaster, decide to carry it out if you judge it feasible. If something can accord with good fortune, arrange for it to be done. Averting disaster and following good fortune accord with the principles of the situation.

Therefore, establishing the facts and dispelling uncertainty are the keys to handling all affairs. Bringing disorder under control and judging success or failure by the proper method are the most difficult tasks.

This is the standard for dealing with disorder; decisions about success and failure must likewise be made with care. The slightest error can lead far astray. Once a crucial word is spoken, it can become the chief cause of honor or disgrace, gain or loss. That is why this matter is so difficult.

The former kings therefore used milfoil stalks and tortoise shells to inquire into good and ill fortune, weighing matters and making decisions with their help.

The former kings possessed sagely wisdom and understood the principles of all things, yet they still relied on milfoil stalks and tortoise shells to aid their judgment. How much more should those who fall short of them seek the counsel of people with broad knowledge and sound understanding, rather than rely on themselves and trust blindly in their own judgment?

The Words of the Tally, Chapter Twelve

Words that can be verified fit together like the halves of a tally; hence the title “The Words of the Tally.”

When a person conducts affairs with composure, steadiness, and calm restraint, the people and matters under their care can all be managed with ample room and due consideration.

Here, “extend to” means to reach or affect, while “flesh” means ample and abundant. The point is that if someone in office acts with composure, steadiness, and calm restraint, those they govern and the matters they handle will have room to prosper.

Even someone skilled at bringing people together and managing affairs, if unable to remain calm and simply waits in peace while holding only good intentions, will eventually meet a time of upheaval and loss.

For one who occupies the position of ruler, the essential qualities are composure, steadiness, and calm restraint.

The eyes are valued for clear sight, the ears for keen hearing, and the mind for wisdom.

With clear sight, nothing goes unseen; with keen hearing, no news goes unheard; with a wise mind, no principle remains beyond understanding. If none of these three is clouded, what matter could be handled improperly?

Use the eyes of all under Heaven, and nothing will go unseen; use the ears of all under Heaven, and no news will go unheard; use the minds of all under Heaven, and no principle will remain unknown.

In antiquity, Emperor Yao was intelligent and perceptive, with far-reaching plans, and his De extended throughout the world. He likely employed this method.

When the spokes of a wheel—the wooden rods joining its hub to its rim—move forward together, light cannot be obscured.

The sage does not act arbitrarily on the strength of personal ability alone. Instead, the sage puts personal intelligence and judgment at the service of all under Heaven, so that everyone may contribute. Those with keen eyesight are tasked with observing, those with sharp hearing with listening, and those with wisdom with devising plans. In this way, people can come of their own accord, each bringing their strengths, like clouds following the dragon and winds rising with the tiger. They gather in harmony with the moment, and no one can stop them. Is it not fitting that people of every kind of talent should be employed together? It is like the sun and moon shining over the earth: who can block their light? Thus it is said that light cannot be obstructed.

What is meant by “the ruler’s clarity” is that the one in the leading position is perceptive and clear-minded. A clear-minded person in the position of ruler can see things through the eyes of all under Heaven.

The way to put De (Virtue/Power) into practice is not to stubbornly reject others. The key to honoring and extending De is breadth and tolerance. Mountains do not turn away dust, and so they become tall; the sea does not refuse streams, and so it becomes deep and vast; the sage does not reject the people, and so achieves greatness. Thus it is said: do not stubbornly reject others.

When people are accepted, the multitude can draw near and remain loyal; when they are rejected, people become divided and estranged. Those willing to welcome and make room for others will see people come to them in great numbers.