《道书援神契》

Preface to the Daoshu Yuanshenqi (Daoist Writings: Covenant Invoking the Spirits)

People who discuss the teaching of Laozi all say that it is heterodox. In fact, it originally came from the Confucian tradition and only gradually came to differ from the Confucians in the course of later transmission. The Confucian tradition cannot be called a religion, because what it sets forth is the constant principle practiced throughout the world. Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, King Wen, King Wu, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius appeared one after another—were the things they taught all a religion? When the governing way of the Zhou dynasty declined, the institutions of ritual and music fell into disuse, and social customs grew full of deceit, people felt that the Dao (the Way) of Confucius did not accord with the temper of the times, and so they called it a “teaching.” This manner of speaking probably arose from that.

Laozi lived in the same age as Confucius and was especially renowned for his thorough knowledge of ritual institutions. Confucius more than once sought instruction from Laozi about ritual. Laozi held that in an age of disorder the proper course was hard to put into practice, so he withdrew in purity and devoted himself to clarity, stillness, and Wuwei (non-action). Confucius, anxious that the great Dao could not be carried out and that the ritual and musical culture of the Zhou was about to decline, traveled among the various states. Although their ways of advancing and withdrawing differed, Confucius’s dress and ritual norms never changed. Later, the clothing of Confucius’s disciples changed with the customs of the various states, while the clothing of Laozi’s followers did not change with worldly fashion. Thus the robes of Daoist priests today actually resemble the dress of the ancient Confucians.

As for cultivating body and mind and nurturing nature and life, the root lies in the Yi (the Zhouyi, the Book of Changes). As for performing jiao offerings and sacrificing to ghosts and spirits, the basis is the Zhouli (the Rites of Zhou), especially the Chunguan (Spring Offices) section, which records the ritual system of official posts. The talismanic dispatches, caps, and pendants of Daoism are likewise all modeled on ancient institutions.

Because abuses appeared in the later transmission of Daoism, and it was often classed with shamans and invocators (sorcerers and those who perform sacrifices), this book was written to clarify the matter and to trace its origins and development. It is divided into thirty-four entries and is titled Daoshu Yuanshenqi. The preface was composed in the ninth year of Dade (1305).

Gongguan

In ancient times, the places where kings and nobles lived were all called gong (palaces); the tall towers flanking the city gates were called guan (observation towers). Palace halls had steps set on the east and west sides and were linked by gates. The buildings of ancestral temples were arranged in the same way. Today the Hall of the Celestial Worthies in Daoist gongguan follows the same layout as the Hall of Great Completion in Confucian temples; this continues the architectural system of antiquity. The Shijing (Classic of Poetry) says: “Harmonious and joyful, within the palace chambers.” Ancient books also record: “Thereupon he ascended the observation tower.”

The Jiao Altar

The original text only lists the heading “Jiao Altar” and provides no further content.

In ancient times, every sacrifice required that an altar be set up. Later, the various provinces and commanderies established altars of soil and grain for sacrifice to the gods of the soil and of grain. The Book of Rites says, “No roof is built over the sacrificial altar.” In antiquity the altar for the jiao offering, a Daoist sacrificial rite, was set up in the open country; today it is set indoors, for the sake of simplicity.

Bells and Chimes

The musical instruments of ancient sacrifice included ranked sets of bells and ranked sets of stone chimes, sixteen pieces on each stand, used to match the twelve pitch standards and the clear tones of the four modes. There were also bells and chimes hung singly, called “special suspensions.” The golden bells and jade chimes on the dong’an today—the table in a Daoist rite on which offerings and musical instruments are arranged—likewise number sixteen pieces to a stand. Besides these there are large bells and other instruments, all of them developed from these ancient forms.

The making of the large bronze chime derives from the striking of the fou, an ancient ceramic percussion instrument. The Rites of Zhou records, “The Fu artisans make the bells; the Qing artisans make the chimes.”

Incense and Lamps

In ancient sacrifice, firewood was burned. Only when Emperor Wu of the Han sacrificed to Taiyi, the name of a celestial sovereign deity, did the use of incense and lamps begin. The Book of Rites says, “Only after the offerings have been presented is the fragrant herb kindled, so that it gives off its scent.”

Gods and Earth Spirits

In antiquity there was the lineage of Chongli, able to bring the gods of heaven down and to make the earth spirits, the deities of the land, appear. The texts record, “Chongli was thereupon appointed, so that heaven and earth no longer communicated with each other.”

The Spring Offices section of the Rites of Zhou records that at the winter solstice music was performed at the Round Mound. When the music had passed through six changes, all the heavenly gods descended. At the summer solstice music was performed at the Square Marsh; when the music had passed through six changes, all the earth spirits appeared.

Cakes, Fruit, and Wine

Ancient sacrifice used broomcorn millet, foxtail millet, and sacrificial animals. Emperor Wu of Liang substituted offerings made of wheat flour for the animals, and Emperor Xuanzong of Tang further substituted cakes. The Rites of Zhou says that the keeper of the offering baskets had charge of dates, chestnuts, water caltrops, and the like, and also prepared dried provisions, cakes, and foods of flour. The keeper of wines had charge of the five graded wines, the three wines, and the other liquors used in sacrifice.

Curtains and Canopies

Ancient palace halls were all furnished with hangings and tents. The Rites of Zhou records that the keeper of tents was charged with these hangings and tents.

Ritual Vestments

The formal dress worn for sacrifice in antiquity included the inner ceremonial robe, the knee covering, pendants and ornaments, and the skirted lower garment. The ritual vestments of today are inherited from these garments. Mencius said, “If the clothing is not complete, one dare not perform the sacrifice.” The Book of Rites says, “The gentleman of antiquity always wore jade.”

Caps and Robes

At this point the source text only lists the heading “Caps and Robes” and provides no further passage.

In ancient times, scholar-officials all wore caps, fastening only the cap-strings and inserting no hairpins; only ceremonial caps of the bian and mian types were worn with both hairpins and strings. Confucius wore the zhangfu cap, a ceremonial cap in the style of the state of Song, and said, “I grew up in the state of Song, and so I wear the cap of Song.” Zhuangzi says that Yuan Xian wore a “hua cap” and carried a “hua staff.” Here hua refers to birch bark, that is, a cap made of birch bark.

The Book of Rites mentions “chi mei,” meaning garments with very wide sleeves. Robes of the Dao (the Way) are similar to clothing of this kind. When Li Bi of the Tang dynasty became a Daoist priest, the emperor bestowed on him a purple Daoist robe, and thereafter people took the purple robe as established custom. Daoist robes use a straight collar, chosen for the sense of leisurely ease and unrestrained freedom it conveys.

Gui and Tablets

In ancient times, dukes and marquises all held a gui, a ceremonial object made of jade. The Rites of Zhou records such names as the huan gui, the xin gui, and the gong gui. The Book of Rites also says that men of the shi class held tablets ornamented with fish whiskers, that is, a kind of tablet made of bamboo or wood.

Spirit Tablets

When the ancients sacrificed in the ancestral temple, they set up a wooden tablet, a wooden plaque representing the ancestor who received the offering; when they sacrificed to the altars of soil and grain, they set up a stone tablet. This is recorded in the Book of Rites. The spirit tablets of the present day are sacrificial tablets of this same kind.

Talisman Tablets

The ancients made bamboo into slips about two chi long and bound them together with leather thongs; some also used pieces of wood, called du. Present-day talisman tablets follow this form. The Preface to the Spring and Autumn Annals says that minor matters need only be written on bamboo and wooden slips. When Confucius compiled and edited the Spring and Autumn Annals, he recorded what ought to be recorded and deleted what ought to be deleted, and what he used was likewise wooden tablets.

In ancient times, summons and commands were conveyed by means of tallies; the tally was made of bamboo slips. Today one draws spirit-summoning talismans on yellow paper in place of bamboo tallies. The human figures depicted on the talismans symbolize envoys.

In ancient times, sacrifice required a “prayer tablet” (zhuban—a wooden board inscribed with the words of the sacrificial prayer); only later did people turn to paper. The Shangshu (Book of Documents) says: “The scribe thereupon wrote out the documents and the prayer texts.” The Zhouli (Rites of Zhou) says that the Grand Minister of Rites (Dazongbo) had charge of the prayer texts. The prayers were placed in a square case, which served in place of the tablet case. When Yin Hao sent a letter, he mistakenly delivered an empty case to the recipient; the “han” spoken of here is a wooden case.

Kneeling and Bowing

The Zhouli records nine rites of kneeling and bowing. The kowtow (qishou) performed today—kneeling and bowing until the head touches the ground—carries on the ritual norms of the Zhou dynasty. The Shangshu says: “To bow is to kowtow.” The Liji (Book of Rites) says: “When receiving an office, one performs the rite standing and need not kneel and bow.”

The Ritual Ruler

The ancients used peach branches to drive off what was inauspicious. Legend has it that Hou Yi died by a peach-wood staff, and later ages therefore used peach wood to expel ghosts. The Tianpeng ruler (Tianpeng chi, a Daoist ritual implement) used in Daoist ritual methods today is an object of this kind. The Zhouli records that shamans and invocators employed implements such as peach branches and brooms.

The Ritual Sword

In antiquity the scholar-officials all wore swords. The Hanshu (Book of Han) records that ministers might ascend the hall wearing swords and shoes. There was also an ancient practice of performing a rite with bow and arrow during solar and lunar eclipses, and the ceremony of the Daoist ritual sword is regarded as standing in the same line of transmission. “Jieshui” means driving off flood disasters by means of a ritual service; “the Rain Master clears the dust” (Yushi qingchen) means praying that the Rain Master sweep the dust away.

Directional Colors

When the ancients sacrificed to the Five Emperors, each was honored with the color corresponding to his direction. The signal colors of the five directions (wufang xincai—colored banners or markers representing the five directions) come from this.

Incantatory Prayer

The ancients wrote “incantation” (zhou) as “prayer” (zhu); the character zhou later in general use is a popular form coined with the “mouth” radical. Tang of Shang once offered a prayer when he left one side of the nets open, and the guoluo—an insect of ancient legend—likewise offered a prayer over the mingling. Both concern prayers of this kind.

Talismanic Script

The Zhouli records that, when a rite of expulsion was performed (rangxian—a ceremony for driving off demonic anomalies and calamities), square documents inscribed with the ten heavenly stems, the twelve months, and the names of the twelve years were hung on trees in order to expel anomalies. The ancients used seal script, and the talismanic script (fuwen) used in Daoism today resembles it.

Setting Out the Lamps

Ancient legend tells that after Cangjie created writing, heaven sent down millet and ghosts wept in the night. In Daoist ritual services there is a practice of marking boundaries on the ground and laying out the ritual area with rice; later generations also commonly used rice when setting out arrays of lamps, and the source is said to lie in this legend.

Spirit Possession

In ancient sacrifice it was usual to establish a “personator” (shi—a person who stood in for the spirit receiving the sacrifice and accepted the offerings), and the one in the personator’s place would weep. The Daoist rite of spirit possession developed out of ancient sacrificial practices of this kind.

In ancient sacrificial rites a shi was always appointed. The shi was usually a grandchild, who put on the ancestor’s clothes and sat in the place where the ancestor was honored; this role was also called gu (the person who, during the sacrifice, represents the spirits, receives blessings, and conveys the divine will). The Book of Rites says: “The invocator prays to the spirits in the spirit of filial piety, while the shi conveys the spirits’ pronouncements with loving kindness.” When people today commemorate deceased forebears by using another person’s body to convey the words of the departed, the practice comes from this ancient rite.

Hand Censer

When the ancient rite of pouring a libation and making an offering was performed, a gui zan (a wine vessel with a handle) was used. The gui zan had a dish-shaped part for holding wine, and its handle was shaped like a gui tablet. Once the gui zan was held in the hand, a separate gui was no longer carried. When Daoist priests today hold a hand censer (a handheld incense burner used in ritual) and do not hold a tablet, the idea is probably the same.

Dizhong

When the spirits were sacrificed to in ancient times, dancers held a nao and a dizhong in their hands. The dizhong is a smaller kind of nao.

Formula of Qi

Daoist books write Qi (vital energy) with the character 炁. The method of gathering Qi concerns the use of breathing to harmonize Yin-Yang. The Yilüe li says: “When the Palace of Destiny is stirred, the Shang tone responds in correspondence; when the lower part is cultivated, the Qi from above descends.” This means that, by rousing and circulating, one makes Shen (spirit) and Qi full and abundant. That a woman of Qi could raise the wind with a single cry, that Zou Yan could bring down frost with a single weeping, and that blowing the pitch-pipes could cause harmonious Qi to arrive, all belong to this kind of account.

Command Tablet

The Rites of Zhou records that the ya zhang could be used to mobilize armies. The bronze tiger tally of the Han dynasty was round above and square below, engraved with five tooth-like patterns resembling hanging drops of dew, with a crouching tiger carved on the reverse and an inscription beside it reading: “The tiger tally is made in imitation of the ancient ya zhang.” When Daoist priests today use a command tablet to summon divine generals, they follow the practice of this kind of ancient token of authority.

Banners and Pennants

The Rites of Zhou includes banners such as the jing, the mao, and the pei; the forms of these banners and pennants are modeled on them.

Yun’ao

Ancient sacrifices included music, and this practice follows the ancient rites. The yun’ao is higher than ordinary instruments; the sounds it uses are all clear and bright, and are held to be able to reach through to Heaven and Earth. Instruments held in the hand and played symbolize that the music of Heaven can travel with people and be sounded along the way.

Praying for the Sick

An old saying states: “When Confucius was gravely ill, Zilu asked to pray for him.” The Book of Documents records that when King Wu of Zhou was gravely ill, the Duke of Zhou set up three altars and prayed for him.

Praying for Clear Skies, Praying for Rain, and Averting Calamity

The original text here only lists the heading “Praying for Clear Skies, Praying for Rain, and Averting Calamity,” and provides no further content.

In antiquity there were sacrifices for praying that rain would fall, and also sacrifices for praying that drought would end. King Tang of Shang once prayed in the wilds of the Mulberry Grove, willing to offer himself in place of the sacrificial victim. Dong Zhongshu’s Chunqiu Fanlu records methods for seeking rain and for stopping rain: five-colored dragons were made according to the date and the hour, each with its own specific rites and rules, which will not be set out in detail here.

Records of prayers and rites to avert fire appear in the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals): in the eighteenth year of Duke Zhao of Lu, the four states of Song, Wei, Chen, and Zheng all caught fire on the same day. Zichan presided over the rite for warding off fire. At the Great Altar (the place where sacrifices were held) large offerings were spread as a covering, sacrificial announcements were made toward the four directions, and the ceremony for driving away the fire was performed.

Abstaining from Grain (Xiuliang)

The Kongzi Jiayu (School Sayings of Confucius) says: “Those who feed on Qi (vital energy) are clear and lucid in spirit and live long; those who eat the five grains are clever and skillful; those who eat nothing do not die.”

Daoists (Daoshi)

Confucius said: “The scholar sets his will upon the Dao (the Way); if he thinks only of eating and drinking, he is not worth talking with about the Dao. One who is ashamed of coarse clothing and coarse food is likewise not worth talking with about the Dao.”