《郭店楚墓竹简》

The Guodian Chu Tomb Bamboo Slips are a group of bamboo strips unearthed from a tomb of the state of Chu during the Warring States period. The titles listed include the Laozi (in three groups of slips, labeled Jia, Yi, and Bing), Taiyi Sheng Shui (Great One Gives Birth to Water), Ziyi (Black Robes), Lu Mu Gong Wen Zisi (Duke Mu of Lu Asks Zisi), Qiong Da Yi Shi (Poverty and Success Are Determined by Timing), Wuxing (Five Phases), Tang Yu Zhi Dao (The Way of Tang and Yu), Zhongxin Zhi Dao (The Way of Loyalty and Trustworthiness), Cheng Zhi Wen Zhi (What Cheng Heard), Zun De Yi (Honoring Virtue and Righteousness), Xing Zi Ming Chu (Nature Arises from Mandate), Liu De (Six Virtues), and the Yu Cong (Miscellaneous Sayings) in four parts. The final "Jia" marks the beginning of the Jia group of the Laozi that follows.

Cutting off cleverness and abandoning disputation brings the common people a hundredfold benefit. Cutting off cunning and abandoning private gain causes thieves and robbers to disappear. Cutting off hypocrisy and abandoning ornamentation allows the people to recover filial piety and compassion.

If the meaning of these three statements is still not sufficiently clear, they can be summed up as follows: preserve simplicity, reduce selfish considerations, and lower desires.

The reason rivers and seas can become the kings of the hundred streams is that they lie lower than the hundred streams. For this reason, they are able to become their kings.

When the sage wishes to lead the people, he must place himself behind them. When he wishes to stand above the people, he must lower himself in his speech. Though he stands above them, the people do not feel oppressed; though he leads them, they do not feel harmed. The people of the world are glad to support him and never tire of him. Because he does not contend with others, no one in the world is able to contend with him.

There is no greater fault than excessive desire, no greater calamity than the pursuit of gain, and no greater disaster than not knowing contentment. Knowing contentment is true contentment, and only this kind of contentment can last forever.

Those who assist a ruler with the Dao (the Way) do not wish to use military force to assert themselves across the world. A skilled commander achieves his aim and stops there, and does not use it to show off his strength. He wins without boasting, without arrogance, and without self-righteousness. This is called acting in accordance with the Dao (the Way).

Having accomplished a task, one does not boast of the merit. Having established an achievement, one does not grow proud. Having attained results, one does not regard oneself as capable. This is called accomplishing without asserting oneself. Everything the sage does is fitting.

From ancient times, those who were skilled at practicing the Dao (the Way) were profound and subtle, impossible to fully fathom. Therefore their appearance must be described thus: cautious, like crossing a river in winter; hesitant, like fearing the neighbors on every side; dignified, like a guest; relaxed and open, like ice melting away; sincere and simple, like unworked wood; broad and undifferentiated, like murky water. Who can make muddy water grow still, so that, by slowly settling, it gradually becomes clear? Who can set what is at rest into motion, so that, gradually, it reveals vitality? One who holds to this Dao does not seek to be full. Deliberate action brings failure, and insistent grasping drives things away. Therefore the sage does not act recklessly and so does not fail; does not cling and so does not lose. The principle in affairs is to treat the end with the same care as the beginning, and in this way one does not ruin the matter.

The sage desires to have no desires and does not prize goods that are hard to obtain. He teaches without contrived instruction, returning the multitude to the state from which none has strayed. Thus the sage can assist the myriad things in following their natural course, and does not forcibly intervene. The Dao always proceeds through wuwei (non-action). If kings and lords can hold to it, the myriad things will transform of themselves. If desire arises within that transformation, it is settled by the nameless pu (uncarved block), the state of natural simplicity that has not been shaped or ornamented.

The wise person knows when to be content, and by keeping still and clear, the myriad things settle of their own accord. Deal with affairs through wuwei (non-action), without forcing or contriving. Do not regard particular matters as overly weighty, nor cling to flavors and tastes. Matters that appear easy often contain difficulty within them. For this reason, the sage always treats things as not to be taken lightly, and so in the end affairs never become difficult.

When everyone under Heaven knows that beauty is beauty, ugliness has already appeared; when everyone knows that goodness is goodness, the not-good has already appeared. Being and non-being give rise to one another; difficult and easy complete one another; long and short give shape to one another; high and low establish one another's positions; sounds harmonize with one another; before and after follow one another.

Therefore the sage deals with affairs through wuwei (non-action) and carries out a teaching that does not rely on words. When the myriad things arise, he does not force them into being; he acts, yet does not lay claim to merit; he completes his work, yet does not dwell on it. Because he does not dwell on it, his achievement never departs.

The Dao (the Way) is constantly nameless; it is plain and subtle, and even Heaven and Earth dare not command it. If lords and kings can hold fast to the Dao, the myriad things will naturally submit. When the qi (vital energy) of Heaven and Earth come together, sweet dew descends; no one commands it, yet the dew falls evenly and naturally moistens all things.

When things begin to take form and institutions are established, names come into being. Once names have arisen, one should know when to stop, and knowing where to stop, one avoids danger. The Dao (the Way) exists throughout the world, much as mountain streams flow into rivers and seas.

Something formed in undifferentiated wholeness, existing even before heaven and earth appeared. It is profound and still, stands alone without changing, and can serve as the root of all things under heaven. Not yet knowing its name, we reluctantly call it "Dao" and reluctantly name it "Great." Being great, it is called far-reaching; being far-reaching, it returns to its origin. Heaven is great, earth is great, the Dao is great, and the ruler is also great. Among the four kinds of greatness in the world, the ruler is one.

Humans take their model from the earth, the earth takes its model from heaven, heaven takes its model from the Dao, and the Dao takes its model from what is natural (ziran).

Between heaven and earth, is it not like a bellows or a reed pipe? Empty within, it never runs dry; once set in motion, breath pours forth without end.

To reach utmost emptiness is the constant state; to hold fast to one's inner root is to be steady and secure. The myriad things grow in profusion, and people should dwell quietly amid them, awaiting their return to their origins. The course of heaven circulates and returns, and each of the myriad things goes back to its own root.

Things are easy to manage while they are still at rest. What has not yet shown any sign is easy to plan for, what is still fragile is easy to split apart, and what is still small is easy to dissipate. Act before things have appeared, and put matters in order before the situation has settled. Because what has no sign is easy to plan for, what is still fragile is easy to divide, and what is still small is easy to dissolve, one should deal with things before they take form.

A nine-story terrace is built up from the ground beneath one's feet. Those who understand this principle do not speak lightly, and those who love to debate do not necessarily understand it. One should close the orifices of the senses, block the gates through which desire enters and leaves, soften one's own brilliance, merge with the dust of the world, blunt one's sharpness, and resolve entanglements. This is called xuantong (Mysterious Union), becoming one with the profound and hidden Dao (the Way). Such a person cannot be won by closeness nor lost by distance, cannot be drawn in by profit nor harmed by calamity, and cannot be made noble nor made lowly. For this reason, they become one whom all under heaven honor.

Govern the state with rectitude, command troops with unorthodox tactics, and win the empire through wuwei (non-action). How do I know this is so? The more prohibitions there are, the more the people drift away. The more sharp implements the people hold, the more the state falls into disorder. The more cleverness people possess, the more strange things arise. The more laws are displayed, the more bandits there are. Therefore the sage says: "I do not interfere, and the people transform themselves. I love stillness, and the people become upright of their own accord. I engage in no affairs, and the people become prosperous of their own accord. I have no desires, and the people return naturally to simplicity."

A person of abundant De (Virtue) is like a newborn infant. Venomous snakes will not sting him, and fierce birds and wild beasts will not harm him. His bones are soft and his sinews pliant, yet his grip is firm. He does not yet know anything of sexual union, yet his penis may stand erect, a sign that his jing (essence) and qi (vital energy) are abundant. He cries all day, yet his voice does not become hoarse, a sign that his Yin-Yang are in harmony. Harmony is called constancy (chang), and knowing harmony is called enlightenment (ming). To deliberately nourish life is to invite misfortune, and when the mind drives the qi, it becomes forceful and overbearing. Things that grow too strong soon age, and this is called being out of accord with the Dao (the Way).

Which is closer to us, fame or life? Which is more precious, life or possessions? Which is more harmful, gain or loss? Excessive attachment necessarily incurs great expense, and hoarding too much necessarily brings greater loss. Therefore, one who knows contentment will not be disgraced, and one who knows when to stop will not meet danger. Only thus can one endure long.

Returning is the mode of movement of the Dao, and softness is the mode of its functioning. The myriad things under heaven are born from "being" (you), and "being" is born from "non-being" (wu).

Filling a vessel to the brim is not as good as stopping in time, and water rushing swiftly and gathering cannot be sustained for long. Piles of gold and jade fill the house, yet no one can keep them safe. To grow proud when wealthy and honored is to leave calamity for oneself. Withdrawing once merit is achieved accords with the Heavenly Dao (tiandao).

Governing people and conforming to the Way of Heaven (Tiandao) depends on nothing more than restraint. Only because one can exercise restraint can one prepare early, and only by preparing early can one be said to have a defense. ……Without knowing the constant regularities of things, one cannot know their limits. Only by understanding those regularities and grasping the root of things can one possess a state, and only by holding fast to the root of the state can it endure. This is the Dao of long life and enduring vision.

The scholar adds to his knowledge each day, while the cultivator of the Dao subtracts desire and deliberate doing each day. Subtracting and subtracting, one arrives at non-action (Wuwei). Through non-action, nothing is left undone.

Cut off deliberate learning, and there will be no sorrow. How far apart are praise and rebuke? How much separates beauty from ugliness? What others fear, one cannot help but fear as well.

People regard favor and disgrace as though both were causes for alarm. One should regard great calamity as seriously as one regards oneself. What is meant by favor or disgrace? Favor places a person in a lowly position to begin with. To be startled when receiving favor and equally startled when losing it is what is meant by treating favor and disgrace as equally alarming.

Why should one regard great calamity as seriously as oneself? Because I have great calamity only on account of having this body. Once I no longer have a self, what great calamity could there be? One who governs the world with this attitude may be entrusted with the world. One who cherishes his own body more than he governs the world, how could he be entrusted with it?

When people of superior capacity hear of the Dao (the Way, the fundamental regularities by which all things operate), they diligently put it into practice. Those of middling capacity hear of the Dao and sometimes keep it in mind, sometimes forget it. Those of inferior capacity hear of the Dao and burst out laughing. Were they not to laugh, it would not be sufficient to be called Dao.

Thus the ancients said: the bright Dao appears dim, the level Dao appears uneven, and superior De (Virtue) appears like a low valley. Great whiteness appears sullied, abundant De appears insufficient, and steadfast De appears unsettled. Plain substance appears pliant. The greatest square has no corners, the greatest vessel is slow to complete, the greatest sound is faint, and the greatest image has no form. The Dao is...

Close the doors and block the sensory openings, and you will be free from external disturbance for life. Open those openings and busy yourself with external affairs, and you will toil for life. The greatest attainment seems deficient, yet its function never wears out. The most abundant state seems empty, yet its function is never exhausted. The most skillful craft appears clumsy, the most complete appears incomplete, and the most upright appears crooked.

Agitation can overcome cold, and stillness can overcome heat. Only through pure stillness and Wuwei (non-action) can the world be brought to peace. Those who are skilled at establishing cannot be uprooted, and those who are skilled at holding fast will not lose their grip. Their descendants will therefore continue the ancestral sacrifices without end.

When one cultivates oneself, one's De (virtue, power) becomes pure. When one cultivates one's family, De becomes abundant. When one cultivates one's village, De grows. When one cultivates the state, De becomes rich and full. By extending this cultivation to the world and to each household, observing a village through the village, a state through the state, and the world through the world, De becomes full. How can one come to know the world……

The highest knowledge of the Dao (the Way) is the kind the world praises. Below it is the kind people draw near to and commend. Lower still is the kind that inspires fear, and the lowest is the kind that invites contempt. When one's own trustworthiness is insufficient, others will not trust them in turn. The best governance is when rulers are cautious and speak little. When affairs are accomplished and merit is complete, the common people all say, "We accomplished this ourselves."

Thus, when the great Dao declined, benevolence (ren) and righteousness (yi) came to be promoted. When relations within a clan grew discordant, filial piety and kindness came to be emphasized. When the state fell into disorder, so-called loyal ministers appeared.

To hold fast to the Great Image (da xiang), the whole shape of the great Dao, is to have all under heaven turn toward it. Having turned toward it, people are not harmed, and so they dwell in peace and security. Music and fine food can make passersby stop in their tracks, but the Dao is bland and without flavor. Look at it and it cannot be seen; listen for it and it cannot be heard; yet it is not diminished by this.

The gentleman honors the left in ordinary times, but in warfare he honors the right. Therefore, weapons are inauspicious instruments, to be used only when unavoidable. Victory is nothing to praise. To regard victory as a fine thing is to take delight in killing. One who takes such delight, even if he attains his ambitions across the realm, should not be commended.

In auspicious affairs the left is honored; in funerary affairs the right is honored. Accordingly, the deputy general stands on the left and the commanding general stands on the right, arranged in accordance with the rites of mourning. When many have been killed, the matter should be conducted with a sorrowful heart, and even after a victory, it should be treated in the manner of a funeral.

Forcing things often ruins them, and clinging to them often loses them. The sage follows what is natural and does not act recklessly, so the sage does not ruin things. The sage does not cling, so the sage does not lose them. Treating the end of an affair with the same care as its beginning means it will not fail. People fail because they so often spoil things just as those things are about to be completed.

Therefore, the sage desires what others do not desire and does not prize rare goods. The sage learns what others do not learn and returns to the places where the multitude tends to err, examining them with care. The sage can help all things follow their natural course, yet dares not act willfully.

The Supreme One (Taiyi, the origin from which all things are produced) generates Water, and Water in turn assists the Supreme One, thereby forming Heaven. Heaven again assists the Supreme One, thereby forming Earth. Heaven and Earth interact, producing spirits (shenming, beings possessed of spiritual power). The spirits assist one another, forming Yin-Yang; Yin-Yang assist one another, forming the four seasons; the four seasons assist one another, forming cold and heat; cold and heat assist one another, forming dampness and dryness; dampness and dryness assist one another, forming a year, and here it stops.

Thus, a year arises from the interaction of dampness and dryness; dampness and dryness arise from the interaction of cold and heat; cold and heat arise from the four seasons; the four seasons arise from Yin-Yang; Yin-Yang arise from the spirits; the spirits arise from Heaven and Earth; and Heaven and Earth arise from the Supreme One.

Therefore, the Supreme One lies hidden within Water and also moves through the four seasons. It is both ……and……, the root of all things. All things undergo changes of gathering, diminishing, unifying, and filling, yet the Supreme One runs through them as the guiding thread, becoming the constant Dao (the Way) that all things follow. This is something Heaven cannot extinguish, Earth cannot alter, and Yin-Yang cannot accomplish. The gentleman (junzi) who understands this calls it ……

The Way of Heaven (Tiandao, the regular course of natural operation) values the yielding and the weak. Those who hold rank and have achievements can benefit the living; when they meet the strong, they subdue them and make demands upon them, ...

Below ground is called "earth" (Di), and what is above is called "heaven" (Tian). "Dao" (the Way) is also a name. What is its name? Those who act in accordance with the Dao must rely on this name, so their affairs can be accomplished and they themselves can endure. When the sages act, they too rely on this name, so their achievements are realized and they themselves are not harmed.

The names and meanings of heaven and earth stand side by side, so each has its own direction. They do not weigh one another, yet they meet in the northwest, where the terrain is high and strong. In the southeast, the terrain is lower; on the earth ... what is in excess lies below, and what is lacking below is in excess above.

Zi Yi (Black Robes)

[Bamboo Slips] Confucius said: To love what is good as one loves black robes, and to hate what is evil as one hates the wicked conduct described in the "Xiangbo" (Lane Elder) ode, will lead the common people to strive toward goodness, and punishments will not fall into disuse. The Book of Odes says: "Take King Wen of Zhou as the model, and the states of the realm will submit."

[Transmitted Record] Confucius said: To love the virtuous as one loves black robes, and to hate evil as one hates the wicked conduct described in the "Xiangbo" ode, will ensure that ranks are not conferred carelessly and that the common people become reverent. When punishments need not be applied, the common people will all submit. The Book of Odes, "Major Odes of Zhou," says: "Take King Wen of Zhou as the model, and the states of the realm will submit."

[Bamboo Slips] Confucius said: Those in high positions should let others know their character at a glance, and those in low positions should be able to remember their duties according to the standards. In this way, the ruler will not suspect his ministers, and the ministers will not be confused about their ruler. The Book of Odes says: "Worthy gentlemen, their bearing and demeanor are without error." The Announcement of Yi Yin says: "Yi Yin faithfully assisted Tang of Shang, and both ruler and minister possessed the same virtue."

Confucius said: Those who govern a state should commend good conduct and abhor bad conduct, and through this teach the people to esteem sincerity and integrity. In this way the people will acquire the bearing of gentlemen, and their conduct will not go astray. The Announcement of Yin (an ancient text) says: "Only Yi Yin and Tang possessed the same virtue."

Confucius also said: Those who govern a state should commend good conduct and abhor bad conduct, causing the people to esteem sincerity and integrity, so that the hearts of the people will not be divided. The Book of Odes says: "Be reverent in fulfilling your duties, and love those who are upright."

Confucius said: Those in superior positions should make their conduct transparent to others, and those in inferior positions should likewise make their actions clear and keep them on record. In this way, rulers will not doubt their subordinates, and subordinates will not be confused about their rulers. The Announcement of Yin Ji (an ancient text) says: "Only Yi Yin and Tang possessed the same virtue." The Book of Odes says: "The good gentleman's conduct does not go astray."

Confucius said: If those in superior positions cause confusion, the people will have no direction; if those in inferior positions are hard to understand, the ruler will be burdened with worry. Therefore, those who govern the people must make clear what is precious, so that the people know what they should pursue, and must treat bad conduct with caution lest the people indulge in it. In this way, the people will not be confused. When ministers serve their rulers, they should not promise what they cannot accomplish, nor refuse what they are able to bear, so that the ruler will not be burdened. The Greater Odes says: "Heaven is fickle and capricious, and the people suffer because of it." The Lesser Odes says: "If one cannot keep to one's duties and serve with reverence, one will become a source of trouble for the king."

Confucius also said: If those in superior positions cause confusion, the people will have no direction; if those in inferior positions are hard to understand, the ruler will be burdened with worry. Therefore, those who govern the people must make clear what is worthy of love, so that the people know which customs they should follow, and must treat bad conduct with caution lest the people indulge in it. In this way, the people will not be confused. When ministers act, they should not repeat their claims over and over, nor take on tasks beyond their capacity, nor trouble their ruler with matters they do not understand and that would cause him concern, so that the ruler will not be burdened. The Book of Odes says: "Heaven is fickle and capricious, and the people suffer because of it." The Lesser Odes says: "If one cannot keep to one's duties and serve with reverence, one will become a source of trouble for the king."

Confucius said: "The common people regard the ruler as their heart, and the ruler regards the common people as his body. When the heart is at ease, the body is secure; what the ruler loves, the common people will also be eager to pursue. Therefore, the heart is affected when the body is harmed, and the ruler perishes when he loses the people."

The Book of Odes says: "Whoever holds the reins of state governance but does not discipline himself with fairness will in the end only bring toil upon the people." The Junya says: "In summer the heat is oppressive and the rains fall, and the people sigh day after day; in winter the cold is bitter, and the people sigh just the same."

Confucius further said: "When the ruler loves virtue (De), the subjects will vie with one another to practice benevolence (ren). Therefore, one who governs the people should make his aspirations known so that the people understand them; the people will then exert themselves to do their own duties, bringing satisfaction to the ruler." The Book of Odes says: "One who possesses manifest virtue will have people from the four quarters come to submit to him."

Confucius said: When those in high positions love benevolence (ren) and De, the common people will vie with one another to follow it. Therefore, those who govern the people should clarify their aspirations, rectify their teaching, honor benevolence, and cherish the people as they would cherish their own children. In this way, the people will do their utmost in their own affairs and seek to please those above them. The Book of Odes (Shijing) says: "One of lofty virtue, and the states of the four quarters will all come to submit to him."

Confucius said: When Yu held the throne for three years, the people followed the way of benevolence. Must everyone fully attain benevolence? The Book of Odes says: "King Cheng is sincere and worthy of reverence; he becomes the standard for all under heaven." The Lü Xing ("Punishments of Lü") says: "When one man has blessings, the myriad people all receive his grace."

Confucius said: When Yu held the throne for three years, the people were brought onto the right path through benevolence. Must everyone fully embody benevolence? The Book of Odes says: "The illustrious Grand Tutor Yin, the people all look up to you." The Fu Xing ("Punishments of Fu") says: "When one man has blessings, the myriad people all receive his grace." The Great Odes says: "King Cheng is sincere and worthy of reverence; he becomes the standard for all under heaven."

Confucius said: The people serve those in high positions not by following the commands they issue, but by emulating their conduct. When those above favor something, those below tend to carry it to excess. Therefore, the likes and dislikes of those in high positions must be handled with great care, for they are the models the people emulate. The Book of Odes says: "The illustrious Grand Tutor Yin, the people all look up to you."

Confucius said: The people serve those in high positions not by following the commands they issue, but by emulating their conduct. When those above favor something, those below tend to carry it to excess. Therefore, the likes and dislikes of those in high positions must be handled with great care, for they are the models the people emulate.

Confucius said: Those who govern the people do not change their attire lightly, and their bearing is composed and regular, so the people's virtue will converge into unity. The Book of Odes says: "Unchanging in demeanor and measured in speech, the people will be won over."

Confucius said: Those who govern the people should not be inconsistent in their dress, front and back. Their bearing should be composed and dignified, always steady and consistent. In this way they bring order to the customs of the people, and the people's virtue will converge. The Book of Odes says: "That gentleman of the capital, in a bright yellow fox-fur robe, whose bearing never changes and whose speech accords with proper pattern; his conduct returns to the right way, and he is one the myriad people look up to."

Confucius said: Those who occupy high positions do not draw close to the worthy and virtuous, but instead trust those they hold in contempt. To teach the people in this way will produce error and leave them confused. The Book of Odes says: "When he came seeking me, it seemed he would not be satisfied unless he got me; yet once he had me, he treated me coldly and would not employ me." The "Jun Chen" (a chapter of the Book of Documents) says: "Before one has seen the sage, one should fear not being able to see him; but once one has seen the sage, one should not be willing to follow his teaching."

Confucius said: When great ministers are not drawn close, it shows that the ruler lacks loyalty and respect toward them, and that the wealth and honors he grants them have already become excessive. When the state is unstable, it is because the great ministers have not been properly employed, while close minor officials take the opportunity to interfere in government. Therefore the ruler must not fail to respect his great ministers, for they are the models the people emulate. When the ruler does not use trivial matters to plan or to intervene in great affairs, the great ministers will not resent him. The final charge of Duke Zhai (the "Gu Ming," or "Last Charge") says: "Do not let the schemes of petty people ruin great affairs; do not let favored concubines harm the principal wife; and do not let favored concubines harm the grandees and ministers."

Confucius said: When ministers do not draw close to the ruler, the common people also cannot find peace. This shows that the ruler is not sufficiently loyal and reverent, and that his enjoyment of wealth and honor has exceeded what is proper. When ministers are not properly employed, the petty officials who are close to the ruler will form factions and attach themselves to one another. Therefore, one must not fail to respect the great ministers, for they are the models the common people emulate; nor may one fail to be cautious with the close attendants, for the common people will follow their conduct. The ruler should not let minor officials plan great affairs, should not let the words of distant officials bypass those of close attendants, and should not rely on the opinions of inner officials to plan external affairs. In this way, the great ministers will not resent, the close attendants will not envy one another, and the opinions of distant officials will not be obscured.

Ye Gong's final instruction read: Do not let the schemes of minor officials ruin great affairs; do not, because of a favored concubine, come to hate the principal wife; and do not, because of a favored attendant, come to hate upright scholars, grandees, and ministers.

Confucius said: One who governs the common people should teach them with virtue (De) and regulate them with ritual, and then the people will have hearts that strive toward goodness and progress. If one guides them with edicts and restrains them with punishments, the people will think only of how to escape punishment. Therefore, treat the common people with compassion and they will draw near; unite them with sincerity and they will not turn away; govern them with reverence and they will become humble. The Shijing says: "Our grand officers are respectful and frugal; no one fails to restrain himself." The Lüxing says: "When the Miao people did not obey commands, they were controlled with punishments; moreover, five cruel punishments were devised and called law."

Confucius further said: Teaching the people with virtue and regulating them with ritual leads them to turn toward the right way; guiding them with edicts and restraining them with punishments leads them to seek escape. A ruler who governs the common people should cherish them as he cherishes his own children, and then they will draw near; unite them with sincerity and they will not turn away; govern them with reverence and they will become humble. The Fuxing says: "When the Miao people did not obey commands, they were controlled with punishments; five cruel punishments were devised, and these were called law." Therefore, when the people form a corrupt custom, the line of the Miao people is cut off.

Confucius said: When government orders cannot be carried out and moral transformation does not take hold, it shows that punishments are not yet enough to make people feel shame, and that ranks are not enough to encourage them toward goodness. Therefore, rulers should not use punishments lightly, nor bestow titles carelessly. The Kanggao says: "Apply punishments with caution and discernment." The Lüxing says: "In applying punishments, follow the proper way."

Confucius said: A ruler's words begin as fine silk but, once spoken, become like coarse rope; they begin as a single thread but, once spoken, become like a bundle of cord. Therefore, those in high position must not casually voice irresponsible words. The Odes says: "Be careful in your speech, and dignified in your bearing."

Confucius said: If a person cannot carry out what he says, the gentleman does not say it; if a matter can be carried out but is not fitting to speak of, the gentleman does not do it. In this way, the people's words will not work against their conduct, and their deeds will not contradict their words. The Odes says: "Be careful and upright in your words and conduct, and do not violate ritual propriety."

Confucius said: The gentleman guides others with words but always sets an example through his actions. Therefore, one must consider the consequences before speaking, and examine the possible faults before acting. In this way, the people will be cautious in their speech and careful in their deeds. The Odes says: "Solemn and reverent is King Wen, ever bright and cautious in cultivating his virtue."

Confucius said: The gentleman guides the common people with words and restrains them with his own conduct. For this reason, when he speaks he must consider what the outcome of his words will be, and when he acts he must examine what harm his actions might cause. In this way the people will be cautious in speech and prudent in conduct. The Book of Odes says: "King Wen was dignified in bearing; his brilliant virtue shone without cease, and he was always reverent and careful."

Confucius said: Words must be carried out through deeds, and deeds must not be hidden. For this reason, the gentleman, when he speaks, keeps his conduct in mind, and he accomplishes trustworthiness through action. In this way the people cannot exaggerate his merits or minimize his faults. The Book of Odes, "Lesser Odes," says: "Truly he is a gentleman, who really accomplished great work." The Book of Documents, "Junshi," says: "In the past, Heaven observed the virtue of King Wen, and so it bestowed upon him the great mandate."

Confucius further said: When what one has said can be done accordingly, the words need no embellishment; when one's actions accord with what was said, the actions need no adornment. For this reason, the gentleman speaks little and acts much, and in this way accomplishes trustworthiness, so that the people cannot exaggerate his merits or minimize his faults. The Book of Odes, "Greater Odes," says: "A flaw on white jade can still be ground away; a flaw in one's words cannot be undone." The Book of Odes, "Lesser Odes," says: "Truly he is a gentleman, who really accomplished great work." The Book of Documents, "Junshi," says: "In the past, Heaven observed the virtue of King Wen, and so it bestowed upon him the great mandate."

The gentleman's words must have substance, and his conduct must accord with proper standards. Therefore, while he is alive, his aspirations cannot be taken from him, and after his death, his reputation will not be erased. When the gentleman hears much, he carefully discerns and holds fast to what is credible in it. When he has many ideas, he carefully discerns and draws close to those that are fitting. When he understands profound principles, he grasps their essentials and puts them into practice. The Odes say: "The noble man of excellent virtue keeps his bearing always constant." The Junchen says: "Whether you go out or come in, deliberate carefully on the basis of your counsel, so that the opinions of the multitude may come into harmony."

Confucius said: A carriage, once made, leaves its wheel-tracks behind; a garment, once worn, shows its wear. A person, once he has spoken, can be judged by his words; once he has acted, his deeds can be seen in their results. The Odes say: "Wear it, and it delights without wearying."

Confucius said: Favors bestowed only in private cannot make people cherish virtue, and so the gentleman does not keep people close because of them. The Odes say: "When others love me, they show me the right way."

Confucius said: "When someone privately offers a benefit that is not in accord with righteousness, the gentleman does not keep it." The Book of Odes (Shijing) says: "Those who love me point me toward the proper Way."

Confucius said: "Only the gentleman knows how to draw close to those who accord with righteousness. How could the petty person know to do so? Therefore, the gentleman's choice of friends has a clear direction, and his aversions rest on proper principles. In this way, those who draw near to him are not confused, and those who keep away from him do not harbor doubts. The Odes say: 'The gentleman loves those who are fitting for him.'"

Confucius said: "To lightly sever ties with the poor and humble, yet to treat associations with the wealthy and noble with great care, shows that one's love of benevolence is not firm and one's hatred of unrighteousness is not clear. Even if someone says such conduct brings no profit, I do not believe it. The Odes say: 'Friends support one another, upholding each other with the rules of ritual propriety.'"

Confucius said: "The men of Song have a saying: 'If a person lacks constancy, one cannot divine for him.' This is probably a saying handed down from the ancients. Tortoise shells and milfoil stalks cannot fathom a man without constancy, how much less a person himself? The Odes say: 'My tortoise divination has grown weary; it will not tell me of fortune or misfortune.'"

Confucius said, "There is a saying among the people of the south: 'A person who lacks a constant and unchanging code of conduct should not be divined for.' The ancients left the words, 'Even tortoise shells and milfoil stalks cannot discern such a person, let alone other people.' The Odes say, 'My tortoise divinations have grown weary, and they will not tell me of fortune or misfortune.' The Duiming (a chapter of the Book of Documents) says, 'Do not give rank to those of wicked virtue. Let the common people each keep their place and act properly. Sacrifices should be made with sincere and undivided devotion; if the heart is not sincere, the sacrifice is disrespect. When affairs are tangled and complicated, confusion arises, and serving the spirits becomes difficult.' The Book of Changes says, 'If one cannot sustain virtue constantly, one may suffer humiliation as a result.' It also says, 'A woman who constantly holds to correctness is fortunate; a man who does so faces danger.'"

Confucius further said, "Those in high positions are the most likely to suffer humiliation for failing to sustain their virtue. A woman who constantly holds to correctness is fortunate, while a man who does so faces danger."

Confucius said, "When those in superior positions act with ease, and those below readily understand their intentions, punishments need not be numerous."

Confucius said, "The petty person is easily drowned, the gentleman is easily brought to grief by his words, and the great person is easily troubled by the common people. These dangers all arise from things one treats carelessly or with excessive familiarity. Water is close to people, yet it drowns them. Virtue seems easy to approach, yet if one is not cautious, it too can lead a person into danger. Speech that is abundant and complicated comes out hastily, and once spoken it is hard to take back, so it easily brings calamity. The common people do not readily open their hearts to others, and resentment may lie within them. One should respect them and not treat them with contempt, for otherwise calamity is easily invited. Therefore the gentleman must not fail to be cautious.

The Taijia (a chapter of the Book of Documents) says, 'Do not violate your proper duties and bring ruin upon yourself. Like a crossbow that has been drawn, one should first check whether the arrow notch is true to the measure, and only when it is confirmed correct should one shoot.' The Duiming says, 'Words invite shame, and armor and weapons invite war. Ceremonial robes are kept in their chests, while weapons should be checked for any defect in oneself.' The Taijia also says, 'Calamities sent down by Heaven may still be avoided, but calamities one brings upon oneself cannot be escaped.' The Yinji (a chapter of the Book of Documents) says, 'Yin (the Shang minister Yi Yin) personally saw the situation of the Xia capital in the west. The Xia had a fine beginning, and those who assisted it should also have ended well.'"

Duke Mu of Lu consulted Zisi (the grandson of Confucius and a Confucian scholar).

Duke Mu of Lu asked Zisi, "How can one be called a loyal minister?" Zisi replied, "One who constantly points out the ruler's faults may be called a loyal minister." The duke was displeased and gestured for Zisi to withdraw.

Chengsun Yi came to see Duke Mu. The duke said, "Just now I asked Zisi what a loyal minister is, and he answered, 'One who constantly points out the ruler's faults may be called a loyal minister.' I am puzzled by this and do not understand his meaning." Chengsun Yi said, "Well put! There have been people who gave up their lives for their ruler, but we have never heard of anyone who constantly pointed out the ruler's faults. Those who die for their ruler do so hoping to win salary and rank; those who constantly point out the ruler's faults distance themselves from salary and rank. To keep to righteousness by distancing oneself from salary and rank, if not for a man like Zisi, where would I ever have heard such words?"

Fortune and Adversity Depend on the Time

A person's circumstances are divided into hardship and success, and the key lies in timing. The world has both the Way of Heaven and the affairs of men, and each has its own proper bounds. Seeing the difference between Heaven's Way and human affairs allows one to understand what one should do. Some possess talent yet lack a time suited to them, so that even the capable cannot put their abilities to use. Yet when a suitable age arrives, what difficulty could there be?

Shun once farmed at Limountain and made pottery on the bank of the Yellow River, but later he ascended to the throne of the Son of Heaven, because he met Yao. Shao Yao wore coarse cloth and a plain cap and mourning headband; later he set down his masonry tools and assisted the Son of Heaven, because he met Wu Ding. Lü Wang once worked around Zangjijin and toiled near Jianmen, and at seventy was still slaughtering cattle in Chaoge; later he was honored and became the teacher of the Son of Heaven, because he met King Wen of Zhou. Guan Yiwu was once imprisoned and bound; later he removed his shackles and became chief minister to a feudal lord, because he met Duke Huan of Qi. Baili Xi once offered five sheepskins as a bride price and tended cattle for others; later he shed the status of a laborer and became a minister at court, because he met Duke Mu of Qin.

Sun Shu'ao (Sun Shu'ao) met King Wen of Zhou, and only then was he able to display his talents. Guan Zhong (originally named Guan Yiwu) was once imprisoned and bound in shackles. He was later released and became chief minister to a feudal lord, because he met Duke Huan of Qi. Baili Xi was once traded for five sheepskins and herded oxen for others. Later he cast off his lowly status and became a senior minister of the state of Qin, because he met Duke Mu of Qin.

Sun Shu'ao was dismissed from the post of Minister of War three times, and later took office as Lingyin (the highest executive official of Chu), because he met King Zhuang of Chu. At first he kept himself concealed and restrained, and only later did his fame spread far. This was not because his virtue had increased afterward. Wu Zixu, a grandee of the state of Wu in the Spring and Autumn period, had earlier achieved many merits, yet he was later put to death. This was not because his wisdom had declined. Fine horses were trapped at Zhangshan, and good steeds hid in caves at Shaoji. This was not because they had lost their robust bodies. Able to traverse the four seas and travel a thousand li in a day, they did so because they met Zaofu, a master charioteer.

Whether one meets someone who appreciates one depends on Heaven's timing. One's actions are not undertaken to seek advancement, so one does not resent hardship when in difficulty. Retreat into seclusion is not undertaken to seek fame, so one does not mind even when no one understands. Zhilan (fragrant orchids) grows in the forest, and even when no one smells it, it remains fragrant. Jade within a precious mountain does not lose its worth because no one recognizes it. Mountain stone does not split because it is good at bearing heavy loads. Hardship and advancement depend on timing, while virtue remains constant. Praise and slander are both at one's side. Hear them and let them pass, and do not let them confuse black and white. Hardship and advancement change with the times, and obscurity and clarity are not fixed forever. Therefore, the gentleman should concentrate on examining himself.

Five Phases

Jing Passage One: Benevolence that takes form within the heart and manifests outwardly is called "the practice of De" (dezhi xing). What has not taken form within the heart is called only "practice" (xing). Righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sagacity follow the same pattern. What takes form within the heart is called "the practice of De," and what has not is called only "practice."

The five manifestations of De (Virtue) are said to be in harmony with one another when they are called "De." When four of them are in harmony in action, this is called "goodness" (shan). Goodness is the Dao (the Way) that humans follow, while De is the Dao that Heaven follows.

If the junzi (exemplary person) does not have anxious reflection arising from within, he will not have inner wisdom. Without inner wisdom, there can be no inner joy. Without inner joy, the heart is not at ease. A heart that is not at ease cannot be happy, and without happiness there is no De. Another version writes "wisdom" as shengming (sagely clarity).

When all five virtues appear within the heart and are put into action at the right time, such a person is called a junzi. A scholar who sets his will on pursuing the Way of the junzi is called a zhishi (a man of resolve). Goodness that is not practiced is hard to approach, and De that is not aspired to cannot be realized. Wisdom that is not reflected upon cannot be attained. If reflection is not refined, one cannot discern clearly, and if it is not far-reaching, it yields no results. If reflection is not clear, the heart cannot manifest its understanding within. An unsettled heart is not joyful, and without joy there is no De.

Without ren (benevolence), reflection cannot be clear, and without wisdom, reflection cannot reach far. Lacking both ren and wisdom, a person is anxious and unsettled before encountering a junzi, and even after seeing one, the heart cannot rejoice. The Book of Odes says: "Before I saw the junzi, my heart was anxious; once I saw him and beheld him, my heart rejoiced." This describes exactly this condition.

Another passage states: without ren, reflection cannot be clear, and without shengming (sagely clarity), reflection cannot be light and unobstructed. Lacking both ren and sagely clarity, a person is anxious before seeing a junzi, and even after seeing one, the heart cannot be calmed.

Benevolence (ren) that thinks clearly and finely can discern. Discernment brings stability, stability brings gentleness, gentleness brings joy, and joy brings attachment. Attachment keeps a person from being careless. Those who lack benevolence and sagehood (sheng) feel anxious and uneasy before they see a noble person (junzi), and even after they see one, their minds cannot settle.

Benevolence that thinks clearly and finely can discern. Discernment brings stability, stability brings gentleness, and gentleness brings joy. Joy draws a person near, and nearness leads to affection. Affection softens the countenance until it is as warm as jade, and when the countenance shows outwardly in bodily form, that form embodies benevolence.

Wisdom (zhi) thinks deeply and far, and such depth gains something. What is gained is not forgotten, and what is not forgotten can be distinguished. Distinguishing clearly lets one see worthy people, and seeing them makes the countenance warm as jade. When the countenance appears outwardly in bodily form, that form embodies wisdom.

Sagehood (sheng) thinks on a lofty plane. Lofty thinking appears outwardly in bodily form. Once it appears, it is not forgotten, and what is not forgotten hears keenly. Keen hearing allows one to hear the way of the noble person, and hearing the way of the noble person produces a voice as lovely as jade. When that voice is expressed, the bodily form embodies sagehood.

"Sagehood thinks on a lofty plane": "thinking" (si) means contemplating the Dao of Heaven (Tiandao), and "lofty plane" refers to esteeming a supremely elevated state.

"Lofty thinking appears outwardly in bodily form": "appears" means expressing outwardly what one contemplates within the mind. Youxia Zi's thoughts about Qing were lighter than those about Di, so passersby seemed cut off from him. When Youxia Zi saw Qing, passersby also seemed cut off, while the passersby flowed past like water. This describes the lofty range of his thinking.

"Not forgotten, and hearing keenly": "keen hearing" describes the sage's inner capacity of the ear, like Confucius, who by hearing the drum of Qing knew the Lu of Xia.

"Keen hearing allows one to hear the way of the noble person": "Dao" here means the Dao of Heaven. The sage's inner hearing is like Confucius hearing the drum of Qing and knowing the Lu of Xia. Hearing the Dao that the noble person aspires to lets one come to understand it.

"Hearing the way of the noble person produces a voice as lovely as jade": the surviving text broadly says that when a sage hears an aspiration, he can understand why it is beautiful.

"When a voice as lovely as jade is expressed": the fragmentary text does not fully convey its meaning.

"The bodily form then embodies sagehood": the fragmentary text does not fully convey its meaning.

"The shijiu (cuckoo) rests in the mulberry tree, and its young are seven; the worthy gentleman's standard of conduct is one." This means that the shijiu perches in a mulberry tree and the poem says it has seven fledglings, while a virtuous gentleman's conduct follows a single, unwavering standard. The commentary notes that the shijiu actually has only two young, and that "seven" is borrowed from the poem as a xing (evocative image) to convey its meaning. Yi here refers to yili, the principles of meaning. The passage says that a virtuous person can thread many kinds of rightness together through a single mind.

Only one who can "take the many as one" (yi duo wei yi) can become a junzi (exemplary person). The "many," the commentary explains, is connected to the number five, meaning the capacity to unify five kinds of things into one. The junzi must guard his inner mind with care and not be pulled along by external forms and things. By setting aside these five outward distinctions and holding fast to the inner mind, one reaches singleness of purpose. Singleness of purpose is De (Virtue), and De is like Heaven.

"The swallows fly, their wings uneven; she goes off to be married, and they see her far off into the wilds. Gazing after her, they cannot catch sight of her, and tears fall like rain." This means that the swallows fly with uneven wings, and that a woman is leaving home to marry and travel far away. Her escorts accompany her into the countryside, but they can no longer see her figure, and their tears fall like rain. The commentary explains that the uneven wings are a poetic xing that introduces the feeling of parting. Deep and genuine grief does not lie in the wings or in any outward form.

The mourning rites, such as wearing mourning garments and straightening the collar, do not necessarily express the grief within. True sorrow comes from the heart and does not lie in outward appearance. What is meant by "alone" (du) is to set aside the body and its outward traces and hold fast to the inner mind.

The junzi who practices goodness (shan) is accompanied by others at the start and is still accompanied at the end. The junzi who cultivates De (Virtue) is accompanied at the start, but at the end stands alone.

The shan discussed here is tied to particular persons and affairs. De is different. It may be shared with others at the beginning, but in the end one must set aside external form and things and let the inner mind comprehend alone.

The phrase jīn shēng ér yù zhèn zhī ("sound the metal, then ring the jade") describes how a person of De can be like music, opening with the tone of metal and closing with the tone of jade. The "metal sound" stands for shan, and the "jade tone" stands for sagehood (sheng). Shan belongs to the Way of Humanity (rendao), while De belongs to the Way of Heaven (tiandao). Only a person of De can begin with shan and complete the process with sagely virtue.

The commentary explains that the De of the Way of Heaven acts without deliberate effort, yet beauty appears naturally. Shan is bound to concrete affairs and can balance firmness and gentleness while attending to many directions at once. The saying "sound the metal, then ring the jade" means that the actions of a person of De can move external things and bring shan into manifestation.

Without cleverness, one cannot be discerning. Without discernment, one cannot reach the realm of the sage (shengjing). Without reaching that realm, there is no wisdom. Without wisdom, there is no benevolence. Without benevolence, there is no peace. Without peace, there is no joy. Without joy, there is no De.

"'Without cleverness (congming), one cannot attain sagely wisdom (shengzhi).' Cong, or acute hearing, is the manifestation of sagely brightness hidden in the ears. Ming, or clear sight, is the manifestation of wisdom hidden in the eyes. Acute hearing is the beginning of sagely brightness, and clear sight is the beginning of wisdom. Thus it is said that without cleverness there can be no sagely wisdom. Sagely wisdom must all begin with keen hearing and clear sight. The sage comes from Heaven, while wisdom comes from humanity. The sage is lofty and far-reaching, while wisdom is broad and extensive.

'Without wisdom, there can be no benevolence (ren).' If one does not know what to love, how can one speak of love? In other words, benevolence must rely on wisdom in order to be put into practice.

'Without benevolence, there can be no stability.' Only when there is benevolence can people be settled, and this accords with the Way of Heaven (Tiandao).

'Without stability, there can be no joy.' Stability means that the body and mind are in harmony with oneself. Only once one has first settled down can one experience joy.

'Without joy, there can be no De (Virtue).' Joy means that the body and mind are open and flowing, as if a trigger mechanism suddenly opens and an obstruction vanishes. When the obstruction vanishes, De has reached its utmost. Joy comes first, and only afterward does De arise.

'Without change, there can be no delight.' Here, 'change' means striving to transform oneself, which embodies the breath of benevolence. Only after change can there be delight.

'Without delight, there is no concern for those one holds dear.' Once delight arises, one then becomes concerned for those one cares about.

'Without concern, there is no closeness.' Only after one has concern can one draw near to the other person.

'Without closeness, there is no love.' Love arises only after closeness.

'Without love, there is no ren.' Ren arises only after love.

'Without uprightness, one becomes unrestrained. Without restraint, one cannot be resolute. Without resolution, one cannot be concise. Without conciseness, one cannot carry things out. Without carrying things out, one does not accord with yi (righteousness).'"

"If one's heart is not upright, one cannot fully carry out one's duties." Here, "upright" (zhi) means making the heart correct and in accord with righteousness. Only once the heart is correct can one see a matter through to the end. "Carrying it through" (si) means completing the task to its end. If one is not recognized by the multitude but is recognized by Meng Ben, the ancient warrior renowned for his courage, one still cannot be considered to have truly accomplished it.

"If one cannot see things through to the end, one cannot have a resolute heart." By "resolute" (guo) is meant being without fear and having no lingering attachments in the mind.

"Without a resolute heart, one cannot distinguish what to take and what to leave." By "simplicity" (jian) is meant not sacrificing the greater matter for a small one, and not sacrificing the weightier matter for a trivial one.

"If one cannot distinguish what to take and what to leave, one cannot put things into practice." By "practice" (xing) is meant acting in accordance with what one has done... [original text damaged here]

"If one cannot put things into practice, there can be no accordance with righteousness." [original text damaged here]

If one cannot make others respect one, one cannot make them stand in awe; if one cannot make them stand in awe, one cannot be dignified; if one is not dignified, one cannot be revered; if one is not revered, one cannot show reverence; and without reverence, there is no ritual propriety (li).

"If one cannot make others respect one, one cannot make them stand in awe." Here "distance" (yuan) means causing people to feel reverence, thereby embodying the bearing of ritual propriety. Toward those who are close, if... [original text damaged here]; toward those who are distant, one can cause people to feel reverence. Waving a hand in gesture while handing food to others with the other hand still does not amount to truly making others respect you...

"If one cannot command reverence, one cannot be dignified." By "dignity" (yan) is roughly meant... ...is what accumulated reverence produces.

"If one cannot be dignified, one cannot be revered." One must first make oneself dignified, and only then can one be revered.

"If one cannot be revered, one cannot show reverence." By "reverence" (gong) is meant treating superiors with respect and inferiors with humility. Only when one achieves reverence does one accord with ritual propriety, and only then does one possess the bearing of ritual propriety.

Someone who has never heard of the way of the gentleman is called "unhearing"; someone who has never seen a worthy person is called "unperceptive." Someone who has heard of the way of the gentleman but does not understand what the way of the gentleman is, is called "unsage-like"; someone who has seen a worthy person but does not know that he possesses virtue is called "unwise."

Not having heard of the Way of the junzi (the principles and conduct of the noble person) is called "not perceiving" (bu cong). Someone who has heard it but shows no reverence for or comprehension of the Way of the junzi is likewise called not perceiving.

Not having seen a worthy person (xianren) is called "not discerning" (bu ming). Someone who has seen one but shows no reverence for or comprehension of that worthy person is likewise called not discerning.

Hearing the Way of the junzi without knowing that it is the Way of the junzi is called "not being sagely" (bu sheng). Hearing it without comprehending and revering it, and without recognizing the Dao (the Way) of Heaven (the fundamental principles by which Heaven and Earth operate) embodied within it, is also called not being sagely.

Seeing a worthy person without knowing that they possess De (Virtue/Power) is called "not being wise" (bu zhi). Seeing a worthy person without comprehending and revering them, and without understanding why they have become worthy, is likewise called not being wise.

To understand the principles of things upon seeing them is "wisdom" (zhi); to understand principles upon hearing them is "sagacity" (sheng). To infer from what is manifest the principles not yet manifest is wisdom; to be awed by and comprehend profound principles is sagacity. The line "Brightly they are below, awe-stricken they are above" expresses precisely this meaning.

Understanding principles upon hearing them is sagacity: upon hearing, one comprehends the Dao of Heaven within them. Understanding things upon seeing them is wisdom: upon seeing, one grasps the principle by which they are as they are.

What is meant by "brightness" (ming ming) is wisdom, for wisdom is inferring from what has already been seen the principles not yet seen. What is meant by "awe-stricken" (xi xi) is sagacity. The text that follows has many missing characters, and only this much can be discerned: it offers a further explanation of this statement.

"Brightly they are below, glorious they are above" expresses precisely this meaning: the capacity for discernment begins below, and the state of eminence begins above. The lacuna appears to be explaining the relationship between sagacity and wisdom.

To hear the principles of the junzi (the exemplary person) and be able to discern them is called cong (perceptiveness). To hear them and immediately grasp them is called sheng (sagehood), for the sage understands the Dao of Heaven (Tiandao). To understand them and then act accordingly is called yi (righteousness). To act in a way that fits the moment is called De (Virtue).

To see a worthy person is called ming (clarity). To see such a person and be able to recognize and comprehend them is called zhi (wisdom). To comprehend and then accept them with equanimity is called ren (humaneness). To accept them and then hold them in reverence is called li (ritual propriety).

Sagehood, wisdom, ritual propriety, and music arise from these, and they also bring the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) into harmony. When the Five Phases are harmonious, people find joy, and when people are joyful, they can cultivate virtue. When virtue is cultivated, the state flourishes. This is what King Wen's far-seeing clarity was. The line "King Wen dwells above, and his light shines brightly through Heaven" describes exactly this.

To hear the "Way of the junzi" and be able to distinguish it is cong. Hearing is the same for everyone, but only one who clearly discerns the Way of the junzi can be called perceptive. Cong is the manifestation of sagely insight stored within the ear.

"Grasping upon hearing" is called sheng: to understand the Dao of Heaven immediately upon hearing is sagely illumination. As for the sage who understands the Dao of Heaven, "Dao" means the path that people follow.

"Understanding and then acting" is called yi: to clearly grasp the principles the junzi follows and to act on them with resolve is the spirit of righteousness.

"Acting in accordance with the moment" is called De. Here, "moment" (shi) refers to harmony, and harmony is the virtue that benefits others.

"Seeing a worthy person" is called ming. Seeing is the same for everyone, but only one who clearly recognizes a worthy person can be called clear-sighted. Ming is the manifestation of wisdom stored within the eye. Only when the mind is clear can one see the worthy.

Comprehending a worthy person after seeing them is zhi. Why is this so? Because the ability to examine and discern things, and thereby come to understand them, is wisdom.

"Accepting with equanimity after understanding" is called ren: to clearly grasp the principles the junzi follows and to receive them gently is humaneness.

"Holding reverence after acceptance" is called li: having accepted something calmly, one then displays a respectful attitude. This is ritual propriety.

The qi of benevolence is the root from which ritual and music arise. To know the way that the gentleman follows and to accept it with equanimity is the qi of benevolence.

Once one has practiced it with equanimity and holds reverence in the heart, this is the expression of ritual. This breath of reverent caution is the qi of ritual. ……The Way of Heaven……

The qi of benevolence is the root from which the rites and music arise. That is to say, ritual and music arise from benevolence and righteousness……

When the five basic virtues are in harmony, harmony is produced, and with harmony there is joy. The "harmony" spoken of here is like five sounds blending with one another. "Joy" means that this harmony flows and unfolds without obstruction. To forget blockage and pass through without hindrance is the expression of virtue reaching its highest attainment.

With joy there is virtue, and with virtue the state flourishes. When the state flourishes, it means that benevolence and righteousness arise throughout the realm, and it also speaks of……joy.

"King Wen is above, his brilliance shining in Heaven" describes virtue made complete and accomplishment brought to fulfillment.

[Jing 18] To see things and thereby gain understanding is wisdom. To accept what has been understood with equanimity is benevolence. To put what has been accepted into practice is righteousness. To practice with reverence is ritual. Benevolence is the root from which righteousness and ritual arise, and it is the foundation on which the four kinds of conduct are brought into harmony. When they are in harmony, they are coordinated, and when they are coordinated, goodness is formed.

[Shuo 18] "To see things and thereby gain understanding is wisdom." Here, "seeing" refers to……; "wisdom" means inferring unseen principles from the things that can be seen. "To accept what has been understood with equanimity is benevolence." To understand the way the gentleman follows and to accept it with equanimity is the qi of benevolence. "To put what has been accepted into practice is righteousness." After acceptance, to practice it with firm resolve is the qi of righteousness. "To practice with reverence is ritual." After practice, to remain respectful and cautious is the qi of ritual.

What is accepted, what is practiced, and what is revered are all the principles that a person should follow.

"Ren (benevolence; possibly also zhi, wisdom) and [yi] (righteousness) are the source from which li (ritual propriety) and [zhi] (wisdom) arise." This means that ritual propriety and wisdom both grow out of benevolence and righteousness.

"The four qualities are in mutual harmony." This means that benevolence and righteousness can harmonize with each other.

"When there is harmony, there can be unity." Harmony is like five different sounds blending into one concord. Unity means holding to a shared standard so that hearts and minds are in accord. That is, one abandons conduct that strays from the good, so that all four qualities return to a heart directed toward goodness. "Unity" is the supreme state of the good.

"When there is unity, the good can be accomplished."...Among human conduct there is one thing that is most important and most fundamental... The Shizi says: "Humans have constant principles, and through them one attains..."

[Jing 19] When a person's countenance and bearing become gentle, it is because the heart, in dealing with others, feels joy, and the mind is glad. When this gladness is extended to one's brothers, closeness arises; when closeness gives rise to trust, this is true closeness; when closeness deepens into sincere affection, this is love. To love one's father and to extend that love further to others is ren.

[Shuo 19] "The countenance and bearing are gentle and warm." Here "gentle and warm" refers to diligence and humility, the capacity to be gentle and warm. One who can do this feels joy in the heart. Once the heart is glad, the countenance and bearing become mild, displaying a pleasant and affectionate appearance.

"Because the heart feels joy in dealing with others,"... "The mind is glad"...this speaks of joy already present in the mind. If there is no joy in one's heart, one will not extend that joy to one's brothers.

"Extending joy to one's brothers gives rise to closeness." This means that by extending the joy within the heart to one's brothers, one can become close to them and feel mutual compassion. Brothers who cannot live in harmony with one another do not lack the joy with which to draw close to each other. Rather, they have failed to extend that joy to one another.

"Closeness that leads to trust is true closeness." This means that by extending the joy within the heart to one's brothers, one can become close to them and feel mutual compassion. Brothers who cannot live in harmony with one another do not lack the joy with which to draw close to each other. Rather, they have failed to extend that joy to one another.

"Being trusted because of shared sorrow and anxiety is intimacy." Here, "trust" (xin) means trusting the other person's body and life. Even if someone cuts off your limbs and offers the whole world in exchange, you would not agree. Even if someone cuts off your brother and offers the whole world in exchange, you would not be confused or wavered. This is trust. One must first trust the other person before one can grow close to them.

"Drawing close and treating the other person with depth and generosity is love." By "depth," we mean deep feeling and generous treatment of others. One must first have deep kinship before people can truly love one another.

"Loving one's father and extending that love to others is humaneness (ren)." That is, one first loves one's own father and then extends that love to other people. If someone loves only their father but harms the child next door, they cannot be called humane.

[Scripture 20] To discern right and wrong clearly in one's heart and to act upon it with uprightness is called "straightness" (zhi). To carry uprightness through to the end is called "boldness" (si), meaning to frankly advance one's own integrity. Not fearing those who are domineering and powerful is called "resoluteness" (guo), meaning decisiveness. Not letting minor ways harm the great Way is called "simplicity" (jian), meaning not being burdened by petty private gain. When a great crime is committed, applying a correspondingly heavy punishment is called "conduct" (xing), meaning acting according to principle. Honoring the noble and respecting the worthy according to their rank is called "righteousness" (yi).

[Commentary 20] Regarding "discerning right and wrong clearly in one's heart and acting on it with uprightness is called straightness," an example illustrates it: if fine food is placed before you and someone sighingly offers it to you, your heart is not confused. If you dislike such charity and refuse it, acting uprightly according to your own principles, this is "straightness."

"Carrying uprightness through to the end is called boldness." "Boldness" means pursuing uprightness to its completion. The remaining text is lost, so its meaning cannot be fully determined.

"Not fearing the domineering and powerful is called resoluteness." Here, "domineering" (qiang yu) refers to people who oppress others through brute strength. The remaining text is lost, but its general sense is that when the heart is not disturbed, one can still act decisively.

"Not letting minor ways harm the great Way is called simplicity." "Simplicity" means not letting small affection harm great affection, and not letting minor righteousness harm great righteousness. Upon seeing an animal alive, one does not eat it; one eats it only after it has died. When sacrificing to one's ancestors, personally presiding over punishments and similar matters also belongs to acting according to what is essential.

If a great crime has been committed, it is permissible to impose a correspondingly severe punishment. One must not let a lesser way harm the Great Way, nor let a lesser love obstruct a greater love, or a lesser righteousness obstruct a greater righteousness. This is what is meant by jian (simplicity), which means making choices from the standpoint of the whole and of great righteousness. Seeing living animals, one does not eat animals that have already died. When making sacrifices to one's kin, one personally presides over the execution of punishment. This too belongs to jian.

It is permissible to punish severely when a great crime has been committed. But if someone is killed without having committed a crime, one must not do so, even if that person dies as a result. Nevertheless, when punishing one who has committed a great crime, one must understand the principle of punishing others and act according to that principle. For this reason it is called xing (conduct).

Respecting the honored and, in accordance with rank, showing reverence to the worthy is in accord with righteousness. "The honored" refers to those whom the multitude esteems. To respect the worthy, to love the elders, to draw close to one's kin, and to acknowledge titles of nobility is to select the noble without partiality. To honor the worthy according to rank is righteousness. What is called honoring the worthy means distinguishing among the worthy, selecting them, and placing them in positions of superiority. This is done not because of their noble status, but out of moral duty. To respect only the noble and not the worthy cannot be called being in accord with righteousness.

【Classic 21】To associate with others with a distant and dignified demeanor is called yuan (distance). To treat another with gravity even while keeping one's distance is called jing (reverence). To be reverent without slackening is called yan (strictness). To be strict in a way that inspires awe is called zun (dignity). To be respected yet not arrogant is called gong (humility). To associate widely with others while remaining humble is called li (propriety).

【Commentary 21】"To associate with others with a distant attitude is called distance." The "outer heart" spoken of here does not mean a separate, divergent mind. It is simply that the same heart has different names: the gentle, intimate aspect is called the "central heart," and the open, distant aspect is called the "outer heart." This means associating with others with an open and reserved state of mind.

"To treat another with gravity even while keeping one's distance is called reverence." The specific explanation of reverence is damaged in the original text.

"To be reverent without slackening is called strictness." Strictness is reverence that does not relax; it is built up through persistence. The explanatory text that follows is damaged in the original.

"To be strict in a way that inspires awe is called dignity." When gravity is accompanied by awe-inspiring presence, others cannot treat one lightly or encroach upon one, and so they naturally respect one.

Respect is shown when a person of high position is not proud. The point here is that someone who serves a ruler or teacher and merely holds a high rank, without conducting themselves respectfully, cannot be called respectful. Even those who serve as menials know how to be respectful, because respect arises from reverence for one's elders and superiors.

To be respectful and still engage widely with others accords with ritual propriety (li). The term "bo" (broad, extensive) here carries the sense of discernment: one must be able to distinguish and respond appropriately, and only then does conduct accord with ritual propriety.

Without leniency and simplicity (jian), edicts cannot be carried out; without concealing minor faults (ni) and overlooking them, one cannot clearly understand the principles of affairs. To impose heavy punishment for a grave crime is to be lenient and simple in due measure. To pardon a minor offense is to conceal it and not pursue it. If a grave crime is not punished heavily, edicts cannot be enforced; if a minor offense is not pardoned, one does not know how to handle matters according to principle.

"Jian" carries the sense of weighing and deciding, referring to a careful, unhurried handling of major matters. "Ni" refers to hiding and overlooking minor transgressions. Jian is one way of practicing righteousness (yi), and ni is one way of practicing humaneness (ren). Firmness can embody righteousness, and gentleness can embody humaneness. Neither contending nor forcing, neither wholly rigid nor wholly weak: this is what the principle means.

Jian may also be understood as measuring, that is, rendering an upright judgment on major matters. Ni, like concealing a fault, refers to tolerance toward small matters.

"Jian" (simplicity) as a term is like the standard by which things are measured. Its character is broad and does not dwell on minute details. "Ni" (concealment) as a term is like hiding one's faults. Its character is fine-grained and cautious. These two terms should be understood in their proper sense.

Jian is the method of practicing yi (righteousness), and ni is the method of practicing ren (benevolence). Ren and yi differ in the attitude with which they are held in the mind and in the manner in which they are carried out. When yi is pursued to its utmost, it appears as jian; when ren is pursued to its utmost, it appears as ni. In great matters, yi must be handled broadly, while in small matters, ren must attend closely and observe carefully. Hence yi takes jian, and ren takes ni.

The Book of Odes (Shi Jing) says: "Do not force, do not hurry; be neither hard nor soft." This is exactly the meaning. Jing means to force, and qiu means to hurry. To neither force nor hurry, to be neither hard nor soft, is to not contend with others. This is the state in which ren and yi are in harmony.

The junzi (one who possesses virtue and position) can gather the strengths of many and accomplish great undertakings. One who is able to keep advancing may become a junzi; one who cannot remains at the level he has reached. A person who is broad and unhurried has something worth adopting, and a person who is fine-grained and cautious likewise has something worth adopting. Those whose conduct in every respect accords with the Dao of the junzi are called xian (worthies). When the junzi recognizes and recommends them, this is called honoring the worthy; when he recognizes and serves them, this too is called honoring the worthy. The former describes dukes and kings honoring worthies, and the latter describes scholars honoring worthies.

"The junzi gathers the strengths of many and accomplishes great undertakings." Here, cheng (accomplishment) is like building something and assembling all its necessary materials. Da cheng (great accomplishment) is like striking the bell first and then closing the music with the jade chime, meaning that the various virtues have fully merged and reached perfection. Only upon reaching this state can one practice ren oneself and also cause others to practice ren, and practice yi oneself and cause others to practice yi. The realm of great accomplishment is lofty and wondrous! People think it cannot be reached only because they do not know the road that leads to it. It is not truly unattainable.

Those who are able to keep extending their sprouts of goodness are the junzi, the exemplary person; those who cannot remain at their present level. The "sprouts of goodness" refer to the incipient forms of virtuous qualities such as benevolence (ren) and righteousness (yi). Having no desire to harm others is the root of benevolence, and refusing to accept others' sighs of distress and entreaties for help is the root of righteousness. If one cannot extend these sprouts further, one can only remain at one's existing level.

When the mind that does not wish to harm others is extended outward, benevolence can embrace the four seas. When the mind that will not accept others' pleas is extended outward, righteousness can pervade the world. When benevolence embraces the four seas and righteousness pervades the world, and when these are practiced sincerely from within, one may truly be called a junzi.

"One who is great yet at ease can serve as a model." Here, "great yet at ease" refers to righteousness, and "can serve as a model" means being able to put it into practice.

"One who is small yet cautious can serve as a model." Here, "small yet cautious" refers to benevolence, and "can serve as a model" likewise means being able to put it into practice.

When good conduct in all its forms leads to the way of the junzi, such a person is called a worthy (xian). In other words, one who practices benevolence and righteousness and further attains the way of the junzi is called xian.

When a junzi recognizes a worthy and promotes him, this is called honoring the worthy, as Yao promoting Shun and Tang promoting Yi Yin. Promotion must be sincere; to know a worthy and yet not promote him does not yet count as honoring the worthy.

When a junzi follows a worthy and serves him, as Yan Hui and Zilu served Confucius, this is honoring the worthy. Service must be sincere; to recognize a person's worth and yet not serve him does not yet count as honoring the worthy.

The former passage speaks of how kings and dukes honor the worthy, and the latter of how scholars do so. Both are proper conduct.

The six senses and limbs (ears, eyes, nose, mouth, hands, and feet) are all governed by the heart-mind (xin). When the heart says "yes," they never fail to comply; when it says "go ahead," they never fail to act. When it bids them advance, they advance; when it bids them withdraw, they withdraw; when it calls for deep engagement, they engage deeply; when it calls for a light touch, they touch lightly. When the heart and these bodily parts are in harmony, sharing one mind, affairs can be accomplished well.

The ears and eyes delight in sounds and colors, the nose and mouth delight in scents and flavors, and the hands and feet delight in ease and comfort, while the heart delights in benevolence and righteousness (conduct that accords with morality). Each part of the body has what it desires, so why should the six obey the heart's direction? Because the heart is honored in its position. Even if the most exquisite sounds and colors of the world are placed before the eyes, if they are not in accord with righteousness, the heart will not let one listen or look. Even if the finest scents and flavors are offered, if they are not in accord with righteousness, the heart will not let one pursue or enjoy them. Even if an action would bring ease and comfort, if it violates righteousness, the heart will not let one do it. Why is this so? Presumably because the small cannot overcome the great, and the lowly cannot overcome the exalted. Therefore it is said that the six are governed by the heart. The ears, eyes, nose, mouth, hands, and feet are the small parts of a person, while the heart is the great part; thus the heart is like a ruler.

When the heart says "yes," the ears, eyes, nose, mouth, hands, and feet, along with voice, countenance, and expression, all respond in kind. The same holds when the heart says "go ahead," and when it bids them withdraw.

When your father calls, answer at once, even with food in your mouth, so that no one dares to fail to respond. Answer in this way, and withdraw in this way too.

When your father calls, spit out the food in your mouth and put down whatever you are holding. Having answered, do not stop at words alone; hurry to act. This is taking your father's instructions with great seriousness. Toward an elder brother, the same urgency is not required. The difference between how one responds to father and to elder brother shows that weight and lightness are properly measured.

"He" (hé, harmony) means mutual coordination and accord: the heart is sincere, worry does not disturb the mind, and conduct accords with ren (benevolence) and yi (righteousness). Ren and yi arise from within the heart. "Tong" (tóng, sameness) means being one with the heart in accord, with a focused attitude that does not go against ren and yi. Ren and yi lie within the heart, and when inner and outer are consistent, this is good.

Understanding at a single glance is called "jin zhi" (advancing toward it). Understanding after someone explains is also called "jin zhi," and so is understanding through comparison and example. Grasping something from subtle signs without it being stated outright is innate intelligence. "Shangdi (Lord on High) regards you; do not let your intentions divide into two." This speaks of exactly this kind of focused and perceptive understanding.

What is meant by "to observe personally and so recognize, and this is called guiding them" is that without first observing, one cannot recognize, and only after recognizing can one guide. Observation means comparing things with one another. As the poem says, "Heaven looks down upon the human realm, and the Mandate of Heaven (tianming) gathers together." Heaven surveys the human world and so gathers its Mandate into one place.

Following the nature of plants and trees, they grow, yet they have no likes or dislikes. Following the nature of birds and beasts, they have likes and dislikes, yet no ritual propriety (li) or righteousness (yi). Following the nature of human beings, one can clearly know that people delight in benevolence (ren) and righteousness. If one does not accord with the Mandate that humans receive, one cannot attain benevolence and righteousness; if one accords with it, one attains them. This is the result of observation and recognition.

Therefore, by observing the natures of all things, one knows that only humans understand benevolence and righteousness, and can use these to guide people. The poem "Wen Wang zai shang, yu zhao yu tian" (Wen Wang is above, his brilliance shines in Heaven) refers precisely to this. It means that Wen Wang's De (virtue) shone clearly in Heaven.

Wen Wang examined the nature of the eyes and ears and knew that people delight in sounds and colors. He examined the nature of the nose and mouth and knew that people delight in scents and flavors. He examined the nature of the hands and feet and knew that people delight in ease and comfort. He examined the nature of the heart and clearly knew that people delight in benevolence and righteousness. Therefore he held benevolence and righteousness in his heart without losing them, drew close to them without turning away, and so his De stood out brilliantly in Heaven and shone throughout the world. This had no other cause. He observed and recognized the nature of people, knew that nothing is more precious than benevolence and righteousness, and used them to guide the people.

Understanding things by means of analogy is called progressing step by step. At first one does not understand, but with the help of an analogy one can come to understand, and once one understands, one's knowledge advances. Take a small mound and a mountain. The reason a small mound cannot be called a mountain is that it has not accumulated enough. Shun had benevolence (ren), and I too have benevolence, yet my benevolence falls short of Shun's because my accumulation is insufficient. Shun had righteousness (yi), and I too have righteousness, yet my righteousness falls short of Shun's, again because my accumulation is insufficient. By comparing a small mound with a mountain, one can see why one falls short of Shun and continue to improve from there.

Using things to inspire understanding is also called progressing step by step. With inspiration one can understand, and once one understands, one advances. Inspiration means using a small matter one knows well and values to grasp a greater and more far-reaching principle.

The Book of Odes (Shijing) says: "The beautiful and virtuous lady, waking and sleeping I seek her." This describes a man longing for a woman's beauty. "Seeking her and not obtaining her, waking and sleeping I think of her" describes the intensity of his longing. "Sighing at leisure, tossing and turning, unable to sleep" describes that longing carried to its extreme. Yet even at such a pitch, if he were with his parents, he would not meet her in secret. Nor would he do so in the presence of his brothers or his fellow villagers. This is because he reveres his father and elder brothers, is mindful of what others think, and above all is bound by the constraints of ritual propriety (li). To come to understand the constraints of ritual through the pursuit of beauty is also a form of progress.

To know things from subtle signs is an innate capacity. The term ji, meaning incipience, refers to the faint sign or first indication of a thing. Only one who possesses innate virtue (de) can grasp the principle of a matter from such subtle indications.

"Shangdi (the Lord on High) is before you; do not be of two minds." The statement that Shangdi is present at one's side is grasped from subtle signs, while the instruction "do not be of two minds" is grasped from the whole.

Heaven bestowing virtue upon a person is the Will of Heaven. When a worthy person bestows virtue upon others, this shows their closeness to and trust in those others. (When a worthy person bestows virtue and cannot find a suitable recipient, they should not force the act.)

The commentary says: "When Heaven makes certain people worthy, this is the Will of Heaven. King Wen was such a worthy person." The phrase "a worthy person bestows virtue upon others" refers to King Wen bestowing his virtue upon Hongyao (Hóngyāo) and San Yisheng (Sǎn Yíshēng). If the recipient is not as fitting as San Yisheng and Hongyao, this practice should not be taken as a standard.

To rejoice on hearing the Dao (dào) is to love benevolence. To be awed on hearing the Dao is to love righteousness. To show reverence on hearing the Dao is to love ritual propriety. To feel joy on hearing the Dao is to love De (dé), or virtue.

The commentary explains that the "Dao" here is the Way of the noble person, which is the Dao of Heaven. One who loves benevolence acts in accordance with benevolence upon hearing the Way of the noble person, and therefore rejoices; rejoicing is the outward manifestation of this inner inclination. One who loves righteousness acts in accordance with righteousness upon hearing the Way of the noble person, and therefore is awed; awe is likewise an outward expression. One who loves ritual propriety acts in accordance with ritual upon hearing the Way of the noble person, and therefore shows reverence.

One who loves De, upon hearing the Way of the noble person, gathers the Five into One, and therefore feels joy. Joy signifies harmony, and harmony is De.

De (Virtue/Power) is the manifestation of the sage's thorough penetration of the Dao (the Way) of Heaven. Those who love De, on hearing the way of the junzi (the gentleman), unite these five qualities into one, and so they are able to feel joy. Joy is harmony, and harmony is De.

When four qualities take shape, a benevolent mind arises; when four qualities become manifest, the sacred qi is set in motion. When five qualities become manifest, the mind of De arises. Harmony is called De, and its key lies in returning to unity. The love of De is called Heaven, and one who possesses this De is called a junzi. The five qualities return to a single body.

Clarity and turbidity are where De dwells, and De is the abyss into which clarity and turbidity converge. When body and mind are in balance and the spirit operates beyond its ordinary state, this is called xuantong (mysterious unity), meaning union with the profound and mysterious Dao.

When the sage appears, his bearing is dignified and his fame spreads far, and the power of his De unfolds and fills the world. Sheng (sage) means to thoroughly understand the Dao of Heaven. To understand the human Dao is called zhi (knowing); to understand the Dao of Heaven is called sheng. The reason the sage is called sheng is connected with sound: the sage has knowing, and his knowing is able to penetrate the Dao of Heaven. His action is able to transform the myriad things, and therefore he is called sheng. The name sheng takes its meaning from sheng (sound), since one who penetrates the Dao of Heaven is able to issue forth the teaching of sound.

To know that things do not change is wisdom. When things change and one is unaware of it, that is De. When things change and one is able to know it, that is a still deeper clarity of discernment. The terms "Dao," "De," "One," "Heaven," and "junzi" all ultimately point to De: what is inwardly gathered and stored is called De, and what is outwardly enacted is called Dao. ……Therefore it is said that De rises up with vigor. ……

The worthy ……arrive by following the classics. Their conduct is called Dao, and their capability ……Therefore it is said that they rise up with vigor. ……The worthy, relying on ……and proceeding through ……, arrive at refinement by following what is original. How can this be achieved? ……Vast ……then ……what the eye can see ……the keenness of ear and eye also cannot ……the person in action, whose hands and feet cannot be employed ……cannot be employed ……can be measured ……measure ……know ……sitting still and forgetting, withdrawing cleverness and talent, abandoning discriminating knowledge, and thereby uniting with a higher Dao.

The endowment of human beings means that what each receives differs in thickness, yet the root of goodness is the same. Those who cultivate later need only keep advancing, and their realm will gradually rise; the higher the place one ascends, the higher the realm one can reach. ……What each receives as endowment is already given. Some things cannot be obtained through deliberate pursuit.

In the Silk Manuscript (Boshu) version, this passage follows the order ren (benevolence), zhi (wisdom), yi (righteousness), li (propriety), and sheng (sagehood), which differs from the order in the bamboo slips.

This text was supplemented on the basis of the Silk Manuscript version.

The Silk Manuscript version reads qing (light).

The Silk Manuscript version reads jing chang (refined and lasting).

The Silk Manuscript version writes these two lines as: "If one's thinking is not refined and far-reaching, one cannot bring others to joy."

The Silk Manuscript supplements the preceding lines as: "When gentleness is achieved, the Way of the gentleman becomes manifest; when the Way of the gentleman is manifest, there is no sorrow; without sorrow, there is a countenance of jade-like warmth." The phrase yuse (jade-colored countenance) refers to a gentle bearing as warm and lustrous as jade. The Xunzi ("Faxing" chapter) uses jade as a metaphor for the gentleman's virtues: its warm luster symbolizes ren; its fine, orderly grain symbolizes zhi; its hardness and refusal to yield symbolize yi; its sharp edges that do not wound others symbolize upright conduct; its refusal to bend under pressure symbolizes courage; its flaws and beauty both openly displayed symbolize sincerity; and its clear, far-reaching ring when struck, which ends abruptly when stopped, symbolizes fitting speech. Jade thus became the emblem of the gentleman's virtue. The Book of Odes says, "I think of my gentleman, as warm as fine jade," which expresses the same idea.

This chapter is placed by the Silk Manuscript after "not distant, not reverent" in the fourteenth section of the Jing.

The Silk Manuscript writes the preceding lines as: "Without attachment, there is no joy; without joy, there is no sorrow; without sorrow, there is no closeness; without closeness, there is no love; without love, there is no talk of ren."

The Asano edition supplements this as "only after action can..." ; what is being discussed here is yi.

The Asano edition adds text after "those whose nature is close," meaning: if one's inner character cannot bring the heart to delight, one cannot feel compassion; without compassion, one cannot draw close to others; without drawing close, one cannot love others; and without loving others, there is no benevolence (ren).

The Asano edition also adds "and only after practicing it can one attain it," meaning that one must put it into actual practice before one can achieve it.

Another supplementary passage reads: if inner character cannot bring the heart to delight, one cannot be free of private desires; and outwardly one cannot treat others with reverence.

At this point the Boshu (Silk Manuscript) version reads "sage" (sheng), while the Shuo version reads "righteousness" (yi). The character sheng may be an error.

The Boshu version omits this sentence, but the Shuo version contains related text, roughly: "Benevolent qi is the source from which ritual and music arise. Ritual and music are born from benevolence and righteousness..."

Here the Boshu version reads: "Benevolence and righteousness are the source from which ritual and wisdom (zhi) arise."

In the Boshu version, this entire passage follows Chapter 21, "Engaging Others with the Outer Heart."

The Boshu version reads "lianlian" (longing, attached).

The following text is supplemented according to the Boshu version.

The Boshu version reads "withdraw" (tui).

In the Boshu version, the order of these two sentences is reversed.

The Boshu version reads "people" (ren).

The Boshu version reads "the way of the gentleman" (junzi dao).

The Way of Tang and Yu (Tangyu zhi Dao, a bamboo-slip text whose title refers to the way of the legendary rulers Yao of Tang and Shun of Yu)

The governing way of the eras of Tang Yao and Yu Shun was to yield the throne (chanrang) to the worthy rather than pass it down through bloodline. Yao and Shun governed the world solely for the benefit of all under Heaven and sought no private gain for themselves. To yield the realm without handing the position to one's descendants is the highest expression of sagely De (Virtue), and to let the people of the world profit while taking no private advantage is the utmost of ren (benevolence). For this reason, the wise and virtuous sages of antiquity acted in exactly this way. Even when they themselves were in hardship, they did not covet gain, and when they died, they left no advantages reserved for their own enjoyment. This is what it means for De to reach its utmost limit. One must first rectify oneself before one can rectify the world, and only then is the sage's governing way complete. Thus the core of the governing way of Tang Yao and Yu Shun lay in chanrang.

The sage serves Heaven above in order to teach the people to revere Heaven, and serves the earth below in order to teach the people to draw close to the land. He offers sacrifices to mountains and rivers at the proper seasons to teach the people to hold nature in reverence and awe, and personally performs sacrifices at the ancestral temple to teach the people filial respect for their ancestors. In the taixue (the Grand Academy, the highest seat of learning in antiquity), the Son of Heaven personally observes the rites in order of age, thereby teaching the people humility and respect for elders. In assessing later sages against earlier ones, one must both examine the deeds of the later and discern the virtue of the earlier. This is how the people are taught to follow the Way of dashun (Great Compliance).

The conduct of Yao and Shun consisted in cherishing one's kin and honoring the worthy. Cherishing kin is the basis of filiality (xiao), and honoring the worthy is the basis of chanrang. The practice of filiality is to extend the love one feels for one's parents to all the people under Heaven. The transmission of the realm through chanrang ensures that the world does not bury the virtue of the worthy. Filiality is the highest manifestation of benevolence, and chanrang is the utmost of yi (righteousness). The six rulers of antiquity who rose to power all followed this principle. To love only one's kin while disregarding the worthy is to have benevolence without righteousness. To honor only the worthy while abandoning one's kin is to accord with righteousness yet lack benevolence. In antiquity, Yu Shun devoted himself wholeheartedly to serving his father, Gusou (Shun's father), and was therefore renowned for filiality. He also loyally served the lord Yao and was therefore renowned for the loyalty proper to a minister. Shun was precisely the kind of man who both cherished his kin and honored the worthy.

Da Yu (Yu the Great) controlled the floods, Bo Yi managed the fires, and Hou Ji (Lord Millet) oversaw the land and agriculture, so that the people had sufficient livelihoods and could sustain their lives. Only one who follows the natural needs of the body and vital breath, and nourishes life by the proper way, so that people rest content in their destiny without dying prematurely and preserve their lives without harm, truly understands the governing way of the world. Only such a person can yield the realm to the worthy.

In ancient times, when Yao (Yáo) examined Shun (Shùn), he heard that Shun was filial and concluded that Shun could care for the elderly of the common people. He heard that Shun respected and loved his elder brothers and concluded that Shun could serve the elders of the world. He heard that Shun was affectionate toward his younger brother and concluded that Shun could become ruler of the common people. Thus, when Shun was the son of Gusou (Gǔsǒu, Shun's father), he was exceedingly filial; when he served Yao as a minister, he was exceedingly loyal; and after Yao yielded the realm to him, he faced south as king, governed the world, and was thoroughly competent in the role. Yao yielded the realm to Shun precisely because of these qualities. The wise rulers of antiquity selected worthy people in this same way. The ancient sages underwent the capping ceremony (guànlǐ) at twenty, married at thirty, began governing the world at fifty, and handed over political power at seventy. When their limbs grew weary and their eyes and ears declined, they yielded the realm to worthy successors and withdrew to nourish their bodies. This shows that the sages did not cling to positions of power.

The "Yu Shi" (Yú Shī, Songs of Yu) says: "When the sun does not rise, all things grow dark; when the sage is not in the high position, the world is bound to fall into ruin." When governance is at its most perfect, even those who are not worthy are able to receive instruction and cultivation; when governance is at its most chaotic, even worthy people are destroyed. Benevolent people are therefore employed. They make ritual propriety (lǐyì) manifest, are cautious in observing the law, and delight in yielding to others. This is the way the people are transformed through teaching. Jiu Yao (Jiù Yáo, also written Gao Yao, a legendary judicial official of Yu Shun's era) carried out the five punishments at court, and on campaigns he prepared weapons and armor; for minor offenses he dealt with people according to the law. In the time of Yu Shun, authority was relied upon; in the Xia dynasty, military force was used to punish those who refused to submit. Campaigning against those who do not submit, with the care of the people as the starting point, was the method by which Yu and Xia governed the world. If yielding the realm does not become a fixed system of succession, it easily breaks off, and the Xia dynasty then began a different mode of transmission.

In high antiquity, Yao was born into the position of Son of Heaven and possessed all under Heaven. Through his sagely brilliance he accorded with the Mandate of Heaven, and through his benevolent De (Virtue) he met a suitable moment in history, yet he did not encounter worthy and capable men. Even when his De and the times were in perfect accord, the spirits would assist him and Heaven and Earth would protect him. Still, while benevolence and sagacity can be cultivated, a suitable age cannot be forced into being.

In high antiquity, Shun lived in a thatched hut and felt no sorrow in his heart. Later he became Son of Heaven, yet he was not proud. He could dwell among the wild fields without sorrow because he understood the Mandate of Heaven, and he could hold the throne without pride because he did not regard power as his own possession. That the worthy and bright should rise to take their place is indeed a fine thing.

Now there is a man whose De has won the esteem of the people. Though still young, he already enjoys their support. He governs the common people without arrogance, and in the end he rules all under Heaven without fear or doubt. When he was in a lowly position, he did not look down on ordinary people; once he possessed all under Heaven, he did not regard the realm as an especially heavy burden. Possessing all under Heaven did not increase his De, and losing it did not diminish his De. His benevolence reached its utmost: it benefited all under Heaven, yet he did not seek any gain for himself.

"Shan" (Abdication) refers to a ruler passing the throne to a worthy and capable person. When a ruler of lofty virtue sits upon the throne, the realm has wise governance and the age is clear and orderly. When the throne is handed to a worthy man, the common people are inspired and emulate him, and gradually they return to the Dao (the Way). Since there have been people, there has never been a case in which the people were taught without abdication having been practiced.

The Way of Loyalty and Trustworthiness

Not speaking false words and not doing what fails to keep faith: this is the utmost of loyalty (zhong). Not deceiving others, and remaining so even when the other person does not know, is the utmost of trustworthiness (xin). When loyalty accumulates, people draw near; when sincerity accumulates, people place their trust. When loyalty and trustworthiness are both fully present yet people still do not draw near or trust, such a thing has never happened.

The utmost loyalty is like the earth, which nourishes the myriad things without boasting of it. The utmost trustworthiness is like the four seasons, which move in their proper order and never fail their appointed time. The loyal person does not deceive, and the trustworthy person does not forsake. When the junzi (exemplary person) acts in this way, he does not deceive others while he lives, and after death he does not fail those who depend on him.

To persist unchanged over a long time is the utmost in loyalty (zhong), and to be refined through cultivation until one perceives the unchanging constancy of principle is the utmost in trustworthiness (xin). One who is utmost in loyalty has no deceit, and one who is utmost in trustworthiness does not break a promise. This is what is meant by loyalty and trust. Profound loyalty needs no proclamation, and true trustworthiness needs no prior agreement. That which nourishes all things without proclaiming itself is the earth, and that which brings all things together in accord without prior arrangement is Heaven. To act in the manner of Heaven and Earth is to be loyal and trustworthy.

To promise benefits with the mouth and not act accordingly is something the exemplary person (junzi) does not say. To be inwardly distant while outwardly feigning closeness is something the junzi does not do. Conduct undertaken to vie for the delight of the common people, the junzi does not follow. The loyal do not adopt these three practices, and the trustworthy do not undertake them.

As a Dao (the Way) of conduct, loyalty and trust cause every craft to be unshoddy and cause people's provision for living to be abundant. As a Dao of conduct, trustworthiness enables all things to achieve their own completion and enables all good deeds to be established. When the junzi bestows favor with loyalty, kin and the common people are willing to draw near to him and rely upon him. When he speaks with trustworthiness, his words are sincere and worthy of acceptance. Loyalty is the concrete embodiment of benevolent virtue, and trustworthiness is the warrant by which righteous conduct is carried out. Thus the principle by which the ancients acted is just this.

Cheng Zhi heard and recorded these words.

The Cheng Zhi Wen Zhi says: In ancient times, those who governed the people always looked for the cause within themselves first. If their conduct could not win the people's trust, the people would not follow their commands. If their sincerity could not be made manifest, the people would be unwilling to listen to their words. For the people to obey neither the orders of their superiors nor believe their words, and yet still cultivate virtue (De), has never happened.

Therefore, when the junzi (exemplary person) governs the people, he must personally practice good conduct, go before the people in doing so, and persevere with reverence and caution. Only then will the affairs he promotes take root in people's hearts. When those above practice something themselves, the people tend to do even better. When a ruler wears the jun robe and crown (the ceremonial garment worn at sacrifices and rites) and stands on the zuo (the eastern steps of the ancient hall, where the ruler stood during rites), everyone in the palace is filled with reverence. When a ruler wears mourning garments (cuidie, the sackcloth of mourning) to handle affairs of state, everyone in the palace is filled with grief. When a ruler dons armor and helmet and stands among the army, the whole host is roused to courage. Once those above take the lead, few among the people fail to follow.

Yet if the people respond only for a moment, the influence will be shallow and the weight slight. Hence the junzi demands of himself that he reach the root. If one does not work from the root and exerts effort only on the branches, there will be no result.

The junzi values speech, not because he follows popular opinion, but because he can trace things back to their source and return to their root. If one does not investigate the origin of things by following their course, nor return to the root, it is impossible to truly gain anything. If a ruler merely sits enjoying accomplished results and ignores the root, his achievements cannot be completed. A farmer who wants grain but does not work the fields will have too little grain. A scholar who only talks grandly without acting will earn no reputation. Therefore the junzi values not speech that follows the fashion, but inquiring into the reasons behind speech and returning to the root. If one does not trace its origins or return to its root, even if forced to carry it out, it will not win people's belief.

If those in high positions do not act in accordance with the proper Way, the common people will find it difficult to follow them. Therefore, the people may revere and be guided by their leaders, but they cannot be deceived; they may be governed, but they cannot be coerced and restrained. For this reason, the junzi (exemplary person) does not regard material goods as the most precious, but instead values what they share in common with the people. When people are arranged in their proper ranks and live in orderly relation to one another, the common people hope that this order will continue without end; when one is prosperous and also shares a portion with those who are poor and lowly, the common people hope that such prosperity will grow ever broader; when one holds an honored position yet is willing to yield, the common people hope that this honor……