《道德真經集義(二)》Vol. 8

Interpretation

Collected Commentaries on the True Scripture of the Dao and Its De, Volume Eight, “Poems,” Part Three

(Compiled by Master Ningyuan, Liu Weiyong, Superintendent of the Xuanmiao Abbey on Changde Circuit; collated by Ding Yidong, former Gentleman for Court Audiences, Registrar of the Court of the Imperial Treasury, and Compiler of the Privy Council)

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Chapter on Not Esteeming the Worthy

Shao Ruoyu says: If the worthy are not held in esteem, the people will not contend. When the state reaches the realm of Wuwei (non-action), nothing will be left poorly governed. Not esteeming the worthy means guarding against people showing off their cleverness and talent. What the ruler favors is called “influence”; what the people willingly follow is called “custom.” Those above boast of their worth and wisdom, while those below compete to follow them. Not esteeming the worthy so that the people do not contend—that is what this means.

Food is treated as a commodity to nourish the body, so why prize what is rare? When rare things are prized, the people will surely hoard them. It is human nature that what is given away is not willingly taken back, while what is hoarded is bound to be stolen. Good government does not mean doing without material goods; it means not prizing rare and hard-to-obtain commodities, so that the people do not turn to theft. That is what this means.

If the common people do not see fame and profit, their desires can be kept from disorder, and they will naturally govern themselves. Thus, when the sage governs the state, he does not esteem the worthy, so that the people are “without knowledge”—without knowledge, their minds naturally become empty; when the mind is empty, it can contain all things. Hence the saying, “fill their bellies.” He does not prize commodities, so that the people are “without desire”—without desire, their ambitions naturally weaken; when their ambitions weaken, they are not swayed by circumstances. Hence the saying, “strengthen their bones.”

Always keep the people without knowledge, and their minds will be empty; without desire, and they will forget the world around them. When mind and world are both forgotten, there is nothing to cling to, and all affairs come to rest. Then even those who are clever will not dare to act recklessly. The sage acts through “acting without a mind,” and nothing under Heaven will be left poorly governed.

Wang Zhiran says: If the worthy are not held in esteem, the people will not contend; carry this principle to its utmost, and nothing will be left poorly governed.

If one discusses the Dao without following its proper sequence, it is not the Dao. If one discusses the Dao in a way that goes against it, how could one attain the Dao? Zhuangzi says, “Of the nine transformations, the sequence of the five transformations allows the names and forms of punishments to be taken up or set aside.” To act against the Dao and speak in defiance of it is to be governed by others; how could one govern others? Perhaps the sudden discussion of punishments and names arises from not yet understanding the fundamental purpose of learning and governing.

Moreover, names are guests of realities. Once names and realities are established through the distinction between inner and outer, people throughout the realm need only be assigned duties according to their ranks. How could the worthy be abandoned in the countryside and left unused? Yet Laozi says, “Do not esteem the worthy,” …

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Interpretation

There is a profound meaning in the idea of honoring the worthy and capable. Zhuangzi says: “When worthy people are recommended, their titles and positions come into conflict. To honor the capable is the beginning of rivalry, until the world falls into disorder. Cunning schemes and deceit, disputes over right and wrong, clever and slippery arguments, and the doctrines of the Confucians and Mohists all arise together. This is what happens when the worthy and capable are honored.”

If the wealth of the world is gathered and used to nourish its people, they will live in harmony and contentment, singing as they strike the earth and wandering with full bellies. Each thing will find its proper place, and people will not be enslaved by external things. Why, then, would anyone secretly make much of them? Laozi says they should not be prized, and there is good reason for this. The myriad things of the world flourish in great profusion, each bound to its own conditions. Whatever comes into being in time will also be destroyed in time; whatever is honored in time will also be humbled in time. Let things follow their own nature—how could we presume to interfere? When people insist on making something precious, they will not stop until they possess it. If they cannot obtain it, they will risk their lives to seize it, until theft and covetous scheming know no bounds. Is that not more than mere robbery? This likely reflects the principle that whatever those above favor, those below will pursue with even greater intensity. The scripture says, “Do not display what is desirable, and the heart will not be disturbed.” Confucius said that wealth and honor are things people desire. What delights the eyes, ears, nose, and tongue, stirs emotion, or moves the heart is all called desirable. If desire is insatiable, then even the vastness of Heaven and Earth and the abundance of the myriad things cannot satisfy it. The gentleman desires fame; the petty person desires profit. If none among the worthy or unworthy in the world sees anything as desirable, then the heart will remain still. How could it be disturbed?

Therefore, the sage keeps the heart empty, letting no one thing confine it, and keeps the belly full, letting no one thing obstruct it. Looking inward at the heart, one finds it open and empty. Looking outward at one’s form, one moves with things and shares in their flow. Looking from afar at things, one sees that things are no longer things. Thus the will is weak yet effective, while the bones are strong and upright. Where the will turns, whatever it grasps it will hold fast. The kidneys govern the storing of the will, and the bones are the kidneys’ surplus. Weaken the will, and Jing will not be stirred; the bones will be strong. The heart governs the storing of Shen, and the belly is the heart’s dwelling. Empty the heart, and Shen will not be depleted; the belly will be full. In this way, the transformations arise within the body, and spirit and vitality arise from the Dao. Use this to govern people and serve Heaven: always keep the people free of knowledge and desire, so that those who are clever dare not act.

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Interpretation

By not daring to act recklessly, one ensures that nothing under Heaven is left beyond governing. Zhuangzi says: “Be one with unknowing, and De will not scatter; be one with desirelessness, and this is called simplicity.” When simplicity prevails, the people’s nature is preserved. If so, how could there still be talk of honoring the worthy or treasuring goods?

Huang Maocai says: From ceasing to honor the worthy to keeping the mind from turmoil, one also “harmonizes one’s light,” fearing that others might recognize one’s worth. What, then, is there to honor as worthy? Thus the people do not contend. Not contending means each rests in their own natural nature. One also “blocks its desires,” fearing that external things might disturb it. What, then, is there to prize as valuable? Thus the people do not steal. Not stealing means having enough for oneself, with something to spare. “Not seeing what is desirable” does not mean shutting one’s eyes. With so many things before us and so many thoughts arising in the mind, can mere “not seeing” accomplish this? Only when one sees that there is, in truth, nothing desirable does the mind cease to be troubled. How can we know? Maoqiang and Liji were renowned beauties, admired by all, yet fish saw them and dived deep, birds saw them and flew high and far away, and elk saw them and fled at a gallop. From this we can infer that nothing is truly desirable, and so the mind will not be troubled.

Therefore, in governing a state, the sage considers “filling the belly” most important. Ziqi of Nanguo leaned against a table, tilted his head back, and exhaled, looking utterly lost; he had even forgotten the distinction between paired things. To nourish the mind to this degree is what may be called “emptiness.” Beyond satisfying hunger, even if a feast of rare delicacies is set before one, one hopes only that it will soon be cleared away: this is what it means to make the belly full. The Jing says, “The sage acts for the belly, not for the eyes.” It also says, “weaken its will.” A self-strengthening person has a will; why, then, weaken it? Because self-strengthening enables one to rise toward the Dao, while weakening the will allows one to enter the realm of “daily diminishing.” It also says, “strengthen its bones.” Laozi’s teaching goes deep into the meaning of strength, and often says, “Those who are forceful and aggressive do not meet a natural death.” Why, then, strengthen the bones? This is a warning against the strong person’s fondness for contending with others; strengthening the bones is in fact a matter of strengthening oneself. The Dao stands alone and does not change. How could anyone who does not strengthen themselves attain the constant Dao?

It also says, “Make the people without knowledge and without desire.” Laozi speaks of governing states and people; how much more does this apply to oneself? To “make the people” means, in fact, to make oneself free of knowledge and desire—not to become dull and ignorant like wood or stone.

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Interpretation

A Plain-Language Interpretation

Desire also has a starting point: at first, there cannot be a complete absence of “knowing.” One must gradually shed clever contrivances and sharp wits until one comes close to “unknowing.” The same is true of desire: at first, desire cannot be entirely absent. One must gradually shed covetous demands until one comes close to “desirelessness.” Unless someone is a person of the Dao who has cultivated themselves to this point over many years, who could achieve it? If everyone took cleverness to its extreme, they would end up unable to govern anything. The Dao is inherently natural; how could it be fashioned through petty cleverness? Only by truly practicing non-action within Wuwei (non-action) can one accord with the Dao.

Cheng Taizhi says: from “Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend” to “keep their minds from disorder” all express the same idea. Once those above elevate the worthy and parade them before everyone, those below will feel ashamed of being inferior and force themselves to compete. Thus Zhuangzi says, “When the worthy are promoted, the people jostle one another.” If rare goods are prized, some will abandon their proper work to pursue profit, even becoming robbers. Hence the saying: “When goods are piled up, one can see what everyone is contending for.” Contention and theft both arise when people see something they can covet. If those in power keep their likes and dislikes hidden within and do not display them for people to curry favor with, those below will have no opening to exploit. When desirable things are no longer put on display, minds naturally settle, and contention and theft subside. This is Laozi’s way of “setting things right at the root and clearing the source.”

Jiang Lümen, discussing the art of governing a state, says: “You must promote people who are fair and loyal, while leaving them no room for private favoritism. Who among the people would then dare not give their utmost?” This was probably the practice, since the time of Yao and Shun, of “promoting goodness and teaching the people”—the approach taken by all who have sought to govern the world well. But Jizhe (criticizing Laozi) says: “If you do things as you propose, the place where you stand will be in danger. A tall viewing platform and abundant goods will draw many people seeking a place to land.” This is a criticism of displaying things for show: it is like a tall platform attracting objects. Once desirable things appear, many will come to contend for them. Is there really no distinction between “seeing the worthy” and “not exalting them”? The point is simply to erase the signs of distinction so that rivalry subsides. Laozi’s teachings often speak of concealing one’s function and dimming one’s brilliance; the purpose is usually much the same. Here, “see” is pronounced as “appear”: it means that those in power bring something out for people to look at.

Thus, in governing the state, the Sage should “fill their bellies and strengthen their bones.” What one keeps in mind in ordinary times is the “heart”; what one must put into practice when events arise is one’s “intent.” The belly is for being well fed and sustaining life; the bones are for bearing burdens and enduring toil. Laozi’s book contains both parables and statements meant literally; here, “belly” and “bones” carry their ordinary, concrete meanings. Later it says, “The people go hungry because those above consume too much in taxes”—a thought that follows the same line.

Note: This chapter develops ideas from the Dao De Jing—“Do not exalt the worthy,” “Do not prize rare goods,” and “Empty their minds, fill their bellies, weaken their wills, strengthen their bones”—as interpreted by Song Confucian scholars such as Cheng Taizhi. They explain Laozi’s opposition to “displaying the worthy” and “prizing goods” in terms of concealing likes and dislikes and erasing signs of distinction. They also interpret “belly” and “bones” as referring concretely to nourishing life and undertaking practical responsibilities, a reading somewhat different from interpretations that treat “empty the mind and fill the belly” as purely metaphysical.

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Interpretation

This passage draws on the ideas of Gengsangzi, Zhuangzi, and others to explain the purpose behind Laozi’s approach to governing, including “heavy taxation,” “keeping the people ignorant,” and “non-action.”

On “excessive taxation”

Excessive taxes hollow out what should be made abundant and leave it depleted. The saying “the people are difficult to govern because they have too much cleverness” expresses a dislike of the people’s strength and a desire to find ways to weaken them.

The story of Gengsangzi at Weilei

When Gengsangzi lived at Weilei, his ministers who seemed especially talented all left, and his concubines who seemed especially benevolent went away. He did not want people to harbor thoughts of “benevolence” or “wisdom”; this was a pursuit of emptiness. Only the slow and clumsy lived with him, and only those with rough hands and large feet served him. He kept no one who was not physically robust and able to bear heavy loads. In this way he established his own standards, mocking the practice of Yao and Shun, who selected the worthy and appointed the capable, including those renowned for their wisdom.

How this corresponds to Laozi’s “always keep the people without knowledge or desire”

Yet when Laozi says “always keep the people without knowledge or desire,” he means precisely this. Once the people have “knowledge,” they become too clever and difficult to govern. Once they have “desire,” they see things worth wanting and compete for them or steal them. Laozi esteems Wuwei (non-action) because he wants to govern the world through “inaction,” so that the world, in turn, may rest in “inaction.”

Zhuangzi on the effects of governing

When Zhuangzi discusses the results of governing, he says that being like the “unknowing” means that virtue will not scatter, while being like the “desireless” is called “simplicity.” If everyone in the world can be simple, their inborn nature will remain intact. He also says that the wise should not dare to act recklessly, and the people should be kept without knowledge or desire: they are to be guided through “foolishness.” Yet there are always the defiant and cunning, unwilling to be made fools of. These are what is called “wisdom.” Once wisdom appears, people can no longer be kept foolish. If the whole world follows this teaching, everyone will be without knowledge or desire. Without knowledge or desire, people will be content where they live and enjoy their work, and will not be lured into rebellion. Even clever people, knowing that no one will join them in making trouble, will lose heart and dare not act recklessly. This is why the text says, “Make the people take death seriously and not wander far away; though there be armor and weapons, there will be nowhere to deploy them.” Laozi believed that this could return the world to an age governed by knotted cords; that is the reasoning behind it.

Zhuangzi’s words set in ancient times

Speaking through the people of antiquity, Zhuangzi says that the ancients lived in a state of undifferentiated wholeness, sharing the world with a calm and detached spirit. At that time, nothing was harmed, living beings did not die before their time, and even when people had wisdom, they had no use for it. This is precisely the point he is making. When one acts through non-action, nothing is left unguided. Since he speaks of non-action, why does he also say, “As for acting through non-action”? Does this mean abandoning all achievements and doing nothing? To make non-action one’s abode and carry it out through doing nothing: this is what it means to “act through non-action.” I use non-action to keep things in check, and those below respond with an absence of knowledge and desire.

Conclusion

This is the line of reasoning behind Laozi’s esteem for Wuwei in governing the people and bringing order to the world: first empty what is substantial and weaken their cleverness, then seek a world content with simplicity, taking death seriously, not wandering away, and having no need to use weapons—a world at rest in “inaction.”

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Interpretation

This passage expounds on Laozi's political wisdom of "governing through non-action (Wuwei)." The core idea is that when rulers refrain from deliberate interference, the people naturally become cultivated; when they avoid excessive intervention, the people naturally prosper. How could the world not be well-governed in such a way?

Zhan Qiupu explains that if the worthy are not excessively praised, the people will not compete for fame and profit; if rare treasures are not highly valued, the people will not steal; if extravagant pleasures are not flaunted, people's minds will not become disordered. Thus, when sages govern, they maintain a state of emptiness and stillness, eliminating selfish desires so the people may preserve their simple nature. Though the people may know of such temptations, they dare not pursue them—this is the realm of "governing through non-action."

Zhang Chongying further analyzes that in Laozi's ancient era, people were simple and indifferent to fame and wealth, their senses (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and body) untainted by temptation. But as times changed—from the age of "Huang" to "Di" to "Wang"—official titles grew increasingly ornate, and empty prestige flourished. People began admiring scheming advisors: Bi Gan died for his remonstrance, while Bo Yi and Shu Qi withdrew into seclusion to avoid power struggles, sparking endless conflicts.

Consider also the endless pursuit of exotic treasures—mining rare gems, panning for gold, carving jade. The Yu kingdom fell due to its lust for precious jade, and Shi Chong ruined his household hoarding treasures—all disasters born of greed. Then there were the temptations of decadent music, sensual dancing, and extravagant fashions that clouded minds and obscured true nature. King Zhou of Shang perished through endless drinking, and Emperor Chen Hou lost his kingdom to the "Back Courtyard Flowers"—all consequences of indulging desires.

Thus, the ancient sages' secret to governing was simple: do not glorify schemers, do not prize rare treasures, and do not indulge desires. When those in power follow this, the people naturally emulate them, and minds remain free of thoughts of contention or theft. This is the essence of "governing through non-action."

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Interpretation

The general meaning of the scripture, including the quoted third chapter of the Dao De Jing and commentaries by various authors

(Commentary on the preceding passage) Disorder arises from these things. One should therefore keep the heart open and humble, and not be constrained by “exalting the worthy, valuing rare goods, and displaying what is desirable.” Nourish what is within the belly and follow the Dao, without letting these three things deplete it. Lessen the urge to compete: do not glorify a reputation for worthiness, prize rare goods, or stir up greed. Instead, keep the sinews and bones strong, and the body healthy, secure, and at peace. When people see me govern the world through Wuwei (non-action), they will naturally tend toward freedom from knowledge and desire. Even if someone considers himself wise and still wants to exalt the worthy, prize rare goods, or embellish the “Five Ghosts” (a reference to the deluded impulses rooted in the heart, nose, mouth, ears, and body), he will not dare indulge these desires recklessly. Then everyone will keep to their proper place and follow the example of Wuwei, and all under Heaven will be well governed.

Zhang Lingying says: If the heart is not open and clear, how can one attain balanced Qi? If the inner organs are nourished, but the will is not humble and yielding, how can Jing (essence) become firmly consolidated and the sinews and bones grow strong? When the heart is always open, Qi is not depleted; when the will is always yielding, Jing is not consumed. The belly then becomes full and the bones strong. How, then, could one suffer from stumbling and falling, or from nocturnal emissions? A momentary misstep in an ordinary person often comes from Qi being out of balance; emission during sleep often comes from Jing not being firmly consolidated. At root, both arise because the heart is not open and the will is not yielding.

Bai Yuchan says: “‘Do not exalt the worthy’ means that children should be filial and ministers loyal, so that the people do not compete; let them eat their fill without craving more. ‘Do not value rare goods’ means regarding gold as no more than earth, so that the people do not steal. ‘Do not display what is desirable’ means having no other aim than what is at hand: the heart abides among the ears and eyes. Keep the heart from confusion; when it wanders away, call it back. Thus the sage governs by emptying the heart and filling the belly, weakening the will and strengthening the bones. The sage constantly keeps the people free from knowledge and desire, so that even the clever do not dare to act recklessly. Practice Wuwei, and nothing will remain ungoverned.”

Liao Cuiran says: “‘Do not exalt the worthy’ means that a person who follows the Dao does not pursue wealth and glory. This keeps the people from competing: they quietly understand, seeming foolish, and enter the meditative absorption of non-contention. ‘Do not value rare goods’ means regarding worldly wealth as dust, without greed or desire. Take Neidan (internal alchemy) as the supreme treasure; cherish yourself without holding yourself in high regard, so that the people do not steal. ‘Do not display what is desirable’ means not attaching oneself to things outwardly and not fixating on oneself inwardly. Keep the heart from confusion and become like the great void, unmoving and as it is. Thus the sage governs: those above govern the state through the Dao, and those below cultivate themselves by the same means—emptying the heart through openness of heart, and filling the belly through its fullness (a metaphor for internal cultivation).”

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Interpretation

Collected Interpretations of the True Classic of the Dao and De (II): A Plain-Language Reading

1. A passage linking self-cultivation with governing the state

In cultivating oneself, the key is Wuwei (non-action): keep the mind empty and the belly full, reducing distracting thoughts and nourishing the Qi within. Let Shen (spirit) and Qi (vital energy) be abundant and harmonious, and keep the heart-mind clear and still.

The essential point to guard lies at the center of the Kan position—the lower Dantian, associated with the Water of the kidneys. It transforms and enters the Li Palace, associated with the Yin Fire of the heart and abdomen. This is an image from Neidan (internal alchemy) for the union of Water and Fire.

“Weaken the will”: do not struggle too fiercely over one’s ambitions. “Concentrate the Qi and reach softness”: gather Qi that is single-minded and gentle, like something supremely soft. Outwardly remain still and unmoved; inwardly, be like a powerful army that wins its battles. Once the work is done, it is like thunder striking suddenly, or an Earth Thunder—the hexagram Fu—stirring into motion. This describes the first movement of Yang Qi.

“Strengthen the bones”: make the sinews and bones robust. “Keep the form concealed in the body, without letting it emerge; hide Shen in the heart, so it cannot be seen”: draw both form and spirit inward, without letting them leak out. When Water and Fire are drawn up and replenished, the Elixir is completed; the “golden sinews and jade bones”—sinews and bones as hard as gold and jade—become naturally strong.

Always keep the people free of knowledge and desire. Then the state will be peaceful and the people prosperous, with nothing else they seek. My descendants, too, will have nothing to do. As for those who consider themselves clever—

○ Once they understand this principle, they will not dare to act recklessly. What would they gain by acting recklessly? Nothing beyond Wuwei.

○ The Dao always follows its own nature, and so nothing remains disorderly. If you can “know the One”—that is, hold fast to the One—all affairs can be brought to completion. How could that not be a joy?

2. Chen Bixu’s explanation of “Do not exalt the worthy,” and related lines

“Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend.”

If the ruler is humble and yielding, still and receptive, and does not boast of his own worth, the people will follow like grass bending in the wind, yielding and keeping to their proper place. How could there be any strife? The Jing (classic) says: “When I practice Wuwei, the people transform themselves. When I love stillness, the people set themselves right.”

Another interpretation: the ruler remains calm, while the ministers discern matters clearly. Punishments apply even to the powerful, and benefits extend even to the lowly. The worthy and unworthy alike keep to their proper roles, and the people who serve in government do not contend. But if the ruler hesitates and the ministers become corrupt, then even if he “exalts the worthy” and seeks capable people, they may be loyal on the outside and poisonous within, gentle in speech but harsh in feeling. Deceit arises, and people compete to take from one another.

Yan Junping (Yan Zun) said: those of great De (Virtue/Power) take the lead, while those of lesser ability serve as ministers. A worthy person is one in ten thousand; a sage appears even more rarely. People of natural worth are not brought into being because they are “exalted.” He also said: set a nag beside a fine steed on an even road, or let a swan soar alongside a small quail in the blue sky, and the worthy and unworthy will naturally distinguish themselves. This is their natural course; it is not produced by “exalting the worthy.” Hence the saying: “Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend.”

“Do not prize rare goods, and the people will not become thieves.”

Rare goods means gold, jade, pearls, and rhinoceros horn. When those above teach stillness and purity, the people farm and weave. Gold is left in the mountains and pearls cast into the depths. People do not chase profit or admire wealth and status, so they have no desire to covet or steal.

Another interpretation: if the ruler does not prize such things as the luminous pearl of the Li Dragon, or ornaments made of gold, jade, and brocade, then his ministers and people will not covet them. Where, then, would thieves come from?

Note: The first half combines material from chapter three of the Dao De Jing—“empty the mind and fill the belly,” “free the people of knowledge and desire,” and Wuwei—with terms from internal alchemy, such as Kan and Li, drawing up and replenishing, and “golden sinews and jade bones.” The latter half presents Song-dynasty Chen Jingyuan, known as Bixuzi, elaborating on “Do not exalt the worthy” and “Do not prize rare goods,” and cites the Han-dynasty scholar Yan Zun (Yan Junping) on the natural distinction between the worthy and the unworthy. Proper names have brief explanations in parentheses at first mention.

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Interpretation

Some say: If the heart is free of greed, then even when someone offers a reward, one will not steal.

The Honglie (that is, the Huainanzi) quotes Shennong as saying: “If men are strong and able to work but do not farm, people under Heaven will go hungry. If women are in their prime but do not weave, people under Heaven will go cold.” So Shennong farmed himself, and his wife wove herself, setting an example for all under Heaven. In guiding the people, he did not prize rare goods that were hard to obtain, and he kept from their sight things that might stir desire, so that their hearts would not be disturbed.

“Things that stir desire” means external objects or circumstances that give rise to envy and covetousness. “Keeping them from sight” does not mean withdrawing far away or seeing nothing at all. It means not treating “seeing” as truly seeing, and acting through Wuwei (non-action). If a ruler sees external things but feels no envy or covetousness toward them, then appearances and worldly entanglements do not disturb him. His original nature returns to stillness and calm, and to the unity of the Real. When a ruler can hold fast to this unity, the people’s hearts will not be disturbed, and a simple, unadorned way of life can take shape.

Yan Junping, a scholar of the Han dynasty, said: “When the world does not esteem the worthy and capable, the people will not compete to show themselves. If they do not compete to show themselves, they will not struggle; if they do not struggle, they will not rebel. When the world does not prize wealth, the people will not covet it. If they do not covet it, they will not seek to acquire it; if they do not seek to acquire it, they will not become thieves. When the world casts aside the ‘three and five’—teachings such as sageliness, wisdom, benevolence, and righteousness—the people will have no hollow delight. Without hollow delight, they will have no shallow pleasures; without shallow pleasures, they will not fall into excess. This is how things naturally unfold.”

The Honglie Jie also records this story: Zipei, a minister of Chu, put on his ceremonial regalia and carried an invitation to see King Zhuang of Chu. The king agreed to go. Zipei put on plain clothes, clasped his hands, and stood facing north below the hall. He said, “Previously, Your Majesty agreed to attend. Now you refuse to go. Have I, your servant, committed some offense?” The king replied, “I have heard that you have prepared a feast at Jiangtai. From Jiangtai one looks south toward Zhushan and overlooks Fanghuang; the Yangtze lies to the left and the Huai to the right. The pleasure there is so great that it makes one forget death. A man of shallow virtue like me could not bear such enjoyment. I fear that if I went, I would not return. That is why it is said: keep from sight what may stir desire, so that the heart is not disturbed.”

Fu Yi’s Yinyi says that an old edition reads, “so that the people’s hearts are not disturbed.” The version in the Kaiyuan Imperial Commentary by Heshanggong reads, “so that the heart is not disturbed,” which also makes sense.

Thus, when the sages govern the state, they first empty their hearts. The great sage governs himself first, then extends his governance to his family and the state. “Emptying the heart” means being free of improper thoughts and not driving the mind to chase external things. The heart becomes still, cravings disappear, and Shen (spirit) and things each rest in their proper place; in this way, the heart is emptied. Zhuangzi says, “When the room is empty, brightness arises; good fortune settles where it belongs.” When the heart is empty, a pure white light arises of itself, and good fortune rests where it should.

Note: This passage belongs to the collected interpretations by Chen Xianwei, a Daoist of the Song dynasty, and others, on “Do not esteem the worthy,” “Do not prize goods that are hard to obtain,” “Keep from sight what may stir desire,” “so that the people’s hearts are not disturbed,” and “empty the heart” in Chapter Three of the Dao De Jing. Drawing together material from the Huainanzi, sayings attributed to Shennong, Yan Junping’s arguments, and the story of King Zhuang of Chu declining Zipei’s excursion to Jiangtai, it explains the meaning of Wuwei and stillness in cultivating oneself and governing the state.

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Interpretation

《Collected Interpretations of the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue》

Blessings and auspiciousness arise of themselves and remain settled: When blessings and auspiciousness arise naturally, they can abide without disturbance.

Fill the belly: The sage’s heart is full of De (Virtue/Power). The five spirits—those housed in the five organs, or spirit in a broader sense—are at peace. The sage is detached and self-sufficient, with no greed or craving. That is why it is said, “Fill the belly.”

Weaken the will: The will is what the heart gives rise to; when something occupies the heart, it is called a will. When the heart acts, it should remain humble and still, and preserve softness and weakness, so that the Dao (the Way) can be kept intact. If it is forceful and bent on winning, the Dao is diminished.

Strengthen the bones: The bones support the body. When gentle, harmonious Qi (vital energy) is abundant, the body is nourished and the spirit is vigorous; the bones then grow strong naturally. This is simply the way things ordinarily work.

Always keep the people free of knowledge and desire: The sage constantly cultivates himself and empties his heart in order to help the people return to simplicity and preserve their natural goodness, settling into change of their own accord. An old saying goes: “If you put yourself in order, what difficulty remains in governing?” The sage also keeps those who pride themselves on being clever from daring to act recklessly. Some among the people may admire cleverness and contrivance, and fabricate what is false. But once they are influenced by an atmosphere of stillness and a transformation toward simplicity, their ambition will fade and their bodies will become like withered wood; they will no longer dare to act recklessly.

Practice Wuwei (non-action), and nothing will remain ungoverned: Follow the way of Wuwei. “Wuwei” means not overstepping one’s proper place. When one does not overstep it, the principles of Heaven remain whole, and all one does is free of contrivance. If all things each keep to Wuwei, then esteem and greed will be forgotten, and a simple, wholesome way of life will flourish. Who could say that such a realm cannot be governed?

Xie Tunan says: From “do not exalt the worthy” to “keep the people’s hearts from becoming unsettled”: Appointing capable and worthy people is naturally part of a ruler’s duty, but the ruler should not make a show of “esteeming” them. Once such esteem is made a public principle, petty people will use the name of worthiness as a pretext to struggle for power and profit.

“Rare goods” are things of no benefit, yet people prize and value them. If those above pursue them too avidly, thieves will be tempted to seize them. When people encounter desirable sights or useless pursuits with their eyes and ears, their hearts are stirred, and some will disrupt their conduct.

How, then, can those in high positions afford to be careless about the intentions they set? Thus the sage empties the heart, preventing external desires from entering; fills the belly, keeping the principles of Heaven from becoming depleted within; weakens the will, keeping intentions from drifting into arrogance; and strengthens the bones, so that practicing the Way is not hindered by fear of hard work. This is the sage’s way of governing: the people are continually brought to the point where they “are transformed of themselves, without being governed.”

Desire arises from knowledge; without knowledge there is no desire. Therefore those above teach “freedom from knowledge and desire.”

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Interpretation

To transform the people, those above should respond to and guide them through having no knowledge and no desires. Perhaps they cannot immediately make everyone truly free of knowledge, but those among them who show off their cleverness and flaunt their abilities will still be gradually transformed in secret, until they draw back and dare not act recklessly. The “knowledge” spoken of here is the cleverness of selfish motives, raw impulses, and scheming, not the innate moral knowledge described by Mencius. If such people are allowed to act as they please, government will surely be harmed. Thus, when those above govern through Wuwei (non-action), those below will all be well governed.

It is often said that the people follow those above not by obeying their commands, but by following what they favor. If those above are even slightly careless in their intentions, those below will go to excess in ceremony and music. The sages of antiquity made their intentions sincere to rectify their hearts, rectified their hearts to cultivate themselves, and cultivated themselves to govern the state and bring peace to all under Heaven. Their spirit and thoughts moved quietly within the court, while their influence and customs traveled ten thousand li in every direction. Once the response was set in motion, it was swift without seeming hurried. Later rulers indulged their passions and desires and did whatever they pleased, then blamed the difficulty of transforming the realm and taming human nature. How confused they were!

Lin Lüzhai said: “‘Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend’: carried through to its fullest, nothing will remain ungovened. To exalt is to make a show of something, to hold it up for admiration. If I make worthiness an object of display, contention will surely arise throughout the realm. Yu said, ‘Only by not boasting of your abilities will anyone contend with you over who is more capable.’ This is precisely the point. If I prize precious goods and wealth, everyone will want to obtain them, and the harm will eventually reach the point of theft. These two lines introduce the idea of ‘desirable things’ that follows. When people do not see things they might covet, their hearts naturally settle. ‘Do not display desirable things, and the heart will not be disturbed’—these eight words are excellent. ‘Empty their hearts’ means leaving them without thoughts of longing or envy; ‘fill their bellies’ means keeping them fed; ‘weaken their ambitions’ means keeping them from competing for fame and profit; ‘strengthen their bones’ means nurturing their strength. The point is that the sages of high antiquity simply kept the people well fed, with nothing else to long for. Their bodies were strong, and they had no urge to compete. Thus the people were simple and sincere, free of knowledge and desire. Even if someone harbored a crafty thought, though it might arise in the heart, they would not dare put it into action. This is how the sages governed the realm. They themselves harbored no private concerns in the world, and governed entirely through Wuwei, so nothing remained ungovened. ‘Do not display desirable things, and the heart will not be disturbed’ describes how the sages acted.”

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Interpretation

This passage says that the sage teaches the people, in broad terms, by not holding up the capable as objects of admiration and by not placing great value on rare goods, so that no one can use these things to stir their desires. There are many other ways to stir desire; these two are simply examples. Laozi was indignant at the disorder of the latter age and longed for the peaceful rule of ancient times. His words therefore go too far, and in this respect he falls short of the thoroughness of our sages—the sage-kings praised by Confucians.

Fan Yingyuan says: “Do not esteem the capable, and the people will not contend.” “Esteem” means to admire and favor; “the capable” refers to people with ability (the Shuowen also explains the word as “abundantly talented”); and “contend” means to compete in pursuit of something. If a ruler gives undue prominence to people of ability, the people will compete to develop their talents and win fame, instead of turning back to seek the natural Way. Moreover, limited talents and abilities can only be put to use by others; they cannot be used to direct others. Pursuing ability while neglecting Virtue is not the way of a noble person. If the ruler does not favor limited talents and abilities, the people will naturally stop contending.

“Do not prize rare goods, and the people will not become thieves.” Rare goods means things such as gold and jade. If such things are made very valuable, the people will become attached to wealth and fear they cannot obtain it, until they resort to theft.

“Therefore, in the sage’s rule”: “Empty their hearts.” When those above do not esteem things that invite desire, the people do not indulge in idle fantasies, and human desires gradually fade away. Is this not a way of making the heart empty and still? “Fill their bellies.” When those above keep Dao and Virtue in their hearts, the people hold fast to simplicity, and the principles of Heaven remain within them. Is this not a way of filling the belly? “Weaken their ambitions.” When those above keep to gentleness, the people are transformed and yield to one another, and their forceful impulses do not flare up. Is this not a way of softening their ambitions? “Strengthen their bones.” When those above have no cravings or desires, the people are transformed and grow strong of themselves, and their bodies remain healthy. Is this not a way of strengthening their bones?

If this can be done, it will “make the people free of knowledge and desire.” Some interpret these four lines solely in terms of personal cultivation. But the surrounding text also speaks of correcting oneself and transforming the people; from “always keep the people free of knowledge” through “they will not dare to act,” the same thread runs throughout. Once the people know what is valuable and what is desirable, they will contend and become greedy, giving rise to disorder. Therefore, they should always be kept free of delusive knowledge and desire.

“Make those who are clever dare not act.” This means that those who rely on clever schemes to seek advantage will not dare to act rashly. “Practice Wuwei (non-action), and nothing will remain ungoverned.” The sage leaves no trace of esteem for anything and displays nothing that invites desire. Following the natural order in responding to events and dealing with people, the sage lets each thing follow its proper course. All action proceeds from Wuwei; when it proceeds from Wuwei, nothing fails to be accomplished.

Brief background note: “Do not esteem the capable” and “do not prize rare goods” come from Chapter Three of the Daodejing. They have traditionally been read in two ways: as guidance for governing the state, in which a ruler refrains from promoting status and displaying treasures so as to quiet contention among the people; and as guidance for personal cultivation, in which a practitioner avoids stirring thoughts and coveting external things in order to maintain inner balance. Fan Yingyuan pairs “empty the heart, fill the belly, weaken ambitions, strengthen bones” with the conduct of those above and those below. This is a familiar interpretive approach that uses the governance of the body to illuminate the governance of the state.

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Interpretation

Things are all in harmony, and so nothing remains undone.

Xue Yongzhai says:

From “Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend” to “then nothing will remain in disorder”—

If you do not promote those deemed “worthy” by worldly standards, people will not compete for fame. If you do not prize rare goods, people will not steal or rob. If you do not display things that stir desire, people’s minds will not be thrown into confusion. Thus, when the sage governs the state, it is like tending the self:

Empty the mind, and one’s virtue can become broad and accepting; fill the belly, and no one within the realm will covet or seize; weaken ambition, and the Way of governance will favor gentleness; strengthen the bones, and officials will not grow lax.

If the people are always kept free of cleverness and desire, nothing will remain beyond good governance. When one dwells with “freedom from cleverness,” De is not lost. When one dwells with “freedom from desire,” this is called plain simplicity—a return to one’s original, unadorned nature. When the people reach this state, even the clever will not dare act recklessly. Without desire, all under Heaven is content; through Wuwei (non-action), the myriad things transform of themselves; in deep stillness, the people settle of themselves. Is this not governance through Wuwei?

Xiuxiu’an says:

“Do not exalt the worthy … then nothing will remain in disorder”—Those who embrace the Dao and put it into practice, teaching through wordless instruction, are inwardly empty and outwardly accommodating. They have no fixed likes or dislikes, and so do not exalt the worthy or prize rare goods. To favor or esteem something arises from feelings and discriminating consciousness; it inevitably gives rise to a division between “the capable” and “those who bring things forth,” leading to covetousness, competition for merit, or theft. Those who advance along the Dao and cultivate De must also let not a single thought arise, reaching utmost emptiness, subtlety, and mysterious communion. Then their own spiritual clarity will not act recklessly, and they will value themselves as they would a treasure. If thoughts of what is lovely or desirable arise, feelings move the mind and disturb its constant, true state.

Thus the sage cultivates the self, orders the family, governs the state, and brings peace to all under Heaven. Empty the mind—be free of self and broad in one’s measure. Fill the belly—hold the Dao within. Weaken ambition—promote the virtue of non-contention. Strengthen the bones—put this Dao into practice with resolve. If one can do so, then discerning thoughts will be extinguished, leaving nothing to know, and feelings and deliberations will fade away … (The original text continues.)

Chu Boxiu says:

“Do not exalt the worthy … then nothing will remain in disorder”—The ancients prized the worthiness inherent in one’s nature and would “see the worthy and aspire to become their equal.” What, then, does “do not exalt” mean here? In the present age, people often exalt their own reputation for worthiness, giving rise to rivalry and envy; disorder begins there. Only by not exalting one’s own worth can one recognize the truly worthy throughout the world. This does not mean casting worthy people aside and leaving them unused. When the Way of the age is in decline, those called “worthy” are often not truly worthy … (The original text continues with his discussion of the failings of the age.)

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Interpretation

Those who truly practice “not exalting the worthy” do not necessarily act from sincere intent. If a ruler merely flaunts his reputation for seeking worthy men, while scholars pride themselves on their own worth and ability, then deceit meets deceit, and both sides sink into wrongdoing. “Worthiness” becomes an empty name. What good does it do the family or the state? Laozi’s instruction not to exalt one’s own worth is meant to clarify the source of things and open the way for worthy people from across the land to come and serve.

Goods under Heaven exist to meet people’s needs through exchange, supplying what is lacking. Here, “not valuing” refers specifically to rare treasures—pearls by the inch, jade discs by the foot, southern gold, great cowries, and such amusements as music, beautiful sights, and exotic animals. These things do nothing for the family or the state and offer no relief from hunger or cold. When those above covet them, those below follow suit; people often seek profit through violence, stirring greed throughout the land, until rulers and subjects alike become thieves. By contrast, the circulation of money and the everyday necessities of people’s lives—silk, hemp, millet, and cloth—has never ceased for a single day. This is what it means not to prize strange luxuries but to value ordinary necessities: each has its proper place, families have enough to live on, and what need is there for thieves and bandits?

In later generations, greed and extravagance have known no bounds, and desire for profit has eaten away at people’s hearts; the whole world has followed the same course. Only those who study the Dao draw clear boundaries and never overreach their station in pursuit of what they want. They enjoy things without losing sight of their purpose, eat only to satisfy hunger, wear only what fits, and live in homes that shelter them from wind and rain. Their observances of good and ill fortune accord with what they have or lack. Their enjoyment is limited, and they are easily satisfied. With no longing or envy in their hearts, how could disorder arise?

When those above do not exalt the worthy, those below do not compete for fame. When those above do not prize goods, those below do not compete for profit. When those above do not display objects of desire, the people’s hearts are not thrown into confusion. All this begins with an empty heart that does not take things in; desirable objects then have no way to slip inside. When the heart is empty, the Original Spirit dwells in the abdomen; when the abdomen is full, Original Qi gathers. Let the will favor strength, and it will be made weak: this is how harmony is summoned. Let the bones bear exertion, and they will be made strong: this is how one becomes firmly established. Empty the heart and weaken the will, and the people will be without cunning. Fill the abdomen and strengthen the bones, and the people will be without desire. Then even the wise will not dare to use deliberate action to interfere with the ruler’s Wuwei (non-action). If those above can keep to the Dao of Wuwei and act without meddling, there will be nothing under Heaven that cannot be accomplished. The final phrase in an ancient edition reads, “nothing will be left undone”; this seems to express the meaning of the art of governing more fully.

(Commentary by Niu Miaochuan) “‘Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend’: ‘Worthy’ refers to those of clear judgment and keen intelligence. ‘Do not exalt’ means not to vaunt one’s own worth, but to remain humble and reserved. Humility keeps one’s brilliance hidden within; what then is there for the world to contend over? Thus, the noble person does not… [The original passage appears unfinished here; the intended meaning is that the noble person does not exalt their own worth, and so the people do not contend.]”

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Interpretation

Collected Meanings of the True Classic of the Dao and Its Virtue (II): A Plain-Language Interpretation

Scriptural passage

Accomplish great things without claiming credit for them. Yield to the worthy, lower yourself, and show respect to others. When you keep yourself humble, the people will respect and honor you. A Confucian scholar of old said: “If I consider myself worthy and capable, what do ‘worthiness’ and ‘capability’ do for me? If I consider myself exalted, what does ‘exalted status’ do for me? If I consider myself more honored than others, must I then honor myself even more?” If I flaunt and pride myself on these things, I cannot be called worthy. If I am unworthy, others will reject me—is that not contention? This is what “do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend” means.

When scarce goods are not prized, the people will not turn to theft. A luminous pearl or a bright moonstone disc can be called a rare treasure. If people have no greed to begin with, no one will steal even if a reward is offered. What thieves, then, could there be under Heaven? Some Confucians therefore prized loyalty and trustworthiness over gold and jade. Once, someone from the state of Song offered jade to Zihan. Zihan replied: “I treasure freedom from greed; you treasure jade. If you give me the jade, we will both lose what we treasure.” He declined the gift. This is an example of “do not prize rare goods.” Zhuangzi said: “When sagehood and wisdom are cast aside, great thieves have no chance to practice their cunning; when pearls are smashed and jade is broken, petty thieves will not even be tempted.” Is this not what “so the people will not steal” means?

When desirable things are not put on display, the mind is not thrown into disorder. The mind governs the whole body; “desire” is what thoughts turn toward. Whenever the eyes see something, the mind is bound to form an idea about it. Once a thought arises, the body must act; this stirring of thought and feeling is “desire.” Desire clouds the mind. How could it remain clear and undisturbed? The Record of Music says: “Human beings are born tranquil; this is their nature. When they are stirred by contact with external things, desire arises within their nature.” For this reason, practitioners are always careful about what they look at. If they avoid seeing things that stir desire, body and mind will naturally become tranquil and clear; troubles will not intrude, and they will not be thrown into disorder. Mencius, too, said: “There is no better way to nourish the mind than to reduce desire.” This is what he meant.

Therefore, in governing the country, the sage “empties the people’s minds.” Deep and wise, the sage understands the Dao of Heaven and therefore keeps the mind empty and tranquil. To empty the mind is to dispel attachment to the idea that things are fixed and substantial. There is no separate set of principles outside the mind. The sage investigates the principles of Heaven, and all principles under Heaven are within the mind. The mind can be cultivated only through emptiness and tranquility, so that not even a trace of distracting thought remains.

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Note: The phrases “do not exalt the worthy,” “do not prize rare goods,” “do not display desirable things,” and “empty the people’s minds” follow the wording of Chapter Three of the Dao De Jing on “the sage’s governance.” This collection of interpretations brings together allusions from Confucian and Daoist texts to illuminate the passage. Zihan’s refusal of jade appears in the Zuo Tradition; Zhuangzi’s statement is from “Ransacking Trunks” in the Zhuangzi; “Human beings are born tranquil” appears in the Record of Music in the Book of Rites; and “There is no better way to nourish the mind than to reduce desire” appears in “Exerting the Mind to the Utmost” in the Mencius.

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Interpretation

Collected Meanings of the True Scripture of the Dao and Its De

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1. Private Desires and Observing Heaven

When selfish thoughts and delusions intrude between the mind and the Dao, the mysteries of Heaven and Earth become harder to see. Only when the mind is free of private desires can one speak of “observing the mysteries of Heaven and Earth.” (This continues the preceding discussion of the state of mind involved in the sage’s cultivation of the self.)

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2. “Keep the body empty, and the myriad things will arrive; let the mind be free of affairs, and harmonious Qi will return”

The Old Master says: Keep the body empty, and all kinds of things will arrive of themselves; let the mind be free of affairs, and harmonious Qi will return of itself. This expresses how the sage cultivates the self with an empty mind.

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3. “Fill the belly” does not mean eating one’s fill

To fill the belly does not mean stuffing the Five Viscera with rich food until they are full. It means accumulating Jing and Qi until they congeal into the true state.

Thus, the sage always honors Qi, values the body, treasures life, and cherishes Shen, allowing the true state to endure and the life-giving energy to take root. The sage keeps the nine apertures unblocked, so that the body can give birth to Shen—this is essential to the sage’s cultivation of the self.

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4. “My life is in my own hands, not in Heaven’s”

The Old Master also says: My life is in my own hands; it does not belong to Heaven and Earth. This means not being pulled along by external things into heedlessly looking and listening, so that Shen does not leave the body and the body remains with the Dao for a long time.

I share the same portion of Qi as Heaven and Earth, yet I guard my own root. The root means Shen, Qi, and Jing, mentioned earlier; it is also what “fill the belly” refers to.

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5. “Soften the will”

In “soften the will,” soften means to hold steady and bring under control, not to abandon the will. The will commands Qi, and Qi fills the body.

Those who are skilled at nourishing themselves hold fast to their will and do not force their Qi at dawn, before they have engaged with external things, while their Qi is still clear. This lets their vast, upright energy grow full without being confined and lost, leaving little obstruction among the body’s 360 joints.

Mencius said: If something receives nourishment, there is nothing that will not grow; if it loses its nourishment, there is nothing that will not wither.

Confucius said: When held, it remains; when let go, it is lost. It comes and goes without any fixed time, and no one knows its whereabouts—is this not speaking of the mind?

This is the meaning of “soften the will.”

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6. “Strengthen the bones” and the practice

Strengthen the bones refers to physical cultivation methods such as clenching the hands, sitting with the feet crossed, raising the waist, and thrusting out the chest. This is the bodily-method aspect of practice.

In cultivating the self, the sage first empties the mind to reach understanding of principle, then fills the belly to secure Jing, next softens the will to preserve Qi, and finally strengthens the bones to walk the Dao.

Can “strengthen the bones” be left unexplained? When a great practitioner has completed the work, they withdraw the fire and extract the lead, allowing Original Qi to rise from the coccyx through the spine and upper gate into the Muddy Pellet Palace. Qi transforms into saliva, which emerges at the upper palate and fills the mouth. The practitioner clicks the teeth three times, then swallows the saliva in three portions, guiding it with the mind to the Dantian, where it is nourished with the fire timing of the microcosmic orbit. This is called Returning the Elixir with Jade Fluid. It is how “strengthen the bones” unfolds in the context of internal cultivation.

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7. “Always keep the people free of knowledge and desire”

(This line belongs to a chapter on governing the state in the received text of the Dao De Jing. This book may connect it by analogy to cultivating the self.) It can also mean keeping the people—or the myriad people and thoughts within the body—less given to cleverness and free of excessive desires, in keeping with the same thread as emptying the mind and filling the belly. The specific context should be checked against the chapter order of the complete work.

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Note: If the final phrase, “free of knowledge and desire,” belongs to the chapter on governing the state, its placement alongside the preceding discussion of cultivating the self and returning the Elixir may reflect the idea that the state and the body share the same structure. Readers should consult the original work’s chapter sequence.

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Interpretation

“Pure” describes a kind and sincere nature; “desirelessness” means holding fast to simplicity. People who are kind and simple do not act recklessly. The saying “always keep the people free of cleverness and desire” means that the sage first practices this himself, then guides the people to lessen their cleverness and private desires, returning them to simplicity and Wuwei (non-action). Only when the sage is clear-minded himself can he help the people become clear-minded too. In ancient times, rulers governed all under Heaven by taking Wuwei as their guiding principle: those above acted without forcing things, and those below followed suit. The ruler was like the wind, the people like grass; the grass bent with the wind, and so nothing in the realm was done recklessly.

In those days the people were free of cleverness and knowledge, and customs were simple. This was the ancient age of highest De (Virtue/Power). Zhuangzi said that in the age of highest De, worthiness was not exalted and people were not put to work for others. Those above were as naturally spreading branches, and the people as free-ranging deer. They acted rightly without knowing this was called “benevolence”; they cared for one another without knowing this was called “righteousness”; they were honest without knowing this was called “loyalty”; they did what was fitting without knowing this was called “trustworthiness.” Their actions were in harmony, yet they did not think of this as a gift. They left no traces in what they did and sought no fame for their deeds. Dutiful children did not flatter their parents, and loyal ministers did not fawn on their rulers. This is what is meant by customs of simplicity. That is why those above must first shape those below through their example before one can say, “always keep the people free of cleverness and desire.”

“To keep the clever from daring to act” means that in the ancient age of simple customs, the Three Bonds—ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife—were not distinguished, and the Five Constant Virtues—benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness—were not visible. Everyone attained the Dao without knowing how, and lived without knowing why. They dwelt among animals and existed alongside all things; who could tell noble from base? In their shared simplicity, their De remained undivided; in their shared freedom from desire, they were called unadorned. Each person fulfilled their original nature. Even those who were simple, learned, and clever had no use for their knowledge. Thus it is said that the clever should not dare to act recklessly.

“To practice Wuwei, and nothing will go unmanaged.” The De of emperors and kings takes Heaven and Earth as its foundation, Dao and De as its guiding principles, and Wuwei as its constant way. Through Wuwei, one can make use of all under Heaven and still have more than enough; through forced action, one is used up in serving all under Heaven. Wuwei is the state in which Heaven and Earth are at peace and Dao and De reach their utmost. One who understands this can rule facing south as Emperor Yao, or serve facing north as Minister Shun. In a position above others, one embodies the De of emperors and sovereigns; in a position below, one accords with the way of the ancient, unadorned sage-kings.

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Interpretation

The Dao, in this sense, works as follows: when one withdraws to a quiet, secluded life, those who roam among rivers, lakes, and mountains willingly submit to one’s influence. When one steps forward to care for the world and bring peace to its people, one achieves great deeds and a far-reaching reputation, and all under Heaven is brought into unity. Thus Laozi says: govern through Wuwei (non-action), and nothing will remain ungoverned.

Yang Zhiren says: The passage from “Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend” to “nothing will remain ungoverned” expresses one continuous line of thought.

“Do not exalt the worthy”: Wealth and honor are not what I seek in my heart, and rank and stipend are not what I possess. I do not attend court before the Son of Heaven above, nor pay visits to high ministers below. This is the virtue of “not contending.”

“Do not prize rare goods”: Rare treasures and fine gold and jade are all external things. My heart is at ease, and the people’s hearts are content. When nothing desirable is displayed outwardly, the heart is not thrown into disorder. The wise do not cling even to what they see; they move freely in every direction. As the ancients said, “If I am free of attachment to the myriad things, they may forever surround me.” The sage empties the heart and clings to nothing, fills the belly by nourishing the utmost Jing (essence), softens the will by remaining humble and harmonious, and strengthens the bones by cultivating vast, upright Qi (vital energy). When my heart is simple, the people’s hearts are plain. With no desires and no clever scheming, even the crafty dare not act recklessly. Through Wuwei, nothing is left undone; nothing remains ungoverned.

The Book cites Yan Hui: “He laid aside his limbs and dismissed his intelligence”—that is, he left behind form and discarded cleverness, which is “not exalting the worthy.” He ate from a bamboo bowl and drank from a gourd in a humble alley; others could not bear the hardship, but Hui never lost his joy. This is “not prizing rare goods.” He did not steal, displayed nothing desirable, and kept his heart undisturbed. This is the same principle. To nourish oneself in order to remain upright, and to be humble yet worthy of respect, is precisely for the sage to empty the heart, fill the belly, soften the will, strengthen the bones, remain free of cleverness and desire, and through Wuwei leave nothing ungoverned.

Yu Qingzhong says: “Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend” through “nothing will remain ungoverned” means the same as “If you do not vaunt your abilities, no one under Heaven will contend with you over who is more capable.” “Do not prize rare goods, and the people will not steal” is close to Xunzi’s saying that when people have no desire, they will not steal even if offered a reward. “Do not display what is desirable, and the heart will not be thrown into disorder”—this is the most essential lesson the Highest One teaches people. Zigong went out, saw splendor and finery, and felt delighted: he had seen what was desirable, and his heart was disturbed. He returned, heard the Master’s Way, and rejoiced: he had not seen what was desirable, and his heart was undisturbed. Bodhidharma, too, faced a wall at Shaolin for nine years; this was the same kind of practice.

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Interpretation

Plain-Language Interpretation

The word “worthy” here teaches people not to compete in everything to “surpass others” or show off their cleverness at every turn. Boasting of great achievements, waging wars without restraint, and always trying to outdo those who came before are not merely displays of intelligence. They also reveal a constant desire to “win.”

Emperor Wen of Han admired the quiet simplicity of the Huang-Lao tradition. He spoke modestly, treated others with generosity, and sought friendly relations with distant peoples. He once said, “I am a son of the Gao Emperor by a secondary consort”—that is, he did “not exalt the worthy” (he did not make competing for fame and the title of “worthy” a guiding principle of government). Emperor Gao of Qi likewise said, “If I were allowed to govern the realm for ten years, I would make gold and soil equal in price”—that is, he would “not prize rare goods” or lead people to covet scarce and hard-to-obtain possessions.

People desire many things, including beauty, wealth, and status. Fine horses, sensual pleasures, children, silk and jade, lofty houses, and carved walls can all stir desire. Only when the eyes and ears reach less for things outside themselves is the heart less easily unsettled. The sage governs by bringing people into a state of “thoughtlessness and freedom from worry”: “empty their hearts,” so that fame and profit do not fill their minds. The sage also ensures that a household of eight does not go hungry, for fear of poverty can lead to theft. Through gentle and generous instruction, the sage “weakens their ambitions,” so that people are not always striving to outdo one another. At the same time, people must work with their bodies and have useful things to do, lest they grow idle and lose their moral grounding through a life of ease and plenty.

The four words “empty, fill, weaken, strengthen” are linked as mother and child. “Fill their bellies and strengthen their bones”—first make sure people are fed and physically strong—is the method the sage uses to govern after careful reflection. The people then live in a world of “not knowing and not being clever,” with few thoughts and desires; even if they possess ingenuity, they have no occasion to put it to use. When the sage governs through Wuwei (non-action), how could the world fail to be well governed?

Xu Liuxu also explains: “Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend.” A state needs worthy people to help govern; without them, it cannot be governed well. “Do not exalt the worthy” does not mean refusing to employ worthy people. It means not making the exaltation of worthies into a prevailing custom. If those above throw open the way to honors for the worthy, those below will begin to compete for advancement. Hence the saying: “Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend.”

“Do not prize rare goods, and the people will not become thieves.” Everyone wants wealth and possessions. If those above prize and cherish them, while those below desire them but cannot obtain them, the difficulty of obtaining them will make people more inclined to steal. If those above regard wealth and possessions as no more valuable than soil and weeds, and do not prize rare goods … (The text continues from this point: the people will then not become thieves.)

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Interpretation

Plain-language interpretation

“Do not prize hard-to-obtain goods. When the people are not driven to chase rare things that are difficult to acquire, they will not harbor thoughts of theft.”

“There is more than one way to read ‘Do not display what is desirable, and the people’s minds will not be disturbed.’

“One reading concerns governing: if the ruler does not display things that stir up desire, the people’s minds will naturally be steady. If everything above is put on show and made to seem attainable, those below will follow suit. How could their minds remain undisturbed?

“The other reading concerns self-cultivation: when sights, sounds, and amusements pile up before you, yet you see nothing worth coveting, the mind can settle. If you want everything you see, how could your mind remain undisturbed?

“Therefore, when the sage governs, the first task is to strengthen the sinews and bones—that is, to build a sound physical foundation. In ancient times, governing the state began with cultivating the self, and cultivating the self began with emptying the mind. When human desires are not allowed to agitate it, the mind naturally becomes empty. Emptiness is stillness; when the mind is still, Qi settles, and once Qi has settled, the abdomen feels full. This is why it is called ‘emptying the mind and filling the belly.’

“‘Weakening the will’ means not contending with external things. Without contention, spirit and Qi flow harmoniously, the blood and marrow are abundant, and the sinews and bones grow strong. This is the trustworthy, verifiable path of nourishing life. Apply this approach to governing, and the state will prosper and the people will live in peace. What other stratagems would be needed?

“Only by ‘constantly keeping the people free of knowledge and desire’ can ‘nothing remain unguided.’ It is difficult for ordinary people to be entirely without desire. The way is for the ruler not to exalt the worthy, prize rare goods, or display what is desirable. Those below follow the example set above, like grass bending in the wind. The people’s customs return to simplicity, everyone is content with their place, and with enough food and clothing they live at ease. What more knowledge or desire would they seek? Of course, even when those above act with the utmost sincerity, some people may not be transformed at once. Though they may entertain certain thoughts, they will not dare to act recklessly, because so many others are following the example. ‘Practice Wuwei, and nothing will remain unguided’ means that if the ruler truly practices Wuwei—refraining from acts that provoke rivalry in exalting the worthy, prizing rare goods, and displaying what is desirable—the world will naturally be easy to govern. Thus it is said: ‘Practice Wuwei, and nothing will remain unguided.’”

Su Jingjing says: “From ‘Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not contend’ through to ‘nothing will remain unguided,’ the real point of emphasis in this chapter of Laozi is the line ‘Do not display what is desirable, and the people’s minds will not be disturbed.’

“Worthiness means being superior to others. If I revere ‘being superior,’ those who cannot measure up will rise up to contend. Hard-to-obtain goods are treasures of great value. If I prize such treasures, the people will develop thoughts of theft. It is like the story of Ji Kangzi worrying about thieves, to which Confucius replied: ‘If you yourself are not greedy, would they still steal?’”

(In brief, the passage says that the ruler can calm the people and reduce contention and theft by doing less to stir their desires: do not prize rare goods, flaunt what is desirable, or exalt the worthy in ways that provoke competition. Through Wuwei, nothing remains unguided. The commentary also explains through self-cultivation—‘emptying the mind and filling the belly’ and ‘weakening the will’—that the sage cultivates the self before governing the state.)

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Interpretation

A Plain-Language Interpretation

Core idea: The sage governs the state by keeping the people from seeing things that tempt them, so their hearts are not disturbed.

1. If they do not see things they desire, their hearts will not be disturbed

Key points from the text:

• Though rewards are given, people should not be led to think of taking what is not theirs. That is the meaning.
• In general, when people do not see things they desire, their hearts naturally remain undisturbed.

The image from the Classic of Changes, Hexagram Gen (Keeping Still):

• “Keeping the back still, one does not apprehend the body”; “walking in the courtyard, one does not see the people.”
• Interpretation: A person’s desires often come to a halt where the eyes cannot see.
• When the back is out of sight, desire naturally does not arise.
• Though the courtyard is close by, one does not see the people walking there because “the back is kept still.”
• Go out and see bustling prosperity, and the heart becomes disturbed with excitement.
• When external things do not make contact, the heart has nothing to disturb it, and there is naturally no fault.
• This is what Laozi means by “not displaying things that can be desired, so the heart will not be disturbed.”

2. Four aims of the sage’s governance

Laozi speaks of the ancient sages governing the state with the aim of ensuring that:

1. The people’s hearts are empty (their hearts should be empty)

• Do not let external things disturb their inner selves.

2. Their bellies are full (their bellies should be full)

• It is enough for the people to have plenty to eat.

3. Their ambitions are weakened (their ambitions should be weak)

• If they do not see things they desire, they will not compete.

4. Their bones are strong (their bones should be strong)

• It is enough for the people to have the strength to bear burdens.

3. Without knowledge or desire, simplicity becomes customary

The result:

• The people are free of knowledge and desire, simple and practical, and this naturally becomes the prevailing custom.
• Among them, there may be clever and cunning people, but they are fewer than one in a hundred.
• If the simple are many and the cunning few, who would dare rise up and cause disorder?

A comparison that still holds today:

• People in mountain forests and people in marketplaces differ in their honesty and cleverness.
• The reason is simple: Marketplace dwellers see many things they desire; mountain dwellers do not.

4. With Wuwei (non-action) and stillness, things govern themselves

The sage’s governance:

• It is all a matter of stillness and Wuwei (non-action); naturally, nothing is left ungov­erned.
• Not honoring the worthy and not valuing rare treasures both keep the people from seeing things they desire, so their hearts remain undisturbed.

Mistakes made in later generations:

• Rewarding merit and encouraging ability stirs up competition throughout the realm.
• Valuing trade and wealth leads to theft throughout the realm.
• Neither approach reflects governance through Wuwei and stillness.

5. Additional note: Bingwen’s interpretation

Empty hearts and full bellies:

• This means “not honoring, not valuing, and not displaying” the things discussed above, so the people are free of knowledge and desire.
• When they know nothing to admire, they do not dare to act.

Some say this means “emptying the heart to cultivate the Dao”:

• Though this interpretation does not contradict the general meaning, it is not the original intent of this chapter.

6. Supporting evidence from other philosophers: Zhuangzi

The age of Perfect Virtue:

• It did not honor the worthy, just as Laozi teaches.

Core principles

Four principles for the sage’s governance:

1. The heart should be empty — Do not let external things disturb it.

2. The belly should be full — It is enough to have plenty to eat.

3. Ambitions should be weak — See nothing desirable and do not compete.

4. The bones should be strong — It is enough to have strength.

The key method:

• Do not display things that can be desired → the heart is undisturbed → simplicity becomes customary → things govern themselves.

A contrast between then and now:

• People in mountain forests, who see nothing desirable → honest and simple.
• People in marketplaces, who see many things they desire → clever and calculating.

Later generations’ mistakes:

• Rewarding merit and encouraging ability → stirs up competition.
• Valuing trade and wealth → leads to theft.

The connection to Hexagram Gen:

• “Keeping the back still, one does not apprehend the body” — when things remain unseen, desire does not arise.
• This is the Classic of Changes’ version of “not displaying things that can be desired.”

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Interpretation

When those above the people are like bare branches that do not move recklessly, and the people below are like wild deer, free and at ease, they act uprightly without thinking they are practicing “rightness”; they care for one another without thinking they are practicing “benevolence”; they are sincere without thinking they are practicing “loyalty”; and they keep their word without thinking they are practicing “trustworthiness.” All things stir into motion and serve one another, yet do not regard this as a gift of kindness. Thus, in acting, they leave no trace; in doing, they make no name for themselves.

As recorded in the Han Feizi: A man on the border of the state of Song found an unworked piece of jade and offered it to Zihan. Zihan refused it. The man said, “This is a treasure. A gentleman should possess it; a petty person should not use it.” Zihan replied, “You regard the jade as a treasure; I regard refusing your jade as a treasure.” The man coveted the jade, while Zihan did not covet it. This corresponds to “desiring what is not desired and valuing goods that are hard to obtain.”

The great man described by Wenzi: Calm, with no thoughts; tranquil, with no worries. He takes Heaven as his canopy, Earth as his carriage, the four seasons as his horses, and Yin-Yang as his driver. He travels where there are no roads, wanders where there are no traces, and emerges where there are no gates. With Heaven as his canopy, nothing is beyond its cover; with Earth as his carriage, nothing is beyond its capacity to bear. With the four seasons as his horses, nothing is beyond their use; with Yin-Yang as his driver, nothing is left unprepared. Thus he moves swiftly without being shaken, travels far without tiring, and, though his limbs do not move and his faculties are not diminished, brings clarity to all under Heaven.

One who holds the essentials of the Dao and looks upon the boundless realm knows that the affairs of the world cannot be forced into action: one can only follow their natural course and guide them forward. The transformations of the myriad things cannot be forcibly remedied: one can only grasp their essentials and bring them back to their proper course. The sage cultivates the root within and does not adorn the branches without. He strengthens his spirit and stills his knowledge and perceptions, remaining detached and practicing Wuwei (non-action), yet leaving nothing undone; he governs without governing, yet nothing remains unguided. What is called non-action is not rushing ahead of things to act. What is called non-governing is not altering what is natural. What is called leaving nothing unguided is bringing things to completion by following their natural course.

Shi Tan says: The previous chapter explains the meaning of “namelessness”; this chapter explains the meaning of “desirelessness.” “Not exalting the worthy” means that reputation is not made desirable, and the people do not contend. “Not valuing goods that are hard to obtain” means that profit is not made desirable, and the people do not steal. “Not displaying what is desirable” means that the mind is not thrown into disorder. When the worthy are exalted, reputation becomes something desirable, and the people contend over it. When goods that are hard to obtain are valued, profit becomes something desirable, and the people steal for it. Only when reputation is not displayed as desirable does it cease to unsettle the mind; only when profit is not displayed as desirable does it cease to unsettle the mind.

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Interpretation

Plain-language Interpretation

The desires that can disturb people’s minds go far beyond those mentioned in the text. The passage gives just two common examples.

Lin Fuzhai understood “not honoring the worthy” as not showing off or acting self-important. Huang Maocai understood “not displaying what is desirable” as keeping one’s eyes from things in the world that stir up greed. These interpretations are especially apt.

Thus, when governing the world, the sage seeks to make people empty in heart, full in belly, weak in ambition, and strong in bone. To keep the heart from being stirred by desire, one must first empty it. When the heart is not led around by external things, it has an inner guiding force; this is what “filling the belly” means. When ambition does not reach outward in pursuit, it grows weak. Though ambition is weak, the vital force is not stirred by thoughts of ambition, so the sinews and bones become stronger. This is what “strengthening the bones” means.

The sage also seeks to keep the people without knowledge and without desire—less given to clever schemes and less prone to greed—so that those who think themselves clever dare not act recklessly. When people are free of knowledge and desire, even someone’s clever tricks are of no use. Govern through Wuwei (non-action)—following nature and curbing self-serving interference—and nothing will be left unguided.

The previous chapter begins with “namelessness,” while this one begins with “desirelessness”; both ultimately lead to Wuwei, because it is through Wuwei that one understands and abides by the Dao (the Way), the source and underlying order of all things in Heaven and Earth.

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