《道德真經廣聖義》Vol. 32

Interpretation

Those of old who attained the One

Note: “The One” refers to the balanced, harmonious Qi of the Dao. Its subtle function is to unite with all things as one, and so it is called “the One.”

Commentary: “Of old” means in ancient times. “The One” is the balanced, harmonious Qi. It is called “the One” because it can join with all things and remains unchanged from ancient times to the present. This is what is meant by “the One.” Thus the Book of Changes, in the “Appended Statements,” says, “One Yin and one Yang: this is called the Dao.” This shows that the Qi of the Dao joins with Yin where there is Yin, and with Yang where there is Yang. The word “of old” points back to the source, returning from the branches to the root. Ancient examples of those who attained the Dao are cited to illuminate the present; the principle of attaining “the One” is explained in detail below.

Explanation: Laozi wishes to clarify how the balanced Qi of the Dao brings forth and transforms the myriad things, and therefore cites ancient examples of those who attained the Dao to show the source of this process. The Dao is called “the One”: all things receive the Qi of the Dao; when this Qi is present, things live, and when it is gone, they die. The Qi received by all things is the same in essence; within all things, it is “the One.” Although times change, “the One” does not, and so it is said to be undivided. This is what “the One” means. The Dao is neither Yin nor Yang: where there is Yang, it joins with Yang; where there is Yin, it joins with Yin. Just as it is clear in Heaven and tranquil on Earth, it is everywhere. Though it is neither Yin nor Yang, it can be Yin or Yang; though it is neither Heaven nor Earth, it can be Heaven or Earth; though it is not “the One,” it can flow through all transformations.

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Heaven attains the One and thereby is clear

Note: Heaven receives the Qi of the Dao and thereby becomes clear.

Commentary: Heaven receives the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so remains clear and empty above, moving without cease.

Explanation: Heaven attains the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so remains clear and empty above, moving without cease.

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Earth attains the One and thereby is tranquil

Note: Earth receives the Qi of the Dao and thereby becomes tranquil.

Commentary: Earth receives the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so remains still below, bearing and nurturing all things.

Explanation: Earth attains the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so remains still below, bearing and nurturing all things.

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Spirit attains the One and thereby is numinous

Note: Spirit receives the Qi of the Dao and thereby becomes numinous.

Commentary: Spirit receives the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so responds in unfathomable ways and governs the transformations of creation.

Explanation: Spirit attains the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so responds in unfathomable ways and governs the transformations of creation.

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The valley attains the One and thereby is filled

Note: The valley receives the Qi of the Dao and thereby becomes full.

Commentary: Valleys receive the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so are filled and hold things within them, nurturing all things.

Explanation: Valleys attain the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so are filled and hold things within them, nurturing all things.

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The myriad things attain the One and thereby live

Note: The myriad things receive the Qi of the Dao and thereby live.

Commentary: The myriad things receive the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so life continues without end and change has no limit.

Explanation: The myriad things attain the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so life continues without end and change has no limit.

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The lords and kings attain the One and thereby become upright for all under Heaven

Note: The lords and kings receive the Qi of the Dao and thereby become upright for all under Heaven.

Commentary: The lords and kings receive the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so can become the rightful rulers of all under Heaven and govern the people.

Explanation: The lords and kings attain the balanced Qi of the Dao, and so can become the rightful rulers of all under Heaven and govern the people.

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As for tracing this principle through

Note: “Trace through” means to extend. Extend this principle of the Qi of the Dao to Heaven, Earth, spirits, valleys, the myriad things, and the lords and kings: all attain the One and thereby come to completion.

Commentary: Following this principle through, Heaven, Earth, spirits, valleys, the myriad things, and the lords and kings all attain “the One” in order to be complete.

Explanation: Following this principle through, Heaven, Earth, spirits, valleys, the myriad things, and the lords and kings all attain “the One” in order to be complete.

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If Heaven had nothing by which to be clear, it would likely split apart

Note: If Heaven did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be clear, it would likely split apart.

Commentary: If Heaven did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be clear, it would likely collapse and split apart.

Explanation: If Heaven did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be clear, it would likely collapse and split apart.

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If Earth had nothing by which to be tranquil, it would likely quake and split

Note: If Earth did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be tranquil, it would likely quake and split.

Commentary: If Earth did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be tranquil, it would likely shake and split open.

Explanation: If Earth did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be tranquil, it would likely shake and split open.

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If spirit had nothing by which to be numinous, it would likely cease

Note: If spirit did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be numinous, its numinous responses would likely cease.

Commentary: If spirit did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be numinous, its numinous responses would likely cease.

Explanation: If spirit did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be numinous, its numinous responses would likely cease.

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If the valley had nothing by which to be full, it would likely be exhausted

Note: If the valley did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be full, it would likely be exhausted.

Commentary: If valleys did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be full, they would likely dry up.

Explanation: If valleys did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be full, they would likely dry up.

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If the myriad things had nothing by which to live, they would likely perish

Note: If the myriad things did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to live, they would likely perish.

Commentary: If the myriad things did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to live, they would likely be extinguished.

Explanation: If the myriad things did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to live, they would likely be extinguished.

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If the lords and kings had nothing by which to be honored and exalted, they would likely fall

Note: If the lords and kings did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be upright for all under Heaven, and instead regarded themselves as honored and exalted, they would likely fall.

Commentary: If the lords and kings did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be the rightful rulers of all under Heaven, and instead regarded themselves as honored and exalted, they would likely be defeated and overthrown.

Explanation: If the lords and kings did not receive the Qi of the Dao by which to be the rightful rulers of all under Heaven, and instead regarded themselves as honored and exalted, they would likely be defeated and overthrown.

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Thus the honored take the lowly as their root, and the high take the low as their foundation

Note: The honored take the lowly as their root, and the high take the low as their foundation. The lords and kings should be humble and restrain themselves; they must not regard themselves as honored and exalted.

Commentary: Thus the honored take the lowly as their root, and the exalted take the low as their foundation. The lords and kings should be humble and restrain themselves; they must not consider themselves honored and exalted.

Explanation: Thus the honored take the lowly as their root, and the exalted take the low as their foundation. The lords and kings should be humble and restrain themselves; they must not consider themselves honored and exalted.

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Therefore the lords and kings call themselves “orphaned,” “bereft,” and “unworthy”

Note: When the lords and kings call themselves “orphaned,” “bereft,” and “unworthy,” these are expressions of humility.

Commentary: Therefore the lords and kings call themselves “orphaned,” “bereft,” and “unworthy.” These are humble expressions.

Explanation: Therefore the lords and kings call themselves “orphaned,” “bereft,” and “unworthy.” These are humble expressions.

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Is this not taking the lowly as one’s root?

Note: Is this not taking the lowly as one’s root? When the lords and kings call themselves “orphaned,” “bereft,” and “unworthy,” they are indeed taking the lowly as their root.

Commentary: Is this not taking the lowly as one’s root? When the lords and kings call themselves “orphaned,” “bereft,” and “unworthy,” they are indeed taking the lowly as their root.

Explanation: Is this not taking the lowly as one’s root? When the lords and kings call themselves “orphaned,” “bereft,” and “unworthy,” they are indeed taking the lowly as their root.

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Thus, if praise is carried too far, there is no praise

Note: “Carry through” means to extend; “many” means plentiful. Extend this virtue of humility to the point of abundant praise, and there is no praise.

Commentary: Follow this virtue of humility through to the point of abundant praise, and praise disappears.

Explanation: Follow this virtue of humility through to the point of abundant praise, and praise disappears.

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One should not wish to shine like jade or stand firm like stone

Note: One should not wish to shine like jade or stand firm like stone. The lords and kings should be humble and restrain themselves; they must not regard themselves as honored and exalted.

Commentary: One should not wish to be radiant like jade or hard as stone. The lords and kings should be humble and restrain themselves; they must not consider themselves honored and exalted.

Explanation: One should not wish to be radiant like jade or hard as stone. The lords and kings should be humble and restrain themselves; they must not consider themselves honored and exalted.

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Interpretation

The Expansive Commentary on the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue

Through repeated application, nothing remains impossible. What was realized in the past remains the same today as it was then. From this we can understand that when the mind is empty, it accords with the Dao (the Way); when it enters stillness and silence, the myriad transformations return to oneness. To enter stillness and silence and empty the mind is called setting aside the branches and returning to the root—not pursuing the details, but returning to what is fundamental.

“One Yin and one Yang: this is called the Dao” comes from the Appended Statements of the Book of Changes. Here, “one” refers to nothingness: when there is neither Yin nor Yang, one is in accord with the Dao. To realize “nothingness” is to be unattached and indistinguishable, like the vast sky: there is only “one.” Hence it is said, one is nothingness. If one falls into a realm of forms and distinctions, with things set against one another, there will be two, then three, and it will no longer be one. Thus, when Yin is present, one does not perceive Yin’s workings; when Yang is present, one does not perceive Yang’s force. Yin and Yang operate naturally, without deliberate effort: this is what is meant by the Dao.

In terms of number, it is called one, and as a count, it remains one; in terms of its nature, it is called nothingness. The Dao that connects all things is subtle and difficult to fathom; this is called Shen (spirit). Its responsive transformations are called change. In sum, all return to nothingness, which is called the Dao. Thus the sages established names based on human affairs and in accordance with principle. Though the names differ, their substance returns to one, and so they can remain constantly one. To be constantly one is neither to cling to oneness nor to cling to its opposite, but to be that which is one. It is the beginning of Heaven and Earth, the origin of the myriad things, the root of generation and transformation, and the honored source of life. From one, Yin and Yang can arise; hence it is said, one gives rise to two. To trace the beginning and grasp the end means to understand the beginning and pursue things to their conclusion, for this is their root and essential meaning. This too draws on the sense of the Appended Statements of the Book of Changes.

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Heaven attains the One and thereby becomes clear.

Commentary: Of all the great forms of Qi (vital energy), none is greater than Qian Yuan, the Origin of Heaven. It is therefore named first among those who attain the One. Only by attaining the One can the pure Yang Qi arch over all things, cover them far and wide, and provide the beginning from which all things arise.

Explanation: Yang Qi is vast, and the body of Qian extends far and wide. “Origin” also means the great beginning of the myriad things: all phenomena draw on Qian Yuan to come into being. Hence the Book of Changes says, “Great indeed is Qian Yuan; the myriad things draw on it to begin.” Heaven is formed by the accumulation of Qi, and so it is the greatest of the great forms. Its shape is like a canopy held aloft; hence it is said to arch over all things. This is the idea of the vaulted Heaven: high, immense, and rounded, it envelops all things. Heaven is by nature an image of pure Yang and emptiness, not a solid substance that obstructs. Yet unless Heaven is set in motion by the Dao’s unimpeded, harmonious Qi, it could not remain clear and buoyant without ceasing. The Appended Statements of the Book of Changes says, “Qian is the most vigorous force under Heaven.” The body of Qian makes this evident: Heaven attains the One and becomes clear. This is precisely the meaning.

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Interpretation

Plain-language interpretation

Humans attain oneness and become receptive. The commentary says this explains how Heaven becomes clear and bright by attaining oneness. Heaven shows people harmony and ease because, having attained oneness, it acts without interference, allowing the myriad things to transform and come into being. If Heaven were not firm and sure, or if it were to collapse or split, it could not show people the way of oneness and simplicity.

Earth attains oneness and becomes tranquil. Commentary: Nothing in form and substance is greater than Kun. Kun’s substance is purely Yin; by attaining oneness, it can extend vast and deep, bear all things, and nourish their life.

Explanation: Yin energy is vast, and Kun’s substance is broad and deep. It brings things forth and bears them, joining with them without limit. Earth accumulates form and substance, and is therefore the greatest of material things. It is yielding, receptive, and still; all things draw on it for life. Yet unless Earth is animated by the Dao’s harmonizing Qi, it cannot bear things in abundance and remain tranquil. The Appended Judgments says, “Kun is the most yielding under Heaven.” Kun sinks down and shows people simplicity and ease. The commentary says this clarifies that Earth attains oneness: because it does so, Kun settles into softness and, through natural non-action, brings the myriad things to completion. Thus it shows people simplicity and ease. If Kun did not settle down but instead stood firm and unyielding, it could not show people simplicity; that would go against its attainment of oneness.

Shen attains oneness and becomes numinous. Commentary: “Shen” refers to the wondrous workings of the myriad things. By attaining oneness, it can respond and transform without limit, beyond the grasp of form or description.

Explanation: In Heaven it is called Shen, on Earth it is called a spirit, and among humans it is called a ghost; taken broadly, all are called Shen. Shen is that which cannot be fathomed through Yin and Yang, appearing and disappearing without fixed form. Yet unless Shen is animated by the Dao’s harmonizing Qi, it cannot transform and become numinous. To be unable to transform without limit and respond with unfathomable numinosity would be to go against its attainment of oneness.

Valleys attain oneness and become full. Commentary: Water flowing into a river forms a stream; where streams gather, they form a valley. A valley attains oneness, so its springs can flow and moisten the land, filling it without running dry.

Explanation: Streams and valleys are filled with water when they are animated by the Dao’s harmonizing Qi. Once that Qi departs, deep valleys will become hills. If deep valleys become hills, springs dry up, and rivers run empty, this would go against the workings of their attainment of oneness.

The myriad things attain oneness and come to life. Commentary: “Things” broadly includes moving and growing beings, those with awareness and those without; all are called things. By receiving harmonizing Qi, they can come into being, grow, and move without ceasing or perishing.

Explanation: “Myriad” gives the largest number. The Spring and Autumn Annals says that the greatest number is ten thousand…

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Interpretation

General Meaning of the Scripture

On “Things”

“Things” refers collectively to visible objects that have physical form. “Moving creatures” include scaled animals, feathered animals, naked creatures, birds, and beasts; “growing things” include mountains, rivers, grasses, and trees. “Sentient beings” have physical form as well as awareness and feeling; “insentient things” have physical form but no awareness or feeling. Though the myriad things fall into countless kinds, without the movement and operation brought about by the harmonious Qi of the Dao, they cannot be born or come to completion.

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“The lords and kings attain the One and thereby bring order to the world.”

Commentary: Lords and kings are rulers of the people. A lord is one of the five ranks of nobility; a king rules a state with ten thousand chariots. Only by attaining the One can lords and kings retain the world for a long time, win the people’s allegiance, and serve as the standard by which the world is rightly ordered. Some editions write “steadfast” instead of “right”; “steadfast” here means “right.”

Explanation: “King” is a general term for a ruler. The Guanzi says, “One who communicates Virtue is called a king.” In the ancient form of the character for “king,” the three horizontal strokes represent Heaven, Earth, and humanity, while the vertical stroke through the middle connects them. Thus, one who communicates Virtue is called a king. It is also said that one whom people turn to is called a king. Occupying the honored position and governing the Three Powers, the king is represented by three horizontal strokes joined by a vertical stroke through the center: one who connects Heaven, Earth, and humanity and rules over them.

The Spring and Autumn Annals says, “The kings of today were the emperors of antiquity.” Before the time of Yao and Shun, rulers were mostly called emperors. When Shun ceded the throne to Yu, Yu humbly claimed that his Virtue did not equal that of the former emperors and gave up the title “emperor,” calling himself “king” instead. Another account says that after Yu’s death, he ceded the throne to Yi. Yu’s son Qi lived on Mount Ji, and the lords, deeming Qi worthy, left Yi and went to pay court to Qi. Thus, although Yu was said to have ceded the throne to Yi, in practice the world returned to Qi. Believing his Virtue inferior to that of the Five Emperors, Qi called himself king. After that, rulers generally used the title “king.”

When Qin united the world and swallowed up the feudal states, it alone established a unified empire. It took the title “emperor” from the Three Sovereigns of old and combined it with that of the Five Emperors. Today, the rank of king stands above the five ranks of nobility. Under Han law, no one outside the Liu clan could be made a king, and no one who was not a meritorious official could be made a lord. The custom that followed was to make the emperor’s many sons kings and his legitimate son crown prince. Under the Zhou dynasty, the king’s sons were called princes, and his grandsons were called royal grandsons. The laws of the present dynasty stipulate that the emperor’s grandsons and nephews are made commandery kings, with those who inherit the title called kings by succession. Those of other surnames who have rendered meritorious service may also be enfeoffed as kings or granted a separate royal title.

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Note: This section focuses on how attaining the One enables lords and kings to bring order to the world, and explains the origins of titles such as king, emperor, and imperial emperor. It has no direct connection to Neidan cultivation; it is a commentary on political ranks and historical institutions.

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Interpretation

On the titles bestowed on feudal rulers: Some were made commandery princes, but none had the right to grant fiefs and lands. “Marquis” was one of the five ranks of nobility: duke, marquis, count, viscount, and baron. The scripture speaks of marquises and princes as a smooth way of making its point, citing one example; the other ranks may be understood in the same way. Since marquises and princes held exalted positions and commanded the wealth of the people, they should preserve their place through the Dao of balance and harmony and the principle of Wuwei (non-action). Only then could they rule for a long time and guide the people toward justice and harmony. Thus the scripture says, “The sage embraces the One and makes it the model for the world.” It also says, “No one fails to submit in their thoughts.” The praise of King Wen in the Odes means that his De (Virtue) moved people in every direction, so that all wholeheartedly turned to him.

How they achieve it

Commentary: The myriad things obtain the Dao and put it to use; through its use, they acquire their names. When the Dao is present, names are established; when its use is lost, reality is lost. Thus the clarity of Heaven, the stillness of Earth, the numinous power of spirits, and the fullness of valleys all depend on its subtle workings. They are brought about through these workings, hence the phrase “how they achieve it.”

Commentary: This passage sums up what came before and introduces the meanings of “achieve” and “obtain” in what follows. How do the clarity of Heaven, the stillness of Earth, the numinous transformations of spirits, the fullness of valleys, the generation of the myriad things, and the justice and balance of marquises and princes come about? They all arise from the subtle workings of the Dao. This passage explains the benefits of obtaining the Dao; the following passage will explain the harm caused by losing it.

Explanation: Heaven, Earth, spirits, valleys, the myriad things, and marquises and princes—how can these six preserve their constant nature and remain secure in their proper places? By obtaining the Dao’s Qi (vital energy) of balance and harmony, each attains its own subtle perfection. Heaven is clear through it, Earth is still, spirits are numinous, valleys are full, the myriad things come into being, and marquises and princes are just and balanced. If they do not lose the Dao, each fulfills its proper role. The following passage explains what happens when they do lose it.

If Heaven could not remain clear, it would likely split apart

Commentary: “Could not” is an emphatic expression of possibility; “remain” means to make use of something. Those who pride themselves on preserving something lose it; those who cling to having it lose it. Heaven obtains the Dao’s workings and thereby becomes clear and buoyant. If it fails to keep to the Dao’s balance and harmony, and merely prides itself on using its clarity, it may split apart and fail to form an image.

Explanation: The image of Heaven corresponds to Yang Qi, and a ruler should take it as his model. When Yang Qi becomes excessive, disaster and decline follow; when the Qi of balance and harmony disperses, splitting apart results. Hence the divination texts say that a rift in Heaven signals insufficient Yang Qi and a decline in the ruler’s De; Heaven then opens in a split. During the Yuankang era of Emperor Hui of Jin, the ruler’s De had declined. Heaven showed an ominous sign: it split open for several zhang.

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Interpretation

When sound is made deliberately loud and imposing, the Qi of “harmony through emptiness” is lost. The key to the way of “attaining the One” lies in the use of Qi. The rulers who came afterward, including Emperor Hui and Emperor Ai of the Western Jin, were also associated with this loss of harmony. A ruler corresponds to Heaven in the celestial patterns, and Qi responds to Qi: this is credible.

“If the Earth cannot be still, upheaval is feared.”

The Jing says that the Earth can find stillness by putting the Dao into practice. Yet one must forget this stillness and avoid clinging to it or showing it off. If one takes pride in “using stillness,” one may instead dissipate Qi excessively and fail to preserve even one’s physical form.

Interpretation: The Earth belongs to Yin Qi; ministers are likened to the Earth, which also symbolizes consorts and the position of a female ruler. When Yin Qi reaches its extreme and the Qi of harmony through emptiness disperses, disturbances involving “eruption” may follow. The histories record that in the second year of King You of Zhou, earthquakes struck the Three Rivers of the Western Zhou, and Mount Qi collapsed. Laozi says that the Qi of Heaven and Earth does not stray from its proper order; when that order is disrupted, the disorder is caused by human action. Yang Qi lies concealed and cannot rise, while Yin Qi presses down and cannot ascend as vapor; so the Earth quakes. When rivers quake, Yang Qi has lost its place and is suppressed by Yin Qi. If Yang Qi is displaced and Yin blocks its source, the state is bound to be endangered. Water and soil can nurture life and provide for people; if the soil cannot nurture, people lack resources. How could the state then avoid perishing? This is what happens when the Qi of harmony through emptiness is put to improper use. During the 242 years of the Spring and Autumn period, earthquakes occurred five times, and there were other portents, such as the collapse of Mount Liang and Mount Shalu. After the Qin and Han dynasties, such events were too numerous to count. Some were great, engulfing cities; others were small, destroying houses and dwellings. Many disasters corresponded to particular celestial regions, and people suffered their effects.

“If the spirit cannot be numinous, it is feared that it will cease.”

The Jing says that Shen can work through the Dao and thereby bring about numinous transformations without limit. Yet one must forget one’s own numinous powers and avoid clinging to them or showing them off. If one takes pride in “using numinosity,” it may instead come to an end, and all subtle workings will be lost.

Interpretation: All things between Heaven and Earth have form and substance, and each is endowed with Shen to govern it. Shen is the essence within Qi; when it responds and transforms, it becomes a spirit. The great spirits govern Heaven and Earth; the lesser ones govern states, mountains, and rivers. By keeping to what is constant and following harmony, they can transform in ways beyond measure. But if they abuse their authority and blessings, or display wonders before others, they will violate the Qi of the Dao and eventually be extinguished. In the seventh month of the thirty-second year of Duke Xi of Lu, a spirit descended at Xin, and the ruler of Guo offered it a feast. King Hui of Zhou asked the court historian Guo why this had happened. He replied, “When a state is about to flourish, spirits descend.”

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Interpretation

When a spirit descends, it is observing a ruler’s De and conduct. When a state is about to fall, spirits too descend to examine its wicked deeds. Thus some prosper with the protection of spirits, while others perish when the spirits depart. Yu, Xia, Shang, and Zhou all experienced this. Guo had a poor reputation and little De; it was likely doomed to fall—and, as it happened, Guo did fall. In the past, the River God caused trouble, demanding young women from the people as brides. Ximen Bao threw the sorceress into the river, and the calamity subsided; that “spirit” then fell silent and disappeared. This is what happens when a spirit fails to uphold the Dao, indulges in harming people, and brings destruction upon itself. If Qi—the Qi of the Dao—runs unchecked and harms people, it too will bring about its own ruin.

“The valley cannot be made full; it is likely to be exhausted.”

The commentary says: The valley can function because it has attained the Dao, and it can also remain empty and receptive. But if it considers itself full and becomes proud, it is likely to dry up in the end and no longer nourish the myriad things.

The explanatory interpretation says: The valley can remain receptive without being exhausted because it has received the balanced and harmonious Qi of the Dao, which keeps it full and prevents it from drying up. Once the Qi of the Dao departs, strange events follow, tied to the rise and fall of states. The Old Master says: When the Yi and Luo rivers dried up, Xia fell; when the Yellow River dried up, Shang fell. In the xin-you year during the reign of King You of Zhou, rivers ran dry and mountains collapsed—a portent that Zhou was about to fall. It fell within ten years. Ten years make one cycle, and ten cycles mark the limit. In the geng-shen year, eleven years later, the Western Zhou was destroyed by the Quanrong, and King Ping moved the capital east. This fulfilled the omen.

“The myriad things cannot be made to live; they are likely to perish.”

The commentary says: The myriad things can function and live because they have attained the Dao. But if they become proud and use it excessively, they are likely to die and perish, no longer living creatures.

The explanatory interpretation says: Things with form, whether sentient or insentient, live when endowed with the balanced and harmonious Qi of the Dao, and die when they lose it. The Scripture of the Western Ascension says: “When Qi disperses, the living die.” The Scripture of Inner Observation says: “When Qi enters the body, this is called life; when Shen leaves the form, this is called death.” Shen and Qi are two aspects of the same body of the Dao. When the Dao is present, there is life; when the Dao departs, there is death. This is indeed so.

“The lords and kings cannot be made noble and exalted; they are likely to fall.”

The note says: “Fall” means to topple. The lords and kings can attain the Dao, act through it, and rule the world. They should therefore set aside their honor and status, and lead those below them with humility. If they cling proudly to their high rank, they are likely to fall and be unable to bring stability to the world.

The commentary says: Those who have attained the One must not be proud of its use. Thus the text gives these warnings: Heaven must not pride itself on being clear, or it is likely to split apart; Earth must not pride itself on being still, or it is likely to erupt; if spirits grow proud, their numinous power ceases; if valleys grow proud, they fill up and dry out; if things grow proud, they…

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Interpretation

This passage says that if lords and kings grow arrogant and complacent on account of their exalted status, they will sooner or later come to grief. The teachings handed down by the sages from generation to generation were meant above all to protect the people. Though the discussion begins with the need for Heaven and Earth to remain clear and still, it ultimately turns to lords and kings: they should “守雌” (hold to the receptive) and govern through the yielding way.

The explanation continues: only by using the Dao to guide the people can lords and kings secure their honored position and preserve their dignity. A ruler stands above the people, yet if he can remain humble and yielding, guard against arrogance and complacency, and govern through clear, still Wuwei (non-action) in keeping with the people’s wishes, his dynasty can endure and the people throughout the realm will gladly support him. The “Qian” hexagram of the Classic of Changes says, “A humble and modest noble person keeps himself in check through humility.” If a ruler defies the Way of Heaven, acts against what is proper, indulges in vicious conduct, loses the balanced Qi, and abandons the principle of “holding to the One,” he will die, his state will perish, and he will be brought down.

Examples of lords who met ruin include Yi Gao, Duke Ling of Jin; Chujiu, Duke Zhao of Song; Shangren, Duke Yi of Qi; and Pingguo, Duke Ling of Chen. Among emperors and kings, examples include Taikang of the Xia, Wu Yi of the Shang, King You and King Li of the Zhou, and Emperors Huan and Ling of the Han. All defied Heaven’s constant principles, violated the Great Way, and ruined their virtue, bringing destruction upon themselves.

The commentary says, “The sages’ teachings have been handed down through the generations for the sake of living beings.” The Classic of Documents says, “Heaven brings forth the myriad things, and humanity is the most intelligent among them.” The Son of Heaven is the “Primordial Ruler,” the father and mother of the people; therefore, the sages’ teaching rests above all on this one person. The passage first warns Heaven and Earth not to neglect their work of maintaining clarity and stillness, then warns lords and kings not to take pride in their power to nurture and transform. The way of humility is explained in detail below.

It further explains that among living things, human beings are the most wondrous and perceptive. The “Great Declaration” chapter of the Classic of Documents records the oath with which King Wu assembled the lords at Mengjin and called them to arms in the thirteenth year of his reign. Here, “the sages’ teachings” refers to the teachings in the passages above and below, clearly handed down to later generations. Their purpose is to cherish and nurture living beings and let them follow their own natures. The passage therefore warns lords and kings to take the clarity and stillness of this scripture as their model when guiding and nurturing the people. “Primordial Ruler” means the sovereign, the head of state; “I alone” is how the Son of Heaven refers to himself. The Son of Heaven should accord with Heaven and respond to the people, serving as their father and mother. He should take the Dao as his model and guide and nurture the people as parents love their children. The text first invokes the principle that when Heaven and Earth lose the Way, calamities follow; it then warns rulers to remain humble and still. Heaven and Earth are vast, yet when they lose the Way, they still suffer calamity, so rulers must be all the more vigilant. Hence: “The noble takes the humble as its root; the high takes the low as its foundation.”

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Interpretation

Vernacular Interpretation

Commentary:

Marquises and kings appear noble and hold high status because the common people occupy a lowly position. Governing a state must take the people as its foundation. The key is for the ruler to labor diligently and remain humble; only then can he bring people’s hearts together. The people must be willing to accept his generous and approachable instruction. Otherwise, their hearts will drift apart.

Exegesis (clarifying the meaning):

“Noble and high” refers to the nobility of marquises and kings; “lowly and humble” refers to the common people. The meaning is that rulers are made noble through the existence of the people. From this we can see that lowering oneself and respecting those of low status is the foundation for preserving one’s nobility and high position.

Interpretation:

Though the key to governing a state rests with the ruler, state affairs can never be managed by the ruler alone. He must rely on everyone else. Only then can marquises and kings dwell in their palaces, hold a revered position, issue teachings and commands, and bestow favor and authority, thereby governing the people well. The common people are the “everyone” in question.

Exegesis:

The Book of Documents says, “The people are the foundation of the state; when the foundation is firm, the state is at peace.” A ruler who works to remain humble and gather the people’s hearts is, one might say, securing the foundation of the state.

Interpretation (explaining “the people are the foundation of the state”):

“The people are the foundation of the state” comes from “The Songs of the Five Sons” in the Book of Documents. During the reign of Tai Kang, ruler of the Xia dynasty, he indulged in hunting and amusement without restraint. He went hunting near the Luo River and did not return for a hundred days. His five younger brothers accompanied their mother and, recalling the admonitions of the Great Yu, composed a song that said: “Our august ancestor gave this instruction: The people may be brought close, but must not be looked down upon. The people are the foundation of the state; when the foundation is firm, the state is at peace.” They also said that, looking at the world, even an ordinary man or woman could surpass them. The point was that the Son of Heaven should respect and care for the common people in order to win their hearts.

Tai Kang was Qi’s eldest son, and Qi was Yu’s son. The account says that Tai Kang lost his virtue, turned away from the people as the state’s foundation, and brought about his own downfall. Taking advantage of the people’s discontent, the Youqiong clan kept him from returning at the riverbank. Unable to go back to his state, he soon saw the Xia dynasty’s fortunes come to an end. Only later, when Shao Kang had grown up, was the ancestral state restored.

Making humility one’s priority:

A ruler should make humility his foremost concern. The Book of Changes says, “Humility is the handle of virtue.” Though humility occupies a high position, it remains humble, and so grows all the brighter. It also says that the Way of Heaven diminishes what is full and increases what is humble; spirits bring harm to what is full and blessing to what is humble; and human beings dislike what is full and favor what is humble. Humility enables one to place oneself below others, so it is called the handle of virtue: just as a knife or axe can be grasped and used because it has a handle, a ruler can govern the world by holding fast to the virtue of humility. When one’s position is already exalted, remaining humble draws even greater honor and distinction. Humility brings people to one’s side; hence the saying that it can “gather people.” A state is a country, and its foundation is its root. The people are the foundation of the state—how could they not be cherished and nurtured?

Exegesis (commentary):

“Make the people delight in his gentle and approachable instruction”—the Book of Songs says, “The gentle and gracious noble is the people’s father and mother.” “Gentle” means harmonious and joyful; “gracious” means approachable and easygoing. When a noble person embodies these virtues, the people willingly regard him with the affection they would show a parent.

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Interpretation

On How Virtue Cares for the People

A person of Virtue nurtures and protects the people with benevolence. The people therefore long for him, as children cherish their parents. If this Way is abandoned, the people will scatter.

Commentary: This passage quotes the Book of Songs, “The Pure Wine” in the “Major Court Hymns.” The Duke of Shao warned King Cheng: Heaven draws near to those who possess Virtue and partakes in government conducted according to the Way. When a ruler governs by the Way, Heaven accepts his sacrifices; when he acts with Virtue, Heaven draws near to him. The ruler is thus connected with Heaven, and the people rally to him as children draw close to their parents. If he turns against the Great Way and ruins his Virtue, his subjects and kin will desert him, and he will struggle to keep his position.

Therefore, lords and kings call themselves “orphan,” “widower,” and “unworthy.”

Note: “Orphan,” “widower,” and “unworthy” are humble forms of address that ordinary people would rather not hear. Lords and kings use them for themselves, making humility their foundation. The phrase “Is this not so?” means that this is precisely to take what is lowly as one’s foundation.

Expanded Commentary: “Therefore” links this passage to what came before. That lords and kings call themselves “orphan,” “widower,” and “unworthy” is connected with a passage in the Spring and Autumn Annals: “I and my two or three ministers are grieved and at a loss.”

Commentary on the historical background in the Spring and Autumn Annals: “I and my two or three ministers” appears under the second month of the seventh year of Duke Zhao of Lu. King Ling of Chu had completed the Zhanghua Terrace and wanted to invite the feudal lords to its dedication ceremony. His Grand Steward, Wei Qijiang, said he could persuade the Marquis of Lu to attend. Zhaogong, a minister of Duke Zhao of Lu, declined on the Marquis’s behalf:

“Our late lord, Duke Cheng, once instructed our minister Yingqi: ‘Do not forget the goodwill of our former lord. We will send Hengfu [Yingqi] to guard Chu and comfort its ancestral altars and state, so that the people of your honored state may live in peace.’ Since the alliance at Shu in the second year of Duke Cheng, Yingqi has carried out these orders without fail and reported his mission to our ancestral temple. Ever since our late lord King Gong, we have looked north in expectation of the Son of Heaven’s succession. Four kings have now passed—King Gong, King Kang, Jia’ao, and King Ling. The Son of Heaven’s favor has yet to reach us; only Duke Xiang once humbled himself to visit and mourn our state’s troubles.

“‘I and my two or three ministers are grieved and at a loss’ means that our state is in danger, leaving us no time to attend to anything else. How could we constantly think of Your Majesty’s kindness? If Your Majesty would humble yourself and visit Chu, granting our state the favor you bestowed at the Shu alliance, our ruler would already have received a great gift. How could we presume to ask for another meeting at Shu? The spirits of our late lords would surely rejoice in this fine deed; its benefit would reach beyond our ruler alone. If Your Majesty cannot come, please have your envoy ask when we should set out. Our ruler will prepare gifts and travel to Shu to seek your guidance on matters concerning our late lord.”

This passage uses Lu’s refusal to attend the dedication ceremony in Chu as an example. A feudal lord in a time of crisis calling himself “orphan” expresses the same humility as Laozi’s teaching that lords and kings call themselves “orphan” and “widower.”

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Interpretation

Lord Kuang was about to set out. Duke Xiang performed the departure sacrifice, and Zishen said, “My lord will not, in the end, make the journey.”

Duke Xiang took humility and yielding as his foundation. Thus the Jing says: “If you wish to stand above others, in your words place yourself below them. If you wish to lead others, in your person place yourself behind them. When you occupy the highest position, people do not feel weighed down; when you stand at the front, people do not feel harmed. All under Heaven gladly support you and never tire of it.” Is this not what the passage means?

The ancients said: “A ruler who has the Dao takes the people’s joy as his own; a ruler without the Dao takes pleasure only in himself. One who delights in the people leaves them content and himself secure. One who delights only in himself earns the people’s resentment and brings about his own ruin.” Should those who govern the state and its people not take warning?

Commentary: “Is this not taking the lowly as the root?” is a question. “Could this not be taking the lowly as the root?” is also phrased as a question, setting up a response: “Indeed, it is taking the lowly as the root.”

Explanation: Lao Jun wished to make clear that what is noble takes the lowly as its root, and what is high takes what is below as its foundation. He therefore used a question and answer to bring out this meaning. A question is followed by an answer, and a call by a response, just as a form appears and its shadow follows, or a sound is made and its echo follows. The question and answer are a way of opening the discussion and again emphasizing the warning and exhortation.

Thus, counting the parts of a carriage, one finds no carriage.

Commentary: Count the parts of a carriage, and there is no single part called “carriage”; the wheels and axle are its foundation. Count what is noble, and there is no fixed thing called “nobility”; the lowly and those below are its foundation. The axle is the carriage’s foundation, so the axle must be preserved if the carriage is to remain intact. The lowly are the foundation of the noble, so the lowly must be upheld if nobility is to endure. Lao Jun speaks of counting the parts of a carriage in order to warn lords and kings to take the lowly as their foundation.

Commentary: “Thus” connects this passage to what came before. The earlier text explained that lords and kings attain nobility through the lowly, and that nobility has no fixed form. Since this principle is difficult to make clear, it uses the parts of a carriage as an analogy. However many parts of a carriage one counts, in the end none is, by itself, called “carriage.” The name arises only when wheels, axle, and other parts are joined together. This illustrates the case of lords and kings: however much one speaks of their nobility, in the end there is no fixed thing called “nobility”; their noble standing is founded on the lowly and those below them. The wheels and axle are the carriage’s foundation: preserve the foundation and there is a carriage; lose it and there is none. The lowly are the foundation of the noble: preserve the foundation and the position endures; lose it and the position is lost. These words are intended to warn lords and kings to care for and nurture the people below them, and not to abandon those who are lonely or without support.

Explanation: The sages explain the meaning of the Jing in various ways: sometimes they point directly to the principle and enter straight into the teaching; at other times they use an analogy to convey the hidden meaning. To show that the high position of lords and kings takes the lowly as its foundation, the many parts—wheels, axle, and the rest—come together under the single name “carriage.” The intention is…

(If the following text also speaks of “lords and kings” or “counting what is noble,” its structure is the same as “counting the parts of a carriage” above. It can likewise be understood as using the carriage analogy to show that noble standing cannot be separated from its lowly foundation.)

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Interpretation

A Plain-Language Interpretation

The Main Meaning of the Scripture

Only by keeping the parts of a cart—its wheels, shafts, and other components—can one bring a complete cart into being. Likewise, only by holding to a lowly station can one bear the position of a lord. When honored, do not forget where you came from or abandon your roots. What is called “taking emptiness and lowliness as the standard of honor” refers to a time when things varied and bore different names, from the beginning of undifferentiated existence up to an age of declining simplicity. Virtue had its higher and lower forms; the state of the world waxed and waned; people’s fates differed, as did their customs.

Thus there were those who were silent, still, mysterious, and nameless: the vast expanse of primordial chaos was called Huang, and its diffuse, all-encompassing state was called Di. Some were open and manifest and were called kings; others were far-reaching and interwoven in their power and were called hegemons. Below these came such ranks as empress, ruler, duke, marquis, viscount, baron, minister, chancellor, great officer, and senior scholar. These were names established in response to their times and titles that rose with the age. Their ranks formed a complex hierarchy, with distinctions of high and low, but all held positions of honor and governed the people.

Those who occupy the heights and rule over others should not exalt themselves as supremely noble, oppress others, or cling to their own status. Self-exaltation leads to downfall; contempt for others puts one’s own life in danger. One should therefore make humility one’s guiding principle and take self-restraint as one’s aim. For this reason, sages established titles and left warnings, using names that suggest being “solitary, bereft, and orphaned,” as well as titles such as “unworthy” and “not good,” to describe themselves and show that lowliness is the root. If the honored do not forget the lowly, and the exalted do not forget the humble, Heaven’s favor can endure and great blessings can be preserved. Those who go against this rarely remain mindful of their roots for long.

On “A Cart Is No Cart”

There is another interpretation connected with the words “no cart.” Some say “a cart is no cart” means that, even when considering a cart, one seeks the reality of “no cart”: in fact, there are only separate names for the body, hub, wheels, shafts, yoke, and other parts. Only when these are assembled together is the whole called a cart. In the “Zeyang” chapter of the Zhuangzi, Taigong Tiao tells Shaozhi: “Bring what is different together and call it the same; divide what is the same and call it different.” If you point to all the parts of a horse, you cannot find “the horse”; but if you set the horse before you, gather all its parts together, and call it a horse, then you can. This explains that skin, hair, hooves, and tail together make a horse. In the same way, wheels, shafts, body, and hubs together make a cart. The meaning is the same.

On “Praise Is No Praise”

Some say “praise is no praise” means that those who hope to occupy a position of honor should value plainness and not prize empty acclaim. Though this interpretation differs, it likewise serves as a warning and exhortation.

The Xiang’er Commentary

The Xiang’er Commentary says: “Therefore, one brings about much praise”—ordinary people covet reputation. “‘No praise’”—ordinary people, after all, all want a good reputation. This is a matter of dividing the phrases and explaining their meaning, and also of extending the warning and exhortation: people should simply be reverent and humble, care for others, and show compassion toward all things, in accordance with the teaching of the Mysterious Originator.

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Interpretation

A Plain-Language Interpretation of The Broad Commentary on the True Scripture of the Dao and De

Scriptural text:

The commentary explains: lukluk means gleaming and smooth like fine jade; luoluo means plain and unadorned like stone. The lowly is the foundation.

Commentary:

Jade is precious; stone is humble. To be like jade is to regard oneself as precious and exalted. To be like stone is to remain modest and lowly. Since rulers of lords and states take the lowly as their foundation, they should not exalt themselves like gleaming jade. They should instead be like plain stone, keeping to a humble position.

Jade and stone illustrate what is noble and what is lowly; a chariot and its carriage illustrate the ruler’s command over the people. These lines restate that rulers of lords and states take the lowly as their foundation. A ruler of highest De (Virtue/Power) entrusts his spirit to the Great Void and hides his appearance in the mysterious darkness. In action, he returns to gentleness and weakness; in stillness, he settles into peace and harmony. He wears the compass and follows the square, sees as clearly as a mirror reflecting the pure heavens, and does not exalt himself on account of his rank.

In later ages, when De declined, rulers possessed the supreme dignity of nine tiers, the wealth of ten thousand chariots, the riches of the Four Seas, and the abundance of all six directions. Their eminence rivaled Heaven and Earth, their brilliance matched the sun and moon, their commands were like the changes of the seasons, and their might shook the world like thunder. Yet they did not take the myriad things to heart or concern themselves with the lives of the people. They surrounded themselves with extravagance and placed themselves at the height of honor. Though they spoke of being “orphaned, bereft, and unworthy,” they failed to understand what those words meant.

Qin Shi Huang devoured the world like a tiger and swallowed the feudal lords like a whale, conquering all within the seas and bringing it under one rule. Yet he scorned the titles “orphaned, bereft, and unworthy,” and called himself zhen. The words zhen, yu, wu, and wo all mean “I” or “me”; using such a title as one’s name lost the meaning of modesty and instead displayed a claim to greatness. From then on, rulers prided themselves on empty praise, invoking Yao and Shun to glorify themselves while treating humble titles with contempt and casting away what was common as if it were mere tile or stone. Thus they repeated the path to ruin and trod the road to decline. How grievous!

The Supreme One’s earnest words of instruction and warning urge people to quiet their minds between jade and stone: to seek neither excess nor deficiency, neither nobility nor lowliness; to take Oneness as their guiding principle and the Dao as their pillar, and to let De govern the world without claiming possession of it. If those who cultivate themselves hold to this aim, they can live in high station without delighting in it, and in low station without distress; they can be elevated without danger and humble yet all the more at ease. Should they not strive to practice this?

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Note: This passage follows directly from “the noble takes the lowly as its foundation.” Using the commentator’s familiar pairing of gleaming jade and plain stone, it interprets Laozi’s “not wishing to be gleaming like jade, but plain like stone” to mean that rulers should not regard themselves as precious like jade, but should remain humble like stone. It again uses the chariot and carriage as an image for commanding the people. The latter half contrasts the quiet reserve of a ruler of highest De with the self-exaltation of rulers in a degenerate age. It cites Qin Shi Huang’s rejection of “orphaned, bereft, and unworthy” in favor of calling himself zhen, and criticizes rulers who invoke Yao and Shun for empty praise while discarding humble titles. The passage concludes with the teaching that self-cultivation means quieting the mind between jade and stone and taking Oneness as one’s guiding principle.

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