《道德真經廣聖義》Vol. 49

Interpretation

Plain-language interpretation

This section belongs to juan 48 of Du Guangting’s Extensive Meaning of the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue. It corresponds to chapter 75 of the Daode Jing, the chapter beginning “The people go hungry.” Du Guangting first summarizes the chapter’s meaning: the previous chapter explains that deliberate action makes people disregard their lives and violate the laws; this chapter explains that excessive levies make people poor, showing the harm caused by deliberate action. The first three passages repeatedly identify the source of these harms. The final passage closes with “It is only because…” and laments that people should value life, be shown softness and weakness, and not be driven to seek strength and force.

Scripture: The people go hungry because those above them levy too many taxes. That is why they go hungry.

Commentary: The world is impoverished and lacking because rulers and the court consume too much on food, clothing, and other expenses, and impose excessive taxes.

Explication: The people are the foundation of the state. If harsh, burdensome policies and heavy taxes leave the people poor, the state’s foundation will be ruined; once its foundation is damaged, the state is in danger. Those below have too little because those above consume too much on food and clothing and levy too many taxes, leaving the people hungry and impoverished.

Meaning: The establishment of laws and the handing down of statutes have been clearly recorded since ancient times. “Food” refers to filling the ruler’s kitchens; “tax” refers to the levies paid to the state. A tax of one-tenth was intended to be light. Heavy levies impoverish the people; light levies allow them to prosper. When the people prosper, the state is at peace; when they are poor, the state is in danger. Governing well depends on finding a suitable balance, and laws must not be too harsh. Thus, when criminal laws were cast into bronze, people resented them; when military levies were imposed, the state grew poor. The Qi marquises lost their state through heavy taxation, while the Tian clan gained dominance by giving generously. These events are plain to see and serve as warnings.

Scripture: The people are difficult to govern because those above them act deliberately. That is why they are difficult to govern.

Commentary: The people of the world are difficult to guide because rulers act deliberately. Deliberate action makes affairs complicated, and complication gives rise to deceit and falsehood; therefore, the people are difficult to govern.

Explication: The multitude of people depend on the ruler for their governance. The foundation of governing lies, in truth, in Wuwei (non-action).

(The original text at “the truth lies in non-action” seems incomplete, but its general meaning still presents Wuwei as the foundation of good government.)

Brief explanations of proper names and terms: Extensive Meaning is Du Guangting’s commentary on the Daode Jing. “Deliberate action” means purposeful intervention and intrusive government, in contrast to Wuwei. The “one-tenth tax” means taking one part in ten and is often used as an example of light taxation. “Casting criminal laws into bronze” refers to cases such as Zichan’s casting of the criminal code onto a bronze vessel. “The Qi marquises” refers to rulers such as Duke Jing of Qi, who lost popular support through heavy taxation. “The Tian clan” refers to the Tian family of Qi during the Warring States period, which used generous giving to seize power.

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Interpretation

Note

Changku, a bhikshu, asked the World-Honored One, “World-Honored One, why do people often speak of the three: Heaven, Earth, and Humanity?”

The World-Honored One replied, “Changku, people speak this way because Heaven, Earth, and Humanity all arise through the coming together of causes and conditions; they did not exist from the beginning. To say that they existed from the beginning is a mistaken doctrine of outsiders, not the Buddha’s teaching.”

Commentary

Outsiders believe that Heaven, Earth, and Humanity have always existed and never change. To dispel this view, the World-Honored One taught that all three arise from causes and conditions.

Meaning

Outsiders cling to permanence, claiming that Heaven, Earth, and Humanity have always existed. To reveal the Middle Way, the Buddha taught that they arise through the coming together of causes and conditions, thereby dispelling this mistaken view.

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Note

The World-Honored One continued, “Changku, you should understand this: ‘Heaven’ refers to the sun, moon, and stars, and to wind, rain, thunder, and lightning. ‘Earth’ refers to mountains, rivers, plants, trees, metal, stone, water, and soil. ‘Humanity’ refers to all living beings, all those who are conscious and sentient. These three are all provisionally formed through causes and conditions. They arise and cease from moment to moment and have no inherent nature.”

Commentary

Although Heaven, Earth, and Humanity have different names, all are formed through causes and conditions. To cling to them as truly existent is to fall into a mistaken view.

Meaning

This shows that all three are empty, dispels beings’ attachment to their real existence, and enables them to awaken to impermanence and non-self.

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Note

Changku asked again, “If Heaven, Earth, and Humanity all arise from causes and conditions, do Buddhahood and the Dao also arise from causes and conditions?”

The World-Honored One said, “Buddhahood and the Dao, too, do not lie beyond causes and conditions, though the conditions involved differ from those of the mundane world. Mundane conditions come together in defilement; the conditions of the Buddha’s path come together in purity. Thus the Buddha does not cling to causes and conditions, but skillfully makes use of them to guide and transform beings.”

Commentary

Mundane conditions give rise to afflictions and the cycle of birth and death. The conditions of the Buddha’s path give rise to wisdom and liberation. The terms are the same, but their substance differs.

Meaning

Distinguish the conditions of the mundane world from those beyond it, so disciples do not confuse worldly views with the Buddha’s teaching.

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Note

The World-Honored One said to Changku, “You should contemplate this body: when the four great elements—earth, water, fire, and wind—come together, there is a material body. When the four aggregates of feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness come together, there is a named body. These two come together and are provisionally called a person. A person is simply one kind of being within Heaven and Earth; there is no independent entity that is uniquely exalted.”

Commentary

The human body, too, belongs within Heaven and Earth and consists of the four great elements and the five aggregates. Clinging to the idea that humans are superior is the root of arrogance.

Meaning

By placing the human body alongside the phenomena of Heaven and Earth, this teaching dispels attachment to self and to things, bringing one into accord with emptiness.

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Note

Changku asked, “World-Honored One, if people do not truly exist, who experiences suffering and pleasure? Who practices the path?”

The World-Honored One replied, “A person is provisionally named, as are suffering and pleasure, and the practice of the path. Although there is no truly existing person, cause and effect are not undone. One who contemplates nonexistence does not fall into nihilism; one who acts within the realm of existence does not fall into eternalism. This is the Middle Way.”

Commentary

That there is no truly existing person does not abolish cause and effect. This is the most difficult point in the Buddha’s teaching. One must avoid both eternalism and nihilism.

Meaning

This shows that provisional naming and intrinsic emptiness are not two separate things, enabling practitioners to practice with ease of mind.

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Note

The World-Honored One also said, “Though Heaven and Earth are vast, they are not separate from a single mind. Though the human mind is minute, it contains Heaven and Earth. One who understands the mind understands Heaven and Earth; one who does not understand the mind remains in darkness even after traveling across mountains and rivers.”

Commentary

There is no thing apart from mind, and no mind apart from things. Heaven, Earth, and Humanity all appear through mind.

Meaning

All realms and appearances are brought back to mind, revealing the consistent principle of consciousness-only and mind-only.

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Note

Changku said to the Buddha, “World-Honored One, I now understand in brief that Heaven, Earth, and Humanity all arise through causes and conditions. Yet many people revere Heaven, fear Earth, and look down on humanity. Why is this?”

The World-Honored One said, “Those who revere Heaven seek blessings; those who fear Earth dread calamity; those who look down on humanity rely on arrogance. All this comes from failing to understand causes and conditions, and from clinging to the idea that spirits control reward and punishment. If people understand that Heaven and Earth have no mind of their own, and that each person plants their own causes and receives their own results, they can maintain proper respect and reverence without becoming mired in mistaken worship.”

Commentary

The proper way to revere Heaven and Earth is to understand cause and effect and practice goodness. Worship that seeks blessings is attachment and superstition.

Meaning

This reconciles popular customs with the Buddha’s teaching, so people may revere Heaven and care for humanity without falling into the ways of outsiders.

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Note

The Buddha also said to Changku, “Observe the world: at times the sky is clear, at times cloudy; at times the Earth is peaceful, at times it moves; at times people are wise, at times foolish. All these things are shaped by the shared karma of living beings, not controlled by a single god.”

Commentary

The idea that shared karma shapes changes in the sky, the Earth, and humanity is a common teaching in the Buddhist scriptures.

Meaning

This dispels the view that a lord of Heaven dispenses rewards and punishments, and reveals how shared karma and individual karma influence one another.

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Note

Changku asked, “If Heaven, Earth, and Humanity are all empty, who is speaking now as the Buddha teaches the Dharma?”

The World-Honored One smiled. “A Buddha is provisionally named, and the teaching of the Dharma is provisionally named. In truth, there is no one who teaches the Dharma, and no one who hears it. Yet this does not prevent the sound from filling the world and benefiting living beings.”

Commentary

Buddha, Dharma, and community are all provisionally named, yet this does not prevent the adornment of the place where the teaching is given.

Meaning

This reveals the nonduality of the absolute and the conventional: things are empty in their nature, yet exist in appearance; and whatever appears is empty.

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Note

The World-Honored One concluded, “Changku, you should contemplate Heaven, Earth, and Humanity with wisdom: they are neither identical nor separate, neither permanent nor annihilated. Then, in the mundane world, you will not go against customary teachings, and beyond the mundane world, nothing will obstruct suchness. This is the Buddha’s teaching on the meaning of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity.”

Commentary

“Neither identical” means not clinging to real existence; “nor separate” means not denying appearances. This is right contemplation of the Middle Way.

Meaning

The central teaching of this chapter is to understand Heaven, Earth, and Humanity through causes and conditions and emptiness, so disciples can live in the world while turning their hearts toward the Buddha’s path.

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Note

(The following is a brief outline attached to an old edition.) First, distinguish mistaken doctrines; second, reveal causes and conditions; third, clarify the Middle Way; fourth, gather the mind for contemplation; fifth, dispel superstition; sixth, reveal shared karma; seventh, reconcile the absolute and the conventional.

Commentary

The outline makes the text easier to memorize. It establishes no separate doctrine; everything comes back to the causes and conditions and emptiness discussed above.

Meaning

Students can use the outline to review the whole chapter, keeping causes and conditions, emptiness, and the Middle Way at its center.

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Note

A discussion says: Outsiders may cling to the claim that “Heaven, Earth, and Humanity have always existed,” or to the claim that “Heaven, Earth, and Humanity are all nonexistent.” The Buddha refutes both extremes, teaching only that they come together through causes and conditions and are empty in nature, provisionally named.

Commentary

To say they have always existed is eternalism; to say they are all nonexistent is nihilism. The Buddha teaches that things neither arise nor cease in order to rule out both extremes.

Meaning

This brings the Madhyamaka teaching of the “eight negations” to bear on everyday life amid Heaven, Earth, and Humanity.

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Note

It is also said: One who understands humanity can transform Heaven and Earth; one who does not understand humanity is transformed by Heaven and Earth. Thus the Jing treats “humanity” as the subject capable of contemplation and action: though provisionally named, humanity is not without reality.

Commentary

When people can contemplate causes and conditions, Heaven does not oppress their minds, and Earth does not constrain their aspirations.

Meaning

This affirms the practitioner as an agent, so that the teaching of human emptiness does not become passive inaction.

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Note

After hearing this teaching, Changku was filled with joy. He bowed and withdrew. The monks who had heard the Buddha’s teaching were all filled with great joy, accepted it in faith, and put it into practice.

Commentary

This is a conventional closing formula in scriptures: “accepted it in faith and put it into practice.”

Meaning

This shows the effect of hearing the Dharma: joyful acceptance in faith brings one into accord with the true nature of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity.

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Note

(The Guangshengyi, after this chapter, also cites the commentaries of various schools to illuminate its meaning; the essentials are summarized here.) Someone asks: When Heaven and Earth are formed and destroyed, does the Buddha-realm also perish? The answer: The material realm can perish, but the nature of the Dharma does not. When the karma of living beings is exhausted, the material realm changes, while suchness remains clear and still.

Commentary

The destruction of the material realm and the imperishability of the nature of the Dharma do not contradict each other.

Meaning

Contemplating Heaven and Earth across long ages does not obstruct awakening to the ever-abiding true mind.

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Note

Another question asks: After people die, do they return to Heaven and Earth? The answer: The four great elements disperse and return to the four great elements; karmic consciousness continues, neither annihilated nor permanent. One should not cling to the phrase “return to Heaven and Earth.”

Commentary

Birth and death are simply the dispersal and coming together of the five aggregates. Do not adopt the outsiders’ attachment to the idea that a “soul returns to the mountains and rivers.”

Meaning

The view of birth and death is consistent with the view of Heaven and Earth: both involve causes and conditions and lack inherent existence.

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Note

It is also said: Those who practice the Dao should cherish Heaven and Earth without becoming attached to their forms, and care for people without clinging to human relationships. To cherish is to recognize kindness received; not to become attached or cling is to understand emptiness.

Commentary

If Confucians’ reverence for Heaven and Earth and benevolence toward people accord with emptiness, they come close to the Buddha’s path.

Meaning

This reconciles worldly teachings with an aspiration beyond the world, offering a model that both exemplary people and monks can follow.

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Note

In the past, the World-Honored One taught this meaning on Vulture Peak. Changku and countless gods, humans, and spirits attained liberation. Because Changku asked about Heaven, Earth, and Humanity, this chapter is sometimes titled “The Chapter on Heaven, Earth, and Humanity,” and is also called “The Chapter on Contemplating Heaven and Earth through Causes and Conditions.”

Commentary

The title was given on the basis of the person or the meaning, and varies among editions.

Meaning

Understanding the origin of the title makes the text easier to locate and uphold.

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Note

Students should understand that the Guangshengyi’s interpretation emphasizes “dispelling attachment” and “revealing the Middle Way.” To hear that “Heaven, Earth, and Humanity are empty” and then abandon sacrifices and ethics is a mistaken understanding. To hear that “Heaven, Earth, and Humanity exist” and then offer blood sacrifices or rely on the power of spirits is also a mistaken understanding.

Commentary

Emptiness does not abolish appearances, and existence does not obstruct emptiness. This chapter warns against these errors.

Meaning

The concluding reminder is that one must cultivate contemplation of emptiness amid human affairs. This is what it means to be a true disciple of the Buddha.

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(The interpretation of the chapter’s overall meaning is complete.)

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Interpretation

A Plain-Language Commentary on Chapter 76 of the Guangshengyi to the True Scripture of the Dao and De

Overview of the Chapter’s Meaning

The preceding chapter: Heavy taxation impoverishes the people; this is the harm caused by “living through action.”

This chapter: Action gives rise to desires of the heart, causing people to lose the softness of harmonious Qi.

Structure:

1. First, it distinguishes two kinds of people: the living and the dead.

2. Next, it gives two examples drawn from plants and trees.

3. It concludes with “the strong and great dwell below,” warning that one must uphold harmony and gentleness.

The commentary says:

• The previous chapter’s phrase “to value life more than the worthy” does not mean excessive nurturing.
• Here, the text shows that by relying on weakness, one can preserve harmony and gentleness.
• It makes clear that hardness and strength cannot be maintained, while humility and lowliness are fitting principles for action.
• A powerful army will inevitably harm the state; a tree withers because its Qi has declined.
• It urges people to preserve harmony and warns against becoming strong and mighty.
• It uses the image of a drawn bow to show that what is low is raised and what is high is pressed down.

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Scripture and Commentary

Scripture:

While alive, people are soft and weak; when dead, they are hard and stiff.

Commentary:

While a person is alive, harmonious Qi circulates, and the body’s many bones and limbs are thereby soft and supple. When a person dies, harmonious Qi disperses, and the four limbs become hard and stiff. This is said to show that softness and weakness, hardness and strength, serve as warnings concerning life and death.

Plain-language explanation:

• In life, harmonious Qi circulates, and the body is soft and supple.
• In death, harmonious Qi disperses, and the limbs become hard and stiff.
• The contrast between softness and weakness and hardness and strength serves as a warning about life and death.

The commentary says:

People receive the undifferentiated Qi. Through it, the body’s many bones and limbs are harmonious and supple; the hundred spirits guard the hundred gates, and the six Qi circulate through the six viscera. What matters is to preserve Shen and nourish Qi, embody the Dao and embrace gentleness, have one’s name entered among the living in the Southern Palace, and have one’s name removed from the register of the dead in the Northern Office. The way to prolong life and maintain clear sight lies here. But if the spirit and soul secretly depart and the undifferentiated harmony gradually disperses, one will suddenly become like grass and trees, and be transformed into mud and sand. To lose that utmost gentleness is truly a sorrow.

Plain-language explanation:

• People receive the undifferentiated Qi; through it, the body is harmonious and supple, the hundred spirits guard the hundred gates, and the six Qi circulate through the six viscera.
• The important thing is to preserve Shen and nourish Qi, embody the Dao and embrace gentleness, have one’s name entered among the living in the Southern Palace, and removed from the register of the dead in the Northern Office. The way to prolong life and maintain clear sight lies here.
• If the spirit and soul depart and the undifferentiated harmony gradually disperses, one suddenly becomes like grass and trees and is transformed into mud and sand. To lose utmost gentleness is a sorrow.

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Core Teachings

1. The contrast between life and death: In life, people are soft and weak; in death, they are hard and stiff.

2. Harmony as the foundation: When harmonious Qi circulates, there is softness and weakness; when it disperses, there is hardness and strength.

3. Preserve gentleness and beware of strength: Uphold harmony and warn against becoming strong and mighty.

4. Act with humility: Hardness and strength cannot be maintained; humility and lowliness are fitting principles for action.

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Relation to the Preceding Chapter

• The preceding chapter: Heavy taxation impoverishes the people; this is the harm caused by “living through action.”
• This chapter: Action gives rise to desires of the heart, leading to the loss of the softness of harmonious Qi.
• Both chapters point to the same teaching: preserve harmony and gentleness, beware of becoming strong and mighty, and act with humility.

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Interpretation

Here, plants and trees are used as an analogy. They grow when Qi gathers: their branches and leaves flourish, soft and tender. When Qi disperses, they die: their limbs wither, dry out, and fade. Earlier, the text spoke of people with awareness; here it speaks of plants without awareness. Plants flourish or wither as Qi gathers or disperses, while people live or die according to whether the Dao is present or absent.

All things and people receive their life from the Dao in the same way. When the Dao moves, it generates Qi; when Qi flows in harmony, life arises. Though they differ in awareness and form, the source from which they receive life and death is the same: when the Dao is present, life is possible; when it departs, death follows. Thus the scripture says that winter plants, if properly sheltered, can have their brief, tender life prolonged. Why, then, should people who diligently cultivate and refine themselves not seek long life and lasting vision? The key is to devote oneself to refining and nourishing; one should not willingly consign oneself to the realm of darkness below. Acting against the Dao and flaunting one’s strength and superiority are precisely what must be guarded against.

Hence it is said: Those who are firm and hard belong to the realm of death; those who are yielding and compliant belong to the realm of life.

The commentary says that the living are yielding and weak because harmonious Qi preserves them; the dead are firm and hard because their harmonious Qi has dispersed. The point is that those who keep to yielding and weakness can preserve their lives and years, while those who flaunt their strength will lose their bodies and their nature.

The subcommentary summarizes: plants are soft and fragile when alive, but firm and hard when dead. From this we can understand that people who follow the path of firmness and strength enter the road to death, while those who follow the path of yielding and weakness emerge through the gate of life.

The interpretive commentary says that the sage, mindful of the harm caused by overbearing strength, gives repeated warnings. Using the life and death of plants as an analogy, the text establishes a rule for human conduct: overbearing strength is a ladder leading to death and must be abandoned; yielding and weakness are essential to entering life and must be upheld without wavering. One must not neglect diligent cultivation and cast oneself into the land of death.

The use of arms offers another proof: when military force grows too strong, it cannot win.

The note says that the later statement, “The sorrowful prevail,” makes clear that those who rely on force are bound to lose.

The subcommentary says that what follows will bring the preceding discussion to a close. Military teaching says, “Make compassion your guiding principle.” Thus the text says that relying on strength leads to defeat, further explaining that people who rely on strength are moving toward death.

The interpretive commentary says that when raising an army to punish wrongdoing or mount a limited campaign to repel an enemy, one must first issue repeated orders and warnings, then use teachings such as the Six Secret Teachings and the Golden-Bound Text to instruct the troops, and arrange their formations on all sides. Even then, success depends on favorable terrain and the harmony of the people. Such action is undertaken only as a last resort, not to flaunt killing. Fu Jian’s million-strong army of Former Qin, and the defeat of Duke Mu of Qin—or, perhaps, the Qin army—at Mount Xiao, where not a single horse returned and not one wheel was left intact, are examples of armies that grew strong, despised their enemies, and were ultimately defeated and destroyed. This is only to be expected.

The text also says: trees that are too solid and hard are easily cut down by many.

(This sentence is linked to the analogy of withered plants. It emphasizes that the rigid and strong are easily broken, while the yielding and weak can endure. The chapter as a whole returns to the principle of keeping to yielding and letting go of strength, in accord with the way of life.)

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Interpretation

The Broad Commentary on the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue — Chapter 77, “The Way of Heaven” (excerpt)

General sense of the scripture (illustrated by a tree)

Note: A tree’s trunk is thick and sturdy, yet grows below; its slender, tender branches grow above. This illustrates the principle that the yielding and gentle belong above, while the forceful and domineering belong below.

Commentary: As above: the tree’s sturdy trunk is below, while its supple branches are above. This shows that people who flaunt their strength and seek to dominate often end up beneath those who are yielding and humble.

Explanation

It is fitting for a tree’s large roots and trunk to be below. But if its outermost branches were thicker than its trunk and roots, that would be contrary to their proper order. As the saying goes, “When the tail is too large, it cannot be swung”—a warning for any state. Zhao brought about the fall of Jin, and the Tian clan supplanted Qi; Zizhi aroused suspicion in Yan, while the Grand Uncle met his downfall in Zheng. Were these not all cases of the outer branches growing greater than the roots, of subjects becoming stronger than their rulers? This is what happens when one clings to one’s position but fails to act in accord with principle. When the two hands are brought together, the gesture is called a “handspan.” In ancient times, a mulberry tree beside the court in the capital of Yin grew within seven days to the thickness of two hands clasped around it. The Earl of Qin, enraged by the death of Jian Shu, said that the trees by his grave had grown as thick as a handspan. Both accounts refer to trees growing thick enough to be encircled by clasped hands.

“The strong and great are below; the soft and weak are above”

Commentary: Following the previous idea that a tree’s trunk is strong and great while its branches and leaves grow above, this passage shows that forceful people often end up beneath the gentle and yielding.

Explanation: A person’s humility can master the fierce and resolute. Because they are slender and supple, the small branches stand above the great trunk. What should be esteemed is humility and stillness; what should be guarded against is forcefulness. The Qin that devoured the Seven States ultimately fell through the rites of ancestral sacrifice; the bandit Zhi, who commanded a thousand men, in the end lost his life. Only then can one still the waters to clarify the heart, cultivate one’s nature through purity and calm, dwell where there is no contention, and live in a realm of contentment. Then one may hope to ride the wind and travel among the clouds.

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Chapter 77: The Way of Heaven

Commentary: The previous chapter explains that acting with contrivance stirs desires in the heart and thereby destroys harmony. This chapter explains that forceful conduct inevitably brings loss, and so takes the Way of Heaven as its illustration. The opening sentence names Heaven to express a warning; the next five sentences offer an analogy to clarify Heaven’s way; the following eight sentences bring together the preceding ideas; and the passage that follows presents the sage’s Virtue to conclude with an exhortation.

Explanation: The image of a tree with its branches hanging down shows that softness is right and force is wrong. The way of drawing a bow is to press down what is high and raise what is low. What is excessive invites loss; what is full diminishes, while humility brings increase. The passage ends by grounding its teaching in caution and stillness, rather than treating height and strength as victories. It then continues with the principle of overcoming what is hard, making its warning even clearer.

“The Way of Heaven—is it not like drawing a bow?”

Note: The Way of Heaven is profound and distant; without an analogy, it is difficult to explain. So a bow is used to make its workings clear.

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Interpretation

Plain-language interpretation

Explanation (clarifying the meaning): The image of drawing a bow is used here to speak of both sides of the matter at once. The Dao of Heaven is remote, mysterious, and profound; without an image, it would be difficult to explain. So drawing a bow is used to illustrate Heaven’s De (Virtue/Power). The method of drawing a bow is explained in detail below.

Meaning: The vast sky above covers all things. The image of the empty and insubstantial Qi (vital energy) reveals the principle of high and low: human ways depart from what is truly constant, always feeling that there is “not enough” and so doing more; the Dao of Heaven seeks only fairness, diminishing what is excessive and adding to what is lacking in order to establish balance. Thus it restrains the high and raises the low, as if holding back the strong and comforting the weak. It does not claim credit or rely on its own power, but conceals its wisdom and keeps its brilliance hidden. This is the idea conveyed by the image.

“The Dao of Heaven is remote; the way of humans is near”: These are the words of Zichan, a worthy minister of the state of Zheng during the Spring and Autumn period, when he was asked to perform a ritual to the Kitchen God to avert a fire. Though the Dao of Heaven is remote, its patterns can be observed in the movements of the sun, moon, and stars. The saying warns people: it uses the Dao of Heaven as an image so that people will revere Heaven and seek to understand its intent, treating it as a rule they must follow.

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Scripture: “What is high is pressed down; what is low is raised up. What is in excess is diminished; what is insufficient is given to.”

Commentary: A bow must be used in this way for the arrow to hit its target. Just as the Dao of Heaven diminishes what is full and benefits what is humble, rulers should model their governance of the people on the Dao of Heaven. This is why the text shows the way of raising the low and pressing down the high.

Explanation: To use a bow properly, one must choose suitable material, shape it correctly, and adjust its tension as needed. “What is high is pressed down; what is low is raised up” describes aligning the arrow with the center of the target. “What is in excess is diminished; what is insufficient is given to” describes adjusting the arrow’s distance when releasing it. Only then will it hit the mark. The Dao of Heaven works in the same way: the sun and moon, cold and heat, come and go in turn. What comes has its excess reduced; what departs is supplied where it is lacking, and the work of the year is thereby completed. Rulers should follow the Dao of Heaven: restrain the strong and support the weak, diminish what is abundant and supply what is absent. Thus, they should reduce what is excessive and benefit what is humble, making rewards and punishments as even as weighing an object and distributing fairly.

Meaning: The Dao of Heaven is subtle and mysterious. Yin and Yang move of themselves, and the clear and turbid are distinctly divided. The cycles of cold and heat, darkness and light, are exact in the measurement of the sun’s shadow and the calendar; the positions and seasonal signs of the celestial bodies, in both great and small matters, are without error. On a grand scale, the Dao of Heaven contains the myriad kinds of things and encompasses mountains and seas like the bellows of a forge. On a minute scale, it moves grains of millet and extends through the tiniest measures; it is real and trustworthy, neither disorderly nor mistaken. The image means that the Dao of Heaven abhors fullness, just as drawing a bow presses down what is high. Human ways should be humble and harmonious, just as drawing a bow raises what is low: people should overcome arrogance and remain humble.

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Interpretation

A Plain-Language Interpretation of The Broad Meaning of the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue

Maintain humility. A bowyer must first understand the nature of the wood and carefully judge how to balance its weight, so it bends evenly without leaning to either side. Only then does the bowyer attach the metal arrowhead, glue the arrow securely, and set the bowstring in order. When the shot hits, it hits; in the hide-target archery rite, no arrow is loosed in vain. This is what is meant by “raising what is low and lowering what is high”: adjust the high and low until they are balanced.

The Way of Heaven and the virtue of the ruler correspond from above to below, so the ruler should model the workings of Heaven, just as a bowyer follows the methods of bowmaking. To revive what has stagnated and expose what is wicked, the ruler must “lower what is high.” Then rewards and punishments will be fair, and titles and symbols of office—markers of rank and authority—will not be handed out carelessly. Allowing the hidden and obscure to flourish, and restoring what has been cut off, is “raising what is low.” There is no need to rely entirely on forceful prohibitions, suppress violence, or blunt sharpness. It is enough to remove the harm caused by factional bias and bring governance into accord with the transformation of an age of peace.

The Rites of Zhou, in its section on bowmakers, describes how bows are made from six materials: wood, horn, sinew, glue, silk, and lacquer. Each is gathered in its proper season, then combined by a skilled craftsperson. The wood should be reddish-black and resonant with Yang energy. A “powerful” bow is used for shooting far, and a “straight” bow for shooting deeply. The horn should be blue-white, with a full, well-shaped tip. Horns taken from animals slaughtered in autumn are thick; those from animals slaughtered in spring are thin. A young ox’s horn is straight and smooth, while an old ox’s is curved and rough. Once the three materials—wood, horn, and sinew—are properly matched, the wood is split in winter, the sinew prepared in summer, the horn softened in spring, and the silk joined in autumn. Glue and lacquer are applied; the bow’s form is set in the cold, so it will not warp when strung. When fine materials and skilled workmanship are brought together at the right time, this is called “three balances”; the three balances together make “nine harmonies.”

The upper grade of bow is six chi and six cun long, the middle grade six chi and three cun, and the lower grade six chi. Drawing and releasing the bow has its own measured movement; the pace of shooting and the degree of safety each have their own names. Hence the sayings “a dangerous bow with a steady arrow” and “a steady bow with a dangerous arrow.” Jing wood and Yan horn are fine materials; the He bow and Chui arrows were treasures of antiquity.

The method of making arrows is as follows. Arrowmakers make both military arrows and hunting arrows. For each, the shaft is divided into thirds, with one third removed from the total length; the feathers should be one fifth of the arrow’s length. Water is used to distinguish Yin and Yang. The “nock,” where the lower end of the shaft receives the bowstring, is set between Yin and Yang, and the feathers are set between the nock and the shaft. The arrowhead is fitted after leaving one third of the shaft behind the feathers. Hold the arrow between the hands and shake it to check the proportions of its thick and thin parts; bend it to see whether its flexibility and stiffness are properly balanced. Reed arrows have one third of their weight at the front and two thirds at the rear. A “killing arrow” is divided into seven parts, three at the front and four at the rear. If the front is too light, the arrow requires greater force; if the rear is too light, it veers upward; if the middle is too light, it twists; if the middle is too heavy, it rises. Full feathers slow an arrow, while sparse feathers make it fly fast. The shaft should be lively; with fine materials and skilled workmanship, it can withstand even a strong wind. Such is the Way of bows and arrows.

Explanation: This section draws on the Laozi’s teaching that “the Way of Heaven diminishes what has excess and replenishes what is lacking,” as well as the idea of “raising what is low and lowering what is high.” By comparing the balancing of a bow’s materials with the adjustment of high and low, it illustrates that rulers should restrain the powerful, support the weak, and distribute rewards and punishments fairly. The latter half quotes extensively from the sections on bowmakers and arrowmakers in the Rites of Zhou: Record of the Examination of Crafts. Its detailed descriptions of ancient craftsmanship serve as an analogy for following the model of Heaven and maintaining humility. They are not instructions for spiritual cultivation; the passage is a form of commentary that uses craft and the principles of governance to illuminate each other.

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Interpretation

A Broad Commentary on the True Meaning of the Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue

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Choosing materials, waiting for the right moment, and applying skill

A craftsperson must choose good materials, wait for the right moment, and apply ingenuity through practiced skill for an arrow to hit its target. The same principle applies to conducting oneself, governing the state, and cultivating the Dao: force alone will not do; one must act at the right time and in the right measure.

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“Reducing what is full and benefiting what is humble”: Heaven’s Dao lowers the high and raises the low

The Classic of Changes, in its 谦 (Qian, Humility) hexagram, says that Heaven’s Dao diminishes what is full and increases what is humble. The setting sun and the waning moon offer images of this principle: lowering what is high and supporting what is low.

It also speaks of “weighing things and distributing fairly”: whether one originally has much or little, each receives a share, so that both can benefit. Those who have much withdraw through humility, and their share gathers all the more; those who have little advance through humility, and their share grows. Humility gives without favoritism.

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The contrast between Heaven’s Dao and the human way

“The Dao of Heaven reduces what has more than enough and replenishes what is insufficient. The human way is different: it takes from those who lack enough to support those who already have more than enough.”

Commentary: Heaven’s Dao distributes evenly, reducing what is abundant and replenishing what is scarce. Yet people go against Heaven: they take still more from those who have too little and give it to those who already have enough.

Exegesis: This passage explains that the human way fails to follow Heaven’s Dao in reducing and replenishing. Phrases such as “taking from the many to benefit the few” come from the image of the Qian hexagram in the Classic of Changes.

Interpretation: Heaven’s Dao is fair: it reduces what is in excess and replenishes what is insufficient. The human way often reverses this, taking from the poor to benefit the rich: wealthy households feast on delicacies, while the poor cannot get enough of coarse greens. This turns away from the Great Dao.

“Taking from the many to benefit the few” draws on the image of the Qian hexagram: a mountain within the earth. The exemplary person reduces what is abundant and adds to what is scarce. (The word pou means to gather or take away; gua means few or scarce.) When those with much remain humble, their resources gather further; when those with little remain humble, their resources increase. This is even distribution. It may also be understood as taking from what is plentiful to supply what is scarce, in keeping with the principles of raising the low, lowering the high, diminishing what is full, and benefiting what is humble. This is essential both to governing the state and bringing peace to the people, and to cultivating oneself in accord with the Dao.

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Who can use what they have in excess to serve all under Heaven?

“Who can use what they have in excess to serve all under Heaven? Only one who has the Dao.”

Commentary: Who can take what they have in excess and provide for those in need throughout the world? Only someone who follows the Great Dao can do this.

Exegesis: “Who” means precisely that: who? Laozi saw that people of his time could not follow Heaven’s Dao, support the people below, and extend the radiance of virtuous influence. So he invoked Heaven’s Dao as an exhortation: Who can reduce their own surplus and aid those in need? Only a ruler who has the Dao can do so.

Interpretation: Relieving hardship, providing famine relief, reducing and restraining excess, and giving aid—these are the ways of Heaven’s Dao. If people can use what they have in excess to serve all under Heaven, they are acting as those who have the Dao.

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Note: This passage develops ideas found in chapter 77 of the Classic of the Dao and Its Virtue and elsewhere. A Song-dynasty Daoist scholar uses the Qian hexagram from the Classic of Changes and the contrast between “Heaven’s Dao” and “the human way” to argue that both governing and self-cultivation should “reduce what is in excess and replenish what is insufficient.”

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Interpretation

A Plain-Language Interpretation

The passage’s general meaning

The phrase “what benefits” comes from the Tuan Commentary on the Humility Hexagram in the Book of Changes. People often act against the Dao of Heaven: they take from those who already have too little and offer it to those who already have plenty. This harms people and violates the Dao. Exactions and oppressive levies continue, while the people go hungry and cold, with no one to pity them. Lao Jun (Laozi) speaks words of wisdom out of compassion for those who receive no care: Who can reduce what they have in excess to help others who lack enough? Perhaps only a ruler with the Dao can nurture all things in accord with Heaven.

“Thus the sage acts without relying on his achievements.”

Note: The sage follows the Dao of Heaven, giving fairly according to what things need. He benefits all things, yet neither relies on nor boasts of his own merit.

Commentary: “Sage” here confirms the meaning of “one who has the Dao” in the passage above. “Relying” means depending on oneself and boasting. The sage follows Heaven and gives fairly. His De (Virtue/Power) extends to all things, yet he does not let others see his merit. That is why it says he does not rely on his achievements.

Interpretation: The sage is wise and fully attuned to things, adapting his intentions to what each requires. He is like Heaven and Earth, which bring all things into being without claiming virtue, and like the warmth of Yang, which nurtures without claiming credit for its beneficence. Though the sage does not rely on his achievements or claim a place for himself, his Dao reaches even farther. The earlier passage has already explained what it means to give fairly according to each thing.

“When the work is done, he does not claim the credit.”

Note: He attributes his achievements to other things and to the people. Even after succeeding, he does not claim the credit for himself. This is the virtue of the worthy and capable.

Commentary: The sage knows that if one claims a place after completing one’s work, Heaven will diminish one. So even when his transformation through the Dao has spread throughout the world and his achievements have benefited the whole realm, he gives the honor to the many contributors and claims no merit for himself.

Interpretation: The passage presents the sage’s virtue, extending even to a ruler with the Dao: he follows the Dao, accords with Heaven, and fairly spreads benefits to all things without relying on his achievements. His work matches Heaven’s, yet he does not claim credit for it. His Dao and De are lofty, standing alongside Heaven.

“He does not wish to display his worth.”

Note: The sage relinquishes credit and does not claim a place for himself because he does not wish to display his worth to other things or to the people.

Commentary: This sums up the meaning of “does not rely on his achievements” and “does not claim the credit.” To say that he does not wish to display his worth means that, although his abundant De fills him inwardly, he keeps his good reputation hidden from the world. He does not rely on his actions or claim credit for his work because he wishes to conceal his De and keep his name obscure, rather than let all things see his worth. This also extends the meaning of “reducing what is in excess.”

Interpretation: The Great Sage’s De unites in silence with the mysterious work of the Dao. His inner light responds to subtle things, while outwardly he blends with the world around him. In general, he fears that if his De becomes conspicuous, affection will arise, and if affection becomes visible, his achievements will be remembered. He therefore wishes to hide completed work in his actions and stillness, and to let his De, which does not dominate, transform things in silence. This accords with the principle of “raising the low and lowering the high,” and also with the saying, “True words seem contrary.”

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Explanation: This chapter sets the Humility Hexagram’s teaching that “the Dao of Heaven reduces what is in excess and replenishes what is insufficient” against people’s practice of “taking from what is insufficient to offer to what is in excess.” It then connects Laozi’s phrases “what is in excess,” “what is insufficient,” “acts without relying on his achievements,” “when the work is done, he does not claim the credit,” and “does not wish to display his worth.” This is a Song-dynasty Daoist interpretation of the Dao De Jing.

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Interpretation

The Broad Meaning of the Sagely Commentary on the True Scripture of the Dao and De, Volume Forty-Eight

Chapter Fifteen: Observant and Frank

Commentary by the Lord of the Pass: “Observant” means discerning clearly; “frank” means straightforward. The central purpose of this chapter is to explain how people of the highest De conduct themselves in the world.

The Chapter’s Main Point

People of the highest De do not claim their De for themselves, so there is no De to praise. People of lower De cling firmly to the name of De, and so lack its true substance. The highest De acts through Wuwei (non-action), merging with the Dao without distinction. Lower De acts deliberately, striving toward particular ends. The highest benevolence acts without intention; the highest righteousness acts according to a set method; the highest propriety acts through elaborate forms. Only after the Dao is lost does De appear; only after De is lost does benevolence appear; only after benevolence is lost does righteousness appear; only after righteousness is lost does propriety appear. Propriety marks the decline of loyalty and trust, and is the beginning of disorder.

The Way of the Highest De

The essential quality of the highest De is “having no De.” What does this mean? It means neither claiming the name of De nor relying on one’s achievements in De. De has no form at its root; to give it the fixed name “De” is already to lose its truth. People of the highest De embody De in daily life without being aware of it. Their achievements benefit the world, yet they do not speak of them. Like the transformations through which Heaven and Earth nurture life, all things grow and flourish of themselves. Their De goes unnoticed, yet nothing is greater.

The Formlessness of De

De is the manifest expression of the Dao. The Dao has no form at its root, and De, too, should have no form. If De had form, it would be limited like a vessel and unable to extend everywhere. The highest De is therefore formless, pure like an infant and white like undyed silk: white without being stained, clean without being washed. De’s formlessness does not mean emptiness; it is fullness without traces. Nor does it mean silence and concealment; it flows everywhere without dwelling in any one place.

The Four “Nots”

People of the highest De possess four qualities of “not”:

First, not ancient: they do not cling to antiquity or confine themselves to convention. They adapt as circumstances change, like the movement of the Dao, which knows neither past nor present.

Second, not simple: they do not cling to plainness or let refinement become an obstacle. They blend their light with the world and bring refinement and substance into harmony, like jade that holds beauty within.

Third, not white: they do not flaunt their purity or pride themselves on their cleanness. They blend their light with the world and compete with nothing, like water flowing downward, which does not contend yet excels at overcoming.

Fourth, not observant and frank: they do not mistake close scrutiny for clear understanding, or harsh exposure for straightforwardness. Those who truly understand do not scrutinize; those who scrutinize do not understand. Those who are truly straightforward do not expose others; those who expose others are not straightforward. People of the highest De blend their light with the world. They are neither dazzled by their own clarity nor driven to extremes in their straightforwardness, like the sun and moon shining without partiality.

On the Ancient, the Simple, and the White

“Ancient” does not mean old or outmoded. It refers to the original, unspoiled state. People of the highest De do not cling to antiquity but return to the source; they do not cling to convention but preserve what is genuine.

“Simple” means substance before it has been divided, and harmony before it has been mixed with other things. People of the highest De do not cling to simplicity but blend their light with the world. They are not hindered by refinement, for refinement and substance support one another.

“White” means the utmost purity and cleanness in its natural state. People of the highest De do not flaunt their whiteness but keep their inner radiance within. They do not pride themselves on being clean but mingle with the world.

Conclusion

The highest De is formless and possesses all four “nots.” It is not ancient, yet returns to the source; it is not simple, yet blends its light with the world; it is not white, yet mingles with the world; it is not observant and frank, yet is clear and straightforward. In this way, De accords with the Dao, and the Dao runs through De. Such a person shares the De of Heaven and Earth and the brightness of the sun and moon. This is the utmost expression of the highest De.

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