《道德真經廣聖義》Vol. 51

The Comprehensive Commentary on the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue

The True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue, Comprehensive Commentary, Scroll Fifty (Section Thirteen)

Composed by Master Guangcheng, Du Guangting, of the Tang

Chapter Eighty: A Small State with Few People (Commentary: The previous chapter explained that excessive laws and regulations inevitably cause trouble, so room must be left for people to act. This chapter explains that when people are simple and unadorned, the highest principle becomes evident of itself, and there is no need for boasting or grasping. It first sets out the ethos of Wuwei (non-action) to encourage people, then shows that when people follow the ruler’s transformation, households are well supplied and people have enough, with nothing they long to acquire. The meaning is this: The previous chapter established laws through the keeping of tallies, distinguishing victory from defeat. Here, the emphasis is on taking death seriously and making simplicity the foundation. When people return to the principle of tying knots, warfare will not arise. Each person keeps to their proper share, content with good food and fine clothing; they live in peace and follow their customs without losing harmony. Though one may say that the crowing of roosters and barking of dogs can be heard from one village to another, does this mean people still need to travel back and forth to exchange courtesies? Both trustworthiness in appearances and the pursuit of beauty are set aside; even broad knowledge is forgotten. With nothing to do and no labor, one fully understands the Dao of the sage.)

Let the state be small and its people few. Even if there are tools for groups of ten or a hundred, let them go unused.

Commentary: Groups of ten and five were basic household-registration units; a “hundred” refers to a leader. This passage shows that the ruler embodies simplicity and harmony, leaving leaders of these groups with nothing to seek. Even if there are talented people and useful tools fit for appointing leaders to govern others, there is no need to use them.

Commentary: “Few” means small in number. Groups of ten and five were basic household-registration units. A “hundred” means a leader. “Tools” means talents and implements. This passage discusses an ancient, simple age: a small state makes clear that greatness is not sought; a small population makes clear that more people are not sought. When greatness is not sought, the heart has no greed or rivalry; when more is not sought, affairs are necessarily easy and simple. Once the way of ease and simplicity is established, a simple and unadorned ethos becomes evident. Even if there are talented people and useful tools fit for serving as leaders over others, there is no need to use them.

The meaning is this: A small state is easy to govern, and a small population is easy to keep at peace. Even if officials are appointed, there is no need for ministers to manage affairs. Rulers and subjects each keep to their proper roles; no one seeks gain beyond the borders, and the people cherish simplicity and together attain ease and plainness. If a great state can follow this way, then all under Heaven will naturally practice Wuwei.

Let the people take death seriously and not move far away.

Commentary: With little selfishness and few desires, people do not lightly risk their lives. They value their roots and seek nothing elsewhere, so they do not move far away.

Commentary: “Move” means to relocate. When people are transformed and return to simplicity, governance is not burdensome or harsh. They cherish their lives and therefore take death seriously. Valuing their roots and finding contentment in their work, they seek nothing beyond their borders and each remains settled where they are; thus they do not move far away.

Note: This chapter corresponds to Chapter Eighty of the Dao De Jing, “A Small State with Few People.” Du Guangting, known as Master Guangcheng, was a Daoist of the late Tang and Five Dynasties period. His Comprehensive Commentary follows the sequence of the eighty-one chapters established under Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang. Terms such as “groups of ten and a hundred” and “tying knots” invoke images of antiquity to explain the principle that fewer laws and fewer desires make a state easier to govern; they are not a factual record of the institutions of any particular dynasty.

General Meaning of the Scripture

The explanation says: In the realm portrayed by the principles of the Yi (Changes), the people cherish a simple and unspoiled way of life, each preserving their own nature and life, without greedy desires. Why, then, would they envy migration and constant travel? This is what is meant by “settling in their homes and delighting in their customs, so that people grow old and die without visiting one another.” The teaching of the Great Dao reaches its utmost expression here.

Though there are boats and carts, no one has occasion to use them

Commentary: Boats and carts were made to travel by water and land and to exchange goods. When there is no need to travel back and forth, they can be set aside, with no one to ride in them. Zhuangzi says: “In the age of Perfect Virtue, there were no paths or tunnels in the mountains, and no boats or bridges across the marshes.”

The explanation says: Trees were split to make boats for crossing water, and wood was cut to make wheels for traveling on land. Both were meant for long journeys. In a small state with a small population, people have no need to endure the hardships of travel by boat or cart. Content with their lot and true to their nature, they sit peacefully at home. What occasion would there be for sightseeing? Hence, “no one has occasion to use them.” As for “no paths or tunnels in the mountains,” a qi is a narrow path, and a sui is a passage through a hill. In the “Horses’ Hooves” chapter of the Zhuangzi, it says: “In the age of Perfect Virtue, people walked at ease and looked about calmly. There were no paths or tunnels in the mountains, and no boats or bridges across the marshes. The many kinds of living things dwelt together in their homelands; birds and animals gathered in herds, and plants flourished. People could tether animals and roam among them, and climb up to peer into the nests of magpies and crows. Why would anyone need to distinguish between the noble and the lowly?” This is what is meant by an age of simplicity and unadornment.

Though there are armor and weapons, no one has occasion to display them

Commentary: Armor and weapons are displayed to punish those who refuse to submit and to repel foreign enemies. When those above accord with Dao and De, and those below have no divided loyalties, there is no need for warfare; the weapons can be put away, with no occasion to display them.

The explanation says: The ruler practices Wuwei (non-action), while officials and people remain simple and unspoiled. There is no rebellion within and no enemy outside. Though there are armor and weapons, what use could they be? People’s hearts accord with Dao: they are quiet, subtle, and centered. Desires do not confuse the heart, and worldly splendor does not disturb the eyes. Though there are precepts and rules of conduct, is there any need to study them deliberately? People already understand life directly and innately; they need not acquire this understanding through cultivation. In the same way, the people are transformed by gentle harmony, and military preparations are unnecessary.

Let the people return to tying knots and using them

Note: Boats and carts make travel easier, while armor and weapons are used for warfare. When people have no desires, there is no occasion to use boats and carts or to display weapons. Returning to simplicity and unadorned genuineness means returning to the practice of tying knots in the age of the Three Sovereigns.

Commentary: In ancient times, before there were written texts and contracts, people recorded events by tying knots. Thus the first chapter of the “Appended Statements” says… (The quotation continues from the preceding passage and points to a return to the simplest form of governance.)

Plain-language explanation: This passage describes the ideal of “a small state with few people” in the Dao De Jing: people are content in their own homes and delight in their local customs, living and dying without visiting one another. Boats and carts exist but are unused; weapons exist but are not displayed. Education and customs are so simple that written texts and contracts can be dispensed with, returning to the unadorned age of “tying knots to keep records.” This does not mean literally making people tie knots to manage affairs. It is a metaphor for reducing desires and clever contrivances until the world is at peace of its own accord.

In ancient times, people governed the realm by keeping records with knotted cords. Later, sages replaced this practice with writing and tally contracts, seeking to make things clear.

In the age of knotted cords, people were all simple and sincere; once writing arose, deceit and falsehood appeared

In the age when people kept records with knotted cords, everyone was simple and honest. Once writing appeared, deception and falsehood began.

Today, the people are to be led to set aside their feelings and desires, abandon greed, and return to an ancient simplicity. That is why it is said that people should once again live by keeping records with knotted cords.

Explanation: When the simple people were governed through the De (Virtue/Power) of the Great Dao (the Way), they had no hardship from traveling over land and water, and no calamities from warfare. At that time, even keeping records with knotted cords seemed cumbersome. Once writing arose, the method of knotted cords was abandoned. Now, in an age of many affairs and among people with many desires, the aim is to cherish the Dao and preserve harmony, returning to plain simplicity. That is why it merely says, “return to knotted cords.”

Find their food sweet

Commentary: Because they do not crave particular flavors, the food they eat naturally tastes sweet.

Find their clothing beautiful

Commentary: Because they do not seek elaborate embroidery, the clothes they wear naturally seem beautiful.

Discussion: Food tastes good when it is “just right”; when it is, anything one eats tastes good. Clothing is beautiful when it is “appropriate”; when it is, anything one wears looks beautiful. If it is neither just right nor appropriate, even food fit for a king and robes of fine silk cannot be called truly satisfying or beautiful.

Explanation: Nourish the body and suit the palate; do not prize rare delicacies or lavish finery. In the Book of Documents, only the Son of Heaven and the lords and nobles had “jade food.” Brocade is woven by skilled women in five colors. Wearing it is often excessive, and making it consumes the people’s labor and wealth. Clothes are for covering the body and warding off cold; food is for satisfying hunger and quenching thirst. If one has enough warmth and food, and is spared hunger and cold, that is sufficient to settle the body and bring joy to one’s nature. Why seek ornate clothing and rare delicacies?

Rest content in their homes

Commentary: Because they do not build unnecessary houses, their homes are naturally secure.

Take joy in their customs

Commentary: Their customs are not debased but remain simple, and so bring people joy.

Discussion: With few desires, people can rest securely in their homes; when instruction and moral influence are sincere and generous, customs are a source of joy. If desires are indulged without restraint, people cannot first find peace in their own homes. And if harsh government brings constant disturbance, how can they take joy in their customs?

Explanation: Government and moral instruction reach everywhere, and the people’s customs are simple and harmonious; therefore they can rest content in their homes and take joy in their customs.

Neighboring states lie within sight of one another, and the sounds of their chickens and dogs can be heard

Commentary: This describes places that are very close to one another.

Yet make the people grow old and die without visiting one another

Commentary: Having nothing to seek from outside, they naturally have no need to visit one another.

Discussion: Neighboring states within sight of one another, with the sounds of chickens and dogs carrying between them, describes how close they are. People grow old and die without visiting one another because they are content within themselves and seek nothing from outside.

Explanation: The people have no desires and seek nothing. Though their neighbors are close by, they do not visit one another; each remains at home in their own land and takes joy in their own customs.

The Meaning of “Until Old Age and Death, They Do Not Visit One Another”

The people live until old age and death without visiting one another because each is self-sufficient and has nothing to seek from others.

Interpretation

The ruler has no need for alliances at the borders, and the people have no extravagant desires beyond their own lives. Though they live on the same land, they need not visit one another often. In their own lives, each is content with their proper place; outwardly, they put an end to excessive cravings for food. At the level of the state, each allows life to flourish. The people suffer no hardship from forced labor, take pleasure in cultivating the Dao, and follow their nature—this is the highest state of the Dao.

Chapter Eighty-One: “Trustworthy Words Are Not Beautiful”

(Commentary on the Meaning of the Three Sections Above and Below / Clarifying the Beginning of the Dao and De)

Central Aim

Its aim is to open the Gate of the Myriad Subtleties, and its culmination is to bring everything together in a final synthesis. Thus, “trustworthy words are not beautiful” is used to illuminate teaching through words; the discussion of “goodness” serves as a warning about cultivation; the writing on “knowing much” reveals delusion and awakening; the account of “not accumulating” teaches letting go; the allusion to “having much” gives free expression to the nature of the Dharma; and the conclusion on “not contending” clarifies the Way of the sage. The purpose is for students to approach what is subtle through words and images, then forget the tools beyond nature and life, awakening through teaching while able to forget the teaching.

Interpretation

This chapter’s opening heading summarizes the beginnings and endings of the two preceding Jing (scriptures). From “the Dao that can be spoken” at the beginning to “not harming and not contending” at the end, the eighty-one chapters accord with Heaven and take Earth as their model. The principles of “trustworthiness and beauty” and “debating goodness” compare outward adornment with inner substance, so both may be forgotten. The terms “knowing much” and “having much” distinguish literary polish from plain substance, so both may be set aside. Forget words and images; grasp the Mysterious, then release even the Mysterious. Enter deeply into the pivot of forgetting both, and merge into the realm of the Ultimate Dao.

Gate of the Myriad Subtleties: A phrase from the first chapter of the first section of the text.

Words and images: From the Appended Statements of the Book of Changes: “Grasp the meaning and forget the image; grasp the image and forget the words.”

Fishing basket and rabbit snare: From the Appended Statements of the Book of Changes: “When you have caught the rabbit, forget the snare; when you have caught the fish, forget the basket.” The basket is a bamboo tool for catching fish, and the snare refers to the rabbit’s tracks. Both are means to an end, and once the end is reached, the means can be forgotten. These ideas have already been explained in the Jing.

If, like Vimalakirti at Vaishali closing his mouth, or the Buddha at Vulture Peak brushing his seat to signal that the Dharma could not be taught, one instead obscures the true teaching and loses sight of right understanding, how could that be better than this text’s expansive teaching, which makes both substance and function clear? In its discussion of cultivating oneself and ordering the household, it brings harmony to all relationships and peace among the six close relations. In its discussion of stabilizing the state and governing the realm, it brings calm to all under Heaven and clarity to the nine regions. Truly, it is a model for generations of masters and a standard received by a hundred kings.

Pillar Below: Refers to the Lord Lao, Laozi. During the reign of King Wu of Zhou, he lived in the region of Qi and served King Wu as the Historian of the Pillar Below, a position equivalent to today’s Grand Censor.

(Historical note)

Truthful words are not pleasing.

Commentary: “Truthful words” refers to the teachings of the sages. Words that are true and reliable do not pander to worldly tastes, and so are not pleasing.

Explication: “Truthful words” means words of truth within the sages’ teachings. The Lord Lao wished to guide all beings through the teachings he had revealed. These teachings are indeed wholly trustworthy, and so run counter to worldly ways; people of the world consider them displeasing.

Interpretation: When the Great Sage offers instruction, his first aim is to make the Dao clear. His words have no ornate flourishes to delight people and no twisted arguments to deceive the multitude. Truth is expressed plainly: substantial, not embellished. For this reason, worldly people who observe it consider it displeasing. Yet to keep one’s thoughts aligned with principle and one’s heart grounded in the scriptures can do more than establish a flourishing state and bring harmony to its people: it can also lead to long life and transcendence. This may rightly be called wholly trustworthy.

Pleasing words are not trustworthy.

Commentary: “Pleasing words” refers to teachings current in the age. Sweet words accord readily with worldly tastes, and so are untrustworthy.

Explication: “Pleasing words” means the sweet words found in the teachings current in the age. They are often ornate and readily conform to worldly tastes. Since they are neither true nor reliable, they cannot transform people. That is why such words are untrustworthy.

Interpretation: Teachings in the world put fine writing first. They offer no ultimate principle to rely on and no profound discourse worth taking up. Instead, they treat elaborate beauty as richness and prolixity as distinction. They say what worldly ears enjoy hearing and what ordinary feelings find agreeable. Such teachings cannot guide and transform the world; they can only entertain and gratify the emotions. Thus they are pleasing, but not trustworthy.

The good do not argue.

Commentary: The good are good in their conduct; they do not argue.

Explication: The goodness of understanding the teachings lies in putting them into practice. One acts and then lets go of the act, without becoming attached to it. Thus one does not argue.

Interpretation: One who knows the Dao can put it into practice and has no need for argument. This is why the scripture says, “Those who know do not speak.” Argument tends toward expansive reasoning and tedious words, with much emptiness and little substance. It may impress worldly people with exaggeration, but it cannot bring one directly to understanding the profound. Thus those who speak well of the Dao reach a point beyond words; they do not rely on argument. The Scripture of the Western Ascension says, “The Dao lies in diligent practice, not in eloquence.”

Those who argue are not good.

Commentary: Empty attachment to argument is why they are not good.

Explication: They can only argue about the teachings; they have never understood how to put them into practice. They remain confused and attached, and so are not good.

Interpretation: A person may argue with a torrent of eloquence, speaking with the intensity of oil sizzling in a pan; such a person may be exceedingly skilled with words, yet is not good in relation to the Dao.

A Plain-Language Interpretation

(Continued from the previous passage)

This has already been explained at length. But if you cling to words, you will lose sight of true understanding; if you cling to principles, you will become confused about genuine practice. Too many words easily mislead people, so they are not a sign of goodness.

The scripture says, “Those who speak do not know”—meaning people who can argue eloquently but cannot put their words into practice. As the Scripture of the Western Ascension (Xisheng Jing) says, “Their words fly forth like a dragon, but their deeds trail behind like a lame turtle”: their words soar like a dragon in flight, while their actions lag behind like a turtle with an injured leg.

The One Who Knows Is Not Widely Learned

Commentary: “Knowing” means awakening to understanding; “widely learned” means having heard much.

Explanation: Those who embody and awaken to the Dao prize single-mindedness, not the accumulation of learning. Thus Zhuangzi speaks of “learning so broad it drowns the mind.”

Interpretation: The Dao lies in knowing, not in being widely learned. Those who know and put what they know into practice find that the highest Dao is not burdensome: one word may bring awakening. If they then practice diligently over a long time, their resolve grows ever firmer, and they attain the Dao. But those who know and seek ever more learning, yet do not practice, speak ahead of their deeds and fail to live up to their words. In this way, they lose the Dao.

“Learning so broad it drowns the mind” comes from the “Cultivating One’s Nature” chapter of the Zhuangzi. In ancient times, simplicity was lost and De declined further. In the age of Tang and Yu, wisdom was not enough to bring order to the world, so people added cultural refinement and expanded learning. Refinement then obscured natural substance, and broad learning drowned the mind. Only then did people become confused and disordered, unable to return to their nature or recover their original state. From this we can see that when the world lost the Dao, the Dao lost the world; the world and the Dao lost one another. How could people of the Dao flourish in the world? And how could the world flourish through the Dao? This passage criticizes abandoning Wuwei (non-action) in favor of deliberate activity. Thus bells and drums became instruments of excess and indulgence, while jade and silk became objects fought over and seized. Disorder arose from this. If a ruler could govern by abandoning ornament, curbing extravagance and indulgence, reducing elaborate regulations, and keeping ritual and music modest—guiding the people through what is genuine and simple, and ruling without busy interference or contrived action—why worry that extensive learning would drown the mind?

The Widely Learned Do Not Know

Commentary: “Knowing” means awakening to understanding; “widely learned” means having heard much.

Explanation: Those who hear too much become stuck in words and teachings. Trapped in doctrine, they spend all day talking and trying to explain everything. This is not awakening, which is why the text says they do not know.

Interpretation: The essence of the Dao lies in understanding words and then letting them go, knowing the Dao and putting it into practice. Once practice has taken hold, teaching too can be forgotten. Holding to the One keeps things simple; Wuwei keeps disorder at bay. Those who are deeply learned in words and teachings have strayed far from the Dao. How could they attain its mysterious profundity?

The Sage Does Not Accumulate

Commentary: Accumulation means clinging to words, becoming mired in teachings, and gathering things up. The sage understands words and then lets them go, awakens to teachings and then releases them, and remains attached to nothing. Hence the text says, “does not accumulate.”

Notes:

• Single-mindedness: Keeping to the One without scattering one’s attention across a wealth of learning.
• Understanding words and letting them go; awakening to teachings and releasing them: After grasping their meaning, one no longer clings to written words or rigid doctrines.
• Learning so broad it drowns the mind: Too much knowledge and experience can overwhelm the original mind. This is a phrase used by Zhuangzi.
• Refinement obscures natural substance; broad learning drowns the mind: Literary refinement conceals simplicity, while extensive learning overwhelms one’s nature.

A Plain-Language Interpretation of the Scripture

[Commentary] The “accumulating and holding fast” in “does not accumulate” means keeping things in one’s possession and weighing them on one’s heart, unwilling to let them go. The sage penetrates the subtle principles and reaches back to their distant source, understanding the nature of things as they truly are and the principles that govern them. The sage realizes that written words are illusory and sees that verbal teachings are empty in themselves; there is no set of doctrines to grasp rigidly and never release. Even the words used to offer guidance and explanation are let go. Thus the sage neither accumulates nor clings to external teachings, which is why the scripture says, “The sage does not accumulate.”

[Meaning] The sage practices Wuwei (non-action), without clinging even to the thought of “non-action.” The sage forgets verbal teachings, letting go of all instruction that gets caught up in words and phrases. Having fully awakened to the subtle and imperceptible principle, the sage honors the Dao of emptiness and stillness, and so does not build up impediments through worldly preaching. Those who cultivate the Dao in pursuit of truth should also understand the need to “forget words”; through this, they can come to understand this wondrous Dao.

[Scriptural passage being explained] “Having already helped others, one has more oneself; having already given things to others, one has even more.”

[Note] This explains that the nature of things—the fundamentally pure principle—is inexhaustible. Although the sage neither hoards nor clings to verbal teachings, the sage still uses the “flavor of the Dharma,” the subtle delight of the Dharma and the highest principle, to guide ordinary, unenlightened people, offering the pure principle as fully as possible to everyone. This does not diminish the sage’s own pure nature of things in the least; it only makes it clearer. Hence the phrases “has more” and “has even more.” “More” here refers to the innate clarity of one’s own nature; “even more” refers to the additional clarity gained through teaching others.

[Commentary] “Kuang” means to give fully, to give everything. Although the sage does not accumulate or cling to verbal teachings, beings need the sage’s guidance to awaken their wisdom. The sage therefore offers the pure principle in its entirety to ordinary, unenlightened people and guides them. The sage’s capacity for wisdom and understanding is not diminished by this, hence “has more.” A student, by contrast, may only partly understand and partly awaken; through teaching, the student makes progress and the principles become increasingly clear and well expressed, hence “has even more.”

[Meaning] The sage’s pure understanding of the principle and luminous wisdom depend on nothing external and are held back by no inner obstruction. They respond like a great bell hanging in the open: whenever it is struck, it rings. Heaven and Earth bring forth and transform things without end, yet their workings do not tire; the sun and moon shine without ceasing, yet their light is not exhausted; rivers and seas pour forth without end, yet their currents are not spent; firewood is passed from flame to flame without interruption, yet its power is never depleted. The sage’s wisdom and understanding are vast and boundless. The sage speaks in response to awakening, teaches in whatever way is appropriate, and guides each person according to their capacity, responding to their differing dispositions so that all may receive the flavor of the Dharma. Though verbal teachings fill the world, the understanding of the principle and the wisdom behind it only grow clearer and more abundant.

A Plain-Language Interpretation

On “Learning and Teaching Are Half of Learning”

The saying “learning and teaching are half of learning” comes from the Lower Part of the Explanation of Ming in the Classic of Documents: “To teach is to instruct.” The idea is that only after receiving instruction do you understand where the difficulties lie—and that is still only “half of learning.” If you keep learning in mind from beginning to end, your moral character can gradually improve. Without learning, you cannot even see how far you have progressed in self-cultivation. That is why learning is the key.

“The Way of Heaven benefits and does not harm”

Explanation: Heaven’s Way brings forth and nourishes all things. It benefits them without slaughtering or injuring them. Heaven’s Way serves here as a comparison to show that the Way of the sage is vast and beneficial.

Elaboration: The Way of the sage is compared to Heaven’s Way: it benefits all things, allowing each to find its proper place, without causing them harm.

“The Way of the sage acts and does not contend”

Commentary: Heaven’s Way is first described as “benefiting things without harming them” to show that the sage’s Way, in all it does, benefits widely and often yields its advantages to others. That is why it “does not contend.”

Explanation: In all that the sage does, the sage does not contend with things. This is because the sage’s heart holds nothing back and is not obstructed. The more the sage gives, the more remains, and so the sage can avoid contention.

Elaboration: Heaven entrusted the sage with the Way so that the sage might benefit all things. Embodying the Way and responding to Heaven, the sage helps all living beings. The wider the sage’s kindness extends, the humbler the heart becomes; the more evident the teaching, the less visible its achievements. Thus the sage “benefits things without harming them and responds to things without contending.”

Summary of the Entire Volume

The upper and lower parts of the Dao De Jing first discuss “the Dao that can be spoken” and “the constant Dao,” establishing the foundation of its teaching. They then discuss “having De” and “lacking De,” explaining why the teaching differs according to whether the times are decadent or simple and sincere. They also explain that “the more one gives, the more one has,” showing that the sage’s grace is inexhaustible.

Taken together, these two parts offer a model for all under Heaven and a standard for the ages: they call for reforming decadent customs and returning to simplicity, washing away corruption and returning to the true, embracing the One. Their teaching reaches through Heaven and Earth and illuminates both the visible and hidden realms. This is the essential meaning of the upper and lower scriptures.

Volume title: Expanded Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and De, Volume 50 (end of the complete text).