《圖經衍義本草》Vol. 1

Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica with Extended Explanations, Volume One

Compiled by Kou Zongshi, a Tongzhilang and medicinal materials inspector of the Song dynasty. Revised by Xu Hong, an assistant instructor at the Imperial Medical Office and medicinal materials inspector of the Song dynasty.

Upper-Grade Minerals and Stones

Cinnabar

Cinnabar is sweet in flavor, slightly cold in nature, and non-toxic. It treats various illnesses of the body and the five viscera. It can nourish Jing (essence) and Qi (vital energy), settle the Hun and Po souls, replenish original Qi, brighten the eyes, and open the blood vessels. It can also ease vexation and thirst, invigorate the spirit, and give the complexion a healthy glow. It is said to kill harmful spirits and demons, and to treat sudden demonic affliction, abdominal pain, toxic Qi, scabies, fistulas, and sores. Taken for a long time, it is said to bring insight into the spirits, prevent aging, make the body light and nimble, and even enable one to become an immortal.

Cinnabar can be refined into mercury. When ground into powder, it is called “true pearl.” The finest grade is bright and lustrous like mica, and can be peeled apart in layers. It is gathered at any time in the valleys of Mount Fuling. Cinnabar is incompatible with magnetite and is counteracted by salt water.

The Illustrated Classic says: Cinnabar comes from the valleys of Mount Fuling, and is now also produced in Chenzhou and Yizhou.

A prescription calls for three liang each of ginger, cassia heartwood, gleditsia pods, and platycodon root, and two liang of aconite. Pound and sift the five ingredients, then use honey to form pills. Take five pills each time, each about the size of a parasol-tree seed, three times a day. Gradually increase the dose as much as the body can tolerate.

The “Xiongnu Open-Air Sleeping Pill” and the “Sulfur Pill” are also used to treat accumulations, difficulty swallowing food, and firm, distended fullness in the chest and abdomen. Both prescriptions contain arsenic mineral, a poisonous substance. They have rarely been used in recent times.

The Extended Explanations says: The Bowu zhi and Tao Hongjing both say that storks gather arsenic mineral and line their nests with it to protect their eggs. If so, the two kinds of arsenic mineral must be the same stone. Tao Hongjing also says that the scripture of immortality does not mention “special-growth arsenic mineral,” so it must refer only to ordinary white arsenic mineral. The modern supplement simply explains the phrase literally, without clarifying what “special-growth” means. These two entries probably describe the same stone, distinguished only by whether it is “special-growth”: that is, whether it grows alone, unattached to other stones.

Arsenic mineral is rarely used today. Even when it is included in medicine, it must be handled with exceptional caution because it is extremely poisonous. As for the claim that this stone is found in storks’ nests, that is not actually the case. Some say that storks spend much time in water and become chilled, so they use stones to protect their eggs. But if this were true, would cormorants, geese, and ducks—who also forage in water yet continue to reproduce—need these two kinds of stone as well? This explanation was probably passed down from popular rumor, without careful examination of the facts or consideration of the reasoning.

Arsenic Trioxide

The original text records its use with cold water and vinegar to treat malaria and kidney Qi disorders, and also to drive away fleas. Before arsenic trioxide is used in medicine, it should be boiled with vinegar to reduce its toxicity. Only then should it be used.

The Bie Shuo records cautiously that there is now an arsenic well in Yushan, Xinzhou, guarded by the authorities and kept under strict seal. Naturally formed arsenic stone without any mixed-in rock is as red as realgar. When ground with cold water, it can clear heat toxins and treat phlegm congestion, with very good results; but exposure to fire makes it deadly. The arsenic stone described in the Illustrated Classic as “worth no less than gold” is this kind.

The arsenic sold on the market today is made from arsenic stone mixed with sand and gravel from the mountains. It is smelted, and the fumes are condensed into a white frost, which is then crushed. This medicine contains sharp fragments that can easily injure people. When smelted over a stronger fire, it forms larger lumps of a slightly yellow color. This is the arsenic described in the Illustrated Classic as having the bright, clear color of a goose egg. Ancient prescriptions did not include it as a medicine; it was used only by those who smelted mineral substances for alchemical purposes. Recently, some people have often used it to treat malaria. The original reasoning was that naturally formed arsenic stone clears heat toxins, while malaria was believed to result from injury by summer heat. Today, some folk doctors do not investigate the reasoning and simply give patients smelted arsenic to take.

Arsenic mines are usually sealed off. Pits contain murky green water, which must first be drained before anyone can go in to hew out the naturally formed arsenic stone, called “arsenic yellow.” Its color resembles beef, sometimes marked with pale whitish veins. It is neither quite like stone nor quite like earth. Ground into powder and taken, it causes vomiting and diarrhea. In the past, some people happened to take it and suffer no harm, then treated this as a reliable method. Many people have since been harmed by it, so great care is essential.

When arsenic is first smelted and the condensed substance collected, one must stand more than ten zhang upwind. All the plants nearby downwind will wither. Some people also mix it into rice to poison rats; cats and dogs that eat the dead rats are poisoned and die as well. Its toxicity far exceeds that of shewang, a kind of poison. How could one fail to be on guard?

Ri Hua Zi says: Arsenic stone is cool in nature and slightly toxic. It can moisten the heart and lungs and treat sores, scabs, and polyps. It may be taken internally or applied externally.

Lei Gong says: Arsenic stone must be identified with great care. There are many kinds—more than a hundred—and they cannot all be described individually. One kind is called “Wonderful Sulfur Sand.” It is roughly the size of a fist, or weighs one yi, an ancient unit of weight, and has fourteen mirrorlike faces. On cloudy days or during heavy rain, red liquid seeps from these faces. Another kind, “Plum and Cypress Sand,” is the size of a plum and glows at night, bright enough to light an entire room. “White Court Sand” is about the size of an emperor’s pearl, with tiny star-like specks visible on its surface. There are also “Spirit Seat Sand,” “Gold Seat Sand,” and “Jade Seat Sand,” which are said to be taken without first being smelted in an alchemical furnace, bringing long life. Other kinds include White Gold Sand, Clear Small Sand, Yin-Formed Sand, Chen Brocade Sand, and Hibiscus Sand.

Mirror Sand, Arrowhead Sand, Cao Mo Sand, Earth Sand, Gold Star Sand, Flat Sand, Shen Mo Sand, and many other varieties are too numerous to describe one by one.

Yuxi carefully consulted the Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals and wrote: Cinnabar (Zhu Sha) is a chief medicinal with great toxicity. It can calm the mind and spirit, and is used to treat corpse possession—a condition believed to result from the intrusion of a corpse ghost—and convulsions.

Qingxiazi said: Cinnabar occurs naturally and has the power to make people live forever. When a person’s Qi is weak, blood deficient, vitality exhausted, and bones withered and frail, taking refined mineral medicines may provide some benefit. But to live long and see far, preserve life, and steady the mind and spirit, one must take cinnabar. When cinnabar is put into stone or exposed to fire, it turns to ash; after fire-subduing refinement, it can also be transformed into yellow silver. It is said to be capable of becoming heavy or light, numinous or spiritual, black or white, dim or bright. A person can even lift a hu of cinnabar. Some take only cinnabar that has undergone fire-subduing refinement, made into pills; others combine it with sulfur, refined mirabilite, and similar substances. It is unclear when these formulas began to circulate, but they are plainly not ancient methods. Cinnabar was originally used to attack and treat accumulations. Its nature is hot and toxic, and taking too much damages the intestines and stomach. Raw cinnabar can even turn the heart into blood, so it is certainly unsuitable for regular consumption.

Chen Cangqi said: Sal ammoniac, a mineral medicine containing ammonium chloride and other components, treats wasting and weakness in men and women, accumulated disorders, disharmony of Qi and blood, rumbling in the intestines, poor digestion, cold pain in the lower back and legs, abdominal masses, phlegm and fluid retention, Qi bound in the throat, and regurgitation with vomiting of water. It can also increase appetite and make the body plump and strong. Sal ammoniac refined by flying once is called Sour Sand; refined twice, it is called Hidden Wing; refined three times, it is called Settled Essence, and is goose-yellow in color. When prepared into pills with various tonifying medicines, it can bring on a sudden fever. Flying refinement follows a specific method and can also be used to alter the nature of iron.

The Daily Record of Materia Medica says: Beiting Sand tastes pungent and sour, is warm in nature, and is non-toxic; it is incompatible with various acidic substances. It can tonify the water organ and warm the womb; disperse cold accumulations, stagnant blood, and undigested food; and treat Qi masses, abdominal masses, uterine bleeding, vaginal discharge, malignant sores, polyps, bloating after eating too much meat, frequent urination at night, women’s heart pain associated with blood and Qi, and men’s aching, heavy lower back and hips and weakness in the limbs. To process it, make a container from litharge and lime, then heat it until red-hot to reduce its toxicity. People wonder whether it corrodes flesh; yet when someone is cut by a blade, applying Beiting Sand to the wound is said to make it scab over at once. It is also called Di Salt.

Yuxi carefully consulted the Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals and wrote: Sal ammoniac is highly toxic, is incompatible with rice-washing water, and must not be used with sheep’s blood. It tastes sour and salty, and can dissolve metals and minerals and corrode a person’s … Arrowheads with stone attached are obtained from the earth and are not the same as the sal ammoniac discussed here. This substance …

Cinnabar has a calming effect and can nourish and protect the heart and spirit, but it is suitable only for use in its raw form. If taken after refinement, almost no one can do so without falling ill. Its toxicity is no less than that of sulfur and similar substances. A physician took several pills of cinnabar that had undergone fire treatment—a process of refining with fire that alters the substance. Before long, he developed a high fever and died after several nights.

Li Shansheng once refined cinnabar to make an elixir. More than a year later, after bathing, he put cinnabar back into the cauldron to refine it again, but accidentally left one piece behind. His disciple made that piece into a pill and took it. He immediately became delirious and died the following night. Cinnabar freshly mined can even be taken by newborn infants; once refined by fire, its nature changes, and it can become deadly. How could one fail to be cautious about this?

Mica

Mica tastes sweet, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It is used to treat numbness of the skin and muscles, as well as illnesses such as wind-cold and fever. It may also be used for discomfort caused by traveling by carriage or boat. It can dispel harmful influences, calm the five organs, strengthen Jing (essence), improve eyesight, regulate Qi (vital energy), and strengthen the skin. It can also mend severed sinews and vessels, replenish the center Qi, and treat the five forms of exhaustion, the seven injuries, weakness and shortness of breath, and dysentery. Taken over a long period, it can make the body light and strong and prolong life; give the complexion a lustrous appearance and slow aging; increase tolerance of cold and heat; and elevate one’s aspirations toward the state of the immortals.

Mica is also called “Cloud Pearl,” and is mostly red. It is also called “Cloud Blossoms,” and occurs in red, yellow, blue, white, and black. Another name is “Cloud Hero,” and it is mostly blue; another is “Cloud Liquid,” and it is mostly white; and another is “Cloud Sand,” which is blue-yellow. Mica occurs among the rocks in the valleys of Mount Tai, in Qi, at Mount Lu, and at North Ding Mountain in Langya. It is collected in the second month. Water plantain helps it exert its medicinal effects; it is incompatible with alligator armor and must not be used with flowing water.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: Mica occurs among the rocks in the valleys of Mount Tai, in Qi, at Mount Lu, and at North Ding Mountain in Langya. Today it is also found at Yunmeng Mountain in Yanzhou, and in the regions of Jiangzhou, Haozhou, Hangzhou, and Yuezhou. Mica grows between earth and stone in layers that can be peeled apart. The best kind is transparent, lustrous, and white. Mica from Jiangnan is mostly blue-black and is unsuitable for medicine. It is collected in the second month, and some pieces are large, bright, and clean. Today people use it to decorate lanterns, perhaps preserving the ancient custom of making screens and fans from it.

Consulting books of prescriptions shows that mica used as medicine is prized for its bright white appearance. Only the method for taking mica followed by Wei Shuqing of Zhongshan calls for mica in all five colors. This is probably the “Cloud Blossoms” mentioned in the Classic of the Materia Medica: in fact, it is the same mineral, but of a different variety. The Inner Chapters of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity say that mica has five kinds, which people find difficult to distinguish. One should hold the mica up to the sun and examine its colors closely to determine which kind it is; if one looks at it only in the shade, the mixed colors cannot be seen. The original text breaks off at “five colors.”

When all the colors are present but red predominates, it is called “mica” and is suitable for use in summer. When all the colors are present but white predominates, it is called “cloud liquid” and is suitable for use in autumn. Taken raw, sal ammoniac (a mineral medicine) damages the stomach and intestines and harms the blood of the heart. If it is taken by mistake, grind mung beans and drink one or two sheng of their juice to counteract the poison. Daoist practitioners have a method of hidden firing, in which the medicine is refined according to a controlled heat. It is said to dispel cold illnesses and greatly benefit sexual function.

Xiao Bing says: Sal ammoniac may be taken raw, but not in large amounts; the smooth, bright kind is best. Today, raw sal ammoniac from Beiting is considered the finest.

The emergency treatment in the Waitai Miyao says: If a fish bone is stuck in the throat, hold a small amount of sal ammoniac in the mouth, chew it, and swallow; the bone will come down immediately.

The Jingyan Fang records how to make sal ammoniac pills: Take any amount of sal ammoniac and put it in a jar, then invert another jar over it. Mix paper fibers and white clay into a paste and seal the join between the jars tightly. Leave them in the shade to dry. At the start of the hour of Chen (around seven in the morning), gather naturally fallen cocklebur leaves, pound them, sift them into powder, and spread them over the medicine until the bottom of the upper jar is covered. Put water in the upper jar and build a fire around its outside. When the flames are about five cun from the jar, keep adding fuel and gradually move the fire forward until it has passed all the way around the jar. Continue adding fuel and moving the fire in this way for one “hidden period” (the original text’s term for a period of refining). During the process, do not move the fire, and do not allow bystanders or women to watch. When the hidden period is complete, remove the medicine, pound it, and sift it finely. Mix it with vinegar and flour into a paste and form pills the size of Chinese parasol tree seeds. Take ten to fifteen pills each day with warm wine or rice broth; the text says there are no dietary restrictions. It also claims that taking two or three jin of the medicine after refining will improve the appetite and keep a person free of illness.

Chen Xun’s prescription treats deficiency and cold of the source organs (the kidneys, Gate of Destiny, and other fundamental organs in traditional Chinese medicine), with cold Qi surging toward the navel and abdomen and causing pain. Take one liang of sal ammoniac and one or two liang of Sichuan aconite, raw and peeled with the root tip removed, and pound them into powder. Separately, take two liang of fine cloud-rosy herb powder and grind it evenly with the sal ammoniac. Put the mixture in a small earthenware jar and heat it over a low flame until the jar is hot. Put the prepared sal ammoniac into the jar without covering its mouth, then refine it with one load of charcoal. Once the charcoal has burned away and the furnace has cooled, remove the medicine and grind it finely, then grind it evenly with the raw aconite. Use steamed cake soaked in hot water to form pills the size of Chinese parasol tree seeds. Take three pills at a time, with magnolia bark decoction or vinegar broth.

Qingxiazi says in the Baocang Lun: If sal ammoniac is subjected to hidden processing with herbs and wood, it can withstand fire without crumbling…

Niter can transform and subdue various mineral medicines, and guide other medicines to take effect. It can be used to treat chronic cold disorders in women.

Niter is cold in nature and toxic. It damages the five metals: gold, silver, copper, iron, and tin. If it is refined together with mineral medicines, ash, frost, and similar substances so that its medicinal properties are subdued, it is no longer suitable for use.

The Method for Taking and Refining Lingsha in the Great Clarity Tradition says: “Beiting sand,” a kind of niter, receives the Yin-cold energy of stone. Its nature contains the essence of Yang toxins. It can disperse and break down putrid matter, remove filth and turbidity, and help strengthen Yang.

The Mirror Source of the Elixir Chamber says: Niter is highly toxic. For disorders involving deep-seated cold and cold accumulations, it may bring a cure when it is appropriate to take; prolonged use, however, may cause abscesses and swellings. Beiting sand is white or yellow. A mnemonic says that niter is a “thief of metal.” It can subdue and work in combination with many medicines, serving as a guiding medicine that helps other medicines take effect. It can also subdue realgar and orpiment on its own.

The Extended Discussion of Materia Medica says: If niter is cast into a furnace for smelting gold and silver, counterfeit gold and silver will disperse. How much more readily, then, can it make pathogenic factors that have long accumulated in the abdomen break down and decay. Combined with other medicines, it can be used to treat opacities in the eye that obstruct vision. Before use, it must be processed by water levigation—grinding it with water and allowing it to settle to remove impurities—then placed in a porcelain vessel. Red lead and lead white are both made from lead; that is correct. But the Tang commentary says that both are made by roasting tin, which is a serious error.

The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies records: “Guest intrusion” and “malign attack” disorders often occur by roadsides or outside gates, causing pain and fullness in the chest and abdomen, with Qi surging up into the chest. Without prompt treatment, they may become life-threatening. The remedy is to take one square-inch spoonful (about a small spoonful) of genuine cinnabar (red lead), mix it with three he of honey, and have the patient swallow it. If the patient’s jaws are clenched, pry the teeth apart and pour the medicine in.

The Proven Prescriptions records: Bixia elixir can quickly treat vomiting. Take four liang of northern red lead and sift it finely. Put it in a pot with half a jin of good rice vinegar and cook until dry. Then heat it in the pot over charcoal until the medicine glows red. Let it cool, remove it, and grind it to a fine powder. Make pills the size of wutong seeds with millet rice. Swallow seven pills without chewing, using fermented rice liquid.

Wang’s Extensive Aid Prescriptions records a wind-dispersing powder for wind epilepsy. Take two liang each of lead cinnabar and alum, and grind them to a fine powder. Set two bricks facing each other, cover them with paper, spread the lead cinnabar on the paper, then place the alum on top and cover it with another sheet of paper. Burn ten jin of willow wood over it. When the burning is complete, remove the medicine and grind it finely. Take one qian at a time with warm wine.

A prescription by Liu records a treatment for childhood malaria: Take two qian by spoon of red lead and mix it with honey water. If the liquid becomes cold, mix it instead with wine; this works better.

Another prescription for malaria: Mix equal amounts of plant ash—the black residue from burned vegetation—and red lead, then grind them finely. Take two qian at a time.

Take one spoonful, measured by an ancient unit of weight, mixed with rice water on an empty stomach on the day the illness begins. At most, two doses are needed for a cure.

Method for calcining mica powder: Take one jin of mica, peel it apart and crush it, then pack it tightly into a large bottle. Pour in one liang of mercury and seal the bottle. Calcine it over ten jin of charcoal until the bottle glows red. Remove it, add two medicinal ingredients—fragrant scallions and purple yinqiao herb—and pound them together into a paste. Place the mixture in a silk-cloth bag and shake it in a large basin of water to sift out the powder. If powder remains in the residue, add more herbs and pound it again as before. Let the powder settle to the bottom, then strain it out and dry it. Press a shallow hollow into ash with a small wooden tray, line it with paper, and pour in the powder. Once it is thoroughly dry, move it over a fire to finish drying. Remove it and grind it finely, then use flour paste to form pills the size of parasol-tree seeds. Anyone who is ill can take them; they never fail to work. The Admonisher Xin of Chengdu Prefecture once suffered from dafeng disease, an ancient term for certain severe skin conditions. Many doctors could not cure him. He later met a Daoist who gave him this prescription, and after taking it he improved markedly.

The Yanyi says: Although methods for taking and refining mica existed in ancient times, few people take it nowadays, so particular caution is called for. At markets, people often sell mica split into petal-like pieces. These days, mica paste alone is used to treat various abscesses, poisonous sores, and similar conditions; the Huimin Bureau has a separate method for making it.

Jade Powder

Sweet in taste, neutral in nature, and nontoxic. It treats heat in the stomach, panting, unease in the chest, and thirst. Grind jade into particles the size of hemp seeds and take them. Long-term use can make the body feel light and extend life. It is found in Lantian and may be gathered at any time; it is incompatible with deer antler, so the two may be unsuitable for combined use.

The Tujing says: According to the Bencao Jing, Jade Spring comes from the valleys of Lantian Mountain, while jade powder comes from Lantian. Tao Hongjing’s commentary says: Fine jade comes from Lantian, the area around Xushan Pavilion in Nanyang, the waters of Lurong in Rinan, and foreign places such as Khotan and Shule. Nowadays, it is said that jade is no longer found in Lantian, Nanyang, or Rinan. Jade used for ritual vessels and for the clothing and chariots of emperors mostly comes from Khotan.

Tao Hongjing says: The jade powder mentioned here is simply jade ground into powder; it is not a separate substance. The Immortals’ Scripture says that when taking jue jade, one should pound the jade into grains the size of rice, then soak it in a liquid such as bitter wine until it softens into a paste. It may also be prepared as jade syrup for drinking. Jade taken as medicine must not come from objects that have already been made, nor from jade boulders found in tombs. Fine jade comes from Lantian, the area around Xushan Pavilion in Nanyang, the waters of Lurong in Rinan, and foreign places such as Khotan and Shule. In the prescriptions of the immortals, it is called “jade …”.

Only that which is pure black and glossy white like pork fat, and makes a ringing sound when struck, is genuine. There are many substances that resemble it, so it should be identified with care. The saying “the Yan stone kept in a box turns to frost over time” refers to what is also called “lead white frost.” Its medicinal nature is extremely cold. It is used to treat wind-phlegm, infantile convulsions, and disorders caused by accumulated food. Physicians use it widely.

The Jingyan Fang records a method for treating sores on the back and various abscesses and ulcers: take one piece of black lead, three liang of licorice lightly roasted and cut into pieces, and one dou of wine. Set an empty bottle beside the bottle of wine. First put the licorice into the bottle of wine, then drop the molten lead into it. Pour the wine into the empty bottle and remove the lead; melt the lead again and drop it into the wine in the same way. Repeat this nine times. Then take out and discard the licorice, keeping only the wine. Have the patient drink until drunk and go to sleep; it is said that this will bring about a cure.

The Shengjin Fang records a method for turning the beard and sideburns black, and claims that it can also brighten the eyes and strengthen the teeth. Melt half a jin of black lead in a large pot, gradually add mulberry-branch ash, and stir with willow wood until the lead becomes granular. Grind it to a fine powder and sift it through fine, well-boiled silk. Each morning, first rub the teeth with it, then rinse the mouth with warm water. Keep the rinse water in a basin and use it to wash the eyes; the method is said to treat all kinds of eye disease. Those whose beards or sideburns have turned yellow or white are also said to find that they grow black again.

Qingxiazi’s Baocang Lun says that after black lead has undergone “grass subduing,” it can be transformed into a solid substance that can transmute copper into silver. It can also be cast into a vessel for refining and cultivating cinnabar, which will then withstand fire without being destroyed; for refining and cultivating mercury so that it becomes fireproof; and for treating lead frost so that it does not disperse in fire.

Tin

Some accounts say that tin is not soil from beneath a city gate; another record says it comes from mountain valleys in the state of Qi. Today, red stone is found at Mount Ting in Qi Prefecture, in shades of red, crimson, and blue-green. The crimson variety resembles a cockscomb and is smooth and lustrous. Local people use it only to coat pillars, giving them a purplish color, though the result is dull. This red stone resembles the kind produced in Dai Prefecture.

The red stone used in ancient times can now be found in the flatlands north of the river around Mingsha County in Lingzhou: dig down five chi and it will be reached. Its outer surface is smooth and red, while its interior is purple like a chicken’s liver. It is far superior in quality to the varieties from Qi and Dai prefectures. It belongs to the category of red earth. Today some people apply cinnabar to ox horns, saying that this wards off evil.

Another record says that the southern slope of Mount Daci has abundant white chalk. The Beishan Jing says that Mount Tianchi has abundant yellow chalk, while the Zhongshan Jing says that the great valley of Mount Congxi has abundant chalk in white, black, blue-green, yellow, and other colors. The commentary explains that this refers to chalk in various mixed colors. From this, it appears that ochre from the west is prized, while chalk comes in five colors and only the white variety is used as medicine.

Rihuazi says: Cinnabarite, the reddish mineral, is incompatible with aconite, so use caution when combining them. It can stop vomiting blood and nosebleeds, and treat intestinal wind, including intestinal bleeding, hemorrhoids, and fistulas. It can also be used for persistent menstrual bleeding, childhood convulsions, and gan disease, a category of childhood malnutrition disorders. It also treats reflux and vomiting, stops diarrhea and dysentery, and is used for seminal emission, blood in the urine, bedwetting, and wounds caused by blades or swords. It helps new flesh grow over wounds, calms the fetus, strengthens the Spleen, and can treat excessive urination at night.

After carefully checking the sources, Yuxi says: The Treatise on the Properties of Medicinals records that Yanmen clay and dried ginger serve as its auxiliary ingredients. Cinnabarite tastes sweet and is neutral in nature. It treats uterine flooding and spotting in women, as well as persistent bleeding. The text also says it can treat retained placenta after childbirth. Elsewhere, it is described as warm in nature, and taking it is said to ward off ghosts and spirits.

Xiaobing says: Cinnabarite is a ministerial ingredient, one that assists the principal medicine in a formula.

Beans (the meaning of this passage is unclear in the original, and text may be missing) can, if taken for a long time, make the body lighter and prolong life. Avoid taking them together with deer antler.

Mr. Ma Ming’s Secrets of the Golden Elixir says: Regularly taking jade shavings, ground into powder, can keep the spirit from becoming disordered.

Jade Spring

Jade Spring tastes sweet, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats the many diseases of the five viscera, makes the sinews supple and the bones strong, calms the hun and po, promotes the growth of flesh, replenishes original Qi, and frees the flow of the blood vessels. It can treat twelve conditions, including vaginal discharge in women, dispel qi congestion causing urinary retention, and sharpen hearing and vision. Taken for a long time, it enables one to withstand cold and heat, feel neither hunger nor thirst, and avoid decline. It is said to make the body light, prolong life, and turn one into an immortal. Another account says that if someone takes five jin before death, their complexion will remain unchanged for three years after death. Jade Spring is also called Jade Tablet. It grows in the valleys of Mount Lantian and may be gathered at any time of year. It is incompatible with wintersweet flower.

The Illustrated Classic says that Tao Hongjing considered Jade Spring to be the essence of jade: white in substance, bright and clear in color, and able to dissolve into water. Hence the name “Jade Spring.” People today can no longer identify it with certainty and refer to it simply as “jade.”

Tao Hongjing also says that Lantian, southeast of Chang’an, was once known for its fine jade. The Jade Spring mentioned here must be the essence of jade: white, clear, and able to dissolve into water. People today can no longer identify it with certainty and call it jade in general. Zhang Hua also says that jade taken as a medicine should be white jade from Lantian. It is said that someone who took five jin of jade before death retained the same color in death as in life, three years later. When people in ancient times opened tombs and found the bodies seemingly as they had been in life, this too was attributed to the large quantities of gold and jade placed inside and outside the body. Under Han burial customs, princes and nobles were interred in pearl robes and jade coffins—garments and cases made from pearls and jade—which were said to keep the body from decaying.

Jade should be refined and taken according to the method for ingesting jade described in the scriptures of the immortals, ground into powder as needed. Although the text says jade is neutral in nature, those who take it often develop a fever, a reaction resembling that caused by taking Cold-Food Powder. Gold and jade are precious treasures of Heaven and Earth, unlike ordinary minerals. Unless you understand the proper methods, do not take them lightly.

The Other Edition’s Commentary says that the so-called “Jade Spring” is a liquid that flows from jade. The finest kind is produced in the jade pool inside an immortal’s dwelling. The modern immortal scripture Thirty-Six Methods for Water says that jade can be transformed into jade pulp, which is also called “Jade Spring.” Taking it can prolong life, though its effects are inferior to those of naturally occurring spring liquid. It is also called “Jade Elixir” or “Jade Nectar.”

Yuxi says: I have consulted the records in Rihuazi, which state that Jade Spring can treat blood clots.

The Yanyi says that the Jade Spring Scripture records Jade Spring as growing in the valleys of Mount Lantian, where it can be gathered at any time. Yet today there is no spring called “Jade Spring” in the valleys of Mount Lantian, and neither ancient nor modern records mention gathering spring water there. The scripture also says to take five jin, but no ancient or modern medical prescription measures water in jin. It further says that Jade Spring is also called “Jade Tablet.” In view of all this, it is truly difficult to determine what Jade Spring actually is.

When explaining the term, various authorities make no mention of spring water and understand “Jade Spring” simply as jade. Although Tao Hongjing says that jade can melt into water and is therefore called Jade Spring, if that were so, it should be called “Jade Water,” not “Jade Spring.” “Spring” implies flowing and spreading; the Book of Changes says, “A spring emerges beneath the mountain: Youthful Folly,” which also shows that a spring is not still water. Even so, this explanation does not get to the heart of the matter.

On closer examination, the character meaning “spring” must be a transcription error for the character meaning “pulp.” This makes sense of the passage: the pulp contains jade, so it is called jade pulp. Since ancient times are far removed from the present, it is hardly surprising that characters were omitted or corrupted during copying. The explanation that “jade is gathered and made into jade pulp” is probably certain.

Stone Milk

Stone Milk tastes sweet, is warm in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats coughing with rebellious Qi and shortness of breath; brightens the eyes, benefits Jing, calms the Five Viscera, loosens the joints throughout the body, opens the nine orifices, and promotes the flow of breast milk. It also supplements original Qi and nourishes deficiency, treating weakness, pain, and coldness in the feet, as well as damage to the lower burner and exhaustion of Jing and Qi. It can also strengthen male reproductive capacity. Taken over a long period, it can prolong life, give the complexion a lustrous appearance, slow aging, and aid fertility. Taking it without processing can cause strangury, meaning difficulty urinating and a weak, interrupted flow.

Stone Milk is also called “Male Milk,” “Reed Stone,” and “Summer Stone.” It is produced in the valleys of Mount Shaoshi and on Mount Tai, and can be gathered at any time. Snake Bed Seed may be used with it. It should not be taken with peony, black stone, or Mengmeng; it is incompatible with purple quartz and rangcao.

The Illustrated Classic says that Stone Milk is produced in the valleys of Mount Shaoshi and on Mount Tai. Today it is also found in the mountains of Jianghua County in Daozhou, as well as in Lianzhou, Yingzhou, Shaozhou, Jiezhou, and Xiazhou. There are several kinds of gan, which belong to the same category as glass and are prized treasures. Langgan comes in five colors; the blue kind is preferred for medicinal use. It is produced among the Wubai Man people west of Xizhou and in the kingdom of Khotan. The imperial library now holds the Illustrated Record of Strange Fish.

Ancient books record that langgan is green and is produced in the sea. According to legend, people living by the shore could lower a net to the seabed and haul it up. When first taken from the water, langgan is red; after being left for some time, it turns bluish black. Its branches resemble coral, and its surface has small holes like those made by worms. When struck, it gives off a sound like metal or stone. For this reason, some consider it a substance akin to coral, though accounts differ and it is difficult to identify with certainty.

The Book of Documents: Tribute of Yu records that Yongzhou presented qiulin and langgan as tribute. Tao Hongjing said these are the “green pearls and yellow rings” mentioned in the Rhapsody on the Capital of Shu. The yellow ring is a plant: despite the similar names, it is a different kind. Langgan is also said to be the name of a tree on Mount Kunlun. In addition, the “Great Elixir” in the Scripture of the Nine Truths is another name for langgan. Tao Hongjing believed this substance had little use nowadays. He had only heard that it could treat hard, inward-growing skin on the hands and feet and be refined into elixirs, but these claims had not been reliably verified.

The commentary in the Tang Materia Medica says that langgan comes in several kinds and colors. It belongs to the category of glass and is also a precious gem. Langgan comes in five colors, of which the green variety is the best for medicinal use. It is found west of Suizhou, in areas inhabited by the White Man, and in the kingdom of Khotan.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says that glass is cold in nature and non-toxic. It can calm the spirit and relieve palpitations, as well as brighten the eyes and polish away eye films.

Su Song and others cite Chen Cangqi as saying that glass can be used when the body is feverish or the eyes are red: soak it in water to cool it, then apply it to the affected area as a compress. The Yunji calls glass a “fire essence pearl.” The Record of Strange Things in the Southern Regions says that glass is originally stone, which can be made into vessels by treating it with natural ash. Giant clam shell and agate also belong to the category of jade and stone, and are prized treasures in the western regions. The seven treasures named in Buddhist scriptures include gold, silver, glass, giant clam shell, agate, crystal, and pearls. Some accounts also include coral and amber. The fine carvings on agate bowls are said to have been made with natural ash and a Kunwu knife. At the time, some people made imitations using rawhide glue; these were not made by the genuine natural-ash process.

The Illustrated Materia Medica comments that green langgan appears among the tribute items recorded in the Book of Documents after the passage “The Three Perilous Mountains were made habitable.” Mount Three Perils lies in a remote region of the west. Kong Yingda considered langgan to be a stone resembling jade; the New Book also associates it with the San Miao, the Western Rong, and the Western Regions. The Record of the Western Regions says that this substance is produced in the mountains of the kingdom of Tianzhu. Tao Hongjing identified langgan as another name for the “Great Elixir.” But if “Great Elixir” is the name of an elixir, how could the Basic Scripture treat it as a physical substance that can be boiled and refined for consumption? The text also says that it can be refined into an elixir. Tao Hongjing’s citation reaches too far: the “Great Elixir” he refers to is not the langgan described here.

The next entry is “natural copper.”

All natural copper gives off a blue flame when burned, like sulfur. Only material with this characteristic is natural copper.

There are two or three kinds of natural copper. One kind has an outer shell, like Yu Liang stone; when cracked open, its inside is bright as a mirror and yellow like arsenic stone. Another is blue-yellow, with markings like those on a wall or patterns like bundles of needles tied together. A third has fine, scattered markings like grains of sand clumped together. All are shiny like copper, usually blue-white in color and only rarely red. When burned, they smoke and flare up, then are quickly consumed. Apothecaries today often mistake these materials for natural copper and sell them as such. Genuine natural copper must be calcined before medicinal use. These lookalikes cannot withstand fire; there is no need to examine their shape or color closely, since this alone distinguishes them.

Lei Gong says: “Stone-marrow lead is natural copper. When processing it, do not use Fang Jinya. Fang Jinya closely resembles stone-marrow lead, and taking it by mistake can cause vomiting and even death. Stone-marrow lead is the color of dried silver paste and tastes slightly sweet. After collecting it, first pound it into pieces and boil it for a full day in licorice decoction. The next day, strain it, spread it out to dry in the shade, then pound it in a mortar and sieve it. Soak it in vinegar overnight. The following day, remove it and seal it in a porcelain box with Liuyi clay, a clay used to seal vessels. The box should hold about two sheng. Keep it heated over alternating high and low flames for three days and nights. Once it is dry, put on the lid and seal it tightly with clay. Calcine it over a fire for two days, then remove the sealing clay and lift the lid. Grind it to a powder, and it is ready to use. For every five liang of medicinal material processed, use two yi of vinegar.”

Yuxi says that according to the Ri Hua Zi, natural copper is cool in nature. It can expel pus, disperse stagnant blood, and mend sinews and bones. It also treats harmful blood conditions after childbirth, calms the spirit, and stops palpitations and fright. Grind it with wine and take it.

A liquid that flows from beneath the banks in shaded places congeals into a milky substance, yellowish white in color, with passages running through it. Collect it in the second or third lunar month and dry it in the shade.

Xiao Bing says that pieces shaped like cicada wings are best, those shaped like fingernails are second best, and those shaped like goose quills are the least suitable. Bright, white, thin pieces can be taken.

The Taiqing Shibi Ji records a method for refining stalactite. The Taiqing Jing says: “Take the finest powder and place it in a gold or silver bowl. Cover the mouth tightly with a piece of tile so that no vapor escapes. After steaming, it will naturally turn into water.”

The Yanyi says: Xiao Bing considers pieces shaped like cicada wings or fingernails the best, and those shaped like goose quills the least suitable. Since the scripture calls it “milk,” why does it also say not to take the milk? What does this mean? Perhaps it means that taking the milk makes use of its downward-moving quality, and that one should not use a form like goose teeth. The phrase “shaped like aconite and monkshood…” is unfinished in the original.

The grains need not have pointed ends, as stated above. They need only be bright in color, lustrous, and loose in texture. Material refined in the same way as nitre is of better quality.

Alum (alum-type minerals)

It tastes sour, is cold in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats alternating chills and fever, diarrhea and dysentery, leukorrhea, sores and ulcers in the genital area, malignant sores, and eye pain. It can also dispel heat in the bone marrow and remove nasal polyps. Taken after refinement, it can make the body light and agile, slow aging, and prolong life. However, Qibo says that taking it for a long time damages the bones. It can also turn iron into copper. It is also called “Yu □” (the name is incomplete in the original; the pronunciation is indicated as “nijie”) and “Yuze.” It is found in mountain valleys in Hexi and around Longxi, Wudu, and Shimen. It may be collected at any time of year. Licorice may be combined with it; it should not be used together with oyster shell.

The Illustrated Classic says: Alum is found in mountain valleys in Hexi and around Longxi, Wudu, and Shimen. Today, white alum comes from Jinzhou, Cizhou, and Wuwei Army; green alum comes from Wenquan County in Xizhou, Tongling County in Chizhou, and other places, as well as from sites where alum is refined. When first mined, these are all ores. They must be broken up and heated before they become alum.

There are roughly five kinds of alum, each a different color: white alum, yellow alum, black alum, green alum, and crimson alum. White alum is used in medicine and dyeing. Green alum is also used in medicines for the throat, mouth, and teeth, and in dyeing. Yellow alum is needed by those who refine elixirs and prepare medicines, and is sometimes used medicinally. Black alum is found only in the western regions. Also called “soap alum,” it is used in preparations for dyeing beards and sideburns black, and is sometimes used for other purposes. Crimson alum is originally green and is also called “stone gall.” It turns red when roasted, hence the name “crimson alum”; it is rarely seen today.

There are also “alum essence” and “alum butterflies,” both produced during the refinement of white alum. When the mixture is heated to a vigorous boil, something splashes up from the center of the pan as though flying out. If caught with an iron ladle, the pieces shaped like flying insects are called “alum butterflies.” Those that congeal into blocks, clear and shining like crystal, are called “alum essence.” Both are more potent medicinally than ordinary alum. Another kind, “willow-floss alum,” also comes from places where alum is refined. After heating, it is light and fluffy like cotton, hence its name. Physicians today often use it to treat phlegm congestion and agitation and heat in the heart and lungs, with good results.

Tao Hongjing says: Alum is also produced today in northern Yizhou and the western part of Sichuan. That transported from Hexi is bluish white. The unrefined kind is called “horse-tooth alum”; once refined, it becomes extremely white. People in Shu also regard it as nitre and call it white alum. Yellow or black alum is called “chicken-dung alum.” It is not used medicinally, but is suitable for gilding and decorative plating. Put it together with worked copper in bitter wine (vinegar), then apply…

After iron implements are heated, they take on a copper color. Though the surface looks like copper, the material inside has not changed. Recipes for elixirs consumed by the immortals also make use of it. In folk medicine, it is usually boiled over a fire until the liquid comes to a boil and dries out. Some people use it to treat toothache, but excessive use damages the teeth—evidence that it harms the bones. It is therefore puzzling to claim that it strengthens the bones and teeth.

Tao Hongjing says that people in Shu mistakenly use white alum as nitre.

Rihua Zi says that white alum is cool in nature. It can dispel Wind, relieve fatigue, transform phlegm, quench thirst, and warm and nourish the Water organs (the organs associated with the kidneys and the metabolism of bodily fluids). It can also treat loss of voice after Wind-stroke and scabies. It may also be boiled with peach kernels and scallions to make a bath that induces sweating.

Lei Gong says that, to prepare white alum, first place it in a porcelain bottle and heat it in a fire until the bottle is red-hot inside and out. Use tongs to lift the lid, then immediately put a stone bee’s nest (a honeycomb-shaped mineral or medicinal substance) into the hot bottle and burn it until it is completely consumed. Remove the bottle with tongs, let it cool, and break it open. Grind the contents to a powder in a mortar. Next, dig a pit about five inches deep beneath the eaves, wrap the powder in paper, and leave it in the pit overnight. Take it out and grind it finely again. For every ten liang of white alum prepared, use six liang of stone bee’s nest, burning it until it is completely consumed.

Yuxi says that, while consulting the Treatise on Medicines, he came across this story. There was a medicinal substance called “Alum’s Attendant,” also known as “Lishi.” It feared something called “Gao,” so its master sent people to catch it, but they could never succeed. One day, the master spread nets on three sides beneath a sheer cliff. Suddenly, it leapt up to the mountaintop. The master was baffled. Someone said, “This maidservant probably had the bones of an immortal in a former life, but has not yet taken the elixir.” So the master prepared wine, food, and delicacies, and placed them along the path it traveled, to see whether it would eat. Sure enough, it came and ate, but could not get far before it was captured. It explained everything and identified the plant it had eaten as Huangjing.

The Scripture on Immortal Mushrooms in the Daoist Canon says that Huangjing can soothe the Spleen and Stomach, replenish the original Qi, harmonize the Five Organs, fill out the muscles, strengthen the bones, and double one’s strength. Taken for a long time, it can delay aging and brighten the complexion. It can also turn white hair black and regrow teeth that have fallen out.

The Treatise on Natural History records that the Yellow Emperor asked Tianlao, “Among the things produced between Heaven and Earth, is there anything one can eat to become immortal?” Tianlao replied, “There is a yang plant called Huangjing; taking it can prolong life. There is a yin plant called Goudu; it must not be eaten, for it kills whoever takes it.” People believe that Goudu can kill, yet do not believe that Huangjing can prolong life. Is that not terribly unfair?

The Shenghui Formula says that by following the immortals’ method of taking Huangjing, one can attain the state of an earthly immortal. There is no limit to the amount of Huangjing root and rhizome one may take.

Take a small amount, chop it finely, dry it in the shade, then pound it into powder. Mix it with plain water and take it every day. After a year of use, it can make an old person young again.

Sweet flag (an aquatic herb)

When heart pain strikes, take one or two inches of sweet flag, crush it, and decoct it with evodia; drink the resulting liquid. It works well. Ethnic communities in the regions of Qian and Shu also commonly carry sweet flag with them. If sudden heart pain occurs, chew one or two inches and swallow it with hot water or wine; this is effective too.

Tao Hongjing said: Sweet flag with thick roots is used to treat wind-dampness and is not suitable for consumption. This herb is very effective at driving away worms, fleas, and lice, though current records do not mention this. True sweet flag has a ridge on each leaf, like the edge of a sword, and also produces small flowers in the fourth or fifth month. By streams in the eastern mountains there is another plant called “stream iris.” Its root resembles that of sweet flag growing on rocks in shape, smell, and color, but its leaves are like those of cattail and have no ridge. People often mistake it for rock-growing sweet flag. Stream iris can only treat coughing and rebellious Qi, and can also drive away fleas and lice; it must not be consumed.

Ri Hua Zi said: Sweet flag dispels wind and regulates Qi. It helps with weak kidneys in men, cold and depleted Qi and blood in the Chong and Ren vessels in women, and poor memory. It can also strengthen memory, dispel vexation, relieve pain in the heart and abdomen, treat the cramping of tendons caused by cholera, and address external wind pathogens, sores, scabies, and painful, difficult urination. It also kills intestinal parasites, fleas, and lice. For earache, grind sweet flag into powder, heat-fry it, then wrap it and apply it while hot; this works very well. Avoid eating maltose and mutton.

The Baopuzi says: After Han Cong took sweet flag for thirteen years, hair grew all over his body. He could recite ten thousand characters each day and felt no cold even in winter. It also says one must obtain sweet flag that grows on rocks, with roots one inch long and nine nodes, and purple flowers; this variety is especially potent.

The Inner Tradition of Emperor Wu of Han says: When Emperor Wu of Han climbed Mount Song, he saw an immortal two zhang tall and asked who he was. The immortal replied, “I am a man of Mount Jiuyi. I heard that on the Central Peak there is sweet flag growing on rocks, with roots one inch long and nine nodes. Eating it can bring longevity, so I came to gather it.” Having said this, he suddenly vanished.

Fry litharge until it turns purple. Mix it with an equal amount of the other ingredient, grind them together until evenly blended, and apply it to the affected area.

The Concise Methods for Helping the Multitudes says: To treat swollen, painful teeth, take one liang of white alum and burn it to ash; lightly roast one liang of large wasp nest. Grind both ingredients into a powder. Each time, take two qian and decoct them in one medium bowl of water, bringing it to a boil more than ten times. Hold the hot liquid in the mouth and rinse the teeth; spit it out once it has cooled.

The Formula of Sun Yonghe says: To treat an elongated uvula, which obstructs the throat and causes chest tightness, burn one liang of white alum to ash and finely grind it together with one liang of salt crystals. Apply the powder to the affected area using the tip of a chopstick.

The Secret Record of Child and Mother says: To treat persistent wind rash in children, dissolve twelve fen of white alum in warm wine, then use a horsehair to dab the wine onto the affected area.

The Imperial Pharmacy Prescriptions records: For rheumatic pain in the feet and knees, spontaneous sweating, weakness, and pain in several parts of the body; it may also be used for sweating in the genital area. Burn alum to ash and grind it finely into powder. Take one heaping spoonful at a time, dissolve it in boiling water, and wash the painful area.

The Yanyi says: The alum works in Fangzhou now uses ore that has been roasted over an open fire to extract alum. The alum produced is white, but its quality is inferior to alum from Jinzhou. Alum should not be taken in large amounts, as it can damage the heart and lungs; it has a water-draining effect. If alum water is brushed onto paper, then once the paper dries, water can no longer soak into it. This shows alum’s water-repelling nature. Medicines for treating excessive saliva often include alum for the same reason. Alum calcined into powder can be applied to a nail embedded in the flesh. It can also be applied to bleeding between the teeth, like a nosebleed, to stop the bleeding.

Xiaoshi (an ancient medicinal substance, generally identified as saltpeter)

It tastes bitter and pungent, has a cold or very cold nature, and is non-toxic. It treats accumulated heat in the five viscera and fullness and obstruction in the stomach. It can clear accumulations and retained fluids, aid the transformation of food, and remove the old to bring forth the new. It also dispels pathogenic influences and treats various disorders of the five viscera and twelve meridians, sudden-onset cold damage, intense heat in the abdomen, distress and distension, wasting thirst, difficulty urinating, fistulas, and ulcerative sores. When refined, it can become a paste. Taken over a long period, it can make the body light and strong. It is an extraordinarily wondrous substance of Heaven and Earth, capable of transforming into twelve kinds of stone. It is also called Mangxiao. It grows in the mountain valleys of Yizhou and in the regions of Wudu, Longxi, and Xiqiang; it can be gathered at any time of year. Fire serves as its assistant. It is incompatible with Sophora root and bitter greens, and is counteracted by Nüyuan.

The Illustrated Classic says: For details, see the entry on Puxiao.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says: Xiaoshi is a chief medicinal ingredient. It is incompatible with Cengqing and counteracted by congee. It tastes salty and is mildly toxic. It treats scrofulous lumps below the neck, of the kind associated with tuberculosis of the lymph nodes. If it induces purging after it is taken, the root of the illness can be expelled; it also breaks up stagnant blood. It is also called Mangxiao. After being refined by fire, it becomes Xiaoshi. It breaks up accumulations and disperses hard, congealed masses; it is also called “bitter xiao” and is especially effective for abdominal distension. Xiaoshi and Mangxiao are often prepared by people from the Sichuan plains. To understand how they differ, one must investigate further.

Tao Hongjing says: Xiaoshi’s medicinal effects are much like those of Puxiao. The Immortals’ Scripture often uses it to dissolve various kinds of stone. Today, no one can reliably distinguish these two substances, so further inquiry is needed. Some say that Xiaoshi and Puxiao come from the same mountain, and that Puxiao is therefore also called “Xiaoshi Pu.” By this account, they are not the same substance. In the past, someone obtained a medicine very similar to Puxiao in color and texture, but with slight differences. It looked like freshly dug salt or snow and did not freeze. When heated over a fire, it gave off purplish-blue smoke and then turned to ash; unlike Puxiao, it did not continue to boil. Some say this is the true Xiaoshi. Here, Xiaoshi is also said to be called Mangxiao. Today, Mang...

These passages say that xiaoshi was in fact refined from poxia (a natural mineral salt containing sulfates). This agrees with a later account by Huangfu Mi, but none of these claims has yet been investigated or verified. Their effects must first be established through experiments, and then further evidence must be recorded. The method for refining and transforming xiaoshi is found in the Thirty-Six Water Formulas, an ancient book of prescriptions describing how medicines could transform minerals into water.

As for its place of origin, Longxi (in what is now southeastern Gansu) belonged to Qinzhou and lay west of Chang’an, in an area inhabited by the Qiang people. Today, this substance is found in the mountains north of Dangchang (in present-day Gansu), wherever the soil is saline.

A commentary in the Tang Materia Medica says that this is mangxiao. Poxia is also called xiaoshi pu. Nowadays, when the coarse, inferior poxia is leached to extract its liquid and then boiled down, it becomes mangxiao, which is also called xiaoshi. In the Shennong Bencao Jing, xiaoshi is also called mangxiao; later authors made a separate entry for “mangxiao,” which was a mistake. Another commentary says that xiaoshi is “ground frost.” In winter, a frostlike layer forms on the ground in various mountainous and marshy regions. It is swept up, leached with water to extract its liquid, and then boiled down. Since it can dissolve many kinds of stone, it is called “xiaoshi”; the name does not simply mean that it belongs to the same category as poxia and mangxiao. It is also called mangxiao because, when newly refined, it forms tiny, thornlike crystals that look as though they are dissolving. This is entirely different from the separate entry for mangxiao that follows. Tao Hongjing’s commentary in the old classic cites many sources, but most do not clearly distinguish the substance, so they are not adopted here.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says that xiaoshi is incompatible with apricot kernels, and that holding bamboo leaves in the mouth can treat throat obstruction. Genuine material should be processed over a fire using the “subduing method,” a technique that uses other substances to suppress a mineral’s fiery nature. It should be boiled for three double-hours in a decoction made with willow twigs. When the liquid diminishes, add more hot decoction; stop once its fiery nature has been subdued.

Lei Gong (Lei Xiao, author of the Leigong’s Treatise on Processing Drugs) says: Whenever it is used, first grind it to a powder and place it in a porcelain vessel. Heat it until red-hot in a charcoal brazier fueled with five jin of charcoal. Mix chicken intestines with arborvitae seeds and roll the mixture into separate pellets about the size of small pearls. When the porcelain vessel is red-hot, put the xiaoshi into it; its fiery nature will then be subdued naturally. For every four liang of xiaoshi, use fifteen pellets in total, made from chicken intestines and arborvitae seeds, until the process is complete.

Zhang Yuxi says: On consulting the Shu Materia Medica, I find that rhubarb is named as its assistant drug. The xiaoshi mentioned here is made by refining poxia or ground frost. It is shaped like the foot of a hairpin; good specimens are at least five fen long. It can turn seventy-two kinds of stone into water, which is why it is called xiaoshi. Lü says that xiaoshi tastes bitter, according to Shennong, while Bian Que says it tastes sweet.

The Treatise on Treasures says that if xiaoshi is subdued with medicinal herbs, its quantity does not diminish; it can instantly soften all hard substances, including gold, silver, copper, and iron.

The Records of the Grand Historian describes a case treated by Chunyu Yi, the famous Western Han physician also known as Cang Gong: a concubine of the King of Zichuan was pregnant but could not give birth successfully.

When the patient is brought in, his thoughts are clouded and his awareness confused. Give him a pinch of henbane medicine, made from henbane, to take with wine. Later, examine his pulse again. If it is restless, this indicates that pathogenic influence remains; have him take one dose of xiaoshi. Afterward, he will pass about five or six blood clots, each roughly the size of a bean.

The Shenghui Formula says that for red, painful eyes, grind xiaoshi to a very fine powder. Before bed, use a copper applicator to place an amount about the size of a millet grain at the corner of the eye. The next morning, wash the eye with salted rice water.

The Waitai Secret Essentials says that for chills and shivering, as if an illness is about to develop in the back, or when sores, swellings, or wind rash have already appeared, take three liang of xiaoshi and dissolve it in one sheng of warm water. Let it cool, then fold an old piece of blue cloth into three layers, soak it, and apply it to the reddened area. Replace the cloth frequently once it grows warm; the treatment is said to work quickly.

The Garden of Immortals Formula says that for the five kinds of painful urinary disorder—strain-related, bloody, qi-related, heat-related, and stone-related—as well as severe inability to urinate, use the Powder That Penetrates the Grid. Take one liang of pure white xiaoshi, free of earthy impurities, and grind it into a fine powder. The dose is two qian. Take it with the following liquids according to the condition:

For strain-related urinary disorder, in which exhaustion and debility make urination impossible and the lower abdomen contracts with pain, take it with a decoction of mallow seed powder. After urination resumes, continue with pills or powder to restore deficiency.

For bloody urinary disorder, urination is obstructed, with intermittent bleeding and pain.

For heat-related urinary disorder, the urine feels hot and is reddish, dribbles out with difficulty, and is accompanied by tight, painful contractions below the navel. For both bloody and heat-related urinary disorder, take the powder mixed with cold water.

For qi-related urinary disorder, the lower abdomen is distended and tight, and dribbling often continues after urination. Take the powder with a decoction of akebia stem.

For stone-related urinary disorder, there is pain in the urethra and inability to urinate; the pain radiates to the abdomen, which becomes distended and acutely painful. Sand or stones may pass with the urine, and in severe cases the person may become faint and nearly collapse. First place the powder in a pan and roast it over paper until the paper chars. Grind it finely, then take it mixed with warm water.

For inability to urinate, take the powder with a decoction of wheat. For any sudden onset of urinary disorder, it may also be taken with cold water alone. First mix the medicine with a liquid taken on an empty stomach until it disperses like water, then swallow it and follow with the appropriate liquid. Those who have taken other medicines without benefit are said to recover quickly with this prescription.

The Expositions on the Materia Medica says that xiaoshi is the portion of mirabilite that settles at the bottom and becomes stone-like during a second boiling and refining. Its essence has already separated out, leaving only the residue, so its medicinal action is mild; it can only help kindle a fire and produce smoke. The Tang Commentary on the Materia Medica holds that it dissolves various stony substances, which is why it is called “xiaoshi.” Boiling it for three cycles in willow-branch decoction can stabilize it.

After the broth in the pot has reduced, add more broth made by boiling willow branches.

Mangxiao (mirabilite), a salty mineral medicine, is pungent and bitter in flavor and very cold in nature. It mainly treats accumulations in the five viscera, prolonged fever, and obstruction of Stomach Qi. It dispels pathogenic influences, disperses stagnant blood and phlegm accumulations in the abdomen, opens the channels, promotes urination and bowel movements, and regulates menstruation. It can also treat the five kinds of painful urinary dysfunction and has the effect of removing the old and bringing forth the new. It is transformed from Puxiao; Shiwei may be used as its envoy herb. It should not be taken together with Maijujiang.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says: For details, see the entry on Puxiao.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says: Mangxiao is salty in flavor and slightly toxic. It can open blocked menstruation in women and treat abdominal masses, scrofula, and jaundice. It can also induce miscarriage. For lacquer rash, apply Mangxiao solution. To disperse stagnant blood caused by the accumulation of pathogenic heat during seasonal epidemics, Mangxiao may be used.

Tao Hongjing says: On examining the Shennong Classic of Materia Medica, I find no entry under the name “Mangxiao”; it contains only “Xiaoshi,” which it also calls “Mangxiao.” Later physicians’ works began recording Mangxiao separately, but the effects they describe are the same as those of Xiaoshi. This makes me suspect that Mangxiao is Xiaoshi. The Mangxiao formerly produced in Ningzhou had large grains, was yellowish white, and tasted extremely pungent and bitter. Recently, the roads to Ningzhou have been cut off, and the medicine can no longer be transported. Physicians today mostly use Mangxiao made by boiling and refining; it is pure white, has small grains, and tastes less strong. Since Mangxiao is said to grow from Puxiao, the artificially boiled and refined kind may also be used.

Chen Cangqi says: Shipi, Mangxiao, and Xiaoshi are all produced in the saline-alkaline lands of the western Rong regions and form through the coagulation of salt water. Their indications are similar, so they are listed together.

The Tang Ben Commentary says: Ancient prescriptions from the Jin and Song periods often used Xiaoshi and rarely used Mangxiao; physicians in recent times use only Mangxiao and seldom mention Xiaoshi. Could it be that the ancients did not know Mangxiao? The Classic says that Mangxiao grows from Puxiao, while Puxiao is also called Xiaoshi, and Puxiao stone is also called Mangxiao. Since the matter is already clear, they should not be listed separately as though they were distinct.

The Sagely Beneficial Prescriptions treats paronychia, with redness, swelling, and pain beside the nail, by boiling Mangxiao in water and soaking the affected area.

The Thousand Gold Prescriptions treats lacquer rash by dissolving Mangxiao in hot water. Once the solution has concentrated, wash the affected area with it. Alum may also be used.

The Secret Record of the Child and Mother says: If red, wandering rashes appear on a child’s body and spread to the chest, they may be fatal. Put Mangxiao into hot water, make a concentrated solution, and wipe the red patches with it.

The Hundred and One Prescriptions treats obstruction of Qi in the chest and abdomen, inability to urinate or defecate, and unbearable abdominal distension, conditions that may become life-threatening if they last two or three days. Take three liang of Mangxiao, wrap it in three or four layers of paper, and heat it over charcoal. Then put it into one sheng of hot water. Once the medicine has dissolved, drink it all. Before taking it, rinse the mouth with one sheng of hot water.

Sun the Perfected One’s Dietary Taboos says: For a film over the eye, take one large liang of Mangxiao…

Place the medicine in a copper vessel and calcine it over a fierce fire. Once it has cooled, sift it finely through raw silk. Each night before going to bed, take a little and apply it to the inner corner of the eye, twice each time. It works very well.

Lei Gong says: Whenever this medicine is used, first process it by levigation with water, then filter it through five layers of paper to remove impurities. Dry it by heating in a pot, then grind it to a powder in a mortar and keep it ready for use.

Mangxiao is made by refining Puxiao. Its shape resembles the awn of wheat, which is why it is called Mangxiao.

The Yan Yi says: The text of the Jing states that Mangxiao is produced from Puxiao. To make it, wash Puxiao with water and let the medicinal liquid settle. Boil it down until only half the original amount remains, then pour it into a wooden basin and leave it overnight. Angular, awn-shaped crystals of Mangxiao will form. Mangxiao has a relatively mild medicinal nature and has long been used to treat cold damage.

Puxiao

Bitter and acrid in taste; cold, extremely cold in nature; non-toxic. It treats many illnesses, clears pathogenic cold and heat, and disperses accumulations, hardness, and long-standing masses in the Six Fu organs. It also clears stagnant food and bound heat in the stomach, breaks up obstructed blood stasis, disperses retained phlegm-fluid and distention, and expels old accumulations so that new substances can form. It can dissolve seventy-two kinds of mineral medicine. Taken after refining, it can make the body feel light and strong; when refined, it becomes as white as silver. It can be cold or hot, slippery or astringent, and also has qualities that are acrid, bitter, salty, and sour. Even after being buried underground for a thousand years, it does not change color. The blue-white variety is of good quality; the yellow kind harms people, and the red kind is fatal. It is also called “Xiaoshi Pu.” It is found in places with salty water in the valleys of Yizhou and may be collected at any time of year. It is incompatible with Maigoujiang.

The Illustrated Classic says: Puxiao is found in places with salty water in the valleys of Yizhou; Xiaoshi is found in the valleys of Yizhou and in Wudu, Longxi, and Xiqiang; Mangxiao is made by refining Puxiao. Today these substances are produced in both northern and southern regions, with those from western Sichuan considered the best.

Older accounts say that these three medicines all come from the same source. After the medicinal plants are first gathered, they are washed with water and the liquid is collected. Boiling and refining this liquid produces Puxiao, also called “Xiaoshi Pu,” because Xiaoshi is refined from Puxiao. When Puxiao, or ground frost, is refined until it becomes hard and white as stone, it is Xiaoshi. If Puxiao is instead washed with warm water and boiled down until only half the original amount remains, then poured into a basin and left overnight, fine, awn-shaped crystals form; these are Mangxiao. Though the three share a source and differ in name, their methods of preparation differ, as do their indications and effects. However, the Bencao Jing records separate places of origin for them, suggesting that it regarded them as two distinct substances. Physicians today can no longer determine their differences with certainty when using them in prescriptions.

This passage first distinguishes three kinds of “xiao.” The unprocessed kind, which forms into lumps and has a slight greenish tinge, is called poxiao, or crude mirabilite, a naturally occurring mineral salt. When refined, it develops thorn-like crystals on the surface in the basin; this is called mangxiao, or basin mirabilite. The substance that settles and solidifies at the bottom of the basin is called xiaoshi, or nitre. Poxiao has the strongest medicinal effect, mangxiao is less potent, and xiaoshi the mildest. But it remains unclear which kind is the genuine article. Su Gong also noted that ancient prescriptions from the Jin and Song periods used xiaoshi often and mangxiao rarely.

Next comes a secret remedy from Cui Yuanliang’s Recipes from the Sea, for treating a deep abscess on the back. Li Beihai called it a miraculous prescription bestowed from heaven. Take three large liang of licorice, pound it fresh and sift it into a fine powder, then mix it with nine liang of barley flour in a large dish. Add a little su, a dairy product, and work it in. Use boiling water to make the mixture into a cake slightly larger than the sore. While it is hot, apply it to the swelling, covering it with oiled paper or old paper so the skin can breathe. Replace it when it cools. If pus has formed, it will drain on its own; if it has not, the swelling will simply subside.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says that licorice treats cold pain in the abdomen, convulsions and epilepsy, and abdominal distension. It nourishes the Five Viscera, moderates the toxicity of other medicines, and nourishes Kidney Qi. Internal injury may cause impotence; licorice also treats bloody urine in women and lower back pain. It may be added for people who are weak and have excess heat.

Tao Hongjing says that trade with the Hexi and Shangjun regions has ceased. Licorice now comes mostly from Shu and Han, carried by local peoples from around Mount Min. The best has red skin, a fine pattern on the cut surface, and a firm texture. The licorice from Baohan, a place name associated with the Qiang people, is the finest. Licorice dried by roasting has a loose texture; that shaped like a carp’s intestine is of poorer quality once split open with a knife. The kind from Qingzhou is somewhat inferior. There is also purple licorice, fine and firm, which can be used when other supplies are unavailable. Licorice is the chief of medicines, and few classical prescriptions do without it, just as few blends of incense do without agarwood. It is called the “Elder of the State,” meaning the ruler’s teacher. Though it is not the ruler, the ruler esteems it, and so it can harmonize all herbal and mineral medicines and counteract their poisons.

The Rihuazi says that licorice calms the hun and po souls, replenishes the “five fatigues and seven injuries” and all forms of deficiency, and treats palpitations, vexation, restlessness, and forgetfulness. It opens the nine orifices, facilitates the flow through the hundred vessels, benefits Jing and Qi, strengthens the sinews and bones, and harmonizes cold and heat. When used in medicines, it is generally prepared by roasting.

Lei Gong says that before using licorice, remove the top and the pointed tip at the root, since these parts can cause vomiting.

Immortal Sun says this prescription treats all kinds of cold damage. Take a piece of licorice root as long as a finger, roast it and cut it into thin slices. Add one sheng of a young boy’s urine and boil until seven ge remain. Take it on an empty stomach twice a day.

The Golden Casket and Jade Case says that if someone accidentally eats poisoned food but does not know what poison it contains, they should immediately boil and take a decoction of licorice and qini (a medicinal herb). As soon as the decoction is swallowed, it can save their life.

Another prescription is for children who have been poisoned by a gu parasite and are critically ill. Chop half a liang of licorice root, add one cup of water, and boil until one fifth remains. Strain out the herbs and take the liquid in two doses. The gu parasite should then be vomited out.

The Essentials of Cold Damage says that for a sore throat two or three days after contracting cold damage, take two liang of roasted licorice root, add three sheng of water, and boil until one and a half sheng remain. Take five he per dose, three times a day.

Another prescription is for cold damage accompanied by an intermittent, irregular pulse and palpitations. Take two liang of licorice root, add three sheng of water, and boil until one and a half sheng remain. Take seven he per dose, twice a day.

The Prescriptions of Yao Hezhong records a treatment for blood in a child’s urine. Take five fen of licorice root, add six he of water, and boil until two he remain. Strain out the herbs. A one-year-old child should take the whole amount over the course of a day.

The Guangli Prescriptions records a treatment for lung atrophy (weakness and damage of the lungs), chronic coughing, excessive nasal discharge and saliva, discomfort in the joints, and alternating chills and fever. Take twelve fen of roasted licorice root and pound it into powder. Each day, take three he of urine, add one qian-bishao of licorice powder, and stir well before drinking. First put the powder in a cup, then pour in the warm medicinal liquid, stir to disperse it, and drink.

Yuxi says that he carefully consulted the Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals, which records that plain mirabilite tastes bitter and salty and is slightly toxic. It can treat abdominal distension, blocked urination and defecation, and absent menstruation.

The Sagely Beneficent Prescriptions records a treatment for an unrelenting headache during a seasonal epidemic. Take two liang of plain mirabilite, pound it and sift it into a fine powder, mix it with raw oil, and apply it to the crown of the head.

Another prescription is for restlessness during a reaction to mineral medicines, as well as various wind-heat conditions. Take half a liang of refined plain mirabilite and grind it into a fine powder. Mix one qian-bishao with honey water for each dose, three or four times a day.

The Essential Secrets of the Outer Terrace records a highly effective treatment for throat obstruction (painful swelling and blockage of the throat). Hold one liang of plain mirabilite in the mouth and slowly swallow the liquid. Relief should come shortly.

The Concise Essentials for Aiding the People records a treatment for heat in the bladder with blocked urination. Grind an appropriate amount of plain mirabilite into a fine powder. Take two qian per dose, mixed with warm fennel wine.

The Extended Meaning explains that plain mirabilite is collected freshly, swept together, and boiled once. Since it has not yet been refined a second time, it is called “plain mirabilite.” Its taste is very astringent, so its medicinal action is strong.

When an illness is acute and the pulse is irregular, processed cowhide or horsehide may be used to treat it; these materials can also be used in refining gold and silver. Ge Hong once said that when raw fish is difficult to digest, this medicine can be taken to cleanse the system and clear away accumulated stagnation.

In the twelfth lunar month, fill a new earthenware jar with hot water, add two sheng of po xiao (a nitrate medicine), and stir until it dissolves. Hang the jar beneath the north eaves of a house. When the medicinal solution seeps through the jar and crystallizes on its outside, collect it. Mix half a qian of the powdered medicine with human breast milk, then apply it to the outer eyelids and to places on the head, face, arms, and legs that are swollen and painful from an invasion of wind, heat, and toxin. It takes effect quickly.

Xuanming powder is pungent and sweet in flavor, cold in nature, and nontoxic. It treats vexing heat and agitation in the heart, clears accumulated stagnation and masses in the five viscera, brightens the eyes, dispels deficient heat above the chest and diaphragm, and disperses swellings and toxins. It is a medicine made by refining po xiao.

The Scripture of the Immortals says that po xiao is refined to make Xuanming powder. Po xiao is the essence of Great Yin, a medicine produced by water, and belongs to Yin with Yang within it. Xuanming powder penetrates deep into the body to seek out and remove many kinds of illness, and is highly potent. The text lists its uses for heat toxins, wind pathogens, distention from Qi, the five strains and seven injuries, bone steaming and corpse transmission (a category of chronic contagious illness in the terminology of the ancients), headaches and vexing heat, constipation in the five viscera, obstruction of the small and large intestines, and heat painful urination in the Triple Burner. It also lists cough, vomiting, bitter taste in the mouth and dry throat, obstruction of the throat, accumulated heat in the viscera and bowels, palpitations and forgetfulness, disordered movement of Qi and blood, excess drinking or eating raw fish, cold pain in the lower back and knees, aching hands and feet, obstruction in the limbs, stiffness in the shoulders and back, blurred vision and dizziness, hemorrhoids, postpartum disorders in women, childhood malnutrition, and cold damage and epidemic diseases. The text further says that taking it over a long period can make the body light and strong, brighten the eyes, preserve one’s youthful appearance, extend life, detoxify, and replenish the body.

When Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang heard that a Daoist named Liu Xuanzhen on Mount Zhongnan was taking this medicine, he summoned him and asked, “I have heard that you are about three hundred years old. What medicine have you taken to live so long and retain such a vigorous appearance and complexion?” Liu Xuanzhen replied, “I follow the Scripture of the Immortals in refining po xiao, which I call Xuanming powder. I take only this medicine, and so I have few illnesses and a long life.” He added that the medicine is mild in nature and free of impurities, and can remove many illnesses. Even taken as it is, it can save a life in an emergency; refined and taken over a long period, it is all the more able to nourish Jing, strengthen Qi, support Yang, and restrain Yin.

Sweet in flavor, extremely cold in nature, and non-toxic. It can clear accumulated heat pathogens and hidden pathogenic influences from the five viscera.

Grind it into a fine powder and apply it to the eyes, or mix it into an eye medicine. It is effective for relieving redness, swelling and pain, corneal opacities, gritty pain, and tearing.

The Tu Jing says that the related material is included under the entry “Pu Xiao.”

The Jing Yan Fang says: If overeating causes food to stagnate and remain undigested, eventually producing distension and fullness—a blocked, oppressive sensation in the chest and abdomen—use one liang of Ma Ya Xiao (a mineral medicine) and crush it. Then take half a jin of aged Wu Zhu Yu, decoct it into a concentrated liquid, and pour it over the Ma Ya Xiao while hot. Take the mixture while it is still hot. If the bowels have still not moved after a long while, take another dose; relief will soon follow. Dou Qun used this prescription while in Changzhou and obtained results. Another prescription is called “Bai Long San for Clearing Opacities and Brightening the Eyes.” Take clean Ma Ya Xiao, wrap it tightly in thick paper, and keep it against the body in the chest for 120 days. Remove it and grind it into a fine powder, then add a little Long Nao (borneol) and grind them together. It treats corneal opacities of any duration when vision has gradually dimmed and distant objects are unclear, provided the pupil is not damaged or dilated. Each time, take a pinch of powder about the size of two grains of rice and apply it to the eye.

The Jian Yao Ji Zhong Fang says: To treat oral thrush in children, grind Ma Ya Xiao finely and sprinkle an amount about the size of a soybean onto the tongue, three to five times a day.

The Yao He Zhong Fang says: To treat a swollen underside of the tongue in children, apply Ma Ya Xiao beneath the tongue three times a day.

The Tai Qing Fu Lian Ling Sha Fa says: Ma Ya Xiao is the essence of Yin power brought to its utmost. It can subdue Yang vital energy and dispel the energy of fire and stone.

Bitter in flavor, extremely cold in nature, and non-toxic. It treats wind-heat, epilepsy, childhood convulsions, spasms, wind dizziness, headache, congestion in the lungs, deafness, mouth sores, throat impediment and obstruction, swelling and pain of the teeth and jaw, and red, burning eyes with excessive discharge and tearing. It grows among the rocks of the western mountains of Maozhou. Its shape and size vary, and it is bluish white in color. It may be gathered at any time. Avoid using it together with Mai Ju Jiang.

The Tu Jing says that the related material is included under the entry “Pu Xiao.”

This concludes Volume One of the Tu Jing Yan Yi Ben Cao. Volume Two begins.