《圖經衍義本草》Vol. 14

Greater burdock seed, also called “evil fruit,” tastes pungent and has a neutral nature. It is used to improve eyesight, strengthen the Qi in the middle of the body, and dispel wind. The roots and stems of greater burdock can treat alternating chills and fever, sweating, windstroke, facial swelling, wasting thirst (marked by symptoms such as excessive drinking and urination), and internal heat caused by cold damage; they also promote urination. It is said that taking them over a long period can make the body light and agile and help it withstand aging. Greater burdock grows on plains and in wetlands around Lushan.

Tao Hongjing said that greater burdock was no longer used in prescriptions or medicines. A Tang-dynasty commentary on the Materia Medica says that Lushan lies northeast of Dengzhou. Greater burdock leaves are as large as taro leaves, its fruit husks resemble chestnuts, and its seeds are slender, like those of motherwort. The root can be used for toothache, chronic malaria, weak legs, wind toxin, deep suppurating sores, cough, lung damage or congestion, abdominal masses such as hernias, and stopping bleeding. It can also be used for various wind disorders, abdominal lumps, and cold Qi. Swallowing one greater burdock seed is said to make the head of a suppurating sore come to a point. The Supplementary Records calls it “greater burdock” and also “mouse-sticky herb.”

Chen Cangqi’s Materia Medica says: Steam the greater burdock root and then dry it in the sun; otherwise, it can make people feel nauseated. Soaking it in wine can dispel wind. It can also treat severe sores. Greater burdock seed is also called mouse-sticky: its outer surface has hooked bristles that cling to mice. The seeds taste bitter and can be used for painful swelling caused by wind toxin and for various fistulous sores. The root can be cooked as food. The leaves, pounded into a paste, can be applied to injuries from blows with a stick and are said to keep the wounds from suppurating. Avoid exposure to wind after applying them.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals says: Greater burdock can be used on its own. It tastes sweet and is non-toxic; it can treat discomfort in the face and eyes and impaired movement of the limbs. It circulates through the Twelve Channels and clears harmful Qi from the Five Viscera. It can be eaten regularly as a vegetable and is said to make the body light and agile. Grind greater burdock seeds into powder, soak them in wine for three days, and drink two or three cups daily, adjusting the amount to suit the individual. This is said to dispel various wind disorders and toxins from mineral elixirs, improve eyesight, and benefit the lower back and legs. Swallow three seeds before meals, chewing them before swallowing, to disperse lumps and relieve heat and toxicity causing discomfort in the sinews and bones. Cut the root into pieces the size of beans, mix with flour, and cook as food to relieve distention and congestion. A wine brewed using juice from the stems and leaves boiled in water is also considered beneficial. In summer, bathe often with greater burdock juice; this is said to relieve crawling sensations on the skin. Avoid wind for a short time after bathing. The root and leaves can also be pounded with a little salt and applied externally to various swellings and toxic sores.

The Illustrated Classic says: “Evil fruit” is another name for greater burdock seed. It grows on plains and in wetlands around Lushan, though it is now found throughout the country. The leaves resemble taro leaves but are longer; the fruits resemble grapes and are brown.

The outer shell of the burdock fruit resembles a small chestnut and is covered with spines. When mice pass by, they get caught on it and have difficulty freeing themselves, so it is called “mouse-sticky seed.” It also resembles plants such as “sheep-carry,” which cling to animals. Some burdock roots grow very large and can be eaten as a vegetable; they are beneficial to people. The seeds are gathered after autumn for use as medicine, and the roots and leaves can also be used. Pound the roots and leaves, add a little salt crystals, and apply the mixture to swollen, infected areas. The roots may be gathered in winter, steamed, and then sun-dried for medicinal use.

Liu Yuxi’s Prescriptions for Passing on Trusted Remedies records that burdock roots of moderate thickness can be used to treat stroke. Gather the roots away from the wind, scrape off the soil with a bamboo or thorn-wood knife, then wipe them clean with raw cloth. Pound them and squeeze out one large sheng of juice. Add four large ge of good honey, warm the mixture, and divide it into two doses, taken at an interval of five or six li—roughly, the time it takes to travel that distance. If sweating occurs after the first dose, the condition will improve. This prescription came from Zheng, a central inspector in the Yuezhou and Ezhou region. Zheng had once suffered a sudden stroke after eating a great deal of hot meat at one meal. At the time, Lu, who was serving in place of the county lieutenant of Yingyang, gave him this prescription. Zheng took it, sweated, and recovered; the results were striking.

The Prescriptions Kept in a Case records another remedy: when pathogenic wind causes spasmodic pain in the head so severe that it is hard to endure, massage the area with an ointment made from burdock stems and leaves. Pound the stems and leaves and extract two sheng of thick juice. Add one sheng of ash-free wine—wine not treated with lime—and a spoonful of salt crystals. Simmer over low heat until thickened into an ointment. Apply it to the painful area and massage firmly until the spot grows warm. Once the pathogenic wind has dispersed, the pain will stop. This method is also used for seasonal headaches. In winter, when there are no stems or leaves, the roots may be used instead.

Lei Gong says: When using burdock seeds, first pick them over carefully so that no other seeds are mixed in. Then mix them with wine and steam them. When a thin white bloom reappears on their surface, wipe it off with cloth, dry the seeds over a fire, and grind them separately into powder for use.

The Treatise on Food Therapy says that burdock root is beneficial when prepared and eaten as dried meat. For painful swellings caused by heat toxins, pound the root and leaves and apply them. For injuries from blows with a staff or metal wounds caused by knives and swords, apply burdock leaves; it is said that this protects the wounds from exposure to wind. For conditions such as paralysis, or wind toxins, medicinal heat, and toxic flare-ups caused by mineral medicines, grind burdock seeds into powder, soak them in wine for three days, and drink two or three cups daily, adjusting the amount to one’s constitution. For troublesome heat and toxic pain in the limbs, tendons, or bones, take three to seven burdock seeds before meals, soften them by rubbing, and swallow them; the effect is said to be good after ten doses. Alternatively, cut the root into pieces the size of small beans, mix them with flour, and cook them as a meal; this is especially suitable. If the skin often feels as though insects are crawling over it, boil burdock root to make a juice and bathe in it. This bath can also be used in summer.

When pathogenic wind invades and the flow of Qi is obstructed, causing excessive phlegm, coughing, and discomfort in the throat, burdock seeds may be dry-fried and ground into powder. Prepare and drink them like tea, taking three spoonfuls each time. They are said to promote urination.

The Shenghui Formula records: If a lingering fever persists after an epidemic illness, accompanied by restlessness, thirst, weakness in the limbs, and loss of appetite, pound burdock root to extract its juice. Take a small cup at a time, whenever convenient. It is said to work quickly.

The Essential Secrets from Outside the Metropolis records: To treat throat obstruction, including sore, swollen, or blocked conditions of the throat, take six parts burdock seeds and eight parts iris seeds, and pound them into a fine powder. Each day, on an empty stomach, swallow one square-inch spoonful of the powder with warm water. Gradually increase the dose to one and a half spoonfuls, taken twice daily.

The Proven Formula records: When wind-heat obstructs the throat and the whole body becomes swollen, take one cup of burdock seeds, using half raw and half dry-fried. Pound them into powder and mix with hot wine; take one qian and seven fen. This is said to bring rapid improvement.

Sun the Immortal’s Dietary Prohibitions records: To treat an epidemic illness, pound five large he of fresh burdock root and extract the juice. Take it in two portions on an empty stomach. Then take a large handful of mulberry leaves, roast them until yellow, and boil them in one sheng of water until reduced to five he. Strain out the herbs and drink the liquid warm, then cover yourself with a quilt and sweat. If mulberry leaves are unavailable, mulberry branches may be used instead.

The Heart Mirror of the Food Physician records: To treat restlessness and disorientation caused by heat disturbing the heart, pound burdock root to extract one sheng of juice, and take it in three portions after meals.

The Doumen Formula records: If the head and face suddenly swell, or heat toxins or pathogenic wind attack inward, causing the hands, feet, head, and face to swell painfully to the touch, take burdock root, also known as “bat’s arrival.” Wash and pound it, then simmer it in wine until it forms a paste. Spread the paste on paper and apply it to the swollen area. At the same time, mix it with hot wine and drink it. This is said to reduce swelling and relieve pain.

Wang’s Beneficial Prescriptions records: When pustules are about to erupt, dry-fry burdock seeds and grind them into powder. Take one qian at a time, adding two spikes of schizonepeta. Simmer them together in one cup of water until reduced to seven tenths, then drink while warm. Continuing to take it after the pustules have suppurated is also beneficial.

Chu Yushi records: For wind rashes over the body caused by wind-heat affecting the skin, take equal amounts of burdock seeds and duckweed, mixed with a mint infusion. Take two qian at a time, twice daily.

The Yan Yi says: “E Shi” refers to burdock seeds. Burdock seeds still enclosed in their involucre are called “Shu Nian Zi,” and the root of the burdock plant is called “Niu Cai.” When pathogenic wind obstructs the body, with abundant phlegm and saliva and discomfort in the throat and chest, grind one liang each of lightly dry-fried burdock seeds and schizonepeta spikes together with half a liang of roasted licorice. After meals and before bed, take two qian mixed with hot water. This is said to bring gradual improvement. Burdock seeds grow inside an involucre covered with many tiny hooked spines, sometimes numbering in the dozens or hundreds; this is the origin of their name.

The character “mang” is probably incorrect. The root is two chi long and as thick as a thumb. Once cooked, it can be eaten as a vegetable.

Water Duckweed

Water duckweed, a plant that floats on the surface of the water, tastes pungent and sour, is cold in nature, and is non-toxic. It is used to treat sudden fever and itchy skin, and can also promote urination and dispel water retention.

Infused in wine, it is said to make the beard and hair grow long. It can be used for wasting-thirst and to regulate the movement of Qi. Bathing with it can promote hair growth. Taken over a long period, it is said to make the body light and agile. It is also called water-fat, water-white, and water-sue. It grows in ponds and marshes around Leize. It is gathered in the third month and dried in the sun.

Tao Hongjing says: The plant described here is the large duckweed that grows in water, not the seeds of the floating duckweed known today. The Record of Medicinals says it blooms with white flowers in the fifth month, so it cannot be the kind of duckweed that grows in ditches today. Nor is it the plant obtained by the King of Chu when he crossed the river.

The Tang Materia Medica commentary says: There are three kinds of water duckweed. The larger kind is called “ping” and grows in water. There is also water caltrop, which looks similar and has round leaves. On the water’s surface there is another, smaller kind of floating duckweed, which can treat burns.

Chen Cangqi’s Materia Medica records: There are three kinds of water duckweed. The larger kind is called “ping.” Its leaves are round and broad, about one cun across, with a small, water-foam-like spot beneath each leaf. It is also called “fu cai.” Dry it in the sun, grind it to a powder in equal parts with trichosanthes fruit, and form it into pills with human milk. This can treat wasting-thirst. Pound it and squeeze out the juice to treat snake venom that has entered the abdomen; it can also be applied externally to burns. The small floating duckweed is the kind found in ditches. Ground into powder and applied externally, it can treat freckles on the face; pounded for its juice and taken, it can treat edema and promote urination. If someone has been poisoned, take a small amount of dried, powdered duckweed seeds with wine, about one square-inch spoonful, an ancient measure roughly equivalent to a small spoonful. Made into a paste, it is also said to make hair grow long. The water duckweed mentioned in the Classic of Materia Medica should be the smaller kind.

Yuxi and others, citing the Erya, say: “Ping, ping”; the larger kind is called “ping.” The commentary says it is duckweed floating in water, called “piao” in the Jiangdong region. Lu Ji’s Explanations of the Mao Poetry says: The coarse, large kind is called “piao,” and the small kind is called “ping.” It begins to grow in late spring and can be mixed with food and steamed, or pickled in vinegar to accompany wine.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says: Water duckweed treats toxic heat, wind-heat disorders, heat-induced madness, swollen sores, scalds and burns, and wind rashes.

The Illustrated Classic says: Water duckweed grows in ponds and marshes around Leize, and is now found in streams and ponds throughout the country. The plant described here is the large duckweed that grows in water. Its leaves are round and broad, about one cun across, with a small, water-foam-like spot beneath each leaf. It is also called fu cai. The Erya calls it “ping,” with the larger kind called “ping.” The line “Where can one gather ping?” in the poem “Zhou Nan” refers to this plant. Lu Ji says that the coarse, large kind of duckweed floating in water is called “ping.” It begins to grow in late spring and can be mixed with food and steamed, or pickled in vinegar and kneaded to accompany wine. In the third month…

Gather it after cutting and dry it in the sun. Su Gong says there are three kinds of duckweed: the large kind is called “ping,” the medium kind is called “xingcai,” also known as “fukui” in the passage below, and the small kind is the duckweed that floats on the water’s surface and grows in ditches and canals. The large ping is now rarely used by physicians.

Folk physicians use duckweed to treat seasonal febrile illnesses. It can also induce sweating and is quite effective. The prescription is as follows: Take one liang of duckweed gathered on the fifteenth day of the fourth lunar month, and half a liang each of ephedra (with the joints and roots removed), cinnamon heartwood, and prepared aconite (with the navel and skin removed). Pound the four ingredients and sift them. For each dose, take two qian, add one medium bowl of water and half a fen of fresh ginger, and decoct until six-tenths of the liquid remains. Take it hot, including the dregs, at any time. Once sweating begins, the illness will be cured.

Another method treats severe disease and causes sores to break out over the whole body: Make a strong decoction of duckweed from fresh water and use it to soak and wash the body for half a day. It is said to be effective in many cases. This is a rather unusual prescription.

The Shenghui Formula says that when a young person develops tiny blisters on the face, duckweed may be pounded and applied, or a small amount of its juice may be drunk. Both methods are quite effective.

Another prescription says that when a toxic swelling first appears on the back and becomes red, hot, and ulcerated, pound duckweed, mix it with egg white, and apply it. This is quite effective.

The Qianjin Formula says that if water toxin causes the fingers or toes to become cold, sometimes with the cold reaching the knees or elbows, dry the duckweed in the sun and take one square-inch spoonful at a time. The condition will then be cured.

The Qianjin Yifang says that when urination is obstructed and water qi has accumulated in the bladder, duckweed may be dried in the sun and ground into powder. Take one square-inch spoonful once or twice a day.

Sun the Perfected One’s Dietary Prohibitions says to gather duckweed in the fifth month, dry it in the shade, and burn it; the smoke drives away mosquitoes. Duckweed juice can also be used to treat wasting thirst.

The Zimu Milu says that when sores arise from heat toxin, pound duckweed to extract its juice and apply it to the affected area, spreading the juice over the entire sore.

Gao Gongfeng’s Song on the Right Time to Gather Duckweed says: “Gather duckweed neither on the mountain nor by the bank; choose the fifteenth day of the seventh month. As for paralytic wind and □ wind, even mild wind disorders are no concern. Take three pills with bean-steeped wine, and sweat will bead even beneath an iron-wrapped headscarf.” The character “□” is damaged in the original and cannot be identified with certainty.

Wanggua

Wanggua is bitter in flavor, cold in nature, and non-toxic. It treats wasting thirst, internal obstruction, blood stasis, absent menstruation, alternating chills and fever, and aching pain. It can also replenish primordial qi and treat deafness. It is used for various pathogenic influences, heat bind, scrofula (swollen lymph nodes in the neck), abscesses, blood stasis, vaginal discharge in women, failure of breast milk to flow, and frequent or involuntary urination. It also dispels water qi lodged in the joints and bones of the limbs and treats sores caused by being pierced by horse bone. Wanggua is also called tugua. It grows on flat ground, in marshes and fields, and beside the walls of houses in the state of Lu. Gather the roots in the third month and dry them in the shade.

Tao Hongjing says: The plant now called tu gua grows between fences and courtyards, and also bears fruit. When ripe, its fruit is red like a pellet and about the same size. These days, its root is generally not dried in advance; it is dug up only when needed. It is not suitable for inclusion in large compound prescriptions and is usually used on its own, in very small doses. The “Gua Grows” mentioned in the Monthly Ordinances section of the Book of Rites refers to this plant. Zheng Xuan thought it was smilax, but that is quite wrong.

The Tang Ben Cao commentary says: This plant grows as a vine, with leaves like those of the snake gourd: round, without lobes or notches. Its fruit resembles a gardenia, green when unripe and red when ripe, but without ridges. Its root resembles kudzu root, thin and full of fibrous fragments. In the north, the fruits grow in clusters, each about the size of a jujube, with yellow skin and white flesh. The shoots and fruits resemble those of the southern variety, but the roots are shaped differently. For treating jaundice and breaking up blood stasis, the southern variety is more effective.

Chen Cangqi’s Materia Medica says: Wanggua can be used to treat gu poisoning, as well as childhood shanpi, abdominal fullness, and malaria. Pound the root and leaves, squeeze out the juice, and take it to induce vomiting or diarrhea. It should be taken in small amounts because it is mildly toxic.

The Erya says, “Gou □ gu.” Guo Pu explains that “gou” is also called “□ gu,” and is also known as wanggua. Its fruit resembles the bo melon, is bright red, and tastes bitter. The character at □ is missing from the original text.

The Yaoxing Lun says: The melon root is neutral in nature and is also called wanggua. Wanggua seeds can treat gu poisoning and may also be used for frequent urination, bedwetting, or incontinence.

The Rihua Materia Medica says: Wanggua seeds moisten the heart and lungs and can be used for lung wasting, coughing up blood, intestinal bleeding, and red-and-white dysentery. Use them after roasting. It also says: Tu gua root promotes the flow of the blood vessels and can be used for seasonal epidemic fevers, alcoholic jaundice, high fever, restlessness in the heart, expectoration of phlegm, phlegm malaria, draining pus, consumptive heat, injuries from falls and blows, dispersing blood stasis, breaking up abdominal masses, and inducing miscarriage.

The Illustrated Classic says: Wanggua grows in the lowlands, fields, and countryside of Lu, as well as beside people’s walls; today it is found throughout the regions. The “Wanggua Grows in the Fourth Month” of the Monthly Ordinances refers to this plant. Its leaves resemble those of the snake gourd: round, without lobes or notches, and bearing tiny hairlike prickles. It flowers yellow in the fifth month, with fruits the size of pellets growing beneath the flowers. The fruits are green when unripe and red when ripe. The root resembles kudzu root, thin and full of fibrous fragments, and is called tu gua root. In the north, the fruits grow in connected clusters, each about the size of a jujube, with yellow skin and white flesh. The shoots and leaves are alike, but the roots are shaped differently. Dig up the roots in the third month and dry them in the shade. Around Junzhou and Fangzhou, people call it “old crow melon,” also known as “rabbit melon.”

According to the Erya, “yin” (pronounced like “shan”) is rabbit melon. Guo Pu’s commentary says it resembles tu gua; the text also gives another name for this kind of tu gua, but one character is missing from the original.

Ru (pronounced like kui), also called gou ru (gou is pronounced like gu). It is not the same plant as tu gua.

There is another plant called wu fei (wu is pronounced like wu), also known as tu gua. It is a different plant. The “gathering feng and fei” mentioned in the Book of Songs does not refer to this tu gua. Medicinal materials often include different species that share the same name, so they must be distinguished carefully.

The Ge family records: To treat facial heat rash and small lumps resembling scrofula, tu gua root can make the skin smooth and firm. Pound and sift the root, then mix it with rice-washing water. In the evening, first wash the face with rice-washing water, then apply the medicine. Wash it off in the morning. Continue for one hundred days, and the face will become radiant. If a child’s hair turns yellow at age four, pound the root, extract three he (a measure) of juice, and give it to the child to drink. No more than three doses are needed.

The Sheng Hui Fang records: To treat black jaundice, a severe and dangerous form of worsening jaundice that can often be fatal, treatment should begin as soon as possible. Take one jin of tu gua root, pound it, and extract six he of juice; drink it all at once. If yellow fluid is passed with the urine, the medicine has worked. If not, take another dose.

The Wai Tai Mi Yao records: To treat “gu,” an ancient term for gu poison or related disorders, take a piece of tu gua root about as thick as a thumb and three cun long. Slice it and soak it overnight in half a sheng of wine. Take it once; vomiting or diarrhea should follow.

The Zhou Hou Fang records: To treat jaundice that has turned into black jaundice, a condition even doctors find difficult to cure, drink one small sheng of tu gua root juice at once. Take it in the morning; after eating, you should sweat and urinate, and the illness will resolve. If these reactions do not occur, take another dose.

Another prescription: To treat urinary retention and “guan ge,” a condition involving blocked urination and obstructed Qi, pound fresh tu gua root and extract the juice. Add a little water to thin it, then blow it into the anus through a tube to restore the flow of urine.

The Chan Shu records: Tu gua promotes the flow of breast milk. Grind it into powder and swallow one qian with wine, three times a day.

The Ben Cao Yan Yi says: Wang gua resembles gua lou, and its fruit shell is about one cun across. One variety is about two cun long, slightly rounded at the top and long and pointed at the base. It ripens in the seventh or eighth lunar month and turns red. The seeds inside the shell resemble a mantis’s head; people today also call it “red baozi.” Its root is tu gua root. Its fine roots also produce pale yellow roots, three to five connected together, about as thick as a thumb. Both the root and the seeds can be used medicinally: red seeds differ in use from the white seeds of tu gua. The white tu gua seeds can treat tou feng, a kind of head pain.

Di Yu

Di yu tastes bitter, sweet, and sour; it is slightly cold in nature and non-toxic. It is used to treat breast distension and pain in women, “seven injuries,” an ancient collective term for various deficiency disorders, and vaginal discharge. It relieves pain, removes dead tissue, stops sweating, treats metal-inflicted wounds, and stops pus and blood. It is also used for various fistulas, severe sores, and heat sores. It can dispel ailments caused by drinking alcohol, treat xiao ke, a disorder marked by excessive thirst and urination, and help heal injuries. It is also used for abdominal obstruction after childbirth. It can be made into an ointment for metal-inflicted wounds. It grows in the valleys around Tongbai Mountain and Yuanju. On the eighth day of the second month…

Each year, dig up the roots of burnet and dry them in the sun. Burnet works well when used with hair, but not when used with ophiopogon. (The wording here in the original appears to be corrupt or incomplete.)

Tao Hongjing said: Burnet grows everywhere near roads. Its leaves resemble elm leaves, but are longer. When the plant first sprouts, its leaves spread across the ground. The flowers and seeds are purplish black, like fermented soybeans, which is why it is also called “Jade Fermented Beans.” Its stem grows straight upward. The root can also be used to brew wine. Daoist methods include burning burnet to ash and using it to corrode stone. When tea is unavailable, burnet leaves may also be gathered and boiled to make a drink.

According to annotations in other herbal texts, people today use burnet to treat dysentery with alternating chills and fever, as well as severe dysentery caused by infantile malnutrition; it is said to work very well.

Yuxi and others, citing the Treatise on the Nature of Medicines, said: Burnet is bitter in taste and neutral in nature. It treats stagnant blood remaining after childbirth, pain associated with eruptions, and the “Seven Injuries.” It can stop bleeding from metal wounds, treat bloody dysentery, and dissolve pus.

Xiao Bing said: Modern prescriptions often combine burnet with the bark of the Chinese ailanthus tree to treat red and white dysentery.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says: Burnet can drain pus and stop vomiting blood, nosebleeds, persistent menstruation, and uterine hemorrhage. It may be used for various bleeding disorders before and after childbirth, red and white dysentery, watery diarrhea, intestinal bleeding, and related conditions. Burnet can be found on plains, along rivers, and around lakes and marshes. Its stem grows upright on its own, and its flowers are purple. It is usually gathered in the seventh or eighth lunar month.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says: Burnet grows in the valleys around Mount Tongbai and Yuanju, and is now found in many regions. It is a perennial plant that sends up new shoots in the third lunar month. At first, its leaves spread across the ground; its upright stem can grow three or four chi tall. The leaves grow opposite one another and resemble elm leaves, but are somewhat narrower and more elongated, with serrated edges and a blue-green color. It flowers in the seventh lunar month. The flower clusters resemble mulberries and are purplish black. The root is black on the outside and red within, like a willow root. Dig up the roots in the second or eighth lunar month and dry them in the sun; the leaves are not used. When people in the mountains lack tea, boiling burnet leaves to make a drink is also very good. Ancient prescriptions for dysentery often used burnet.

Ge Hong recorded that Xu Ping once treated a patient who had suffered from bloody diarrhea for twenty years. He took three liang each of burnet and Chinese sage, added two sheng of water, and boiled the mixture down to half its volume. The patient drank it in one dose. If the diarrhea continued, the patient was to soak household dust in water and drink a small cup of the liquid. The illness would be cured after no more than one further dose. For infantile dysentery caused by malnutrition, burnet may be decocted alone until its juice thickens to the consistency of malt syrup, then given to the child; the illness will be cured.

For a venomous snakebite, crush fresh burnet root and take its juice by mouth, while also washing the wound with the liquid. This is effective.

Cui Yuanliang’s Sea-Side Prescriptions records a treatment for severe red and white dysentery that has left the patient emaciated: Take one jin of burnet, add three sheng of water, and boil down to one and a half sheng. Strain out the herbs, then continue boiling the liquid until it thickens to the consistency of malt syrup. Strain it through cloth, and take two he of the liquid on an empty stomach twice a day.

The Tang Materia Medica says: Burnet treats twelve kinds of vaginal discharge. Kong Yingda’s Phonetic Glossary lists several of them: the first is profuse red discharge, the second profuse white discharge, the third blocked menstruation, and the fourth is yin…

…(fragment from the preceding passage) Fifth, it can relieve “hardness of the womb” (a rigid uterus); sixth, it can open the “gate of the womb” (the birth canal); seventh, it may help Yin and Yang unite.

Eighth, it treats cold pain in the lower abdomen; ninth, it treats obstruction of the “gate of the womb”; tenth, it treats coldness of the uterus; eleventh, it treats intercourse with ghosts in dreams; twelfth, it restores the function of the five viscera when it has become impaired.

Decoction made from burnet leaves can be drunk in place of tea to clear heat effectively.

The Shenghui Fang: To treat persistent red or white vaginal discharge in women, accompanied by a sallow, thin, and weakened condition, take three liang of burnet and chop it finely. Boil it in one sheng of rice vinegar until it has boiled more than ten times, then strain out the herbs. Warm the liquid slightly and take one he before meals. This formula also treats vomiting blood.

The Qianjin Yi: To treat swollen, painful fingers, use burnet alone to make a decoction and soak the fingers in it. They should recover within half a day.

The Zhouhou Fang: To treat wounds from tiger or dog bites, grind burnet root into powder and take one square-inch spoonful at a time, once or twice daily. Applying the powder to the wound is even more effective.

Ge’s text says: After a venomous snakebite, pound burnet root, squeeze out the juice and drink it, while also soaking and washing the wound with the juice.

The Meishi Fang: To treat bites from rabid dogs, boil burnet and take it, while also grinding burnet into powder and applying it to the wound. Take one square-inch spoonful at a time, three times a day, and avoid alcohol. If the wound has already healed, pound fresh Chinese chives, squeeze out the juice, and drink one to two sheng.

The Qimin Yaoshu: Wine brewed with burnet juice treats wind impediment (numbness and pain in the limbs caused by wind), and is said to nourish the brain.

The San Dong Yao Lu: Take one sheng each of chopped burnet, rice, and white jade fragments, then add two sheng of White Dew water. Put them in a copper vessel and boil until the rice is cooked; strain out the liquid. The text says that once the jade fragments have dissolved into water, the medicinal liquid should be added to a cup of fine wine. This is called “Jade Nectar,” also known as “Divine King’s Brew.”

The Yanyi says: Burnet is heavy in its action and cold in nature, and acts on the lower Jiao (the lower part of the body). It may be used for bloody dysentery with heat. Those with a cold, deficient constitution, or who suffer from watery diarrhea or white dysentery, should not use it casually.

Roots of Large and Small Thistles

The roots of large and small thistles taste sweet and are warm in nature. They are said to nourish Jing and Qi and protect the blood. Large thistle treats red or white vaginal discharge in women, can calm the fetus, stop vomiting blood and nosebleeds, and strengthen the body.

Tao Hongjing says: Large thistle is also called tiger thistle, and small thistle is also called cat thistle. The leaves of both bear many prickles and look alike; they are commonly found in fields and open country. Because people regard them as ordinary plants, they are seldom used in prescriptions. Large thistle root is particularly effective for blood disorders, but it is also toxic.

The Tang Ben Zhu says: The leaves of large and small thistles look alike, but their medicinal effects differ. Neither is toxic, and neither is the plant known as tiger thistle or cat thistle. Large thistle grows in mountain valleys, and its root treats abscesses and swellings. Small thistle grows on level ground. Both can disperse stagnant blood, but small thistle cannot disperse lumps.

According to Chen Cangqi’s Bencao, small thistle can disperse stagnant blood that has remained for a long time and stop fresh bleeding. It is used for sudden heavy bleeding, blood in the stool due to dysentery, bleeding from metal wounds, and vomiting blood. Pound and squeeze the small thistle to obtain its juice, then drink it warm; it may also be boiled and taken with sugar. Applying it to a metal wound can help stop the bleeding. Small thistle is also said to be effective when taken for poisoning from spiders, snakes, or scorpions.

The Yaoxing Lun holds that great thistle can also be used on its own. It tastes bitter and is neutral in nature, and can treat uterine bleeding outside the menstrual period and bleeding from the lower body. Pound and squeeze the fresh root to obtain its juice, and take about half a sheng; this often stops the bleeding quickly.

The Rihua Zi says that small thistle root is cool in nature and non-toxic. It can treat heat toxins and wind disorders, as well as restlessness and oppression in the chest and diaphragm. It can also stimulate the appetite, promote eating, reduce fever, and replenish deficiency. The shoots of small thistle can clear vexing heat: pound them, extract the juice, and drink it. However, small thistle has a weak medicinal effect and can only reduce fever; unlike great thistle, it cannot nourish the body or direct Qi downward. The leaves of great thistle are cool in nature and can treat intestinal abscesses, abdominal blood stasis, blood-related faintness, and injuries from falls or blows. Pound the leaves and take them with wine and urine. For malignant sores, scabies, or ringworm, pound the leaves with salt and apply them externally. Great thistle is also called thorn thistle or mountain burdock.

The Tujing says that the place of origin of small thistle root was not recorded in the Bencao Jing. It is now found throughout the country and is commonly called green thorn thistle. Its shoots grow a little over a foot tall, and its leaves are covered with spines. Flowers grow in the center of the stem; their heads resemble safflower blossoms and are bluish purple. In the north, it is called thousand-needle grass. In the second lunar month, when the shoots have just grown to two or three inches, they can be gathered with their roots and eaten as a vegetable; they taste very good. Gather the shoots in the fourth month and the roots in the ninth, then dry them in the shade for medicinal use. The fresh root may also be pounded and its juice taken to treat vomiting blood, nosebleeds, and blood in the stool; it is said to be effective for all of these.

The roots and shoots of great thistle resemble those of small thistle, but are larger and sturdier, and their medicinal effects differ. Besides dispersing blood stasis, great thistle can also treat abscesses; small thistle is used mainly for blood disorders.

Chen Cangqi says that Jimen Gate was named after the thistle, and that thistle from the north is more effective medicinally. The Shiliao says that small thistle root can boost Qi. Pound fresh roots and leaves, extract a cup of their natural juice, and drink it for good results; they may also be cooked and eaten to dispel wind-heat. Small thistle root can treat uterine bleeding outside the menstrual period. When menstrual bleeding is excessive, pound the root and drink half a sheng of its juice. For bleeding from a metal wound that will not stop, crush the leaves and apply them. For persistent vexing heat in summer, pound the leaves, extract half a sheng of juice, and drink it; relief comes quickly.

The Shenghui Fang records a treatment for vomiting blood due to Heart heat and for dry mouth: pound the leaves and roots of thorn thistle, squeeze out the juice, and drink a small cup at one time.

Another prescription: If an attack occurs after taking mineral medicines such as stalactite, with pathogenic heat surging and congestion, distress in the chest, and vomiting blood, take fresh spiny thistle, crush it, and squeeze out the juice. Take three ge each time, add a little honey, stir well, and drink.

The Waitai Miyao records a treatment for nasal congestion: Take a handful of lesser thistle and boil it in two sheng of water until reduced to one sheng. Strain out the herbs and drink the liquid in several doses. There was once a person whose genitals became cold, with the chill gradually spreading into the scrotum and causing swelling. The patient feared he would die; at night, the pain and distress kept him from sleeping. After the root of greater thistle was boiled and its juice taken, his condition improved at once.

The Meishi Fang records a treatment for sudden vomiting of blood or passing fresh blood: Crush lesser thistle leaves, squeeze out the juice, warm it, and drink.

The Jianyao Jizhong Fang records a treatment for bleeding from the body’s nine orifices—the two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, mouth, urethra, and anus. Take a handful of spiny thistle, squeeze out the juice, mix it with half a cup of wine, and drink it all at once. If fresh plant juice is unavailable, pound the dried herb into powder and mix three qian and seven fen with cold water.

Another prescription: To treat a child’s spreading sores, a skin disease that can spread easily and causes unbearable pain accompanied by chills and fever, pound spiny thistle into powder, mix it with freshly drawn water, and apply it to the sores. When the medicine dries, replace it with a fresh application.

The Yanyi says: Greater and lesser thistle look alike, and their flowers resemble a hair bun. Greater thistle, however, grows three or four chi tall and has wrinkled leaves; lesser thistle grows about one chi tall and has smooth leaves. This is how to tell them apart. People in the mountains and countryside often gather lesser thistle as a vegetable; it is quite suitable for eating. Although it has fine prickles, they do not injure people.

Seaweed

Seaweed tastes bitter and salty, is cold in nature, and is non-toxic. It mainly treats goiters and nodules below the neck, dispersing Qi stagnation and obstructive swelling. It also treats abdominal masses, hard accumulations in the abdomen, rumbling sounds in the upper and lower abdomen, and twelve kinds of edema. It can also treat accumulations beneath the skin and baotui (a disease name recorded in the source), unblock stagnant Qi, disperse heat-bound accumulations, and promote urination. Seaweed is also called Luoshou and Tan. It grows in pools and marshes in the Eastern Sea. Gather it on the seventh day of the seventh month and dry it in the sun. It is incompatible with licorice and should not be used together with it.

Tao Hongjing says: Seaweed grows on islands in the sea. It is black and resembles disheveled hair, with somewhat large leaves; its overall form is very much like algae. There is also stone sail, shaped like a cypress tree, which can treat stone strangury, a type of urinary stone disease. Stone pine, shaped like a pine tree, can treat stream poison.

A further textual examination of the Bencao says: Among related seaweeds is a kind called mawei zao (horse-tail seaweed), which is large and has leaves. The Bencao Jing and its commentaries do not distinguish between the forms and uses of the different kinds of seaweed. Horse-tail seaweed grows in shallow water and resembles a short horse’s tail. It is finely textured and black; it should be soaked before use to remove its saltiness. Large-leaved seaweed grows in deep water and is also found in Silla. Its leaves resemble those of ordinary seaweed, but are larger. The large-leaved seaweed described in the Bencao Jing as able to treat Qi stagnation and goiters is this kind. The Erya says: “Lun” (pronounced guan) resembles lun, and “zu” resembles zu.

People distinguished these two kinds of algae for precisely this reason. When coastal people harvest large-leaf algae, they must dive to the deep seabed. They tie a rope around the waist, dive down to gather the algae, then haul the harvest up with the rope. After the fifth month, large fish often injure people at sea, so it is inadvisable to keep diving for it.

Li Yuxi and others, after consulting the Erya, say: “Hai luo” is seaweed, also called “hai luo.” It looks like tangled hair and grows in the sea.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says that seaweed is classified as an assistant ingredient in prescriptions. It tastes salty and is slightly toxic. It can ward off malign influences and ghosts, and treat urgent distension caused by disorders of Qi. It can also treat painful, downward-pulling hernias, lumps and swellings, and rumbling in the abdomen.

Meng Shen says that seaweed can strengthen men’s Yin energy. Eating it regularly can eliminate men’s tui disorders, a type of illness involving enlargement of the scrotum. People in the south often eat seaweed, and this custom later spread north. But when northerners eat it, they are more likely to develop various illnesses, so it is unsuitable for them.

Chen Cangqi says that horse-tooth algae is extremely cold in nature. Pounded and applied externally, it can treat red-and-white rashes that move from place to place on children’s bodies, as well as hot sores that feel as though they have been burned. Pounded and squeezed for its juice, it can clear sudden attacks of heat, treat dysentery caused by heat, and relieve thirst. Horse-tooth algae grows on the surface of the water and looks like linked horse teeth.

He also says that stone sail grows to over a foot tall. Its base is black like lacquer, while the upper part gradually softens; its interwoven texture forms a netlike pattern. It grows on the seabed. Drinking it as a decoction can treat congealed blood in women, stopped menstruation, and stone lin, a type of urinary stone disorder.

The leaves of water pine resemble pine needles and are soft and fluffy. Eating it can treat edema. It, too, grows on the seabed. The “stone sail” and “water pine” mentioned in the Wu Du Rhapsody are these two plants.

Rihua Zi says that stone sail is neutral in nature and nontoxic. It is purple, and its thick stalks are as wide as chopsticks. When exposed to wind, it gradually hardens and takes on the color of lacquer. People often shape it into forms resembling coral and use it as decoration.

The Illustrated Classic says that seaweed grows in pools and marshes of the Eastern Sea; today it can also be found in the seas around Dengzhou and Laizhou, where algae are visible everywhere in the water. The poem “Zhou Nan” says, “Where shall we gather algae? In the pond and by the banks.” It describes gathering algae in ponds and along the water’s edge. Lu Ji says that algae are aquatic plants growing on the bottom, and that there are two kinds. One has leaves like chicken mint and stems as thick as chopsticks, and grows four or five feet long. The other has stems like the shaft of a hairpin and leaves like mugwort. It is called “gathered algae”; people in Fufeng call it “algae gathered,” reversing the order of the name. Both kinds are edible. After boiling them, people rub them to remove the fishy smell, mix them with rice flour or wheat flour, and steam them into a delicious dish. In times of famine, people in the Jingzhou and Yangzhou regions also eat them as food.

The seaweed discussed here is another kind of algae that grows in the sea. Its roots attach to rocks on the seabed. It is black and looks like tangled hair, and is somewhat coarser than ordinary algae. Its leaves resemble those of freshwater algae but are larger, which is why it is called large-leaf algae. The Classic of Materia Medica records that seaweed can treat goiters and tumors.

Divers tie a rope around their waists. After diving underwater to gather seaweed, they secure the rope again before diving back down to collect more. Another kind, called horsetail seaweed, grows in shallow water. It is shaped like a short horse’s tail, with fine, dark strands, and is used to treat water retention disorders. Tao Hongjing says that the “lun” and “zu” mentioned in the Erya are both found in the Eastern Sea. Green moss and laver resemble “lun,” while kelp resembles “zu”; he suspects these are the plants in question. Chen Cangqi, however, considers “lun” and “zu” to be precisely these two kinds of algae.

A careful reading of the Bencao shows that seaweed has another name, “tan.” The Erya, however, says that “tan” is stone moss, and also that “tu nan” refers to seaweed, with “zao” and “zao” meaning the same thing. This shows that “tan” and “tu nan” were originally both names for seaweed, though the commentaries treat them as medicinal herbs. The “lun” and “zu” mentioned there are different kinds of plants. In this light, Tao Hongjing’s view seems closer to the facts, while Chen Cangqi’s identification cannot be regarded as certain.

The commentary also says that “stone moss” is water moss, also called stone hair; stone hair is zhili, which resembles moss in color but is coarse and tough in texture. It further says that the leaves of “tan” resemble those of xie, but are larger, and that it grows on the seabed. Zhili has its own dedicated account, and its form, taste, and medicinal effects are entirely different from those of seaweed. It also grows in ponds, lakes, and marshes south of the Yangtze, where it is a kind of aquatic green moss. In ancient times, people used it to make paper, which was blue-green in color; commentaries today call it stone hair. It is therefore clear that “tan” and “tu nan” are both names for seaweed, while stone hair is a different kind of plant.

Kelp is now also produced in Dengzhou, Laizhou, and other places, and has effects similar to those of seaweed. Tao Hongjing also says that various kinds of seaweed can treat goiters and accumulations of Qi, as can green moss, laver, and other plants. There is also stone sail, shaped like a cypress tree and used to treat stone urinary obstruction, in which sandy particles are passed during urination; water pine, shaped like a pine tree, is used to treat stream toxin. The Wu du fu mentions “among the plants, stone sail and water pine.” Liu Yuanlin’s commentary says that stone sail grows on rocks on sea islands. It is a plant without leaves, about one chi tall, with flowers joined together. After it dies and dries, it floats on the water, and people can pick it up along the shore; few have seen it growing. Water pine is a medicinal plant that grows in water and is found in Nanhai and Jiaozhi. Laver grows attached to rocks along the seashore. Fresh, it is green; when dried, it turns purple, and it is produced in the Southern Sea. In the Eastern Sea there is also a kind of kelp that resembles seaweed but is thicker and longer. People in Dengzhou gather it…

Once dried, moss is pliable and can be used to tie things together. Physicians use it to promote urination, and it works faster than seaweed used medicinally. Shifa (moss growing on rocks), kelp and similar seaweeds are also dried and ground into powder or cooked in soups for food today; they are especially delicious. Green moss can also be made into dried preserves for eating, and is beneficial to the body.

Other kinds include well moss, which grows in abandoned wells; jinglan, too, can clear heat toxins. There is also yuanyi, which the text says grows in shaded places on old walls. Su Gong considered yuanyi to be green moss growing on the north side of an old wall. Moss growing on stone is called xixie, while moss growing on roofs is called wuyou. In general, these plants have similar medicinal effects.

In his “Rhapsody on Moss,” Lu Guimeng writes: “On high places grows wasong; in low places, zekui. Scattered through rock caves, it is called shifa; growing densely over open ground, it is called yuanyi. Growing on roofs, it is called xixie; when used in medicine, it is called zhili.” Wasong grows on the tiles of old houses and looks like layers of pinecones. Zekui is fukui, a plant that grows in water. Although these are not the same plant, both grow attached to tiles or stones, so Lu Guimeng discussed them together. People today rarely use these herbs, so they are mentioned here only in passing. Wasong is the plant called zuoyehe in a later passage. The Guangzhi calls it lanxiang. Duan Chengshi says some people believe it often grows on wooden frames, arising when the scent of the wood spreads. This, however, is not necessarily so. Physicians today sometimes use wasong to treat menstrual disorders in women.

Zhili was an important medicine in ancient prescriptions for deficiency-cold and cold diarrhea. Fan Wang’s prescription for fluid retention in the abdomen includes Haizao Pills, as well as a medicinal wine for goiter: put one jin of seaweed in a silk bag and soak it in two sheng of clear wine. Soak it for two days in spring and summer, and three days in autumn and winter. Drink two he each time, three times a day. When the wine is finished, prepare another batch in the same way. Dry the medicinal residue and grind it into powder; take one square-inch spoonful three times a day. The illness usually clears up within two courses.

The Guangji Formula gives a recipe for kelp soup to ease bladder distension and promote the movement of Qi: take one jin of Korean kelp, soak it overnight in rice-rinsing water, then wash off the salt. Add one dou of water and boil until nearly tender, then cut it into strips three cun long and four or five fen wide. Take a handful of scallion whites, cut them into two-cun lengths and split them lengthwise; add them to the kelp and boil until it is very soft. Season with salt, vinegar, fermented soybeans, and rice flour, as for an ordinary soup. Do not make it too salty or sour. Ginger, tangerine peel, and ground Sichuan pepper can be added for flavor. It is suitable to eat with millet or japonica rice. Seaweed can also be cooked in this way and is very effective for promoting the movement of Qi, with no particular dietary restrictions.

The Haiyao records: Seaweed treats retained food that does not digest, phlegm congested in the chest and diaphragm, and edema caused by water accumulating in the body. It is also used for beriberi and running-piglet Qi, a disorder in which Qi surges upward from the lower abdomen.

Lei Gong says: Before using seaweed, take raw black beans, purple shellflower, and seaweed, and steam them together for one fu (about twelve hours). Then dry them in the sun and store for later use.

The Zhouhou Fang records: To treat scrofula beneath the jaw—swollen lumps in the neck’s lymph nodes, as large as plums or apricots, which should be dispersed promptly—soak one jin of seaweed in two sheng of wine for several days, then drink it in small amounts over time.

Another prescription treats a sudden cyst-like swelling beneath the neck that is about to develop into a goiter: Take one jin of seaweed, wash off the salt, soak it in wine, and drink the wine.

Marsh Orchid

Marsh orchid is bitter and sweet in flavor, slightly warm in nature, and nontoxic. It treats bleeding after childbirth, lingering disorders after a stroke, abdominal distension and edema, swelling of the body, face, and limbs, fluid accumulation in the joints, wounds caused by swords and other weapons, suppurating abscesses, and blockage of Qi and blood caused by postpartum injuries. Marsh orchid is also called tiger orchid, dragon date, and tiger bulrush. It grows near large marshes in the Runan region. Harvest it on the third day of the third month and dry it in the shade. Fangji may be used as its assistant herb, paired with the main medicine to help it take effect.

Tao Hongjing says: Marsh orchid is now found throughout the country, usually growing in damp, low-lying places. Its leaves are somewhat fragrant and can be used to make oil. It can also be gathered by marshes, which is why it is called “marsh orchid.” It is also called Duliang fragrance. It can be boiled in water for bathing, and people commonly cultivate it. There is another plant that grows in the mountains and closely resembles it, with square stems, small leaves, and little fragrance. Since the name marsh orchid refers to marshland, this mountain plant is not marsh orchid, though herbalists gather and use it.

The Tang Ben Zhu says: Marsh orchid has square, jointed, purple stems and leaves like those of orchid grass, but without fragrance. This is the plant now used around the capital. The Duliang fragrance described by Tao Hongjing is actually orchid grass, commonly called fragrant orchid; it can be boiled in water for bathing. Orchid grass also grows by marshes and is commonly cultivated. It has white flowers, purple sepals, and round stems, so it is clearly not marsh orchid. Tao Hongjing also says that orchid grass is called Duliang fragrance, showing that he did not clearly distinguish these plants.

Yuxi and others add, following Wu’s account: Marsh orchid is also called water fragrance. Shennong, the Yellow Emperor, Qibo, and Tong Jun say it is sour in flavor and nontoxic; Li says it is warm in nature. Marsh orchid grows in damp places near water. Its leaves resemble those of orchid grass; it sprouts in the second month, is fragrant, and has reddish stem joints, with four leaves growing opposite one another at each joint.

The Yaoxing Lun says: When used as an assistant herb, marsh orchid is bitter and acrid in flavor. It treats postpartum abdominal pain, depletion of Qi and blood after repeated childbirth, and chronic emaciation caused by deficiency and cold. It also treats severe swelling of the whole body and face, persistent menstrual bleeding, and lower back pain in women.

Ri Huazi says: Ze Lan can open the nine orifices and free the channels, nourish Blood and Qi, and disperse stagnant Blood and abdominal masses (conditions involving lumps in the abdomen). It can also be used to treat various disorders before and after childbirth, clear the small intestine, and promote the growth of flesh and the healing of wounds. It disperses Blood stasis caused by falls and blows, and treats nosebleeds, vomiting blood, head-wind, and eye pain. It may also be used for women weakened and emaciated by overwork, and for men with a sallow complexion. Harvest it in the fourth or fifth lunar month and tie it into bundles.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says: Ze Lan grows beside the great marshes around Runan. Today it is also found in Jingzhou, Xuzhou, Suizhou, Shouzhou, Shu, Wuzhou, and Hezhong Prefecture. Its roots are purplish black and resemble millet roots. In the second lunar month, young shoots emerge and grow two or three chi tall. The stems and leaf stalks are blue-purple, and the stems have four sides. The leaves grow in opposite pairs and resemble mint leaves, with a faint fragrance. It flowers in the seventh lunar month; the flowers are whitish, while the calyx is purple throughout, and the flowers also resemble those of mint. Harvest the young shoots in the third lunar month and dry them in the shade. In the Jinghu and Lingnan regions, many households cultivate it. Ze Lan from Shouzhou does not flower or produce seeds.

Ze Lan is broadly similar to Lan Cao, but Lan Cao grows by the water, and its leaves are glossy and smaller; it grows most vigorously in the fifth and sixth lunar months. Ze Lan, by contrast, grows in marshes and damp lowlands. Its leaf tips have fine hairs and are not glossy; its stems are square, with purple nodes. It is harvested from the seventh lunar month to early in the eighth, and tastes slightly pungent. These are the differences between the two. Ze Lan is now commonly used in prescriptions for women’s disorders.

There is also a plant called Ma Lan. It grows beside marshes and looks much like Ze Lan, but smells unpleasant and tastes pungent. It is also used to disperse Blood stasis, treat wounds caused by metal blades and weapons, and stop bleeding. Chen Cangqi believed that the “evil herb” mentioned in the Songs of Chu is Ma Lan. People in the north call it “purple chrysanthemum” because its flowers resemble chrysanthemums. There is also a plant called Shan Lan, which grows on hillsides and resembles Liu Ji Nu. Its leaves are unbranched and do not grow in opposite pairs; the center of its flower is faintly yellow with a reddish tinge. It too can disperse Blood stasis, and may be used medicinally.

Lei Gong says: When using Ze Lan, one must distinguish the female from the male, as their forms differ. The leaves and whole plant of the larger Ze Lan are rounder, and its roots are blue-yellow. It can generate Blood and regulate Qi, bringing Qi and Blood into harmony; it differs greatly from the smaller Ze Lan. After gathering it, check whether the leaves have spots and whether the rootlets are fine and pointed. This medicinal can disperse Blood stasis and clear long-standing Blood accumulation. To prepare both the larger and smaller Ze Lan, cut them finely, place them in a silk bag, and hang the bag in a corner on the south side of a house to dry. Keep it for use.

The Secret Record of the Child and Mother says: To treat sores caused by prolonged lying in infants, chew the tender core of Ze Lan and apply it to the sores.

The Extended Meaning says: According to the supplementary commentary, Ze Lan’s leaves resemble those of Lan Cao. But the Lan Cao seen today has leaves like those of Mai Men Dong, somewhat broad and long, reaching one or two chi, with no branches or stems. Clearly, it is not…

Zelan (a medicinal herb) resembles orchid grass, but as soon as it emerges from the soil, Zelan branches out. Its leaves look like chrysanthemum leaves, only narrower and longer. The two plants’ scents are somewhat alike, which is why it is called “Zelan.” Some also say it grows beside the great marshes of Runan. This shows that the varieties are distinct; identifying it as orchid grass is a mistake.

Kelp, a medicinal seaweed, tastes salty and is cold in nature. It is non-toxic and treats twelve kinds of edema, goiters and other neck swellings, stagnant Qi, and fistulous sores. It grows in the Eastern Sea.

Tao Yinju said: Today, kelp comes only from Goryeo. It is twisted into cords, shaped like rolled-up hemp, yellowish black in color, soft and pliable, and edible. The Erya says, “Lun resembles lun, and zu resembles zu”; these things are found in the Eastern Sea. Today’s green moss and laver resemble lun, while kelp resembles zu; perhaps they are all of this kind. All sea vegetables can treat goiters and stagnant Qi; green moss and laver are similar. Dried moss is warm in nature, while soft moss is very cold.

○ A review of Chen Cangqi’s Bencao says: Kelp treats swelling of the genitals. Hold it in the mouth and swallow the juice. It grows in the South Sea; its leaves are as large as a hand, like thin reed leaves, and purple. Yuxi and others, citing the Yaoxing Lun, say: Kelp is a ministerial medicinal, is toxic, promotes urination, reduces facial swelling, and treats malignant sores and rat fistulas, a condition resembling ulcerated lymph nodes.

Chen Cangqi said: Laver tastes sweet and is cold in nature. It treats intense heat and vexation. Eating too much may cause abdominal pain, rebellious Qi, and frothing at the mouth. A little hot vinegar can relieve these symptoms. Xiao Bing said: Small snails may be found among sea vegetables and could harm people, so they should not be eaten in large quantities.

The Illustrated Canon says: For related material, see the entry on “seaweed.”

The Tang Materia Medica commentary says: There is also stone sail, shaped like a cypress tree, which can treat stone strangury, or urinary stones; and water pine, shaped like a pine tree, which can treat stream-water poisoning.

Chen Cangqi said: Kelp can treat enlarged testicles and toxic swellings; boil it and drink the liquid. It grows in the South Sea. Its leaves are as large as a hand and turn purplish red when dried, like thin reed leaves. Tao Yinju said it comes from Silla, is yellowish black, and has fine, soft leaves. The kelp Tao Yinju described is actually horse-tail seaweed. A revised commentary says: For goiter, grind kelp into powder and make it into honey pills. Hold one in the mouth until it dissolves, and the swelling will subside.

The Sea Medicines says: According to accounts from foreign lands, kelp grows in the waters of the Eastern Sea, with its leaves trailing along the current. Kelp from Silla is yellowish black with small leaves. Foreigners gather it, twist it into cords, dry it in the shade, and transport it to China by sea. It is warm in nature and is good for treating abdominal distension, edema, various kinds of swelling, goiters, and stagnant Qi.

Lei Gong said: To prepare kelp, first boil it in a perforated bamboo tube to remove the salt, then roast it dry and grind it finely.

During processing, cut the medicinal ingredients into small pieces. For every pound being prepared, take ten pieces of kelp about the size of a bamboo steamer tray. Chop the two ingredients separately and set them aside. Add water from a stream flowing eastward, and boil from the hour of the Snake until the hour of the Pig. Keep adding water as it boils; do not let the water level fall.

The Dietary Therapy says: Kelp makes Qi descend, and prolonged use causes a person to grow thin. Those who do not have this kind of condition should not eat it. People on the islands enjoy eating kelp because there are few good foods in their region, and this is the only one available. They eat it for a long time without becoming ill, so they passed on its supposed benefits to people in the north. But northerners who ate it all became ill, because the water and soil there did not suit them. The text also says that laver clears and brings down heat. If the throat is obstructed, its liquid may be boiled and drunk. However, laver is a sea creature, and its taste still carries toxicity. All kinds of sea vegetables are harmful to people.

The Sagely Beneficent Prescriptions says: To treat goiter, lumps, and hard swellings, take one liang of kelp, wash away the salt, and pound it into powder. Each time, take one qian, wrap it in cotton cloth, soak it in good vinegar, and hold it in the mouth, slowly swallowing the medicinal liquid. When the flavor is gone, replace it with another packet.

The Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library says: To treat a sudden cyst-like swelling beneath the jaw that gradually grows and may develop into goiter, grind equal amounts of kelp and seaweed into powder and make it into honey pills the size of an apricot kernel. Hold a pill in the mouth and slowly swallow the medicinal liquid.

The Supplement to the Essential Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Gold says: To treat the five kinds of goiter, take one liang of kelp, cut it into pieces the size of a finger, soak them in vinegar, and hold them in the mouth, swallowing the medicinal liquid.

Fangji

Fangji is pungent and bitter in flavor, neutral in nature with a slight warming tendency, and non-toxic. It mainly treats wind-cold, warm malaria, heat, and various kinds of epilepsy. It expels pathogenic influences and promotes urination and bowel movements; treats edema and wind-related swelling; clears heat from the bladder; treats alternating chills and fever and pathogenic influences caused by cold damage, as well as spasms of the hands and feet after windstroke. It also stops diarrhea, disperses abscesses and malignant lumps, treats scabies, ringworm, and sores caused by worms, and opens the skin and flesh and the nine orifices—the openings of the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth, among others. It is also called “Jieli.” The medicinal root is shaped like the spokes of a wheel; specimens with distinct markings are of good quality. It grows in the mountain valleys of Hanzhong. The roots are gathered in the second and eighth months and dried in the shade.

Yunie is an auxiliary medicine for fangji; fangji can neutralize the toxicity of realgar. Fangji is incompatible with asarum and is counteracted by Bixie.

Tao Hongjing says: Fangji is now produced in the Yidu and Jianping areas. Large specimens that are bluish-white and loose and soft in texture are good; those that are dark black and firm are poor. Fangji is also used in formulas for nourishing and cultivating the body, and is an important medicine for treating wind edema.

The Tang Materia Medica says: True fangji comes from Hanzhong. When cut, it resembles the spokes of a wheel; it is yellow, firm in texture, and fragrant. The bluish-white, loose, and soft variety is called “wood fangji” and cannot be used as medicine at all. The kind Tao Hongjing considered good was probably one he had mistaken because he had never seen the fangji produced in Hanzhong.

After consulting the Treatise on the Nature of Medicines, Yuxi and the others say: Fangji is a chief medicinal, bitter in flavor, and slightly toxic.

It can treat deviation of the mouth and eyes caused by Dampness and Wind, as well as pain in the hands and feet. It disperses Wind-Phlegm and is used for cough and wheezing caused by Lung Qi. Another account says that wood fangji, a type of fangji, can be used medicinally. Its properties are recorded as “assistant; incompatible with nüwan and lu xian.” It tastes bitter and acrid. It treats men whose limbs and joints have been invaded by Wind-Toxin, leaving them unable to speak. It also disperses stagnant Qi, reduces swelling, treats warm malaria and Wind edema, and can be used for disorders of the bladder.

Xiao Bing said that wood fangji grows in Huazhou.

The Illustrated Classic records that fangji grows in the mountain valleys of Hanzhong, and is now also found in the central region of Guizhou. When cut open, the Hanzhong variety has a cross-section patterned like the spokes of a wheel. It is yellow inside, firm, and fragrant. Its stems are tender, and its seedlings have small leaves resembling those of morning glory. If you blow into one end of a broken stem, the breath passes through to the other end, as with mutong. Fangji from other regions is bluish-white, loose and soft, and has a fishy smell. Its outer skin is wrinkled and dotted with raised bumps, which is why it is called wood fangji. It is gathered each year in the second and eighth months, dried in the shade, and then used.

Although wood fangji is not among the medicines commonly used today, it was used in ancient medical formulas. Zhang Zhongjing’s formulas for treating Cold Damage include modified Wood Fangji Decoction, Fangji and Rehmannia Decoction, Five-Ingredient Fangji and Astragalus Decoction, and Six-Ingredient Decoction.

The Records of the Deep Master states that Wood Fangji Decoction treats distension and fullness between the chest and diaphragm, wheezing, a blockage and hardness below the heart, a darkened complexion, and a deep, tight pulse. When the illness has persisted for several dozen days and has not improved after methods such as inducing vomiting or purging, Wood Fangji Decoction may be used. The formula consists of two liang of wood fangji, two pieces of gypsum, each about the size of an egg, pounded and wrapped in cotton, two liang of cinnamon bark, and four liang of ginseng. Add six sheng of water to the four ingredients and simmer until two sheng remain; divide into two doses. Those who are physically weak may recover after taking it. In those with a robust constitution, the illness may return after three days, in which case sweating should be induced again. If the illness has still not improved after three days, remove the gypsum and add three he of mirabilite. Simmer the medicine in six sheng of water until two sheng remain. Strain out the dregs, add the mirabilite, and divide into two doses. A slight laxative effect may be enough to cure the illness. Avoid eating raw scallions while taking the medicine.

Sun Simiao also used a three-ingredient Wood Fangji Decoction to treat bed-wetting and difficulty urinating.

Chen Cangqi said that the plant annotated by Tao Hongjing was wood fangji, though the part used medicinally was smaller. On closer examination, Han fangji and wood fangji were named according to the form of their roots and seedlings: Han fangji treats water disorders, while wood fangji treats Wind disorders. They open and regulate the flow of Qi and grow as vines climbing trees. If one end is broken off and blown into, the breath passes through to the other end, much like tongcao.

Lei Gong said: Do not choose the woody stems for medicinal use. They are yellowish and fishy-smelling, with wrinkled outer skin and raised bumps, and are unsuitable as medicine. When selecting fangji, choose pieces with yellow markings inside, cut them finely, and use them together with the root of plantain.

After steaming them together for half a day, take them out. Remove the roots of the plantain, cut it into small pieces, and then use it.

The Zhouhou Fang records that when someone is poisoned by realgar, an arsenic-containing mineral medicine, the juice of fangji can be used as an antidote. Roast the fruit of fangji until dry, grind it into powder, and decoct it as you would tea. In folk practice, it is commonly used to treat rectal prolapse.

The Nanfang Zhi by Chu Yushi, apparently a formula book, records that to treat pulmonary atrophy—a chronic lung disorder marked by coughing and spitting up saliva and foam—along with coughing blood and excessive phlegm, grind equal parts fangji and tingli, a medicinal plant whose seeds can drain the lungs, into powder. Mix it with glutinous rice soup and take one qian each time.

Tianma

Tianma tastes acrid, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats various kinds of painful obstruction caused by wind and dampness, stiffness and spasms in the limbs, childhood wind epilepsy, a convulsive disorder, and fright-induced illness. It promotes free movement in the lower back and knees and strengthens the sinews and bones. Long-term use can boost Qi, make the body feel light, and prolong life. It grows in the mountains around Yunzhou and Lizhou, as well as Mount Tai, Mount Lao, and other places. Dig up the roots in the fifth month and dry them in the sun.

Its leaves resemble peony leaves but are smaller. A single stem rises straight from the center, like an arrow shaft. The stem bears fruit at its tip, shaped like the fruit of suixuizi, also known as qianjinzi. When the leaves wither, the fruit turns yellow and ripens. Its roots grow in clusters of ten or twenty, like those of asparagus; they resemble cucumbers or radishes and vary in size. Local people often eat them raw or after steaming or boiling. Today, those from Yunzhou are most commonly used and are considered the finest. This passage has been newly added.

Liu Yuxi and others comment: Another note says that tianma also treats various noxious influences and evil Qi, swelling of the skin, cold-induced hernia and abdominal pain, and bloody stools. It now grows in many regions and was widely used in their time. Its stem resembles an arrow shaft and is red, so the stem is called Chijian.

The Yaoxing Lun says: Chijianzhi, also called tianma or “wind-settling herb,” tastes sweet and is neutral in nature. It can treat cold Qi, painful obstruction, and paralysis that prevents the limbs from moving freely. It also treats excessive, confused speech, easy startlement, and disordered consciousness.

Chen Cangqi says: Tianma is cold in nature and treats hot, toxic swellings. The stems and leaves can be pounded and applied externally; the seeds can also be made into a drink to clear heat. It grows on flat ground and in marshes and resembles vervain. Each node bears purple flowers, which contain seeds resembling those of qingxiangzi.

The Rihua Zi says: It tastes sweet and is warm in nature. It supports Yang Qi, replenishes the Five Taxations and Seven Injuries, a range of severe deficiency disorders, and treats ghost-disease, a contagious, wasting illness, and gu poison. It unblocks the blood vessels, joints, and orifices, and may be taken without restriction.

The Tujing says: Tianma grows in Yunzhou, Lizhou, Mount Tai, and Mount Lao. It is now also found in the prefectures of Jingdong, Jingxi, Hunan, and Huainan. In spring, shoots emerge. When they first appear, they resemble peony; a single stem rises straight upward to a height of two or three chi, like an arrow shaft, and is greenish red. Hence the name Chijianzhi. The stem is hollow, and from about halfway up, small, slightly pointed leaves grow close against it. At the top, it forms a spike, flowers, and bears fruit.

Its seeds are about the size of beans. They remain attached through the summer and pass through the hollow spaces into the stem. The roots grow underground and resemble cucumbers, often appearing in clusters of ten to twenty. A large root weighs half a catty, or five or six liang. The outer layer is yellowish white and is called “White Dragon Skin”; the flesh inside is called “Tianma.”

Tianma may be harvested in the second, third, fifth, or eighth lunar month. While still fresh, scrape off the outer skin, briefly boil the roots in water, then dry them in the sun for storage. People around Mount Song and Mount Heng sometimes take fresh Tianma and simmer it with honey to make a preserve, which they consider a delicacy.

Lei Gong says: When using Tianma, do not mistake it for “Yufeng Grass,” a plant that looks similar. The only difference is in their leaves and stems: Yufeng Grass has white roots and stems, and white leaves marked with green spots. Using its root in place of Tianma can cause stagnation in the intestines.

To prepare Tianma, take ten liang of Tianma and twenty liang of Tribulus seeds (“one yi” is an ancient unit of weight, here equivalent to about twenty liang). Roast the Tribulus seeds over low heat until scorched. Put the Tianma in a bottle and spread the roasted Tribulus seeds over it. Seal the bottle inside and out with three layers of paper and tie it securely. After leaving it from the hour of the Snake until the hour of the Goat (about nine in the morning to one in the afternoon), remove the Tribulus seeds and roast them again. Spread them over the Tianma as before, seal the bottle, and leave it for about a day and a night. Repeat this process seven times. Finally, remove the Tianma, wipe away the moisture on its surface with a cloth, split it with a knife, dry it over heat, then chop it and grind it separately into powder. Yufeng Grass is prepared in the same way.

The “Bie Shuo” says: A careful check of the entry on “Chijian” shows that the matter is described there in detail. Compared with the account here, the information becomes clearer. The Tianma described here is the young shoot of Chijian, though the two accounts differ. It is unclear, then, what plant is meant by the one said to bear purple flowers. It is appropriate to use the plant according to the account under the entry on Chijian.

The “Yanyi” says: Tianma roots must be used in combination with other medicines for their effects to become apparent, and they should be added in suitable amounts. Some people steep Tianma in honey to make a fruit preserve, or eat it after steaming or boiling. Those who use Tianma should consider these methods carefully. The shoots of Tianma are Chijian.

Asafetida, a medicinal aromatic resin:

Asafetida is pungent in flavor, neutral in nature, and non-toxic. It is used to kill various small worms, remove foul odors, disperse accumulations in the abdomen, and expel unhealthy Qi from the body. It can also dispel evil spirits and counteract poison from gu sorcery. It comes from the Western Regions and the Kunlun area.

Name and Place of Origin

The Tang Materia Medica (Tangben, commentary in the Xinxiu Bencao) states that asafoetida (awei) has stems and leaves and roots resembling those of angelica (baizhi). The root is pounded to extract its juice, which is dried and boiled into cakes; these are the superior grade. Pieces that are cut, strung together, and dried are considered second-grade. Its odor is extremely foul, yet it can neutralize other bad smells, which makes it a remarkable drug. The preface of the Tang Materia Medica also contains related records.

Yu Xi and others investigated the matter and cite Xiao Bing, who said that people at the time used boiled garlic bulbs as a counterfeit asafoetida. Genuine asafoetida has an extremely pungent smell but can remove odors, and it is a marvelous medicine. Today the material used consists of tiny insects, and its efficacy is very good.

Duan Chengshi's Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang records that asafoetida comes from the kingdom of Jiashe, which is North India (the area of present-day northern India). The people of Jiashe call it xingyu, and it is also produced in the Persian kingdom, where the Persians call it ayu. It grows on trees eight or nine chi tall, with greenish-yellow bark. It puts out leaves in the third month, shaped like a mouse's ear, and it neither flowers nor bears fruit. When a branch is cut, a sap flows out, as thick as malt syrup, and after a long time it hardens into lumps. This is asafoetida. The monk Wan from the Byzantine kingdom of Fulin described the process in the same way as the monk Tiposha from Magadha: the sap is collected, mixed with fine rice and bean fragments, and combined to make asafoetida.

Medicinal Properties and Uses

Ri Huazi states that asafoetida is warm in nature and can treat chuanshi (a contagious consumptive illness recognized by the ancients), dissolve zhengjia (abdominal masses) and pijī (accumulations), and relieve cold qi. It can also expel evil influences. Its nature is warm, so it can treat malaria, and it is used for cholera, pain in the chest and abdomen, and deficiency cold in the kidney qi. It also protects against miasma and detoxifies all kinds of poisonous fungi (mushrooms).

Two Accounts of Origin

The Illustrated Classic records that asafoetida comes from the various barbarian peoples of the Western Regions and the Kunlun area, but today only Guangzhou produces it. The old account holds that its stems, leaves, and roots closely resemble angelica, and that the superior grade is made by pounding the root, extracting the juice, and drying it into cakes, while the inferior grade is cut, strung, and dried. The asafoetida produced in Guangzhou today is said to form when the resinous sap of the tree drips and hardens. The two accounts differ. On examination, the asafoetida recorded by Duan Chengshi was tree sap, which is close to the material produced in Guangzhou today.

The Haiyao Bencao says that asafoetida grows in the Stone Kunlun kingdom and is the tree's liquid exudate, shaped like peach gum. Material that is blackish in color should not be used, and that which resembles a yellow powder is the superior grade. Its flavor is pungent and its nature warm. It is especially good at treating wind evils and guizhu (ghostly afflictions), as well as cold pain in the heart and abdomen, and it may be taken internally. In addition, asafoetida is also found in the Changhe River in Yunnan. Its smell is similar to the asafoetida brought by sea vessels, except that it lacks the yellow color.

Lei Gong said: Whenever we use asafoetida, we find many counterfeits on the market. There are three ways to test it. First, take half a zhu of asafoetida and leave it overnight in a vessel made of seasoned copper. By dawn, the place where the asafoetida touched the vessel should be white like silver, and should never turn red. Second, soak one zhu of asafoetida overnight in the fresh juice of wudou grass, a medicinal herb. By dawn, it should have turned the color of fresh blood. Third, place one zhu of asafoetida on a pomelo tree. If the tree withers at once, the asafoetida is genuine. Before using asafoetida, grind it into powder in a clean mortar, then briefly expose it to the steam rising from a vessel of hot wine. After this, it may be added to medicines as desired.

The Qianjin Yifang records: “Asafoetida treats corpse infestation—a contagious, relapsing chronic wasting illness—and foul vapors, with remarkable effect.”

The Bieshuo says: “On careful examination, asafoetida, as described in the Buzhu and the Tujing, should be classified among the wood category. Nowadays, people in the Liangzhe region also cultivate it at home. Its branches, leaves, and fragrance are the same, though somewhat less pronounced; it alone lacks the sap and resin.”

Galangal: Galangal is very warm in nature. It treats sudden exposure to cold, cold rising counterflow in the stomach, cholera—here referring to an acute illness involving vomiting and diarrhea—and abdominal pain.

Tao Yinjü said: “Galangal comes from Gaoliang Commandery. If someone has unremitting abdominal pain, simply chewing it can be effective. Its shape and aroma resemble those of du ruo, but its leaves are like those of mountain ginger.”

The Tang Ben Zhu says: “Those that grow in Lingnan are large in form and soft in texture; those that grow east of the Yangzi are small and firm, and are not very pungent in taste. They are in fact the same thing. Nowadays people call the smaller ones du ruo and the larger ones galangal, but this is mistaken.” It also cites Chen Cangqi’s Bencao: “Galangal is pungent in flavor and warm in nature. It can bring Qi downward and benefit the voice, and improve the complexion. Boiled into a drink and taken, it can stop dysentery and cholera.” A note in another edition adds: “Gather the roots in the second or third month and dry them in the sun. They taste pungent and bitter, are extremely hot in nature, and are nontoxic.”

Yuxi and others cite the Yaoxing Lun: “Galangal treats longstanding cold in the abdomen and counterflow of stomach Qi with vomiting. It dispels wind and breaks up Qi stagnation, treats abdominal pain caused by cold Qi, and relieves impeded movement and weakness of the limbs caused by wind and cold. It also treats pain and vomiting and diarrhea caused by cold Qi rising and striking the heart and abdomen.”

The Rihua Zi says: “It treats cramps, diarrhea and dysentery, and vomiting due to food reversal; it also counteracts alcohol toxicity and eliminates food stagnation.”

The Tujing says: “The old texts do not record where galangal grows. Tao Yinjü said it comes from Gaoliang Commandery. Today it is found in the various prefectures of Lingnan and in the regions of Qian and Shu. Although it also grows in the inland prefectures, it cannot be used medicinally. In spring, it puts forth stems and leaves like ginger shoots, but taller, reaching about one or two chi. Its flowers are reddish purple, like those of mountain ginger. Gather the roots in the second month.”

In the third lunar month, dig up the roots of lesser galangal and dry them in the sun. Older formulas also describe using it on its own: if you suddenly feel discomfort in the chest and spit clear fluid from the mouth, hold a piece of lesser galangal about the size of a die in your mouth and swallow the saliva. After a while, you should feel better. It can also be held in the mouth to dispel bad breath. Another method is to grind lesser galangal and tsaoko cardamom together, boil them in water, and drink the decoction regularly.

The Shenghui Fang records a treatment for cholera—a term used in ancient times for acute vomiting, diarrhea, and related illnesses—as well as vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Chop one liang of lesser galangal, boil it in three large cups of water until reduced to two and a half cups, then strain out the herbs. Add two ge of non-glutinous rice and cook it into porridge.

The Waitai Miyao records an emergency remedy for cholera with vomiting and diarrhea: roast lesser galangal over a fire until fragrant and charred, then pound five liang at a time. Boil it in one sheng of wine three or four times, and drink it all at once. The remedy can also be used for abdominal pain and discomfort from rebellious Qi.

Su Gong says that people suffering from beriberi—a term used in ancient times for painful obstruction and swelling in the lower limbs—may eat their fill in the morning and have a meal in the afternoon, but should eat nothing in the evening. If hungry, they may have fermented soybean porridge. If food fails to digest at night and an attack of cholera seems imminent, pound one liang of lesser galangal, boil it in three sheng of water until reduced to one sheng, and drink it all at once; this will resolve the condition. When intense hunger sets in, eat a bowl of thin porridge. It is best to drink plenty of the medicinal liquid. If lesser galangal is suddenly unavailable, substitute one liang of fresh ginger. Boil it in one sheng of clear wine until thoroughly softened, then eat it along with the herb. It is not as effective as lesser galangal, but still works well.

The Shiquan Fang records a treatment for pain in the heart and spleen: finely slice lesser galangal, lightly stir-fry it, then pound it into powder. Mix one qian and seven fen into rice water and drink it; the pain should stop quickly.

Stemona Root (the root of Stemona)

Stemona root is slightly warm in nature. The Shu Bencao says it is slightly cool. It is used to treat coughing and Qi surging upward.

Tao Hongjing says that Stemona grows in many places in the wild. Its roots often grow in clusters of dozens and resemble asparagus root, but they are bitter in taste, tough in texture, and slightly toxic. Roasted over a fire and then soaked in wine, it can be used to treat coughing. It can also be boiled into a decoction and used to wash cattle and dogs, removing their lice.

The Bowu Zhi says that in Jiuzhen Commandery there is a kind of herb resembling Stemona, but larger. Hang it over a fire to dry, then at night take a piece four or five cun long, cut it short, and hold it in the mouth. Swallow the juice without letting anyone know, and it works well for sudden coughing; for this reason it is called “cough medicine.” Some suspect that it is actually Stemona growing larger in fertile, moist soil.

Chen Cangqi’s Bencao also says that Stemona root, roasted over a fire and then soaked in wine, can be drunk on an empty stomach to expel parasites. It can also be used for silkworm bites, scabies, and other skin sores.

Liu Yuxi and others, in their examination of the Yaoxing Lun (Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals), say: Baibu (stemona root) is an assistant ingredient. It tastes sweet and is non-toxic. It can treat heat in the lungs, wheezing with rebellious Qi, and coughing; it can also moisten and strengthen the lungs.

The Rihua Zi says: Baibu tastes bitter and is non-toxic. It can treat childhood malnutrition, roundworm disease, and “corpse-transmission bone steaming”—a category of chronic illness marked by wasting and fever in ancient medical accounts. It can also kill roundworms, tapeworms, and pinworms. It is used to treat trees infested by boring insects; burning Baibu also kills flies and gnats. Baibu is also called “old woman’s herb,” and a single root bears more than thirty stems.

The Tujing says: Earlier records did not identify the prefectures from which Baibu roots came, but today they are found in the Jiang, Hu, Huai, Shan, Qi, and Lu regions. In spring, vine-like shoots emerge. The leaves are large and pointed, resembling bamboo leaves, with glossy green surfaces. The roots grow in clusters and look like taro; each cluster has fifteen or sixteen yellowish-white roots. They are dug up in the second, third, or eighth lunar month, then dried in the sun for use.

Medical prescriptions from ancient and recent times often use Baibu to treat coughs. Ge Hong’s prescription for a sudden cough calls for pounding Baibu root and fresh ginger separately to extract their juices, mixing them, boiling the mixture, and taking two he measures. Zhang Wenzhong’s prescription uses Baibu root alone: soak it in wine for two nights, then warm and drink one sheng measure, twice a day. A prescription in the Qianjin Fang for a cough lasting thirty years calls for pounding twenty jin of Baibu root and extracting the juice, then boiling it down to a syrup. Take one fangcunbi measure each time, three times a day; it is said to be effective.

The Tang Ben records that Baibu is slightly cold in nature and mildly toxic.

Lei Gong says: After gathering Baibu, split it with a bamboo knife, remove the root’s core and outer skin, and separate the flowers into dozens of strands. Hang them beneath the eaves in a well-ventilated place until the soil dries. Then soak them in wine overnight, strain them out, dry them over low heat, and cut them into pieces for use. If a clump of Baibu happens to have exactly eighty-three roots and stems, it is called “Earth Immortal Shoots.” After proper processing, taking it is said to enable one to live for a thousand years.

The Waitai Miyao records: If someone accidentally swallows a copper coin, soak four liang of Baibu root in one sheng of wine overnight, warm it, and drink one sheng twice a day.

The Xu Shiquan Fang records: For a sudden cough, pound the raw juice from Baibu vine roots, add an equal amount of honey, and boil it with water until it forms a paste. Swallow it slowly.

The Baopuzi says: Baibu root can treat coughs and kill lice.

Huixiangzi (fennel seed) tastes pungent, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It primarily treats various fistulas—sores that fail to heal—as well as cholera, and can also be used for snakebites.

The Tang Ben Zhu says: Fennel leaves are very fine, like mature coriander. Its stems are thick and can grow to five or six chi; the plant grows in clumps. The present commentary adds: fennel seed is also called “huixiangzi” and can be used for disorders in the area between the bladder and kidneys.

Fennel (also called huai xiang and fennel seed; “rui huai xiang seed,” as mentioned in Daoist writings, is another name for it) can dispel cold in the abdomen and ease pain and vomiting. The Tang-dynasty Newly Revised Materia Medica records:

The Treatise on the Properties of Medicines says fennel can also be used on its own. It tastes bitter and pungent, and when added to various foods it lends fragrance and removes unpleasant odors. If nausea comes on suddenly and the abdomen feels uncomfortable, fennel can be boiled and eaten; this often brings relief. People in the Sichuan region commonly eat it.

The Materia Medica of the Daylight Flower says fennel is best taken with wine. It can treat both dry and damp forms of foot qi, as well as kidney deficiency and exhaustion and hernia. It is also used to stimulate the appetite, aid digestion, and ease pain in the bladder and genital region. For medicinal use, it is usually toasted first.

The Illustrated Classic of the Materia Medica says fennel seed is simply fennel. The Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica does not record where it grows. In those days it was produced in Jiaozhou, Guangzhou, and other regions. The variety used medicinally was often brought by overseas merchant ships, though some held that the locally grown variety was more potent. Fennel puts out leaves in the third month. The leaves resemble mature coriander leaves and are fine and sparse, growing in clumps. By the fifth month it can reach three or four feet tall. It flowers in the seventh month, with yellow, umbrella-shaped flower heads, and bears green fruits resembling miniature grains of wheat. People in the north call it “local fennel.” The characters for “hui” and “huai” sound alike, which accounts for the different written forms. The fruits are gathered in the eighth or ninth month and dried in the shade. Today, many households also grow it in their gardens.

Ancient medical formula books record that for a painful, swollen toxic sore, or pain that spreads to the genital region and inner thigh, causing severe spasms and extending into the lower abdomen—sometimes becoming almost unbearable—the stems and leaves of fennel can be pounded and one sheng of juice extracted. This is divided into three or four doses to be taken over the course of a day; the remaining pulp is applied to the swelling. The root can also be used in winter. The text says this method of internal and external treatment has been used since the Yongjia era of the Eastern Jin dynasty, and describes its effects as remarkable.

The Materia Medica for Dietary Therapy says people of that time placed great value on fennel, believing it helped strengthen male sexual function, though they had not yet worked out how to use it. Another account says to pound the fennel stems and leaves to obtain one he of juice, add one he of hot wine, and drink it. This can treat a sudden surge of kidney qi, stabbing pain in the ribs and flanks, and difficulty breathing; it can also be used for small-intestine qi, a type of hernia.

Sun Simiao says that drinking the juice of pounded fennel seeds can treat episodes of miasmatic malaria in which fever spreads over the whole body and reaches the back and neck.

The Experiential Formulary records a pill to strengthen the spleen and stomach and improve appetite: take two liang of fennel and four liang of ginger and pound them together. Place the mixture in a clean container and cover it overnight with damp paper. The next day, using a silver or stone vessel, stir-fry it over low and high heat in turn until golden brown. Grind it into a powder, then mix it with wine and form pills the size of Chinese parasol tree seeds. Take ten to fifteen pills at a time with tea or wine.

The Heart Mirror of Food and Medicine says fennel can be used for cholera. It clears heat and reduces bad breath. It may be cooked into a broth or eaten raw.

An explanatory note says: Huixiangzi (today’s fennel fruit) is now simply called fennel. It can treat cold Qi in the bladder and painful swelling from hernia, and can also harmonize stomach Qi. The Tang Ben Zhu says it resembles old coriander, but this is mistaken. Coriander leaves resemble those of shechuang, whereas Huixiang has only the name “leaf” in common: its leaves are fine and spreading, like threads or hair, and very different from those of other plants. Large blue-green caterpillars, shaped like silkworms, often appear on its branches. These caterpillars are highly effective for small-intestine Qi, a type of abdominal pain associated with hernia.

Coltsfoot flower: pungent and sweet in flavor, warm in nature, and nontoxic. It treats coughing with rebellious Qi, wheezing, throat obstruction with swelling and pain, various convulsive disorders, pathogenic cold and heat, wasting thirst with excessive drinking, and labored breathing. It is also called Tuowu, Kedong, Huxu, Tuxi, and Shidong. It grows in the valleys of Changshan and beside the waters of Shangdang. The flowers are gathered in the eleventh month and dried in the shade. Apricot kernels serve as its assistant herb, and it works well when combined with Ziwan. It is incompatible with Zaojiao, Xiaoshi, and Xuanshen, and is counteracted by Beimu, Xinyi, Mahuang, Huangqi, Huangqin, Huanglian, and Qingxiang.

Tao Yinjü (Tao Hongjing) says: The kind from Hebei is now considered the finest. It resembles an old, unopened water-shield bud; the best flowers have not yet opened, and contain filaments inside. The next best comes from Goguryeo and Baekje, with flowers like large chrysanthemums. The kind from Dangchang in northern Shu ranks below these, and none is as good as the Hebei variety. It grows beneath the ice in winter. It is gathered in the twelfth month or on the first day of the first month.

The Tang Ben Zhu says: It now grows beside streams on the southern mountains of Yongzhou and in ravines in the mountains of Huazhou. Its leaves resemble those of the sunflower, but are larger; the plant grows in clumps, and its flowers emerge from the root.

Yuxi and others comment: The Erya says, “Tuxi, Kedong,” identifying them as medicinal plants. Guo Pu’s commentary says that coltsfoot flowers are purplish red and grow in water. The Yaoxing Lun says coltsfoot flower can serve as the chief herb in a prescription. It treats Lung Qi, rapid heartbeat, and persistent consumptive cough with fever and weakness, as well as thick, sticky nasal discharge and sputum. It also treats Lung atrophy, a chronic condition of weakened Lung Qi, and Lung abscess, a suppurative disease of the Lung that causes coughing up pus.

The Rizhua Zichu says: It moistens the Heart and Lung, nourishes the Five Viscera, relieves agitation, replenishes deficiency and debility, transforms phlegm and stops coughing, and treats Lung atrophy with coughing up blood and palpitations from Heart deficiency. It can also clear Liver fire, brighten the eyes, and treat disorders such as windstroke. It flowers in the snow during the eleventh and twelfth months.

The Tujing says: Coltsfoot flower comes from the valleys of Changshan and the waterside of Shangdang; it is now also found in Guanzhong. Its roots are purple, its stems blue-purple, and its leaves resemble those of Bixie. It blooms in the twelfth month, with yellow flowers and blue-purple calyces, one or two inches above the ground. When it first appears, it resembles a chrysanthemum; its calyx is upright and fleshy, and it bears no seeds. This agrees with Tao Yinjü’s commentary.

Kuan Dong flowers produced in Goryeo and Baekje are said to be close to this variety; there is also another kind with red flowers.

The leaves of kuan dong resemble lotus leaves, with upright stalks. The larger leaves can hold about a liter of liquid, while the smaller ones can hold a few handfuls. In folk usage, they are called “bee-hive leaves” or “water-bucket leaves.” The Tang-dynasty commentary’s description of leaves “as large as sunflower leaves, growing in clusters” refers to this plant.

The flowers are gathered in the eleventh month and dried in the shade. Some say they grow beneath the ice and should be picked on the first day of the first month. In his commentary on the Erya, Guo Pu mentions “ke dong,” describing it as a purplish-red flower that grows in water. But the characters for “ice” and “water” are similar, so one of them may have been written incorrectly here. In the preface to his Rhapsody on Kuan Dong, Fu Xian says that he once followed birds up North Mountain. It was the middle of winter: icicles filled the valleys, and deep snow covered the cliffs. Yet there he saw kuan dong blooming in bright colors. The claim that it grows beneath the ice is therefore correct.

The Bencao Jing says that kuan dong flowers treat coughing and Qi counterflow. Medical prescriptions from ancient times to the present have used them for coughs, regarding them as one of the most effective remedies.

Cui Zhi-ti records an inhalation method for treating a persistent cough. Each morning, take an amount of kuan dong flowers about the size of an egg, moisten them with a little honey, and place them in an iron pot with a capacity of one liter. Take an earthenware bowl and make a hole in it. Insert a small bamboo tube through the hole; a pen tube can also be used. The tube should be somewhat long. Cover the pot with the bowl, sealing the joint around the tube with dough so that no smoke can escape. Place charcoal beneath the pot. After a short while, smoke from the kuan dong flowers will come through the tube. Put the tube’s end in your mouth, inhale the smoke, and swallow it. If your chest feels somewhat tight, raise your head and pinch the end of the tube shut with your fingers to keep the smoke from escaping. Continue inhaling until the smoke is gone. Repeat this for five days. On the sixth day, eat a hearty meal of lamb wontons; this is said to bring a cure.

Lei Gong says: After gathering kuan dong flowers, remove the outer covering inside each flower that encloses the stamens, as well as the solid, millet-like inner shell. Use the stems and leaves too. First soak them overnight in licorice water, then mix the kuan dong flowers with the leaves and leave them covered overnight. Before use, dry them in the sun and remove the leaves that were mixed in.

The Yanyi says: Of all the plants, only kuan dong can withstand ice and snow and welcome spring earliest, which is why people also call it “ice-piercer.” Although it grows beneath ice and snow, it sprouts when the season comes. In spring, people sometimes gather it to eat as a vegetable. For medicinal use, the best time to pick it is when the flowers are just beginning to emerge. Once they have opened and become fragrant, their medicinal power is entirely gone. People today also often use buds as thick as chopsticks; at that stage, the flowers probably have not yet opened. Some people cough very severely...

Some people treat coughs by lighting two or three coltsfoot flowers in a windless place. Coltsfoot is often used to relieve coughing. They draw the smoke through a hollow tube, hold a mouthful, then swallow it. After several days, it is said to take effect.

Safflower

Safflower has a pungent taste and a warm nature, and is nontoxic. It is used to treat postpartum blood fainting, locked jaws, colicky pain caused by stagnant blood remaining in the abdomen after childbirth, and a fetus that has died in the womb. It may be boiled in wine and taken. It can also be used to treat gu poison and bloody stools. Safflower can be made into rouge as well. The tender shoots may be crushed and applied to wandering swellings. Swallowing a few seeds is said to treat seasonal pox that has failed to break out. Safflower rouge dropped into the ear can treat children’s suppurating ears, a condition involving discharge from inside the ear.

Safflower grows in the Liang and Han regions and in the Western Regions. It is also called yellow-blue. The Bowu zhi says that Zhang Qian brought yellow-blue back from the Western Regions. It is now also cultivated around Cangzhou and Weizhou.

The Tujing says: Safflower is the red flower, now found throughout the country. People grow it in fields, sowing the seeds in plowed soil in winter. Shoots emerge in spring, and flowers bloom in summer. The flowers cluster in spiny buds, with the florets growing out from them. Growers pick them while they are still covered in dew. After picking, more flowers continue to grow until the plant has finished blooming. White seeds form inside the buds, about the size of small beans. The flowers can be dried and used to produce a bright red dye or to make rouge. Safflower is especially suitable for treating blood disorders after childbirth, and its seeds have similar effects. Its leaves closely resemble those of the indigo plant, hence the name “red-blue flower”; it is also called “yellow-blue.” The Bowu zhi says that Zhang Qian brought it back.

When Zhang Zhongjing treated wind disorders accompanied by stabbing pain from Qi and blood in the abdomen, he used one liang of safflower, divided into four portions. Each portion was boiled in one large sheng of water and cooked down to less than half its volume, then taken all at once. If the pain did not ease, the dose was repeated.

Another recipe uses one sheng of safflower seeds, crushed and mixed with one large sheng and eight he of unashed wine. The mixture is dried in the sun, then crushed finely again and sifted. Honey is added to make pills the size of wutong seeds. Take forty pills on an empty stomach with wine.

The Zhengyuan Guangli Fang treats women’s windstroke accompanied by heat in the blood and vexing thirst as follows: take five large he of safflower seeds, lightly dry-fry them, and crush them. The next morning, take half a large spoonful and boil it in one sheng of water until reduced to seven he. Strain out the dregs and sip the liquid slowly.

Cui Yuanliang’s Haishang Fang treats throat obstruction, in which the throat is swollen and breathing and swallowing are difficult: crush fresh safflower, squeeze out a small sheng of juice, and take it. Continue until the illness is cured. In winter, when fresh flowers are unavailable, soak dried flowers and simmer them into a strong decoction, then take it in the same way. The text says this method is highly effective.

Safflower: Taking safflower can improve the conditions it is associated with. It can also treat postpartum fainting and loss of breath in women.

The Tang Materia Medica says that safflower can treat an inability to open the mouth or speak, postpartum blood stasis, and other postpartum conditions. It is also suitable for dyeing fabric red.

The Essential Secrets from Outside the Capital records a method for treating various kinds of swelling: boil safflower until soft, pound it, and take the juice. It usually takes effect after two or three doses. Adjust the amount according to the severity of the swelling.

The Concise Guide to Helping the People records: To treat postpartum distress and loss of breath caused by blood fainting, take one liang of safflower, pound it into powder, and divide it into two doses. For each dose, simmer it in two medium cups of wine until reduced to one cup, then drink it together with the herbal liquid. If the patient’s jaws are clenched and the mouth cannot be opened, pry the mouth open and pour it in. The Secret Records for Mothers and Children gives the same account.

The Precious Prescriptions for Childbirth records: To treat postpartum windstroke and vexing thirst, take five ge of safflower seeds, lightly roast and grind them, then simmer them in one sheng of water until reduced to seven ge. Sip slowly.

The Recently Proven Prescriptions records: To treat blood fainting with unconsciousness, failure to recognize people, and distress, take three liang of fresh safflower, preferably. Add half a sheng of ash-free wine and half a sheng of a young boy’s urine. Boil down to one large cup, strain out the dregs, and drink it all at once when cool. Simmering it in freshly drawn water is also effective.

Tree peony: Pungent and bitter in flavor, cold or slightly cold in nature, and nontoxic. It mainly treats alternating chills and fever, windstroke, convulsions and spasms, fright epilepsy, and pathogenic influences. It disperses hard masses and stagnant blood in the abdomen and helps harmonize the five viscera. It also treats sores and abscesses, headaches caused by seasonal illnesses, external heat pathogens, debility and fatigue from the Five Taxations, as well as headaches, lower back pain, jaws clenched by wind pathogens, and epilepsy.

Tree peony is also known as “deer leek” and “mouse aunt.” It grows in the mountain valleys of Ba Commandery and around Hanzhong. Dig up the roots in the second or eighth lunar month and dry them in the shade. Tree peony is incompatible with dodder; the two medicines should not be used together.

Tao Hongjing says: Red-flowered tree peonies now also grow in the eastern regions, and the red ones are better. Remove the root’s core before use. He also observes that woodlouse is called “mouse aunt,” a name also used for tree peony. Perhaps the two are different plants, or perhaps there is an error in the written record.

The Tang Materia Medica says: Tree peony grows in Hanzhong and Jiannan. The local plants resemble Chinese silvergrass; they flower white in summer and bear round green fruit in autumn. The fruit turns red in winter and remains on the plant through the season. The root resembles that of Chinese peony, with a white interior and red outer skin. Locals in the Dan Mountains, Jiangzhou, and Jiannan call it tree peony, or “a hundred taels of gold.” The “Wu tree peony” referred to around the capital is the true tree peony. Another plant used among the common people today is different from it and has a distinctive rank, animal-like smell.

Yuxi and others cite the Discourse on the Nature of Medicines: Tree peony treats cold, relieves various kinds of pain, and also treats women’s obstructed menstruation, prolonged menstrual bleeding, and lower back pain.

Xiao Bing says: At present, the best tree-peony root bark comes from Hezhou. The white kind is nourishing, while the red kind promotes circulation. The kinds produced in Hezhou and Xuanzhou are also good.

Rihua Zi says: Tree-peony root bark dispels pathogenic influences and brightens the complexion. It opens the skin’s pores and the blood vessels, drains pus, regulates menstruation, and disperses blood stasis caused by falls and blows. It also reconnects sinews and bones, dispels wind impediment, and can bring down the fetus and expel the afterbirth. It may also be used for postpartum women experiencing alternating chills and fever or an imbalance of Qi and blood. The medicinal material meant here is the bark of the tree peony’s root. The finest comes from the Ba, Shu, Yu, and Hezhou regions; the kind grown in saline-alkali soil is of lesser quality. Garlic should be avoided while taking it.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: Tree peonies grow in the mountain valleys of Ba Commandery and around Hanzhong. Today they are also found in the mountains of Danzhou, Yanzhou, Qingzhou, Yuezhou, Chuzhou, and Hezhou. Their flowers come in yellow, purple, red, and white, and are presumably wild tree peonies. When the stems and branches dry out, they turn black and white. In the second month, new buds and leaves appear on the branches; in the third month, the flowers bloom. The leaves resemble those of cultivated tree peonies, but the flowers have only five or six petals. In the fifth month, they bear black fruits about the size of fox nuts. The roots are yellowish white, five to seven inches long and about as thick as a brush handle. Harvest the roots in the second or eighth month, split them with a bronze knife, remove the woody core, and dry them in the shade before use. This flower is also called “woody peony.”

In recent times, people have prized tree peonies highly. Gardeners, seeking to cultivate unusual flowers, often graft them and replace their soil in autumn or winter; by spring, they can produce blossoms of many different forms. The roots of these cultivated tree peonies have therefore lost their original medicinal properties. They cannot be used as medicine, and their medicinal effect is weak.

Tree peony can stop bleeding and disperse stagnant blood. The Zhengyuan Guangli Formula records a treatment for blood stasis that remains after an injury: take eight fen of tree-peony root bark and twenty-one horseflies, dry-fry them, then pound and sift them together. Take one square-inch spoonful at a time, mixed with warm wine. It is said that the blood stasis will disperse and pass out in the urine.

Lei Gong says: After harvesting and drying the tree-peony roots, split them with a bronze knife and remove the woody core. Cut the roots into pieces the size of soybeans, mix them with clear wine, and steam them from the hour of the Snake to the hour of the Goat. Remove and dry them in the sun before use.

The Outer Terrace Secret Essentials records a prescription for treating Gu poisoning: pound tree-peony root into powder and take one qian-spoonful three times a day.

The Emergency Prescriptions Kept in One’s Sleeve records: To treat sores on the lower body that have broken open into cavities, take tree-peony powder, one square-inch spoonful at a time, three times a day.

The Extended Meaning says: For medicinal use, it is the outer bark of the root that is taken. Tree peonies also come in deep red varieties, such as “Hidden Creek Scarlet,” produced at Qianxi in Xiluo. Deep green tree peonies can still be found today in the imperial gardens.

Among peonies, the best for medicinal use are the single-petaled red flowers that grow in the mountains. The cultivated jiapi peony is second best. Those propagated by transplanting and grafting are unsuitable as medicine: their many flowers and leaves drain the vital energy of the roots. How can we know this? Today, if too many flowers are left on a double-petaled peony in early spring, its branches and leaves will be weak the following year, and it often fails to bloom well. It is quite improper for people in the market to sell the stems and bark of these peonies to others.

Jing Sanleng

Jing sanleng is bitter in taste, neutral in nature, and nontoxic. It is used chiefly to treat longstanding abdominal accumulations, masses, and lumps. A popular tale says that long ago, someone suffering from an abdominal mass told others, just before dying, to cut open his abdomen and remove it. The mass they took out was hard and dry as stone, with veins of five colors. Someone thought it was a foreign object and secretly carved it into a knife handle. Later, when someone used that knife to cut a sanleng handle, the mass dissolved into water. Only then did people realize that sanleng could treat abdominal masses.

Jing sanleng is yellow, heavy, and shaped like a small crucian carp. There is also black sanleng, which resembles a smoked plum and is slightly larger. It has fibrous roots that join together and spread; its texture is lighter. The two herbs have the same medicinal effects and uses. Relevant accounts are appended here.

In their notes, Yuxi and others say: The Rihuazi states that jing sanleng is sweet and astringent. It can treat irregular circulation of women’s blood, pain in the heart and abdomen, and can bring down the fetus, disperse stagnant blood, restore what has been depleted by overwork, and regulate menstruation. It can also treat distension from Qi, blood stasis caused by falls and other injuries, abdominal pain after childbirth, blood fainting, and cases where old stagnant blood cannot be expelled.

The Illustrated Classic says: Jing sanleng was formerly recorded without a place of origin; today it is found in the regions of He, Shan, Jiang, Huai, Jing, and Xiang. In spring, it sends up shoots three or four feet high. Its leaves resemble those of jiaopu, and each has three ridges. It flowers in the fifth or sixth month; the flowers resemble sedge and are yellowish purple. After the first frost, the roots are dug up and their outer skin and fibrous roots removed. The roots are yellow and slightly bitter. Those shaped like small crucian carp and heavy in texture are considered best.

Jing sanleng mostly grows along shallow water and in ponds and marshes. Its root first forms a tuber about the size of an aconite tuber, sometimes flattened in shape. Another tuber grows beside it and also sends up shoots. Those that grow only fine roots and produce no shoots are called “chicken-claw sanleng.” Those that grow neither fine roots nor shoots are called “black sanleng”: they vary in size, are black in color, and are white beneath the outer skin.

In Hezhong Prefecture there is also a kind called stone sanleng. Its roots are yellowish white and shaped like a hairpin shaft. Its leaves are green, like young shoots of cattail, about one foot tall, and also have three ridges. It blooms with white flowers in the fourth month, resembling the flowers of red smartweed. The roots are gathered in the fifth month and can also disperse accumulated Qi and drive it downward…

In the Bencao, the category of herbs includes an entry for “grass sanleng,” which is said to grow in Shu. This is also known as chicken-claw sanleng. They are in fact the same kind of plant, so this is noted here as an additional account.

Another account says that sanleng grows in the Jing-Chu region. The character should be written “Jing” to indicate its place of origin; the Bencao Jing writes “Jing” with a different character, which is incorrect. Nowadays, no one uses genuine sanleng anymore. People use only the roots of red cattail grass from Huainan. Taizhou has especially abundant supplies, and it is widely used; even the imperial physicians do not consider this practice mistaken. This is probably because the error has been passed down for a long time: those who use only the root cannot recognize its shoots, and those who gather medicinal herbs do not know what it is used for. In time, the mistake became established, and people stopped making distinctions.

Today, sanleng grows in marshes throughout the Jingxiang and Jiang-Huai regions. Its leaves resemble sedge but are very long. Its stem has three sharp edges, as if it had been cut, is as thick as a person’s finger, and grows to a height of five or six chi. Flowers bloom at the top of the stem. The plant resembles sedge in every respect, but is larger. It grows beside water or in shallow water, and the rhizome lies beneath the shoot. Roots extend sideways from it, joined one to another, and produce several rhizomes; shoots then grow from these rhizomes. At harvest, the stem and lateral roots are cut away. The flattened, elongated rhizome shaped like a crucian carp is sanleng. Near the end of a lateral root, some rhizomes have not yet sprouted; those that are small and round like a dark plum are black sanleng. Those at the end of a lateral root, curved like a claw, are chicken-claw sanleng. All three have black outer skins, white interiors, and are very light. They are all the same plant, but their medicinal potency varies, and each has its own appropriate use. Their different shapes therefore gave rise to different names, just as with wutou, wuhui, yunmu, and yunhua; these names do not refer to different substances.

Today, some people mistakenly identify water chestnut and cyperus as sanleng. The Bencao says that Jing sanleng is shaped like a crucian carp, while black sanleng resembles a dark plum and is light in weight. But the roots of red cattail grass are hard and heavy, and even when cut and trimmed they do not resemble either of these forms. Its leaves are flat and its stems are round, with none of the appearance of sanleng. It is unclear why it, too, is called “sanleng.” The sanleng seen today all have two roots growing out to the sides, with no root growing straight downward; most are also shaped like a crucian carp.

Chen Cangqi says: “The Bencao Jing does not record the sanleng that has been handed down. There are three or four kinds of sanleng in all, but only the kind whose root resembles a dark plum, has rootlets, is joined together like a cord, and is lacquer-black should be used. People in Shu weave articles from it, and it has another name, ‘qin.’”

The Waitai Miyao records that sanleng grass can be used to treat abdominal masses, a class of disorders known as zhengjia, as well as abdominal distension and fullness. Chop one shi of sanleng grass, add five shi of water, and boil until one shi remains. Strain out the herbs, then continue simmering the liquid until three dou of medicinal decoction remain.

Pour the juice into a bronze vessel and place it inside a larger pot to simmer until it thickens to the consistency of syrup. Then put it into a sealed container. Each morning, take one spoonful with a cup of wine. Take it twice a day, drinking the wine continuously each time.

Another prescription is used to promote the flow of breast milk. Take three rhizomes of Sparganum stoloniferum (jing sanleng) and boil them in a bowl of water. When the liquid has reduced to one bowl, wash the breasts with it, then express the milk. It is said to work very well.

The Secret Record of Mother and Child (Zimu milu) states that, to treat abdominal Qi stagnation in children, one may boil juice from Sparganum stoloniferum into a gruel or porridge made with rice or flour, for the nursing mother to eat. Give the child a portion the size of a jujube each day; alternatively, cook the porridge directly for the child. Children with epilepsy or febrile illness may also eat it. This method is said to be suitable for children under ten, including infants less than one hundred days old. It is described as regulating a range of conditions, including epilepsy, febrile illness, “innocent disease” (wugu), and abdominal masses (xianpi). The prescription is called a secret and wondrous method, with striking results.

“Wugu,” “Qi stagnation,” and “xianpi” are names for illnesses in ancient pediatrics; their precise meanings do not correspond fully to modern medical diagnoses.

Turmeric

Turmeric is pungent and bitter in flavor, extremely cold in nature, and non-toxic. It is used to treat accumulations in the chest and abdomen, corpse-like possession (shizhu), and sudden disturbances of the mind and spirit. It can also direct Qi downward, break up Blood, dispel Wind-Heat, and disperse abscesses and swellings. The text says its medicinal action is stronger than that of Curcuma aromatica (yujin).

The Tang Ben Cao commentary says that turmeric’s roots and leaves resemble those of Curcuma aromatica. In spring, new shoots grow from the roots; in summer, it flowers but bears no seeds. Its roots come in three varieties: yellow, green, and white. It is processed in the same way as Curcuma aromatica, though the two differ in how they flower.

Su Jing and his colleagues first included this account in the Tang Materia Medica. Citing Chen Cangqi, Kou Zongshi and others say that true turmeric is ginger that has been cultivated for at least three years. It can flower near the base of the root, with flowers resembling those of Alpinia japonica (ranghe). Its root nodes are compact and hard, and its flavor is pungent. It grows only where ginger is cultivated, so it is difficult to obtain. Its nature is warm and hot, not cold; the Ben Jing mistakenly records it as cold. It can break up Blood and direct Qi downward. Turmeric also came from the Western Regions, where it resembles Curcuma aromatica and Curcuma zedoaria (shu). Chen Cangqi believed that the plant Su Jing described may have been Curcuma zedoaria, not turmeric, and that Su Jing failed to distinguish the two medicines.

Chen Cangqi also says that Curcuma zedoaria is bitter in flavor and warm in nature. It treats aversion to Wind, corpse-like possession, heart pain, and accumulations of Qi and Blood. Su Jing, however, identified turmeric as Curcuma zedoaria and Curcuma aromatica as “foreign Curcuma zedoaria.” As a result, all three medicines came to be called “Curcuma zedoaria,” and accounts of their properties and effects became mixed together.

This text further distinguishes them: Curcuma zedoaria is bitter and green in color; turmeric is pungent, warm in nature, non-toxic, and yellow in color, and it breaks up Blood and directs Qi downward; Curcuma aromatica is bitter, cold in nature, and red in color, and it treats febrile illness. The three are different medicines with different uses.

The Rihuazi says that turmeric is hot in nature and non-toxic. It can treat abdominal masses, Blood clots, and abscesses and swellings; promote menstruation; treat Blood stasis caused by falls and injuries; disperse toxic swellings; and relieve sudden Wind pain and cold pain.

Peng’e shu (rhizome of Curcuma) promotes the movement of Qi and aids digestion. The variety produced in Hainan is called peng’e shu, while that produced south of the Yangtze is called turmeric.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says: Turmeric was not formerly recorded as coming from any particular prefecture or district. Today it is plentiful south of the Yangtze, in the two Guang regions, and in Shu. Its leaves are blue-green, about one or two chi long and three or four cun wide, with slanting lines across the surface. They resemble smaller leaves of the red banana. The flowers are red and white, and gradually wither around mid-autumn. The plant begins to grow only in late spring: it flowers first, then grows leaves, and bears no fruit. Its roots twist and turn; they are yellow and shaped like ginger, but rounder and jointed.

Some also say that true turmeric grows from ginger plants cultivated for more than three years. Its flowers emerge near the roots and resemble those of mioga ginger. The root joints are hard and pungent. This plant also grows where ginger is cultivated. The roots are gathered in the eighth month, sliced, and dried in the sun. People in Shu use them to treat abdominal distension and postpartum stagnant blood attacking the heart, and consider them highly effective. Some local ethnic groups eat the roots raw, saying they drive away evil influences and harmful forces.

On close examination, yujin, turmeric, and shu are three medicines of similar appearance. Su Gong did not distinguish them carefully and described them as the same thing. In Resolving Confusions, Chen Cangqi clarified the differences: shu tastes bitter and is green in color; turmeric is pungent and warm, and yellow; yujin is bitter and cold, and red. They are not the same, and their effects are entirely different.

In his commentary on the Rhapsody on the Capital of Wu, Liu Yuanlin says there is more than one kind of ginger. One, called jianghui, is as large as a snail and has a strong, nearly fishy smell. People in the south pound it to make jicai, a crushed and pickled condiment, and also call it lesser galangal. It grows in sandy, stony ground and belongs to the ginger family. It is very pungent and fragrant. After peeling it, people soak it in black plum and salt brine. The same plant also grows in Shian. From this, it appears that lesser galangal belongs to the ginger family, though it is a distinct plant.

In recent years, many people around the capital have grown ginger, and fresh turmeric is often sold there. In fact, this is old ginger. City residents buy it and eat it raw, saying it is especially effective for illnesses caused by Qi. Physicians also frequently include it in prescriptions for treating Qi disorders.

The Supplement to the Thousand Gold Pieces Formulas says: When sores or scabies have just appeared, or have only just begun to itch or hurt, applying turmeric works very well.

The Collected Effective Remedies records: To treat heart pain, take one liang of turmeric and three liang of cinnamon bark from a cinnamon tree at least three years old. Grind them into powder and take one qian and seven fen with vinegar broth.

Bi bo is pungent, very warm in nature, and non-toxic. It warms the middle burner, directs Qi downward, strengthens the lower back and legs, removes fishy odors, aids digestion, relieves coldness in the stomach, and treats painful hernia of the scrotum and xuanpi, a condition involving abdominal masses. Its root is called bi bo mei and is used to treat the five strains and seven injuries, scrotal sweating, and swollen nodules. Bi bo grows in Persia as a clumping plant.

Its stems and leaves resemble cubeb pepper, an aromatic spice used in ancient times. Its fruits are small and firm, with a sharper flavor than cubeb pepper. (Added in a later edition.)

Liu Yuxi and others note: According to Ri Huazi, long pepper treats cholera, cold Qi, heart pain, and disorders of the blood and Qi.

Chen Cangqi says: Long pepper root is pungent in flavor, warm in nature, and non-toxic. It treats cold Qi, vomiting, distention and fullness in the chest and abdomen, indigestion, lumps caused by cold-type hernia, and internal cold in women that prevents conception. It can also treat deficiency-cold in the lower back and kidneys and regulate blood and Qi. Long pepper grows in Persia and resembles bupleurum. Long pepper root that is black and hard is the root of the long pepper plant.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: Long pepper comes from Persia and now also grows in Lingnan, often in bamboo groves. It sprouts in the first month and grows in clumps, reaching three or four chi in height. Its stems are as thick as chopsticks. The leaves are green, round, and broad, about two or three cun across, resembling mulberry leaves; they are smooth and thick. It flowers in the third month, with white flowers growing along the branches. It bears fruit in the seventh month. The fruits are about as thick as a little finger and two cun long, blue-black in color, and resemble mulberries. They are harvested in the ninth month, treated with ash, and dried in the sun. People in the south prize its pungent aroma and sometimes gather the leaves to eat raw. Boiling its fruits in yellow cow’s milk treats dysentery caused by Qi and is highly effective.

According to the Tang Taizong Veritable Records, during the Zhenguan era Emperor Taizong suffered from dysentery caused by Qi that persisted despite treatment. Medicines prescribed by other renowned physicians had no effect, so he issued an edict seeking remedies. A guard offered a method of boiling long pepper in milk. The emperor took it and improved. Liu Yuxi also recorded this account, adding that he later tried the remedy repeatedly and found it invariably effective for elderly people who were frail and cold in constitution.

The Maritime Materia Medica says: According to Xu Biao’s Notes on the Southern Regions, long pepper originally came from Hainan. The best kind is about a finger long and reddish brown. Another kind, short and black, has an unpleasant taste. Long pepper brought by sea merchants is pungent and warm in nature. It treats heart pain, watery diarrhea, and deficiency-cold dysentery in the elderly. It works well when used with asafoetida and can also enhance the flavor of food. Combined with chebula, ginseng, cassia bark, and dried ginger, it effectively treats deficiency-cold in the internal organs, intestinal rumbling, and diarrhea.

Chen Cangqi says: The Commentary on Cubeb Pepper quotes Su as saying that long pepper grows in clumps, has small fruits, and tastes sharper than cubeb pepper. It is said to warm the middle burner, regulate the downward movement of Qi, strengthen the lower back and legs, remove odors, aid digestion, and treat cold stomach, Yin-type hernia, and abdominal masses. Its root is called long pepper root and treats the Five Taxations and Seven Injuries, Yin sweating, and lumps. The account also says that long pepper comes from Persia and was brought by foreigners for use as a seasoning.

The Tang Materia Medica Commentary says: People now use long pepper as a seasoning.

Lei Gong says: Before using it, remove the stems, soak it overnight in aged vinegar, then dry it over a low fire.

Scrape away the millet-sized flakes from the surface of long pepper (bibo) with a knife, and clean it before use, to avoid injuring Lung Qi and causing the person’s Qi to surge upward.

The Shenghui Formula records: To treat cold phlegm and retained fluids, as well as nausea, take one liang of long pepper and grind it into a fine powder. Before meals, mix half a qian into thin rice gruel and drink it.

The Experiential Remedies records: Long pepper is highly effective for migraine. Grind it into a fine powder and have the patient hold it in the mouth. For pain on the left side of the head, inhale one zi (a small ancient measure of medicinal powder) through the left nostril; for pain on the right, inhale one zi through the right nostril. This can bring relief.

The Yanyi says: Long pepper can dispel cold in the stomach and intestines and may be used for vomiting and distention and pain in the chest and abdomen. Taking too much, however, can deplete the body’s vital Qi, weaken the intestines, and cause symptoms such as a heavy, drooping sensation in the abdomen and difficulty passing stool.

Illustrated and Annotated Materia Medica, juan 14