《圖經衍義本草》Vol. 27

Illustrated and Annotated Materia Medica, Volume 27

Compiled by Kou Zongshi, a Tongzhilang and official responsible for identifying medicinal materials in the Song dynasty; collated by Xu Hong, an assistant instructor at the Song Imperial Medical Academy and official responsible for identifying medicinal materials.

Medicinals of the Superior Grade: Animals

Dragon Bone

Dragon Bone is sweet in flavor, neutral in nature, slightly cold, and non-toxic. It treats illnesses attributed to ghostly influences, spirits, and ancient demons affecting the heart and abdomen. It is also used for coughing with rebellious Qi, diarrhea and dysentery, pus and blood, persistent uterine bleeding, abdominal masses and hard lumps, as well as childhood febrile illnesses and convulsions.

It treats vexation and fullness in the heart and abdomen, withering weakness of the limbs, sweating, waking in fright during sleep, irritability, and stagnant hidden Qi lodged below the heart, causing difficulty breathing. It is also used for intestinal abscesses, internal sores, ulceration of the genital region, stopping perspiration, reducing urination, and blood in the urine. It nourishes the spirit, calms the ethereal and corporeal souls, and harmonizes the five viscera.

White Dragon Bone treats nocturnal emissions during sleep and seminal emissions during urination. In their commentary, Yuxi and others note that a general materia medica account of medicines for seminal emissions describes White Dragon Bone as neutral and slightly cold.

Dragon Teeth treat convulsions, epilepsy, and frenzied running in children and adults, as well as bound Qi below the heart that causes difficulty breathing and various spasms. They eliminate spirits and are used for the five fright disorders and twelve convulsive disorders of children, severe fever, alternating sensations of cold and heat between the bones in adults, and Gu poison, a sorcery in which poisonous creatures are used to harm people. They combine well with ginseng and bezoar, and are incompatible with gypsum. After careful textual examination, Yuxi and others record that General Medicines for Fright and Evil Influences and Medicinal Pairings describe Dragon Teeth as neutral.

Dragon Horn treats convulsions, spasms, a body burning as if with fire, hardness in the abdomen, and persistent diarrhea caused by prolonged fever. Taken over a long period, it can make the body light and vigorous, open communication with the spirit, and prolong life.

Dragon Bone is found in the valleys of Jin and among the cliffs, watersides, and earthen hollows of Mount Tai, where dead dragons are said to lie. It may be collected at any time. Avoid using it together with dry lacquer, Sichuan pepper, or litharge stone.

The Illustrated Classic says: Dragon Bone, Dragon Teeth, and Dragon Horn are found in the valleys of Jin and among the cliffs, watersides, and earthen hollows of Mount Tai, where dead dragons are said to lie. Today they are produced in many prefectures and districts east of the Yellow River. Some say these substances are shed by dragons, and are in fact not the bones of dead dragons. Those with vertebrae and a brain, bearing white brocade-like markings on the surface, and sticky enough to cling to the tongue when licked, are of superior quality. Dragon Teeth are smaller and hard, retaining the shape of teeth; Dragon Horn is hard and solid. They may be collected at any time.

Li Zhao’s Supplement to the History of the State records: When the spring waters rise, fish leap over the Dragon Gate and shed many bones, which people gather for medicinal use; these bones come in five colors. The Classic of Materia Medica says Dragon Bone comes from Dragon Gate in Jin; Dragon Gate is also in Jin. Could the Dragon Bone spoken of today, then, be the bones of these fish? Others also say that Dragon Bone…

The markings on female dragon bone are fine and broad, while those on male dragon bone are coarse and narrow.

For medicinal use, the best kind has all five colors; yellowish white is second best, and black is inferior. Any that has fallen in an unclean place must not be used as medicine. Dragon bone and dragon teeth are commonly used by physicians, while dragon horns are rarely used.

The Illustrated and Expanded Materia Medica records that, during the Later Jin of the Five Dynasties, two dragons fought near the border between Zhenzhou and Xingtai, and one was killed. After seeing this, the local strongman Cao Kuan took a pair of horns from them. At the tip of the horns was an object, blue in color and patterned like tangled brocade, which no one could identify. Within a year, Cao Kuan was killed by bandits, and the local military commander was soon executed as well.

Another account says that people who go to sea report that dragons lay two eggs each time, one of which transforms into a “Ji Diao.” The Ji Diao often travels with deer. Sometimes it leaves a secretion by the water; if it encounters a piece of driftwood, the secretion sticks to a branch and takes the shape of a mallet made of cattail, with a slightly bluish, yellowish, or gray color. This substance is called “Purple Tip Flower.” It is commonly used in sitz baths to promote longevity.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Substances says that dragon bone is a chief ingredient and should not be taken with fish; it is slightly toxic. It dispels malign influences, calms the mind and spirit, and stops cold dysentery and stools containing pus and blood. It can treat uterine bleeding and vaginal discharge in women, and also stop nocturnal emissions. Dragon bone may also be added when someone dreams at night of intercourse with ghosts, urinates blood, or is physically weak and troubled by restless, confused dreams.

Tao Hongjing says that dragon bone is now mostly produced around Liangzhou and Yizhou, and is also found in the Ba region. Of the medicinal material, the best is the spinal bone and skull bone bearing brocade patterns against a white ground. Those that stick to the tongue when licked are also top grade. Dragon teeth are small and hard but retain the shape of teeth; dragon horns are hard and solid. There is also a kind called “dragon brain,” which is thick, soft, and able to stop dysentery. Some say these are all things shed by dragons, rather than remains of dragons that truly died. In recent years, dragon embryos have been found repeatedly in the Ba region. I have seen one myself: its form was intact. It is said to treat postpartum ailments, and is well suited to being ground into powder for ingestion.

The Commentary on the Tang Materia Medica says that dragon bone is now also produced in Bingzhou and Jin. Large pieces are not good; those with all five colors are best. The five colors—blue, yellow, red, white, and black—may correspond to the Five Viscera, as with the five Lingzhi, five kinds of quartz, and five kinds of mineral resin. Yet the Classic of the Materia Medica does not explain this, so the reason is unknown.

The Daily Materia Medica says that dragon bone strengthens the Spleen and firms the intestines and stomach. It treats diarrhea, dysentery, thirst, bleeding during pregnancy, intestinal bleeding, uterine bleeding, vaginal discharge, nosebleeds, vomiting blood, and excessive sweating. It also says that dragon teeth are cooling and astringent; they treat agitation, epilepsy, and manic delirium, and ward off ghosts and spirits.

The Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library records a treatment for cold damage after eight or nine days, or more than ten days…

People suffering from severe thirst and fever, with sores and ulceration in the Upper, Middle, and Lower Jiao—the three regions described in Chinese medicine—often have diarrhea. At times they lie with their mouths open and tongues extended, breathe rapidly, develop ulcers in the eyes and sores in the mouth and nose, groan and babble, and lose awareness. Dragon bone may be used to clear toxic heat and stop diarrhea. Take half a jin of dragon bone, crush it, and add one dou of water. Boil until four sheng remain, then strain out the solids and cool the liquid at the bottom of a well. Take five he, increasing the amount gradually, and drink as desired. This is especially suitable for the elderly and children.

The Qianjin Fang says: For a woman who passes blood in her urine without apparent cause, take one liang of dragon bone, mix it with wine, and swallow one fangcun chi—the ancient small spoon used for measuring medicine—on an empty stomach, three times a day.

The Zhouhou Fang says: For a fever that has persisted for a long time, accompanied by unrelenting diarrhea and a critical condition, take half a jin of dragon bone, crush it, and add one dou of water. Boil until five sheng remain. Once the liquid has cooled completely, drink it in small amounts over several doses; improvement will follow after sweating. Another formula says: Persistent diarrhea that keeps returning despite prolonged treatment is called “resting dysentery,” a recurring, lingering form of dysentery. Take four liang of dragon bone, grind it into pieces the size of small beans, and boil them in five sheng of water until two and a half sheng remain. Let it cool and divide it into five doses. Alternatively, mix the powdered medicine with rice water to make pills and take ten at a time.

The Jingyan Fang says: Take equal parts dragon bone and yuanzhi, a Chinese medicinal herb, and grind them into a fine powder. Use refined honey to make pills the size of Chinese parasol tree seeds. Before going to bed, swallow thirty pills with cold water. This is said to warm and nourish Jing and Qi, and to replenish primordial Yang, the Yang energy regarded in Chinese medicine as the root of life.

The Meishi Fang says: For seminal emission, including emission just after falling asleep, take four fen of white dragon bone and five he of Chinese chive seeds. Grind them into a powder, and swallow one fangcun chi mixed with wine on an empty stomach.

The Guangli Fang says: For nosebleeds, or coughing or vomiting blood that will not stop, grind five-colored dragon bone into a fine powder. Blow an amount about the size of a cowpea into the nostril. This is said to stop the bleeding immediately.

The Yao shi Fang says: For blood in the urine, take two fangcun chi of dragon bone powder mixed with warm water, twice a day. This is said to cure the condition.

The Yao Hezhong Fang says: For a child whose rectum protrudes because of diarrhea, dust white dragon bone powder over the affected area.

The Yang Wengong Tanyuan records: Dragon bones are often found in the mountains of Zezhou. They may be shed by dragons and buried in the earth, becoming visible when a cliff collapses. Sometimes the skeleton, head, and horns are all intact.

The Yanyi says: Accounts of dragon bone vary widely. Since no one can determine what it really is, they remain conjecture. In Yingyang County, Xijing, a cliff suddenly collapsed at one household, exposing a dragon skeleton with all four limbs, head, and horns intact. Yet no one knew whether it had been shed or left behind after death. If it had been shed, it must have been a tangible thing, yet no living one could be seen; if it had been left behind after death, then why was its form…

For conditions that these medicines cannot resolve, the Xiyuji gives a detailed account, though I still hesitate to accept it as definitive. All things receive their endowments differently, and the workings of nature cannot possibly be understood in full; their particulars are difficult to know completely. Confucius said, “When a gentleman does not know something, he leaves it blank for the time being.” If we force connections and make unwarranted interpretations, we may mislead later students. Yet this medicine is truly indispensable for treating seminal leakage and leakage from the large intestine.

Musk

Musk is pungent in flavor, warm in nature, and non-toxic. It is used to dispel foul influences and drive away ghosts and spirits; treat intermittent fever, Gu poison, epilepsy, and convulsions; and expel the Three Worms. It also treats illnesses caused by the invasion of baleful influences and ghostly Qi, as well as sudden pain, distension, tightness, and fullness in the heart and abdomen. It treats wind toxins, difficult childbirth, and miscarriage, removes dark spots on the face, and treats films clouding the eyes. Taken over a long period, it can dispel malign influences, keep a person from dreaming or being troubled by nightmares, open a path to the divine, and bring entry into the realms of the immortals. Musk comes from the valleys of Zhongtai Mountain and the mountains of Yizhou and Yongzhou. It is gathered at the spring equinox, and naturally formed musk is considered best.

The Illustrated Classic says: Musk comes from the valleys of Zhongtai Mountain and the mountains of Yizhou and Yongzhou. Today it is also found in the mountains of Shaanxi, Yizhou, Lizhou, and Hedong, and is especially abundant in the minority regions around Qinzhou and Wenzhou. The musk deer resembles a muntjac but is smaller. Its scent pouch lies beneath the skin in front of the genitals and is enclosed by a membrane. Musk is gathered at the spring equinox, and the naturally formed kind is considered best.

Genuine musk is extremely difficult to obtain. After gathering it, local people sometimes scrape the musk out of the pouch, mix it with scraps of skin, flesh, and other material, and package it into five small pouches. Buyers then knead and divide it into two or three portions. Such adulteration is easy to detect. Only musk taken directly from the pouch and left unprocessed counts as an intact, genuine specimen. Musk is occasionally found in the mountains of Qizhou and Guangzhou as well, but the pouches are extremely small, each about the size of a pellet. They often contain genuine musk, perhaps because local people are less accustomed to adulterating it.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says: Musk is a ministerial ingredient, and garlic should be avoided while taking it. It is bitter and pungent in flavor. It dispels all kinds of malign spirits and ghostly afflictions, treats childhood convulsions and fright illness (a condition that can arise in children after a sudden fright), and calms the spirit. Grind one grain from the center of the pouch, called a “gate bead,” as finely as cinnabar, and take it with warm water to stop urinary incontinence. It can also dissolve pus in various abscesses. Taken in the Ten-Aroma Pill, it makes the hair and all nine bodily orifices emit fragrance.

Tao Yinjing says: The musk deer resembles a muntjac. It often eats cypress leaves and also eats snakes. When musk is gathered in the fifth month, snake skins and bones are often found, so musk can treat snake venom. Today, if musk is wrapped in shed snake skin, its fragrance becomes stronger. This suggests that the two enhance each other’s effects.

Musk lies beneath the skin at the tip of the musk deer’s penis, enclosed by an additional membrane. Musk produced today in Junyang, Yiyang, Jinxi, and other places is somewhat inferior in quality. That from Yizhou is flat in shape and also enclosed in a membrane. Once removed, it contains a single bead of genuine musk, which can be divided into three or four portions. When scraped out, it may be mixed with blood, membrane, and other impurities. In general, musk varies in quality. When cut open for inspection, a piece of hair wrapped inside is a sign of good quality. Local people use this as a way to distinguish genuine musk from fakes. Musk collected in Qiang and Yi regions is usually genuine and of good quality. If it is placed before a doorway and lit, a long-lasting, vigorous flame indicates good musk.

Today, only musk taken directly from a live deer can be guaranteed to be whole and pure. Some say that “natural musk” forms from the deer’s semen and urine coagulating, but this is not so. In summer, musk deer often eat snakes and insects. By the depths of winter, the scent fills the musk pouch. In spring, when the pouch becomes swollen and painful, the deer scrapes the musk out with its feet and deposits it in its dung and urine, then covers it with something. These deposits are always found in particular places. People who stumble upon them may find as much as a dou and five sheng. Using this musk is better than killing a deer for it. Wearing musk does more than lend a pleasant scent; it can also ward off baleful influences. It is said that placing a bead of genuine musk at the neck or beside one’s pillow can prevent nightmares, corpse-transmission disease (an illness believed to be caused by ghostly influence), and ghostly energy.

According to Ri Huazi, musk wards off baleful influences, destroys ghostly poisons and Gu energy, treats malaria, induces childbirth or abortion, kills intestinal worms, protects against bites from snakes and silkworms, counteracts sand-flea and ravine-miasma poisons, dissolves wind-phlegm, warms the womb and kidneys, and stops cold-type vaginal discharge.

Lei Gong says that much musk is counterfeit, and it is better not to use it. There are three kinds of musk. The first is called “shed musk”: when a musk pouch becomes full, the deer flicks it off against a stone with the tip of its hoof. It is said that no plants grow within a li of where the pouch lands; they may even turn yellow and wither. Whoever finds this musk has a treasure worth as much as a luminous pearl. The second kind is called “knee musk,” and is highly useful when collected. The third is called “heart-knot musk.” When a musk deer is startled by a large beast, its heart is injured and it goes mad, charging wildly into a herd of animals before finally plunging into water and dying. People who find it cut it open and discover that blood from the heart has flowed onto the spleen and coagulated into a large lump of dried blood. Its scent can be detected across a mountain, though its quality is inferior. Whenever musk is used, open it on a Zi day (a day marked Zi in the cycle of Earthly Branches). Do not grind it too finely; after crushing, sift it before use.

Duan Chengshi’s Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang says that the musk pouch of the water musk deer, whose musk is liquid, contains only a single drop. If this drop is added to a dou of water and sprinkled on clothing, its fragrance will not fade even if the garment becomes worn and tattered. Each time the musk is collected, it is extracted with a needle. If a little genuine realgar is added, the resulting fragrance becomes twice as strong as …

During the Tianbao era, when a woodcutter captured a musk deer, the court ordered that it be kept in captivity.

The Yang Wengong’s Garden of Discussions records that Yang Wengong often said there were many musk deer in the Shang and Ru mountains. Musk deer always defecate in the same place. Even when they travel far to forage, they invariably return there, careful not to leave traces elsewhere for fear of being discovered. Hunters follow these traces to find and capture them. Musk deer fiercely guard their musk pouch, located in the abdomen and responsible for secreting musk. When pursued and in danger, a deer will leap onto a rock and claw open its pouch. Even when caught and dying, it keeps its four legs curled in to protect the pouch. Li Shangyin wrote, “Leaping onto a cliff, the musk deer loses its fragrance,” and Xu Hun also wrote, “Seeking musk deer to gather their fresh fragrance.”

The Guangli Prescriptions records a treatment for sudden illness caused by malign influences or fright—conditions described in ancient medical texts—as well as for patients near death: take one qian of musk, grind it finely, and mix it with two ge of vinegar for the patient to drink. It is said to bring recovery. Another prescription treats children’s frightened crying and persistent cough: grind fine-quality genuine musk and mix a very small dose with clean water. Give it three times a day, adjusting the amount to the child’s age and build. The Yang Family’s Prescriptions for Pregnancy and Childbirth records a treatment for fluid retention in the body. If the patient does not improve after taking medicine, grind musk equal in size to three large soybeans, mix it with milk, and divide it into four or five doses.

The Yanyi says that musk deer defecate in a fixed place, leaving the scent of musk and making themselves easy to find and capture. This is one of their natural weaknesses. For the rest, see the original classic.

Bezoar

Bezoar tastes bitter, is neutral in nature, and is mildly toxic. It treats fright-induced convulsions and seizures, alternating chills and fever, severe heat with frenzied behavior, and spasms. It can also be used to expel malign influences, treat various childhood ailments, and address fever during epileptic seizures and an inability to open the mouth. It is also used for mania in adults and to induce abortion. Taken over a long period, it can make the body feel light and strong, prolong life, and improve memory. Bezoar is produced in the plains and wetlands of Jin. After it is removed from the ox, dry it in the shade for one hundred days, keeping it dry and away from sunlight and moonlight. Ginseng can support its effects. Used with peony and calamus, it benefits the ears and eyes. Do not use it with dragon bone, rehmannia, gentian, or cockroach-like insects; it is incompatible with Achyranthes.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica records that bezoar is produced in the plains and wetlands of Jin. Today it is also found in Dengzhou and Laizhou; it sometimes occurs elsewhere, but is of inferior quality. Oxen that contain bezoar have glossy coats, blood-red eyes, and often low; they also like to watch the water’s surface. People place a basin in front of the ox to catch what it expels, then startle it with a shout so that the bezoar falls into the water. Remove it and dry it in the shade for one hundred days. Bezoar is about the size of a chicken’s egg yolk and has layers that can be peeled apart. The best kind is light and loose in texture, with a strong fragrance. However, there are many fakes, and people today use methods to distinguish them…

Bezoar is usually scraped from the inner surface of a horn. Only material that scrapes off and appears yellow is genuine. Another account says there are four kinds of bezoar: that expelled when an ox is terrified or distressed is called “fresh bezoar”; that taken from the horn after the ox is slaughtered is called “horn bezoar”; that obtained by cutting into the heart is called “heart bezoar”; and that taken from the liver and gallbladder is called “liver bezoar.”

When first removed, heart bezoar is like a thick liquid. Once placed in water and wetted, it hardens, taking a shape like a burr or a soapberry seed. Bezoar obtained from the liver and gallbladder is called liver bezoar. In general, none of these kinds is as good as the bezoar expelled when an ox is terrified or distressed; that kind is the finest.

The oxen used for medicine include water buffalo, yaks, and yellow cattle. Their milk can be used to make butter, cheese, and clarified butter, but each kind differs in nature: water buffalo milk is cooling, while yak milk is warming. All beef is cold in nature. Meat from cattle that die naturally must not be eaten. Ox butter is often used to prepare medicinal plasters, which are applied externally to treat wind swelling, wrist injuries from falls, and blood stasis. Among these products, yak butter is more potent, and clarified butter is better still.

There is also a medicine called “Diyejia,” made by people of the Western Regions by blending several kinds of bile. It looks like a pill that has spoiled with age and is reddish-black. It may also be found today around the South Sea. Among middle-grade medicines there is also ox-horn gill: when the horns of water buffalo or yellow cattle have lain for a long time in dung and earth, they decay and turn white. The material is burned to ash, ground into powder, and taken to treat dysentery with bloody or white discharge.

Tao Hongjing says that old books describe oxen living on sacred mountains, bellowing as they come and go. People would wait for them to emerge and catch in a basin the bezoar they spat from their horns; the bezoar could then be retrieved from the water. Today, people mostly obtain bezoar from the ox’s gallbladder, and the regions of Liang and Yi produce it in greater quantities. Bezoar can be as large as a chicken’s egg yolk; no other medicinal material is more precious.

The Tang Bencao annotation says that bezoar is now produced in Laizhou, Mizhou, Zizhou, Qingzhou, Junzhou, and Rongzhou. An ox that has bezoar will certainly bellow often. Bezoar obtained when an ox is terrified or distressed is called “fresh bezoar” and is the finest quality. There are three kinds of bezoar: loose bezoar consists of granules about the size of hemp seeds or beans; slow bezoar resembles an egg yolk and adheres to the liver and gallbladder; and round bezoar forms lumps of varying sizes and is also found in the liver and gallbladder. Bezoar is most often found in yaks and bulls. There are no reports of cattle in the Wu region producing it.

Yuxi quotes the Yaoxing Lun, which says that bezoar is a “chief medicine” in the theory of medicinal properties. It is incompatible with Changshan and counteracted by dry lacquer. Sweet in flavor, it can ward off demons, calm the hun and settle the po, and treat children’s night crying and sudden illness caused by an abnormal, malign influence.

The Riyuezi says that bezoar is cooling in nature. It can treat loss of voice after a stroke, lockjaw, blood-related lockjaw in women, palpitations from fright, seasonal epidemics, forgetfulness, and weakness.

Lei Gong says: There are four kinds of bezoar. The first is Shengshen Huang, obtained by chance. Next is horn bezoar, taken from a cow’s horn. Another kind, called small bezoar, is taken from a cow that has died of illness: people open the animal and break open the gallbladder to remove it. Once opened, the gallbladder bezoar lies inside like thick yellow sauce. After it is removed and placed in water, it hardens again when wet. It is about the size of a fragment of puncture vine or a bean, and as hard as a pearl. There is also liver bezoar. The cow’s body is glossy, its eyes bloodshot, and it often likes to play in and gaze at water. At night its body glows, enough to frighten people. Some people collect this kind of bezoar separately; it is said to have unusual, perhaps numinous properties.

To use it, first pound it by itself and grind it into a fine dust, then wrap it in silk. Alternatively, wrap it in soft cowhide and suspend it three or four chi above the surface of well water. Leave it overnight and take it out the next morning for use.

Wu says: Bezoar is non-toxic. A cow that moans as it comes and goes may have bezoar inside it. Bezoar from a cow that glows at night will travel into its horns. After the cow dies, the bezoar is in the gallbladder and is shaped like an egg yolk.

The Shenghui Formula says: If a newborn baby’s mouth remains tightly shut on the tenth day after birth, take a little bezoar, grind it finely, and mix it with light bamboo sap. Give the baby a dose about the size of a single grain of millet. Then drip sow’s milk into the mouth, and the condition will be cured. Another prescription treats abdominal pain and night crying in children: dissolve a bean-sized piece of bezoar in milk and give it to the child, then write the character “tian” below the navel. This is said to cure the condition.

The Guangli Formula says: To treat convulsions and epilepsy in children, loss of consciousness, tongue biting, and eyes rolling upward, grind a large-bean-sized piece of bezoar and mix it with honey water before giving it to the child.

Yao Hezhong says: On the third day after a child’s birth, take a piece of bezoar the size of a large bean and grind it finely. Mix it with red honey and a lump of cooked honey about the size of a jujube. Dip cotton in the mixture and let the baby suck on it, using it all within one day. This is said to drive away frightening spirits and harmful Qi.

The Yanyi says: There is also camel bezoar, which comes from the Western Regions, an ancient term for areas west of China. Camel bezoar is easy to obtain, so physicians should examine it carefully before use, as its appearance can easily be confused with that of ox bezoar. Ox bezoar is light and loose, with a natural faint fragrance, which can help distinguish it. There is also yak bezoar, which is hard and has no fragrance.

Bear Fat

Bear fat tastes sweet and is slightly cold in nature; some records say it is slightly warm. It is non-toxic. It is used to treat wind impediment—numbness, pain, and impaired movement caused by wind—loss of sensation, tightness in the sinews and vessels, accumulations in the five viscera and abdomen, alternating chills and fever, wasting of the body, sores and ringworm on the head, white scalp ringworm, dark patches on the face, and blisters. It is also used for vomiting after eating. Long-term use is said to strengthen memory, prevent hunger, lighten the body, and prolong life. Bear fat comes from the mountain valleys of Yongzhou and is collected in the eleventh month.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says: Bear fat and bear bile come from the valleys of Yongzhou. Today bears are found in the mountains around Yongzhou and the Luo River, as well as in the mountains of Hua and Wei prefectures. A bear resembles a dog or pig in appearance. It is agile and skilled at climbing, able to scale tall trees. When it sees a person, it jumps down from the tree backward. In winter it often enters a den and remains hidden there, emerging only in early spring.

The fat on a bear’s back is called “bear white” and should be gathered in the eleventh month. This fat forms only in cold weather; it disappears in summer. The fatty deposits on the belly and other parts of the body can also be rendered and used as medicine, but are not suitable for eating. Bear bile should be dried in the shade before use, though many counterfeits are sold in the market. To test it, drop a grain-of-millet-sized piece of bear bile into water. If it forms a thin thread that does not disperse, it is genuine.

Bear paws are a prized food, especially esteemed by the ancients. They are difficult to stew until tender, however. Eating a lot of bear meat is said to help a person withstand the cold, but people with chronic illnesses must not eat it, or their illness will never be cured. Bears fear salt; if they eat it, they die.

Tao Hongjing says: Bear white is the fat on a bear’s back. It forms only in cold weather and disappears in summer. Fat from a bear’s belly and other parts of its body can be rendered for medicinal use, but should not be eaten. Bears are now found in mountains throughout the east and west, but are difficult to obtain. People with chronic illnesses must not eat bear meat, or their illness will never be cured.

The Tang Materia Medica Commentary says: Bear bile tastes bitter, is cold in nature, and is non-toxic. It can treat epidemic heat, jaundice arising as the illness changes, prolonged summer diarrhea, childhood malnutrition with parasitic accumulation, heart pain, sudden abnormal illnesses known as zhu-wu, and disorders of the brain. It can also treat various forms of deafness. The blood in bear bile can be used to treat childhood ke-wu, a sudden fright or other abnormal condition in children. Bear fat makes hair grow long, black, and glossy, and gives the complexion a healthy glow. When prepared with wine and taken, it can treat wind impediment, in which wind-evil causes numbness, pain, or restricted movement in the limbs.

The term “ointment” refers to fat that has been melted down; the fat on a bear’s back should not be called an “ointment.” The commentary on the Zuo Tradition says that “gao-huang” refers to the area between the diaphragm, and that the written text contains an error. Tao Hongjing called bear-back fat an “ointment,” following an older account.

Yuxi says: According to the Treatise on the Nature of Medicines, bear bile serves as a ministerial ingredient in prescriptions and must not be used together with fangji or rehmannia root. It can treat the five forms of childhood malnutrition, kill parasites, and heal malignant sores. Another account says that bear fat serves as a principal ingredient and can treat dark facial patches and sores.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says: Bear white is cool in nature. It can treat five kinds of swelling caused by wind, replenish deficiency and debility, and kill the parasites associated with consumptive disease. Bear fat strengthens the heart. Bear brain and marrow can be made into an oil which, when massaged into the head, removes dandruff and patches of hair loss. Bear paw can be eaten and helps ward off wind and cold; it is one of the Eight Delicacies. Bear bile can treat childhood malnutrition.

It treats sores of the ears and nose, as well as various forms of childhood malnutrition (chronic wasting illnesses commonly seen in children).

Lei Gong said: Once the bear fat has been rendered, put it into a container while still hot, adding fourteen fresh Sichuan peppercorns for every pound of fat. When rendering is complete, remove the cracklings and peppercorns, then store the fat in a jar.

The Dietetic Therapy says: Bear fat is slightly cold in nature, sweet in flavor, and smooth in texture. Use it when it solidifies and turns white in winter. It may be used on its own or added to a hair-growth ointment to treat white hair, with good results. If bear fat and pork fat are mixed and used in a lamp, the smoke can enter the eyes and damage vision. Bear meat is neutral in nature, sweet in flavor, and nontoxic. It can treat wind impediment—numbness, pain, and restricted movement caused by wind pathogens—as well as numbness and loss of sensation in the sinews and bones. People with accumulations in the abdomen or symptoms of alternating chills and fever may remain ill for a long time after eating bear meat. A bath in broth made from bear bones can treat migrating joint pain and related disorders. Bear gallbladder is cold in nature and can treat childhood fright reactions, alternating chills and fever, intense seasonal fever, childhood malnutrition, and convulsions. Do not eat bear gallbladder in the tenth lunar month, lest it harm the spirit. For childhood convulsions and spasms, take two soybean-sized pieces of bear gallbladder, mix them with milk and bamboo sap, and swallow; this helps dispel phlegm and drool from the heart.

The Sagely Beneficial Prescriptions records: To treat sores caused by childhood malnutrition and worms eating into the nose, dissolve half a fen of bear gallbladder in hot water, mix well, and apply inside the nose. If a bear paw is cooked in wine, vinegar, and water, it swells up like a leather ball; eating it is said to help one withstand wind and cold.

The Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library records: To treat heart pain caused by roundworms, take a soybean-sized piece of bear gallbladder with water; it is highly effective. Another prescription says that hemorrhoids persisting for fifty years can be cured by applying bear gallbladder, with miraculous results.

The Supplement to the Essential Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Gold records: To treat yellowing hair, apply bear fat and comb it through the hair. Then let the hair hang loose and lie face down beneath a bed for about the time it takes to eat a meal. When you come out, the hair will have turned entirely black. Use no more than one sheng of bear fat.

The Heart Mirror of Food and Medicine records: To treat beriberi, wind impediment with numbness, and sinews and vessels that are either slack or tight, take half a pound of bear meat and season it with fermented soybean liquid, ginger, peppercorns, scallion whites, salt, and soy sauce to make cured meat. Eat it on an empty stomach. Another prescription says: For stroke, wind-heat in the heart and lungs, inability to move the hands and feet, slack sinews and vessels, or a dazed or agitated mental state, cut one pound of bear meat into pieces, season and cure it in the usual way, and eat it on an empty stomach.

The Doumen Prescriptions records: If struck by a water crossbow—a poisonous creature found in water—apply bear gallbladder to the wound, then grind bear gallbladder and realgar together with wine and take it; recovery will follow.

Ivory

Ivory is nontoxic and treats iron or other foreign objects driven into the flesh. Scrape off ivory shavings and grind them into a fine powder…

Ivory shavings can be ground into a fine powder, mixed with water, and applied to a wound to quickly draw out foreign matter such as splinters lodged in the flesh. If a splinter is stuck in the throat, take the mixture by mouth. Powder scraped from an old ivory comb is said to work better. Ivory is also used to treat epilepsy.

Elephant meat has a mild flavor and is not suitable for eating; eating too much makes the body feel heavy. It can also be used to treat sores on a bald scalp: burn the meat to ash, mix it with oil, and apply it to the affected area. An elephant’s eyes can be used to treat eye ailments. Mix them with milk and put drops into the eye. A small transverse bone from the chest is said to make a person float on the water; burn it to ash and take it with wine.

It is said that the meat from each part of an elephant’s body corresponds to one of the Twelve Earthly Branches. Only the trunk is the elephant’s own flesh; the other parts seem to be made up of mixed flesh.

The Illustrated Classic says that old books do not record which prefectures and districts produced ivory. The Erya says that among the prized products of the south are the rhinoceroses and elephants of Mount Liang. Today, elephants are plentiful around Jiaozhi, Chaozhou, and Xunzhou. After capturing an elephant, local people often compete to eat its meat, saying it is fatty, tender, and crisp, and good for roasting. Some also say that an elephant has twelve kinds of meat, corresponding to the Twelve Earthly Branches, and that only the trunk is the elephant’s own flesh. An elephant’s gallbladder is not attached to its liver; instead, it moves among different parts of the body according to the month.

During the Chunhua era, a tamed elephant in the imperial gardens died. Emperor Taizong of Song ordered its gallbladder removed, but it could not be found, so he sent someone to ask Xu Xuan. Xu said it should be in the left foreleg. When the leg was cut open, they found it there. Asked how he knew, Xu explained that the elephant’s gallbladder moves with the seasons. Since the elephant had died in spring, its gallbladder was in the left foreleg.

People say that wild elephants also live in the Jingman mountains. This is probably what the Zuo Commentary means when it says that the Chu army lit torches on elephants’ backs and drove them toward the Wu army. The elephants of Chu and Yue are all blue, while white elephants are common only in places such as Western India—a classical name for the region around India—and Dashi, the old name for the Arab lands. Fan Chuo’s Record of Yunnan and Ping Juhui’s Itinerary to Khotan also describe these matters.

Ivory can be used to treat splinters lodged in the flesh: scrape off shavings, grind them finely, mix with water, and apply them to the wound; the splinter will then come out. For a splinter in the throat, take the mixture by mouth. Elephant teeth, meat, and eyes are also mentioned in some medicinal prescriptions.

Yu Xi says: According to the Rizihua, ivory is neutral in nature and can be used to treat difficulty urinating. It may be boiled in water and taken, or burned to ash and swallowed with water. Elephant gallbladder brightens the eyes and can also treat childhood nutritional disorders known as gan disease.

The Taiping Guangji records that in Annan there was a kind of elephant able to distinguish right from wrong. When people disputed a lawsuit, the elephant would come forward and sniff them. It would walk away from the person in the right, but lift the person in the wrong with its trunk, toss them several zhang into the air, and then stab them with its tusks. People would wash the tusks with water and drink the wash water to treat illness.

An elephant’s gallbladder moves among its four legs with the seasons. In spring, it is in the left foreleg.

The front right foot of the elephant (the original phrase “summer at the front right” may contain a textual error, and its meaning is not very clear) is shaped like a turtle, and the animal stands with its body steady. Its trunk has a claw at the tip, which it can use to pick up things as small as a fine needle. Elephant meat has twelve parts, but only the trunk is a principal part for eating. The ash of a small bone from its chest, taken with wine, is said to make a person skilled at swimming and diving; eating elephant meat, however, makes the body heavy.

Ancient books say that an elephant carries its young for five years before giving birth.

The Zhouhou Fang records: To treat an arrowhead or a broken needle lodged in the flesh, scrape ivory into fine shavings, mix them with water, and apply the paste to the wound. The foreign object will then come out.

The Jianyao Jizhong Fang records: If a child is accidentally pierced by a bone or fishbone lodged in the flesh and it cannot be pulled out, boil the flesh of a white plum in water until soft, grind it, and mix in powdered ivory. Apply a thick layer to the spot where the splinter is lodged, and it will soften on its own.

The Haiyao offers this cautious account: The Buddhist scriptures record that elephants are found in countries to the west; some have two tusks and others four. Ivory is cold in nature and treats wind-related epilepsy, steaming bone heat caused by fever, and various sores. Freshly scraped ivory is suitable for medicinal use and combines well with amber, bamboo resin, pearls, rhinoceros horn, and bezoar. People in the Western Regions prized ivory and used it to decorate beds and seats; people in China also valued it, making it into tablets held by officials at court. In countries such as Kunlun, elephants live in mountain valleys. When an elephant’s tusk falls out, people cannot simply take it; the people of Kunlun exchange false tusks made from white wood for it. The Youyang Zazu says that the patterns on ivory foretell the prosperity of a country. It also says that dragons and elephants do not have fully developed bones until they are sixty years old.

The Yanyi says: Ivory is made up of the tusks that grow on either side of an elephant’s mouth and hang down beside its trunk. These are not the molars inside the mouth that chew food. The tusks used in medicine and made into ivory tablets are these same tusks.

White glue is sweet in flavor, neutral to warm in nature, and non-toxic. It treats internal injury, overexertion, lower back pain, and emaciation; it supplements the Qi within the body and increases strength. It also treats women’s absent menstruation and infertility. In addition, it stops pain, calms the fetus, and treats vomiting blood, bleeding from the lower body, persistent uterine bleeding, aching limbs, excessive sweating, and persistent dribbling urination. It is also used for injuries from falls and blows, and for fractures (here, “break” means a broken bone; “fall” is pronounced dié). It is said to make the body light and strong and to prolong life when taken. White glue is also called deer antler glue. It is produced in Yunzhong and made by boiling deer antlers; it does not readily spoil when exposed to fire. It is incompatible with rhubarb and should not be used together with it.

The Tujing says that a fuller account can be found under the entry for “donkey-hide gelatin.”

Yuxi says: According to the Yaoxing Lun, white glue is also called yellow-bright glue. It treats weakness of the kidneys and damage from deficiency and overwork in men. For women, it can help conception, calm the fetus, dispel cold, and treat red or white vaginal discharge and persistent uterine bleeding. It can also treat vomiting blood.

The Shiliao records: Apply yellow-bright glue around a lump, leaving a small opening in the center, and the lump will form pus and rupture on its own. For a cough that has not improved after a long time, roast yellow-bright glue until it is half …

…After charring it, grind it into powder and take one qianbi dose each time. Separately, take two qianbi of ginseng powder and add it to a cup of thin fermented-bean broth (made by simmering mild fermented soybeans), along with a little scallion. Bring it to a boil once or twice in a pot, then pour it into a cup. Sip three to five mouthfuls when coughing. Afterwards, warm it as before and take it again when the cough returns.

The Waitai Miyao records this treatment for urinary bleeding caused by deficiency and exhaustion: char three liang of dried glue, pound it into powder, mix it with two sheng of wine, and drink it warm.

Another prescription: whether a swollen sore has already broken open or not, soak a piece of glue in water until soft, place it over the center of the swelling, and make a hole in the piece. If the sore has broken open but then closed over, quickly peel off the glue and gather it up; the pus will then drain completely. If pus has not yet formed, the swelling should subside on its own.

Another prescription: char deer-antler glue and pound it into powder. Mix it with wine and take one fangcunbi dose (an ancient small measure) three times a day. The text says this method replenishes deficiency and exhaustion, nourishes the bone marrow, builds muscle, improves the complexion, and strengthens the body.

The Qianjin Fang records that when a foreign object in the ear cannot be removed, one should split one end of a hemp cord so that its fibers spread apart. Coat the loose fibers with glue, let them stick to the object in the ear, then slowly draw it out.

The Zhouhou Fang records that for sudden bleeding during pregnancy, two liang of glue should be boiled in wine. Once the glue has melted, drink it all at once.

The Doumen Fang records this treatment for lung damage with sudden, unstoppable coughing of blood: take a large piece of sea-rhinoceros hide plaster and roast it over a fire until it is scorched yellow, then coat it with glue. Continue roasting and applying glue until the layers have soaked through. Grind it into powder, dissolve three large qianbi doses in hot water, let it cool, and drink. The original text says this stops bleeding, and that “water glue” refers to the glue described here; it is highly effective.

The Tan shi Xiao’er Fang records this treatment for pockmark scars on a child’s face: roast yellow clear glue over a low flame, grind it into powder, and mix one qianbi dose with warm wine. The text says that if it is taken after the rash has appeared, it prevents scarring; if taken before the rash appears, it causes the rash to be purged. Another method for reducing scars after a child has been burned is to apply yellow clear glue with a small chicken feather.

Ejiao tastes sweet and is neutral to slightly warm in nature, with no toxicity. It is used to treat internal bleeding in the chest and abdomen, overexertion and exhaustion, bouts of alternating chills and fever like those of malaria, pain in the lower back and abdomen, aching in the limbs, and bleeding in women. It can also calm the fetus. It is also used for pain in men’s lower abdomen, emaciation from deficiency and exhaustion, insufficiency of Yin energy, and weakness and aching in both legs that makes it difficult to stand for long. The text also says that long-term use can make the body light and agile and increase strength, and gives “Fuzhi glue” as another name for Ejiao. Ejiao comes from Dong’e in Dongping Commandery and is made by boiling oxhide. It is weakened by rhubarb, and its medicinal properties are improved by processing it over a fire.

The Illustrated Classic states that Ejiao comes from Dongping Commandery and is made by boiling down cattle hide, which is why it is called “Ejiao.” It can also be made today around Yunzhou, but only the kind boiled using water from the well north of A County is considered authentic. Genuine Ejiao is prepared by boiling the hide of a black donkey in water from the Ejing Well, using the same method as for making ordinary hide glue. Since access to the well water is controlled by the authorities, authentic Ejiao is hard to obtain. Although much is sold in the capital, a great deal of it is probably not genuine. Medical formularies consider Ejiao superior to other kinds of glue chiefly because donkey hide combined with water from the Ejing Well produces a good medicine.

The Extensive Aid Formulary records a treatment for paralysis and wind disorders, as well as inability to move the hands and feet and weakness in the lower back and legs. Roast donkey hide glue until it puffs slightly. First cook one sheng of scallion and fermented-soybean gruel, made with scallions and fermented soybeans, and set it aside. Then boil two he of aromatic fermented soybeans in one sheng of water. Strain out the beans, add Ejiao, and continue boiling for six or seven rolling boils, until the glue melts and takes on the consistency of malt syrup. Drink it all at once while hot, then eat as much as desired of the scallion and fermented-soybean gruel while it is still warm. Eating it after it has cooled can easily cause vomiting. Take three or four doses in succession, following this method. Observe the usual restrictions for medicines. Ejiao also stops diarrhea and works especially well when combined with beeswax and Coptis root.

Tao Hongjing says: Ejiao takes its name from Dong’e, where it is produced. It can also be made today near the eastern capital. The hides used vary in age, and the resulting glue ranges from clear to cloudy; there are roughly three kinds. The clear, thin kind is used in painting. The thick, clear kind is called “basin-cover glue” and can be used medicinally. Before making it into pills or powder for medicinal use, roast it over a fire until thoroughly dry; when using it in a decoction, roast it only lightly. Cloudy, black glue can be used to stick things together, but is not medicinal. A piece of deer antler will make it set; without one, it will not.

Chen Cangqi says: Only glue boiled using water from the Ejing Well is Ejiao; most of what people use is not genuine. All kinds of glue can treat wind disorders, stop diarrhea, and replenish deficiency. Donkey hide glue is the most effective for wind disorders.

Yuxi says that, according to the Treatise on the Properties of Medicines, Ejiao is a chief herb. It strengthens the sinews and bones, replenishes strength, and stops dysentery. Chinese yam can serve as its assistant herb, the medicine paired with it to support its effects.

Lei Gong says: Before using Ejiao, soak it overnight in pig fat. The next day, take it out and roast it over willow-wood fire. Once the glue puffs up, grind it finely for use.

The Sagely Beneficence Formulary records a treatment for blood in the urine during pregnancy: stir-fry Ejiao until yellow and dry, then grind it into powder. Before each meal, take two qian and seven fen mixed into rice gruel.

The Mei Master’s Formulary records a treatment for sudden, unexplained bleeding during pregnancy that will not stop: take three liang of Ejiao, roast it and pound it into powder, then simmer it in one and a half sheng of wine until dissolved. Take the whole amount at once, and the condition will be cured. Also…

One prescription: Take two liang of donkey-hide gelatin, pound it into powder, and half a jin of fresh rehmannia root, pound it and extract the juice. Mix the juice with three sheng of clear wine and divide it into three doses.

The Yang family’s Chanru records this treatment for bloody dysentery during pregnancy: take two liang of donkey-hide gelatin, add one and a half sheng of wine, and boil until reduced to one sheng. Take the whole amount at once.

Su (dairy fat, pronounced su): Slightly cold in nature. It can nourish the Five Viscera and ease the bowels, and is used to treat mouth sores. For a detailed account in the Illustrated Canon, see the entry for “bezoar.”

Tao Hongjing says: Su comes from foreign lands and is also brought from Yizhou. It is made from cow’s milk or goat’s milk, each by a different method. Buddhist scriptures say that milk is made into curds, curds into su, and su into tiho (the essence obtained by further refining dairy products). Tiho is yellowish white and makes a delicious, rich cake; it is sometimes brought to the regions south of the Yangzi.

The Tang Materia Medica Commentary says: “Su” is pronounced tao and refers to a product made from curds; its nature and flavor still differ from those of curds. The Shengtong discusses the effects of su and considers Tao Hongjing’s understanding incomplete. There are cow su and goat su: cow su is superior to goat su, and yak su is better still than that from domestic cattle.

Chen Cangqi says: Su can be used to prepare various ointments. Applied externally, it treats wind swelling, sprains, injuries from falls, and blood stasis.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says: Cow su is cool in nature. It benefits the heart and lungs, relieves thirst and cough, and moistens the hair. It can also be used for lung atrophy, heart heat, and vomiting blood.

Yuxi’s note, citing the Shu Materia Medica, says: Su tastes sweet.

Meng Shen says: Su is cold in nature. It clears heat in the chest, nourishes the Five Viscera, and eases the bowels and stomach.

The Dietary Therapy says: Su is cold in nature. It clears heat in the chest, nourishes the Five Viscera, and eases the bowels and stomach. Water buffalo su has the same effects and is cold in nature; goat su has the same effects as well. Genuine goat su is superior to cow su.

The Sage’s Aid Formula records that applying su to a sting from a bean bee cures it. Another prescription says that for venomous insect bites, mix su with salt and apply it to the affected area.

Goat’s milk: Warm in nature. It warms and nourishes what is cold, weak, or deficient.

Tao Hongjing says: Cow’s milk and goat’s milk truly have nourishing and moistening effects. For this reason, people in the north are mostly stout and strong.

Yuxi’s note, citing the Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals, says: Goat’s milk is a ministerial medicinal. It tastes sweet and is nontoxic. It treats diseases of the heart and lungs and can also be used for wasting thirst, a category of disorders marked by excessive thirst and drinking.

The Dietary Therapy says: Goat’s milk can nourish the Qi of the lungs and kidneys and regulate the small intestine. It can also be used for wasting thirst, treat debility, and strengthen Jing and Qi. It may be prepared as a soup to nourish kidney deficiency. It can also be used for windstroke in men and women. If a house centipede (an arthropod resembling a centipede) crawls into the ear, pour goat’s milk into the ear and the creature will dissolve into liquid. To treat sores in a child’s mouth, have the child hold fresh goat’s milk in the mouth for five or six days; the sores will then heal. One character is missing from the original at this point.

The Experiential Formula records that after a spider bite, drinking one measure of goat’s milk will cause silk to grow all over the body.

Cow’s milk is slightly cold in nature. It can strengthen a weakened body and relieve thirst.

The Tang Commentary says: Buffalo milk can be used to make shimi, a sweet dairy confection, or lao, a fermented dairy product. It is rich in flavor and tastes better than yak milk. Yak milk is neutral in nature; drinking it raw can cause diarrhea, while drinking it after boiling causes dry mouth, suggesting that it tends toward warmth.

Chen Cangqi says: Drinking raw yellow cow’s milk is beneficial and can clear and lower heat in the body. It is cold in nature, and can nourish, moisten the skin, and relieve thirst. If it is boiled together with su, or milk fat, for three to five rolling boils and then eaten, it can dispel cold, xianpi, accumulations in the abdomen, and emaciation. Before drinking milk, boil it for one or two boils, let it cool, and sip it slowly; drinking it hot can cause stagnation. Do not drink too much at once. Sip it gradually so the body can digest and absorb it. Milk conflicts with sour foods; eating them together can cause masses to form in the abdomen. Cow’s milk, urine, and dung can all be used to treat illness. Milk from black cows is superior to yellow cow’s milk.

The Extensive Records of the Taiping Era states: During the Zhenguan era, Emperor Taizong of Tang suffered from qi dysentery, a form of dysentery accompanied by symptoms such as abdominal distension. None of the physicians could cure him. The emperor issued an edict asking his attendants at court who could treat the illness, promising a generous reward. A practitioner offered a prescription: boil long pepper, a medicinal plant in the pepper family, in milk and drink it. The illness was cured immediately.

Lao, or fermented milk, tastes sweet and sour, is cold in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats heat toxins and thirst, disperses pathogenic heat and promotes the flow of fluids, and relieves deficiency heat in the chest, as well as heat sores on the body and face and sores on the skin.

The Tang Commentary says: Milk from cows, sheep, horses, and buffalo can all be made into lao. Donkey’s milk is especially cold and is unsuitable for making it.

The Wings to the Essential Prescriptions of a Thousand Gold Pieces gives this treatment for dan yin zhen, red, itchy skin eruptions: Heat lao with salt and rub it on the affected area. The eruptions will disappear beneath the hand.

The Guangli Prescriptions gives this treatment for a centipede that has entered the ear: Pour cow’s lao into the ear; after a while, the insect will come out. If it has entered the abdomen, drink two sheng of lao. The insect will dissolve into yellow fluid and disappear on its own.

Tihu, the refined essence of su, or milk fat, tastes sweet, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats pathogenic wind and bi qi, numbness and pain caused by wind, cold, and dampness. It promotes circulation, nourishes the marrow, and can also be used as a massage medicine. It is cold in nature and promotes circulation; its effects surpass those of su, and it is found within raw su.

The Tang Commentary says: Tihu is the essence of su. One shi of good su can yield three or four sheng of tihu. Boil and churn the tihu to refine it, then store it in a vessel. When it has solidified, pierce it down to the bottom, and liquid will seep out. What is collected is tihu. Tao Hongjing said that tihu is a yellow-white cake, but this shows that he did not understand the process. The Tang Commentary is the authoritative account.

Yuxi says: According to the Shu Materia Medica, another account holds that tihu is contained within su: it does not solidify in the depths of winter and does not melt in the height of summer.

The Rihuazi says: Tihu can relieve fright palpitations, heat in the heart, and headache, and can brighten the eyes. It may be applied to the crown of the head.

The Sagely Beneficial Prescriptions gives this treatment for agitation, heat, and itchy skin after a stroke: Take four liang of tihu, and each time mix half a spoonful with wine and drink it.

The Yanyi says: When making fermented milk, the topmost layer that solidifies is called the “cream skin.” The part of the cream skin that looks oily is called “tihti.” Boiling it yields tihti, though it is difficult to obtain much. Tihti tastes very sweet and fine, but has few practical uses; it is best for moisturizing and tending scabs.

Mare’s milk can quench thirst.

The Tang Ben Zhu says: Mare’s milk and donkey’s milk have similar properties. They are somewhat cold and promote passage; they can quench thirst and treat heat disorders. When mare’s milk is made into fermented milk, it is especially cold in nature. Mare’s milk is scarce south of the Yangtze, and today mare’s and donkey’s milk are often used together. More specifically, donkey’s milk can treat mild fever, jaundice, and internal heat or heat-induced convulsions in children. It also promotes passage when taken. The Hu people say that mare’s fermented milk is warm in nature and helps digest meat. Medicines and foods can counterbalance one another, so one should not cling only to descriptions of cold and hot properties.

Chen Cangqi says: Mare’s milk is sweet in flavor, treats heat disorders, and is cold in nature and promotes passage.

Sun the Perfected says: Eating mare’s milk together with raw fish causes jia, a kind of accumulation in the abdomen.

Fermented milk curds are slightly cold in nature. They moisten the Five Zang organs, promote urination and bowel movements, and benefit the twelve channels. Cut the curds into pieces the size of beans, mix them with flour and vinegar whey, and boil until they have come to a boil more than twenty times. This can be used to treat red-and-white dysentery, in which the stool contains red or white matter. It is especially suitable for children with this illness.

Diyejia is pungent and bitter in flavor, neutral in nature, and non-toxic. It treats a range of illnesses, including sudden disorders caused by malign influences, fright-induced illness, pathogenic influences, and accumulations in the chest and abdomen. It comes from the Western Regions, an ancient term for lands to the west.

The Tang Ben Zhu says: According to local people, diyejia is made from the bile of various animals. It resembles a pill that has been stored until it spoiled and is reddish-black in color. The Hu people often bring it to the Central Plains and prize it highly. It has reportedly proved effective when tried.

Black felt is non-toxic. When a sore develops after a burn, it can be used to keep wind and water away from the wound and to stop bleeding. Burn it to ash and take two qian and seven fen with wine to treat persistent bleeding after childbirth. The text also records that lying on black felt for a long time draws away a person’s fat and blood, leaving the face pale and causing rebellious Qi and labored breathing.

Sea otter is salty in flavor and non-toxic. If someone is poisoned by eating fish, badly injured by a fish bone, or has a fish bone stuck in the throat that cannot be swallowed, boil sea otter skin in water and drink the liquid. People living by the sea also eat its meat. The sea otter resembles an otter and is as large as a dog. Its feet have thick pads like the calluses between a person’s toes, and its fur does not get wet. The fur of sea animals such as sea otters, dugongs, sea horses, and sea donkeys rises with changes in wind and tide, even when they are on land. The Bowuzhi makes this claim.

Marmot is sweet in flavor, neutral in nature, and non-toxic. It can be used to treat “pheasant fistula sores,” a type of fistula sore described in ancient texts. Its meat is fatty and delicious, and is suitable for boiling and eating. Marmots live among the mountains and marshes of the Western Regions, an ancient term for lands to the west. They dig burrows underground and resemble otters. The non-Han peoples…

Once dug up, it can be eaten. The Weilüe records that the kingdom of Daqin produces a kind of “poison-warding mouse” whose shape resembles this creature.

Illustrated and Expanded Materia Medica, juan 27