《黃帝內經素問補註釋文》Vol. 5

Supplementary Annotations to the Plain Questions of the Inner Classic of the Yellow Emperor, Volume Five: “Treatise on the Correspondence of Yin and Yang”

The Yellow Emperor said, “Yin and Yang are the fundamental principles governing the workings of Heaven and Earth.”

This refers to the principles by which all things change and come into being. Laozi said, “All things carry Yin and embrace Yang; when the Qi of Yin and Yang mingle and blend, all things are brought into harmony.” The Classic of Changes, in the “Appended Statements,” says, “The alternation of one Yin and one Yang is the Dao.” These statements express the same principle.

Yin and Yang are the guiding framework of all things. Yang Qi endows things with vital force, enabling them to grow; Yin Qi serves as their foundation, enabling them to take form. Thus Yin and Yang are the overarching principles of all things. The “Treatise on the Separation and Union of Yin and Yang” says, “Yang Qi endows them with vital force; Yin Qi governs them.” This means the same thing.

Yin and Yang are the source of change, and the source from which different things come into being through change. Why is this so? Hawks can transform into doves, field mice into quails, decaying grass into fireflies, and sparrows, upon entering the water, into clams; pheasants, upon entering the water, become shen—a legendary kind of shellfish. These are examples of different kinds of things arising through transformation.

Yin and Yang are the basis of growth and death. This refers to the effects of cold and heat: all things grow through the warmth of Yang Qi and die through the cold of Yin Qi. From this we can see that the basis of both life and death lies in the workings of Yin and Yang.

Yin and Yang are where Shen (the elusive workings of natural transformation) resides. “Repository” means an official hall or dwelling. Why do the changes of life and death take so many forms? Because Shen resides within Yin and Yang. Later, the text says, “The movements and stillness of Heaven and Earth take Shen as their guiding principle.” The Classic of Changes, in the “Appended Statements,” says, “When the changes of Yin and Yang cannot be fathomed, they are called Shen.” This, too, means that Shen resides within Yin and Yang.

Textual note: The New Corrected Edition holds that the passage from “Yin and Yang” through “where Shen resides” is identical to one in the “Treatise on the Heavenly Origins,” though Wang Bing’s commentary differs slightly.

To treat illness, one must seek its root. Yin and Yang are bound up with the transformations of life and death among all things, and the same relationship exists within the human body. Therefore, the method of treating illness must begin by seeking the root cause.

Thus, Yang Qi gathers to form Heaven, and Yin Qi gathers to form Earth.

Earlier, Yin and Yang were described as the principles governing the workings of Heaven and Earth; here, their basis is explained.

Yin governs stillness, and Yang governs movement. This describes the distinct qualities and modes of operation of things.

Yang brings forth the growth of all things, while Yin enables them to mature; Yang brings about their decline, while Yin gathers them into storage. This further explains the distinct roles of Heaven and Earth in growth, decline, and storage. Shennong said, “Heaven acts through Yang…” The original text breaks off here.

Yin brings forth and transforms the myriad things; Yang impels them to grow. Yang also brings about their decline and storage. Some may question the claim that “Yin governs growth, while Yang governs decline.” The rationale becomes clear when we consider the Yijing’s correspondence between the Eight Trigrams (Bagua) and the four directions. Kun belongs to Yin and lies in the southwest, at the turn of the sixth and seventh lunar months, when all things are growing vigorously. How, then, could Yin be said to play no part in their growth? Qian belongs to Yang and lies in the northwest, at the turn of the ninth and tenth lunar months, when all things draw inward and wither. How, then, could Yang be said to play no part in their decline? This shows that the idea that Yin promotes growth and Yang brings about decline is coherent. Yet this passage also appears in the Treatise on the Celestial Origin, where it is phrased differently.

Yang transforms the myriad things into Qi; Yin condenses them into form. This describes the basic pattern by which all things grow and change.

When cold reaches its extreme, heat arises; when heat reaches its extreme, cold arises. This describes the general pattern of Yin-Yang change.

Cold Qi gives rise to turbid Qi, and hot Qi gives rise to clear Qi. Here the text describes the circulation of the body’s normal Qi.

Clear Qi should rise, but if it instead remains below, diarrhea with undigested food will occur. Turbid Qi should descend, but if it instead remains above, the abdomen will become distended. When heat Qi remains in the lower part of the body, food cannot be fully digested, causing diarrhea. When cold Qi remains above, the flow of Qi cannot disperse, causing distention. Why does this happen? Because Yin tends toward stillness, while Yang tends toward movement. (The character chen means “to swell,” referring here to abdominal distention.)

This passage explains how illness arises when the movement of Yin and Yang becomes disordered. “Reversal” means that the direction of movement is turned around; “activity” refers to the movement of Qi. When both direction and activity are disordered, the symptoms described above occur.

Clear Yang Qi becomes Heaven; turbid Yin Qi becomes Earth. Earth Qi rises to form clouds, while Heaven Qi descends to form rain. Rain emerges from Earth Qi, and clouds arise from Heaven Qi.

Yin Qi gathers and rises, intermingling to form clouds; Yang Qi spreads and descends, converging to form rain. Rain carries out its transformative work through cloud Qi, hence the saying, “Rain emerges from Earth Qi.” Clouds form through the blending of Qi, hence the saying, “Clouds arise from Heaven Qi.” The same principles apply in Heaven and Earth, and the clear and turbid Qi within the human body follow a similar pattern.

Thus, clear Yang Qi leaves through the upper orifices, while turbid Yin Qi leaves through the lower orifices.

Qi that originates in Heaven tends upward; Qi that originates in Earth tends downward. Each returns to what is of its own kind. The “upper orifices” are the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth; the “lower orifices” are the urethra and anus.

Clear Yang Qi spreads through the interstices between the skin and muscles, while turbid Yin Qi enters the Five Zang organs. The interstices are gateways through which Qi and fluids seep and disperse, so clear Yang Qi can spread outward. The Five Zang organs enclose and store, so turbid Yin Qi can enter them.

Clear Yang Qi fills the four limbs, while turbid Yin Qi enters the Six Fu organs.

The four limbs move outside the body, so clear Yang Qi fills the limbs. The six bowels transform and transport within the body, so turbid Yin Qi returns to the six bowels.

Water belongs to Yin, and fire belongs to Yang. Water is cold and still, so it belongs to Yin; fire is warm and hot, and tends toward agitation, so it belongs to Yang.

Yang corresponds to Qi, and Yin to flavor. Qi can spread and disperse, so it belongs to Yang. Flavor acts by attaching itself to bodily substance, so it belongs to Yin.

The flavors of food and drink nourish the body, and the body in turn depends on Qi for nourishment. Qi gives rise to essence, and essence is produced through transformation. Because the body is nourished by the flavors of food and drink, it is said that “flavor returns to form.” Because Qi nourishes the body, it is said that “form returns to Qi.” Because essence depends on Qi for nourishment, it is said that “Qi returns to essence.” Because essence is generated through the transformation of Qi, it is said that “essence returns to transformation.” Hence the following statement: “Essence feeds on Qi; form feeds on flavor.”

When Qi transforms and circulates, essence is generated; when the five flavors are in harmony, the body grows. Thus essence and form seem to derive their nourishment from food and drink. Qi transforms to generate essence, and Qi also generates form.

The subtle fluids transform into blood, and blood gives rise to and forms the human body. The body receives nourishment because the movement of Qi establishes the means by which it is nourished. Thus essence and form-Qi each receive and sustain life.

The five flavors injure the body, and Qi injures essence. This refers to the effects of food or Qi exceeding what is appropriate.

Essence is generated through the transformation of Qi, and the flavors of food and drink can also injure essence.

Essence receives nourishment through the transformation of Qi, so it is said that essence feeds on Qi. But if essence is generated through the transformation of Qi, then essence no longer feeds on Qi.

When blood congeals and stagnates inside the body, it becomes foul and putrid. If it surges upward and assails the stomach, the five flavors can no longer enter. During pregnancy, essence transforms to generate the fetus; after a hundred days, the fetus too is affected by the five flavors of food and drink.

Yin flavors leave through the lower openings, while Yang Qi leaves through the upper openings. Flavor has substance, so it flows downward and exits through the opening used for defecation. Qi has no physical form, so it rises and exits through the openings used for breathing.

A strong flavor belongs to Yin; a mild flavor belongs to Yang within Yin. Strong Qi belongs to Yang; weak Qi belongs to Yin within Yang.

Yang corresponds to Qi, so strong, abundant Qi is pure Yang. Yin corresponds to flavor, so a strong flavor is pure Yin. Thus a mild flavor is Yang within Yin, and weak Qi is Yin within Yang.

A strong flavor causes purging, while a mild flavor allows Qi to flow freely. Weak Qi causes dispersal, while strong Qi causes heat. Yin Qi has a moistening, downward nature, so strong flavors tend to cause diarrhea. Yang Qi is hot and rises, so strong Qi tends to produce heat. A mild flavor has less Yin, so it can promote free flow and drainage. Weak Qi has less Yang, so it causes sweat to emerge. Here, “dispersal” refers to sweating.

Excessive fire weakens Qi, while gentle fire strengthens it. Once an excessive blaze reaches its peak, it must turn to decline. Gentle, moderate fire may be weak for a time, but afterward it can grow stronger.

Excessive fire consumes Qi, while Qi can nourish gentle fire. Excessive fire disperses Qi; gentle fire generates and nourishes it. Qi, in turn, can help excessive fire grow. Hence the saying: “Excessive fire feeds on Qi; gentle fire generates Qi.” Gentle fire can nourish Qi—this is what is meant by “gentle fire nourishing Qi.”

In terms of flavor and nature, vigorous Fire consumes original Qi, while mild Fire nourishes it. “Vigorous Fire” and “mild Fire” here refer to states in which Fire is excessive or moderate. When Fire is excessive, original Qi is depleted; when it is moderate, original Qi can grow. The same is true of a person’s Yang Qi: excess depletes it, while moderation benefits it.

Pungent and sweet flavors disperse and belong to Yang; sour and bitter flavors cause upward surging and drainage and belong to Yin. Flavors are not simply divided into the two categories of Yin and Yang; each flavor also has its own Yin-Yang qualities. Pungency disperses, and sweetness moderates, so dispersion belongs to Yang. Sourness contracts, and bitterness drains, so upward surging and drainage belong to Yin.

When Yin Qi is excessive, it harms Yang Qi; when Yang Qi is excessive, it harms Yin Qi. Illness arises only when one exceeds the other: excess Yin brings cold, and excess Yang brings heat. These conditions result from imbalance. The New Collation notes that the Jia Yi Jing reads, “When Yin is diseased, there is heat; when Yang is diseased, there is cold.” Though the wording differs, the meaning is the same.

When cold becomes excessive, it turns to heat; when heat becomes excessive, it turns to cold. When things reach an extreme, they reverse. Thus vigorous Fire weakens original Qi, while mild Fire can make it abundant.

Cold pathogens harm the body’s form, while heat pathogens damage Qi. In cold conditions, Wei Qi—the Qi that protects the body—circulates poorly, and the body’s form is harmed. In hot conditions, Ying Qi—the Qi that nourishes the body—dissipates within, and Qi is damaged. Yin gives form to the body, while Yang generates Qi; yet either, when beyond moderation, harms both form and Qi.

Damage to Qi causes pain; damage to the body’s form causes swelling. When Qi is damaged, heat becomes congested among the muscles, causing pain. When the body’s form is damaged, cold pathogens enter the skin’s interstices—the skin’s lines and spaces beneath its surface—causing swelling. Thus, pain followed by swelling means that Qi was damaged first and the body’s form was affected afterward. Swelling followed by pain means that the body’s form was damaged first and Qi was affected afterward. When a disorder of Qi appears first and a disorder of the body’s form follows, this is called “Qi injuring form”; when a disorder of the body’s form appears first and a disorder of Qi follows, this is called “form injuring Qi.”

When wind is excessive, all things are set in motion, so signs of shaking and unsteadiness appear. The New Collation cites the Zuo Zhuan: “Wind excess causes disorders of the extremities.” This expresses the same idea.

When heat pathogens are excessive, they cause swelling. Heat becomes congested within, preventing Yang Qi from circulating normally, and pronounced swelling can then arise suddenly. In severe cases, Ying Qi becomes disordered among the muscular lines and gathers into pus, forming a carbuncle or abscess.

When dryness is excessive, the body becomes dry because fluids are depleted, and the skin dries as well.

When cold pathogens are excessive, they cause edema. Cold makes Yin Qi congeal in the Xuanfu—the pores and other minute passages of the body. Once the Xuanfu are blocked, Yang Qi becomes trapped within, and edema appears.

When dampness is excessive, it causes loose stools and diarrhea. After dampness invades the spleen and stomach, it disrupts their function of transforming and transporting food and drink. Fluids and food can no longer be separated properly, and the intestines’ movement is impaired, resulting in diarrhea.

When pathogenic Qi is abundant within the body and discharges outward, it is called “damp diarrhea” (watery diarrhea). The New Collation Commentary cites the Zuo Tradition: “Excessive rain brings abdominal illness.” The meaning is that too much rain can cause abdominal disease, which is the same idea expressed here. The five statements beginning “When wind prevails, movement follows” are identical to the passage in the Treatise on the Six Qi and the Regularity of the Periods, where they are explained in greater detail.

Heaven has the four seasons and the Five Phases, which give rise to the changes of birth, growth, gathering, and storage, as well as the five climatic influences of cold, heat, dryness, dampness, and wind. Spring brings forth the myriad things, summer makes them grow, autumn gathers them in, and winter stores them away. These are the four seasonal phases of birth, growth, gathering, and storage. Winter corresponds to Water and is cold; summer corresponds to Fire and is hot; autumn corresponds to Metal and is dry; spring corresponds to Wood and governs wind; and late summer corresponds to Earth and governs dampness. These are the associations between the Five Phases and the five climatic influences of cold, heat, dryness, dampness, and wind. Although Earth is present and flourishes in all four seasons, the climate it governs is dampness. Thus the Five Phases give rise to the five climatic influences of cold, heat, dryness, dampness, and wind.

Human beings have five viscera—the liver, heart, spleen, lungs, and kidneys. The five viscera generate the five Qi, which in turn give rise to emotions such as joy, anger, grief, worry, and fear. Here, “the five Qi” refers to joy, anger, grief, worry, and fear. These emotions, however, can also in turn impair the harmonious Qi of the five viscera.

The New Collation Commentary says that the Treatise on the Heavenly Origin has “grief,” while a later passage in this chapter gives anger as the liver’s emotion, joy as the heart’s, thought as the spleen’s, worry as the lungs’, and fear as the kidneys’. The Treatise on the True Viscera of the Jade Pivot also has “grief,” so the various chapters differ. The Jia Yi Jing of Huangfu Shian, in its chapter on the spirit and the five viscera, explains this in detail. “Grief” is given because grief overcomes anger, an account based on the way the five emotions overcome one another. “Thought” is given because thought is the spleen’s emotion. Each account, taken alone, presents only part of the meaning; considered together, the two accounts complement one another.

Thus joy and anger injure Qi, while cold and heat injure the body. Joy and anger both arise from changes in Qi, so they are said to injure Qi. Cold and heat chiefly harm the body, so they are said to injure the body. This is how the matter may be understood in general. More precisely, pathogenic heat injures Qi, while pathogenic cold injures the body.

Great anger injures Yin, and excessive joy injures Yang. Anger drives Qi upward, while joy disperses it downward. When Qi suddenly surges upward, it injures Yin; when it suddenly disperses downward, it injures Yang.

When rebellious Qi surges upward and fills the channels, a person loses the body’s ability to contain it. As rebellious Qi surges upward and fills the channels and collaterals, the spirit Qi floats free and leaves the body.

When joy and anger are unrestrained and cold and heat exceed their proper measure, life can no longer remain secure.

The Lingshu Jing says that those who understand how to preserve health must follow the changes of the four seasons, adapt to cold and heat, regulate joy and anger, and arrange their daily routines with care. If joy and anger are unpredictable, cold and heat are out of balance, how can one’s inborn True Qi be preserved for long?

When Yin Qi gathers to its height, it must turn into Yang; when Yang Qi gathers to its height, it must turn into Yin. The same applies to illness caused by exposure to cold or heat. Thus, exposure to cold pathogens in winter may lead to a warm disease in spring.

Pathogens associated with any of the four seasons can cause illness, but the harm caused by cold pathogens is especially severe: they are the most dangerous source of disease. If illness begins as soon as a cold pathogen enters the body, it is an acute attack of Cold Damage. If illness does not begin at once, the pathogen remains hidden in the skin and flesh. In spring it may turn into a warm disease; in summer it may turn into a summer-heat disease. Those who preserve health must therefore be careful to avoid exposure to pathogens.

Exposure to wind pathogens in spring may lead to sudden diarrhea in summer—that is, food passes through the body and is followed quickly by diarrhea. When wind pathogens attack the body’s exterior, they affect the Liver internally. Liver Qi then invades the Spleen, causing sudden diarrhea. The Newly Revised Commentary points out that the Treatise on the Generation of Qi and the Connection between Heaven and Humanity says that after exposure to wind in spring, the pathogen may remain lodged in the body; if it does not leave, it can cause persistent diarrhea.

Exposure to summer-heat pathogens in summer may lead to intermittent malaria in autumn. The heat of summer is already intense; in autumn, the summer heat is drawn inward and retained. These two kinds of heat attack one another, causing intermittent malaria. The character jie in jienue carries the meaning of wasting away.

Exposure to dampness in autumn may lead to coughing in winter. Dampness is abundant in autumn, and Water Qi is strong in winter. Water and dampness combine, while Lung Qi is relatively weak; as the cold of winter intensifies, coughing becomes more likely. The Newly Revised Commentary points out that the Treatise on the Generation of Qi and the Connection between Heaven and Humanity says that after exposure to dampness in autumn, the pathogen may move upward and cause coughing, which can further develop into flaccidity and reversal: weakness of the limbs accompanied by coldness moving against the normal flow.

The Yellow Emperor said, “I have heard that the sages of antiquity, when discussing how to regulate the human body, distinguished the organs and viscera, clarified the connections between the channels and vessels, and brought the Six Unions into communication. Each channel has its own course, and each Qi point—the place where the body’s Qi gathers and enters or leaves—has its own location and name. The xi and gu, the gaps of different sizes between the muscles, and the places where bones join each have their own origins and distribution. The orderly movement of Qi and blood through every part of the body, whether flowing with or against its proper course, follows its own principles; so do the Yin-Yang changes of the four seasons. Is it indeed true that the body’s inner and outer aspects correspond, and that its exterior and interior are joined?”

Commentators explain that the “Six Unions” refers to the twelve channels paired into six groups. The Lingshu Jing says that Taiyin and Yangming form one pair, Shaoyin and Taiyang another, and Jueyin and Shaoyang a third. The hand channels and foot channels each have three pairs, making six in all. The hand Jueyin channel is the Pericardium channel. The Treatise on Qi Points says that a large gathering of muscle is called a gu, and a small one a xi. The spaces between the muscle fibers and the points where these gaps meet are places where Nutritive Qi and Defensive Qi flow and converge. “Bone connections” refers to the places where bones join.

“Exterior” and “interior” mean that all the Yang channels belong to the exterior, while all the Yin channels belong to the interior.

The Revised Text says: On checking, we find that the passage from “The Yellow Emperor said, ‘Is that really so?’” to “Qibo replied” appears in both the Quan Yuanqi edition and the Taishou after “the teachings of the sages of antiquity.”

Qibo replied:

In the east, wind is born. When Yang Qi rises and spreads, it forms wind. Wind is Heaven’s command and the beginning of its transformation of all things; thus it is said that wind arises in the east.

Wind gives rise to Wood. Wind stirs the trees, causing them to flourish and grow; thus it is said that wind gives rise to Wood.

Wood gives rise to sourness. All things with a sour taste arise from the Qi of Wood. The Book of Documents, in the “Great Plan” chapter, says, “Bending and straightening produce sourness.” This means that things with the qualities of bending and extending produce a sour taste.

Sourness gives rise to the Liver. Here, “gives rise to” means to nourish and promote growth. Sour foods first nourish the Liver.

The Liver gives rise to the sinews. The Liver’s vital essence can nourish the sinews.

The sinews give rise to the Heart. The Book of Yin and Yang says, “Wood gives rise to Fire.” The Liver belongs to Wood. After the Liver’s Wood Qi nourishes the sinews within the body, it can also generate Heart Fire.

The Liver governs the eyes. The eyes can see light and correspond to the Liver; the two are related through correspondence between things of the same kind.

At different levels of correspondence, in Heaven this is called “the Mysterious,” in humans it is called the “Dao,” and on Earth it is called “transformation.” “The Mysterious” refers to what is remote and profound; here it describes the vast sky, still not yet manifest. The “Dao” refers to transformation through the Dao: people are nurtured by the Dao and come to follow it. “Transformation” refers to the creative process: all things grow and develop in their own time through its workings.

Transformation gives rise to the Five Flavors. All things have the Five Flavors, which are formed through change; change is the root from which all things arise.

The Dao gives rise to wisdom. Wisdom arises through correct transformation by the Dao; hence it is said, “The Dao gives rise to wisdom.”

The Mysterious gives rise to Shen (spirit). Shen dwells within what is profound and remote; hence it is said, “The Mysterious gives rise to Shen.”

In Heaven, Shen manifests as wind. Wind rises, stirs, and sets things in motion. It can spread widely and reach everywhere, reflecting the wondrous workings of transformation.

On Earth, Shen manifests as Wood. Wood is supple: it can bend and it can extend.

In the human body, it manifests as the sinews. The sinews bind, link, and connect the various parts of the body, giving people strength.

Among the organs, it corresponds to the Liver, which stores the Hun (ethereal soul). According to the Daoist scripture, the Hun dwells in the Liver. When the Hun is at rest, the person’s spirit can return to the Great Dao without disturbance.

In color, it corresponds to azure, a pale blue-green like the color of trees. In musical pitch, it corresponds to the Jiao tone.

“Gong” is one of the five musical tones and belongs to the Wood tone. Its pitch is even and level. The Record of Music says, “When the Jue tone is disordered, it makes people sorrowful, and the common people resentful.”

In the realm of sound, Jue corresponds to “calling.” This means calling out and also includes a long, piercing cry.

Among abnormal changes, Jue corresponds to “clenching”: the hands tighten or become cramped. Clenching serves to pull and draw things together. [The New Corrected Edition explains: Yang Shangshan held that “clenching, sorrow, retching, coughing, and trembling” are names for manifestations arising from changes in the emotions, and are therefore called “changes.”]

Among the body’s openings, Jue corresponds to the eyes, which are used to distinguish shapes and colors.

Among the flavors, Jue corresponds to sourness, which has an astringent effect.

In the realm of emotion, Jue corresponds to anger. Anger can stop improper behavior.

Anger harms the Liver. Anger is the emotion associated with the Liver, but excessive anger can in turn damage it.

Sorrow can restrain anger. Sorrow belongs to Lung Metal, while the Liver belongs to Wood. When the Qi of sorrow is strong, Lung Metal can restrain Liver Wood, and so overcome anger. The Treatise on the Qi of the Five Viscera says, “When Jing-Qi gathers in the Lung, sorrow arises.” [The New Corrected Edition adds: The five emotions are usually listed as anger, joy, thought, worry, and fear; here, “worry” would be expected. The text may use “sorrow” instead because resentment and worry that cannot be released damage the will, while grief that moves the heart damages the Hun. For this reason, it does not say “worry.”]

Wind harms the sinews. When pathogenic wind is strong, the sinew channels become tense and contracted. [The New Corrected Edition points out that the Treatise on the Great Discourse on the Five Cycles says, “Wind harms the Liver.”]

Dryness can restrain wind. Dryness belongs to Metal, and Metal can restrain wind, which belongs to Wood.

Sourness harms the sinews. Too much sour flavor can damage them.

Pungency can restrain sourness. Pungency belongs to Metal, which can restrain sourness, a Wood quality.

The South generates heat. When Yang-Qi blazes, heat arises.

Heat generates fire. Fire made by drilling wood, and the changing of one fire source for another, both arise from heat.

Fire generates bitterness. All bitter things are associated with the Qi of fire. The Book of Documents, “Great Plan,” says, “Fire blazes upward and produces bitterness.”

Bitterness nourishes the Heart. All bitter things first help the Heart to grow.

The Heart generates blood. The Heart’s Jing-Qi can produce and nourish blood.

Blood nourishes the Spleen. According to the Book of Yin and Yang, Fire generates Earth. The Heart belongs to Fire; within the body, the Qi of Heart Fire first nourishes the blood, then generates Spleen Earth. [The New Corrected Edition says that the text reads “pulse” here in the Great Plain, not “blood.”]

The Heart governs the tongue. The Heart can distinguish right from wrong, while the tongue is used for speech, so the Heart corresponds to the tongue.

In Heaven, it corresponds to heat. Warmth, summer heat, and blazing intensity are all effects of heat.

On Earth, it corresponds to fire.

Fire rises upward, appearing intense and bright.

In the human body, Fire corresponds to the vessels. The vessels carry the nutritive Qi and defensive Qi, which sustain the body’s nourishment and protection, and they also nourish the blood.

Among the Five Zang organs, Fire corresponds to the heart. The Shen stored in the heart is also called “Shen.” The Meaning of the Dao Jing says: “Shen resides in the heart. When Shen remains settled in its place, Qi and blood can flow freely.”

In color, Fire corresponds to red, its symbolic color.

In musical tones, Fire corresponds to zhi, one of the Five Tones. The zhi tone belongs to Fire and sounds harmonious and beautiful. The Record of Music says that when the zhi tone is disordered, it makes people feel sorrow, because it reflects the hardship of government affairs.

In bodily sounds, Fire corresponds to laughter, the sound made in joy.

Among changes in emotional states, Fire corresponds to worry. Worry, too, can help bring things about. The Newly Corrected Text quotes Yang Shangshan as saying: “The heart’s worry lies in the heart; the lung’s worry lies in the lung.” If emotions are understood according to what each of the Five Zang governs, the lung governs autumn, and worry is its proper emotion; the heart governs summer, yet worry can also arise when emotions change.

Among the body’s orifices, Fire corresponds to the tongue, which distinguishes the Five Flavors. The “Discourse on True Words from the Golden Coffer” says that the red color of the south connects with the heart, and that the heart opens into the ear. If “orifice” is understood here to mean the ear, that conflicts with the statement in this passage that it is the tongue. The tongue is mentioned here because the heart is related to the sense of taste.

In flavor, Fire corresponds to bitterness; in emotion, it corresponds to joy. Bitter flavor dries dampness and promotes downward discharge; joy makes people feel at ease and happy.

Excessive joy harms the heart. Although joy is the emotion governed by the heart, too much of it can also injure the heart.

Fear restrains joy. Fear belongs to Kidney Water, and Water controls Fire, so fear can restrain joy. The “Discourse on the Five Qi” says that when Jing and Qi gather in the kidneys, fear arises.

Heat damages Qi. When heat becomes excessive, breathing grows rapid.

Cold restrains heat. Cold belongs to Water Qi and can therefore control Fire and heat.

Bitter flavor damages Qi because bitterness belongs to Fire.

The Newly Corrected Text points out that this chapter discusses what harms each of the five directions in roughly three ways. Some cases involve something harming itself within the same category, such as eastern wind harming the sinews and sourness harming the sinews, or central dampness harming the flesh and sweetness harming the flesh. Others involve the Qi that overcomes something harming what it controls, such as southern heat harming Qi and bitterness harming Qi, or northern cold harming the blood and saltiness harming the blood. Still others involve both kinds of harm: western heat harming the skin and body hair is caused by the Qi that overcomes them, whereas pungency harming the skin and body hair is self-harm within the same category. The Taisu treats all these cases as self-harm.

Salty flavor restrains bitter flavor because saltiness belongs to Water, and Water controls Fire.

The center generates dampness.

When Yang Qi is vigorous, it rises and presses against Yin Qi. Yin Qi can contain it; Yang Qi then rises and joins with Yin Qi, giving rise to dampness.

The Meaning of the Changes says: “Yang Qi rises and presses against Yin Qi. Yin Qi can contain it; then Yang Qi steams upward, forming rain.” This shows that dampness arises when Yin Qi contains Yang Qi. The New Corrected Edition cites Yang Shangshan: “In the sixth month, four parts of Yang Qi join with two parts of Yin Qi. They steam upward and produce dampness.”

Dampness produces Earth.

When dampness is present in the earth, it enables things to gather and coalesce. Hence the saying that dampness produces Earth. The New Corrected Edition cites Yang Shangshan: “Four parts of Yang Qi join with two parts of Yin Qi, steaming and decomposing the myriad things, which are thereby transformed into earth.”

Earth produces sweetness.

All sweet things arise from the Qi of Earth. The Book of Documents, in “The Great Plan,” says, “Farming produces sweetness,” meaning that crops produce sweet flavors.

Sweetness nourishes the Spleen.

The saying “sweetness nourishes the Spleen” means that sweet foods first nourish the Spleen.

The Spleen produces flesh.

The Spleen’s vital essence can nourish the muscles.

Flesh produces the Lung.

The statement “flesh produces the Lung” follows the Five Phases’ cycle of generation. Yin-Yang theorists hold that Earth generates Metal. The Spleen belongs to Earth; after the Qi of Spleen-Earth nourishes the muscles within the body, it can in turn nourish the Lung, which belongs to Metal.

The Spleen governs the mouth.

The Spleen receives grain and water—that is, food and drink—while the mouth takes in the various flavors. Thus the Spleen corresponds to the mouth.

In the heavens, it corresponds to dampness.

Mist, dew, clouds, and rain are all manifestations of dampness.

On earth, it corresponds to Earth.

Stability and stillness, and the growth and ripening of crops, are qualities of Earth.

In the human body, it corresponds to the muscles.

The muscles encase the sinews and bones, giving the body fullness and form.

Among the organs, it corresponds to the Spleen.

The Spleen stores intent. The Meaning of the Dao Jing says that intent resides in the Spleen; when intent is settled, wisdom does not become scattered.

In color, it corresponds to yellow.

Yellow symbolizes the color of Earth.

In musical pitch, it corresponds to the gong tone.

The gong tone belongs to Earth, and its sound is broad and harmonious. The Book of Rites, in “The Record of Music,” says, “When the gong tone is disordered, there is desolation, and the ruler is arrogant.” This means that when the gong tone is out of tune, governance falls into disorder and the ruler becomes arrogant.

In sound, it corresponds to singing.

Here, “singing” refers to sounds such as sighing.

In abnormal changes, it corresponds to yue.

Yue refers to Qi surging upward and producing a hiccup-like sound. The original commentary associates it with coldness in the Stomach. The New Corrected Edition notes that Wang Bing’s explanation of yue as “yue and belching” is not appropriate, because “belching” is not the same as yue. Yang Shangshan says that yue is Qi moving upward in a contrary direction.

Among the orifices, it corresponds to the mouth.

The mouth takes in grain and water.

In flavor, it corresponds to sweetness.

Sweetness has a soothing, gentle effect.

In the emotions, it corresponds to thoughtfulness.

Thoughtfulness enables a person to consider matters far into the future.

Excessive thoughtfulness can harm the Spleen.

Although thoughtfulness is the emotion associated with the Spleen, excessive thoughtfulness can also in turn injure it.

Anger can restrain thoughtfulness.

When people are angry, they often have no time to think things over. This shows that anger can restrain thoughtfulness.

Dampness pathogen damages the muscles. The Spleen governs the muscles and also detests dampness, so when damp Qi is excessive, the muscles are damaged.

Wind can restrain dampness. Wind belongs to Wood and dampness belongs to Earth, so wind Qi can overcome damp Qi.

Excessive sweet flavor damages the muscles; this too arises from eating without restraint. The New Correction (Xin Jiaozheng) says that according to the Wu Yunxing Da Lun, it is “sweetness damages the Spleen.”

Sour flavor can restrain sweet flavor. Sour belongs to Wood and sweet belongs to Earth, so sour can overcome sweet.

The West produces dryness Qi. When the heavenly timing is urgent and dry, dryness Qi is formed.

Dryness Qi produces Metal. Metal is dry and hard, and when struck it emits a sound, so it is said that dryness generates Metal.

Metal Qi produces pungent flavor. All pungent things are produced by Metal Qi. The Shangshu, “Hong Fan,” says: “Following and reforming produces the pungent.” This means that things possessing the properties of transformation and contraction have a pungent flavor.

Pungent flavor nourishes the Lung. All pungent things first act on the Lung, causing the Lung to be nourished.

The Lung generates and nourishes the skin and body hair. The Lung’s Jing-Qi can nourish the skin and hair.

The skin and body hair generate the Kidney. The Yin-Yang Shu says that Metal generates Water; here it means that the Lung belongs to Metal, and Lung Metal Qi first nourishes the skin and body hair, then further generates and nourishes Kidney Water.

The Lung governs the nose. The Lung stores Qi, and the nose is the passage through which breathing enters and exits, so the Lung and nose correspond to and govern each other.

In Heaven, it corresponds to dryness Qi. The action of dryness is light, urgent, and vigorous.

On Earth, it corresponds to Metal. Being hard, vigorous, and able to comply with transformation is the nature of Metal.

In the human body, it corresponds to the skin and body hair. The skin and body hair wrap and protect the skin, flesh, and interstitial spaces (skin texture and sweat pores), resisting invasion by external pathogens.

Among the five viscera, it corresponds to the Lung; the Shen stored by the Lung is the Po. The Daojing Yi says: “The Po-Shen belongs to the Lung.” When the Lung-Po is settled, De (Virtue/Power) can be cultivated and lifespan can be extended.

In color, it corresponds to white, because white symbolizes the color of Metal.

Among the five tones, it corresponds to the Shang tone. The Shang tone refers to a clear, metallic, and vigorous sound. The Liji, “Yueji,” says that when the Shang tone is disordered, government affairs become biased and official posts fall out of order.

Among sounds, it corresponds to crying, because crying carries the meaning of grief.

Among bodily changes, it corresponds to cough. Coughing can clear and free the throat.

Among the orifices, it corresponds to the nose. The nose is responsible for smell and breathing.

Among the five flavors, it corresponds to pungent flavor. Pungent flavor can disperse and also moisten and nourish.

Among the emotions, it corresponds to worry. Worry is deep pondering; excessive worry damages the Lung.

Joy can restrain worry. Joy belongs to Heart Fire, and when Heart Fire is exuberant it can restrain Lung Metal, so joy can overcome worry. The Xuanming Wuqi Pian says: “When Jing-Qi gathers in the Heart, joy is produced.”

Heat pathogen damages the skin and body hair, because heat is born from Fire and consumes fluids.

Cold can restrain heat; this is the principle of Yin restraining Yang. The New Correction says that according to the Taisu, this passage reads “dryness damages the skin.”

A sensation of heat in the hair is a sign that Dryness is predominant. Wang Bing’s commentary on the “Treatise on the Five Movements and Circuits” also says that there are two kinds of Fire. This is why the effects of Heat attacking the body are listed here again.

The pungent flavor injures the skin and body hair. When pungency is excessive, it can itself bring harm. The bitter flavor restrains pungency because bitter belongs to Fire, and Fire restrains pungent, which belongs to Metal.

Cold arises in the north: Yin Qi gathers and congeals, becoming severe cold. As Cold Qi gathers and changes, it generates Water. All things with a salty flavor arise from the Qi of Water. The “Great Plan” chapter of the Book of Documents says, “Moistening and descending produce saltiness.” Saltiness corresponds to the Kidneys; salty things first nourish the Kidneys. The essence and Qi of the Kidneys nourish the marrow, and only once the marrow has been nourished can it generate and nourish Liver Wood. This accords with the Yin-Yang theory that “Water generates Wood.”

The Kidneys govern the ears. They belong to the north, a dark and hidden place, into which sound enters; hence the association between the Kidneys and the ears. In the heavens, the Kidneys correspond to Cold; on earth, to Water; in the body, to bones; and among the organs, to the Kidneys. The Kidneys store the will. The Meaning of the Daoist Canon says that the will is stored in the Kidneys, and when the Qi of the will is abundant, the marrow becomes full and substantial.

In color, the Kidneys correspond to black, the color symbolizing Water. Among the Five Tones, they correspond to the Yu tone, one of the five tones, whose pitch is deep and resonant. The “Record of Music” in the Book of Rites says that when the Yu tone is disordered, it sounds precarious and weak, and the sound lacks fullness.

In sound, the Kidneys correspond to groaning; in bodily changes, they correspond to trembling, which may occur in extreme cold or great fear. In terms of the body’s openings, the Kidneys correspond to the ears, which distinguish the Five Tones by hearing. The editors of the New Collation note that the “Treatise on the True Words of the Golden Casket” says the Kidneys “open into the two lower orifices.” The present passage says that the Kidneys govern the ears because the Heart has an associated opening in the ears; this accounts for the difference in wording.

In flavor, the Kidneys correspond to saltiness, which can soften things; in emotion, they correspond to fear. Fear means apprehension and dread. When it continues without end, it damages the Kidneys from within. The Ling Shu Jing says that fear which cannot be dispelled damages the essence and Qi, affecting the Kidneys. Deep reflection and seeing the root of things can restrain fear. Cold pathogens injure the Blood.

When excess cold evil is in surplus, the blood congeals and stagnates and is injured; this can readily be imagined. (Newly collated note: according to the Taisu (Taisu), the character for "blood" (xue) is written as "bone" (gu).)

Dryness can overcome cold: dry qi is born from heat, and so it can restrain cold. (Newly collated note: according to the Taisu, the character for "dryness" (zao) is written as "dampness" (shi).)

Salty flavor injures the blood: eating too much salty food brings on thirst, which shows that saltiness can injure the blood. (Newly collated note: according to the Taisu, the character for "blood" is written as "bone".)

Sweetness can overcome saltiness: sweetness belongs to the Earth flavor, and Earth overcomes Water, so sweetness can restrain saltiness. (Newly collated note: from the earlier passage beginning with "Qibo replied" up to this point, the text is the same as the Wuyun Xinglun (Treatise on the Movements of the Five Phases), but the two commentaries differ considerably and should be read together.)

Therefore it is said: heaven and earth are the upper and lower of the myriad things. By observing heaven covering and earth bearing, the upper and lower positions of the myriad things can be understood.

Yin-Yang is the general term for blood and qi and for male and female. Yin governs blood and Yang governs qi; Yin nature gives birth to females and Yang nature gives birth to males.

Left and right are the pathways along which Yin-Yang moves. The intermediate qi of Yin-Yang (the qi located between the principal qi among the six qi) circulates to the left and right, so left and right are the channels through which Yin and Yang come and go. (Newly collated note: the notion of "intermediate qi" is detailed in the Liuwei Zhiyi Lun (Treatise on the Subtle Essentials of the Six Qi). Yang Shangshan says that Yin qi moves to the right and Yang qi moves to the left, which is precisely this meaning.)

Water and fire are the signs of Yin-Yang. By observing the qi of water and fire, the indications of Yin-Yang can be understood.

Yin-Yang is the beginning of the transformations of the myriad things, the origin from which transformation and generation arise. (Newly collated note: from "heaven and earth" through "the beginning of the myriad things' capacity," the text is the same as the Tianyuan Jilun (Treatise on the Great Origin), but the commentary differs considerably. That passage lacks the sentence "Yin-Yang is the male and female of blood and qi," and in place of "Yin-Yang is the beginning of the myriad things' capacity," it reads "metal and wood are the end and beginning of generation and completion.")

Therefore it is said: Yin, within, is the guardian of Yang; Yang, without, is the servant of Yin. Yin's nature is still, and so it holds Yang in place; Yang's nature is agitated, and so it is driven by Yin and comes into function.

The Yellow Emperor asked how one should model oneself on Yin-Yang. Qibo replied: When Yang qi is in excess, a person's body becomes hot, the couli (the striations between skin and flesh) close, and breathing becomes hurried and coarse, so the body tosses and turns restlessly. There is fever without sweating, the teeth are dry, and the heart is vexed. If abdominal distension then appears, this is a sign of death. Such a person can endure winter but cannot endure summer. Because Yang is in excess, they can withstand winter; because the heat is greater, they cannot endure summer.

When Yin qi is in excess, a person's body feels cold and sweats, often feels chilled all over, trembles repeatedly, and fears the cold. When cold reaches its extreme, the hands and feet turn cold; if this reversal of cold is accompanied by abdominal distension, it is a sign of death. People with excess Yin have weakened Yang, so cold makes their condition more critical, while warmth allows them relatively better support.

"Jue" refers to the upward counterflow of qi (vital energy).

Some people can adapt to summer but not to winter, because Yin qi is excessive in them. In winter the cold qi is too strong for them to withstand. This is a manifestation of illness caused by the alternating and excessive dominance of Yin and Yang.

The Yellow Emperor asked, "How should these two conditions be regulated?"

Qi Bo replied, "One who understands the principle of qi sun ba yi (the "seven losses and eight gains," which adjusts one's regimen to the physiological cycles of women, based on sevens, and men, based on eights) can regulate them. One who does not understand how to apply this principle will age prematurely."

Here, "application" refers to the regulation of sexual activity. Women reach the point at which tiangui (the vital essence related to reproductive function) is exhausted at forty-nine years, seven sevens. Men reach it at sixty-four years, eight eights. One who understands that men should exercise restraint at appropriate times, and that women should follow their monthly cycles in self-cultivation, can nourish their tianzhen zhi qi (original true qi) according to their own constitution, fully attain their natural lifespan, and live to one hundred.

The Shanggu Tianzhen Lun (Treatise on the True Human of High Antiquity) states that at two sevens, fourteen years, women's tiangui arrives and menstruation comes on schedule. At two eights, sixteen years, men's tiangui arrives, and their essence is full enough to be discharged. From this we can see that women's physiological changes follow a cycle of seven and men's a cycle of eight. Once one nourishes the body in accordance with these changes, the principle of "seven losses and eight gains" becomes clear.

At forty, Yin qi naturally diminishes by half, and daily activity begins to decline. Because of internal depletion, Yin qi lessens, the body gradually becomes deficient within, and strength begins to weaken. The Lingshu Jing (Spiritual Pivot) says that at forty the texture of the skin begins to loosen, the luster of the complexion gradually fades, and the hair begins to turn gray. This too shows that the capacity for daily activity declines step by step.

At fifty, the body becomes heavy, and the ears and eyes are no longer keen.

At sixty, the penis can no longer become erect, strength declines greatly, the nine orifices are obstructed, the lower body is weak while qi in the upper body is excessive, and nasal mucus and tears flow out together. This shows that the decline has become quite evident.

Therefore it is said that one who knows how to nourish life has a robust body, while one who does not easily ages. Here, "knowing" means understanding the principle of "seven losses and eight gains" and mastering the methods of preserving the physical form and protecting one's innate nature.

People share the same desires, yet the states they ultimately display differ. The wise, observing that desires are the same, can grasp the principle of nourishing one's nature and according with the Dao. The foolish see only the differences in outward form and vigor, and so they imitate others. Acting in accordance with one's own nature yields an abundant accumulation of Dao-cultivation; blind imitation leaves one's life-nourishment deficient.

Thus the foolish are deficient, and the wise have abundance. The wise first understand and practice the way of nourishing life, and so they have abundance. The foolish learn only later, and so they are deficient. Those with abundance have keen hearing and clear sight, light bodies and vigorous strength. Even in old age they can recover their robustness, and in their prime they become even more vigorous.

Protecting life and preserving the body both come from understanding and following the Dao. For this reason it is said that the Dao never leaves us even for a moment. If it could leave, it would not be the true Dao, and this is the meaning of the saying.

Therefore the sage does not act willfully. He delights in tranquility and simplicity, follows reasonable inner desires, and keeps his nature in emptiness, stillness, and wuwei (non-action). For this reason he lives long and can share his end with Heaven and Earth. This is how the sage nourishes himself.

The sage does not do what is useless, so as not to harm what is useful. He does not do what injures his nature, but follows his nature instead. For this reason he lives long and can share his end with Heaven and Earth. The Gengsang Chu chapter says that the sage takes in whatever benefits his nature when it comes to sounds, colors, food, and flavors, and reduces whatever harms it. This is the principle of preserving one's nature. The Shangshu (Book of Documents) also says: "Do not do what is useless, so as not to harm what is useful."

Heaven has a deficiency in the northwest, so the northwest belongs to Yin. On the right side of the human body, the ears and eyes are not as sharp and clear as those on the left. Heaven sits above, so the upper part of the human body takes Heaven as its model.

Earth has an excess in the southeast, so the southeast belongs to Yang. On the left side of the human body, the hands and feet are not as strong as those on the right. Earth lies below, so the lower part of the human body takes Earth as its model.

The Yellow Emperor (Huangdi) asked, "Why is this so?" Qi Bo (Qibo) replied: "The east belongs to Yang, and the essence of Yang qi (vital energy) gathers in the upper part of the body. When it gathers above, the upper part becomes clear while the lower part becomes relatively weak. For this reason the ears and eyes are keen, but the hands and feet are clumsy. The west belongs to Yin, and the essence of Yin qi gathers in the lower part of the body. When it gathers below, the lower part becomes full while the upper part becomes relatively weak. For this reason the ears and eyes are less keen, but the hands and feet are more nimble. Therefore, when pathogenic qi invades the body, if the illness lies in the upper part, the right side tends to be more severe; if it lies in the lower part, the left side tends to be more severe. This is because the Yin and Yang of Heaven and Earth cannot keep all things in perfect balance everywhere, and so pathogenic qi lodges where the body is empty."

The relationship between Yin-Yang and Heaven and Earth is like water in a vessel. If the vessel is round, the water takes a round shape; if the vessel is bent, the water bends with it. The blood and qi of the human body are the same: they change according to where the body is weak. Wherever there is deficiency, pathogenic qi tends to settle there.

Heaven has essential qi, and Earth has physical form. Heaven has eight guidelines (ba ji), and Earth has five pathways (wu li). Yang qi is like Heaven: it descends its essential qi to carry out transformation and nourishment. Yin qi is like Earth: it spreads harmonious qi to give rise to physical form. The Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) are the paths along which all things grow and multiply, and the eight winds are the outlines of change and movement. Here, the "eight guidelines" refer to the principles governing the winds from the eight directions, and the "five pathways" refer to the paths by which the Five Phases transform and nourish all things.

Yang qi generates essential qi, and Yin qi forms physical bodies. As the Five Phases turn and the eight winds stir, all things store up and grow, each moving according to its season and never going against the timing of the year. For this reason, Yin-Yang, Heaven, and Earth can serve as the parents of all things.

The changes of all things are driven by these two aspects, Yin-Yang.

The clear yang (qingyang) rises to heaven, and the turbid yin (zhuoyin) settles to earth.

Why can heaven and earth become the parents of all things? Because the clear yang rises and the turbid yin descends.

Therefore, the movement and stillness of heaven and earth are governed by the shenming (divine luminosity, the subtle power that directs the operations of heaven and earth) as their guiding principle and standard. When the clear yang ascends and the turbid yin returns to earth, who directs the movements and stillness of heaven and earth? It is governed by the regulating order of the shenming. When the earlier text says that the shenming is the storehouse of heaven and earth's operations, this is what it means.

Therefore heaven and earth can cause all things to grow and to be stored, in an unending cycle. The operation of the shenming makes this possible for all things.

Only the sage can, above, accord with the patterns of heaven to nourish the head, and, below, imitate the form of earth to nourish the feet, and adjust the five viscera (wuzang) according to the changes of human affairs. The head is round, so it corresponds to heaven; the feet are square, so they imitate earth. Human affairs change continuously, and the activities of the five viscera also alternate, so one should follow these characteristics in regulating them.

The qi of heaven connects with the lungs, because the lungs are situated high.

The qi of earth connects with the throat, because the throat is situated low. (The character for throat here is pronounced yi.)

The wind-qi connects with the liver, because wind corresponds to Wood, and Wood in turn corresponds to the liver.

The thunder-qi connects with the heart, because thunder, like fire, produces sound.

The valley-qi connects with the spleen, because valleys are hollow, and the spleen has the function of receiving.

The rain-qi connects with the kidneys, because the kidneys govern Water.

The Xinjiao Zheng (Newly Collated Edition) states that, according to the Qianjin Fang (Thousand Gold Prescriptions), wind-qi responds to the liver, thunder-qi stirs the heart, valley-qi responds to the spleen, and rain-water moistens the kidneys.

The six channels (liujing, the six meridians of the human body) are like rivers, in which qi and blood flow without cease.

The intestines and stomach are like a great sea, because both can contain food, drink, and grain. The Lingshu Jing (Spiritual Pivot) says that the stomach is the sea of water and grain.

The nine orifices (jiuqiao: the two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, mouth, urethra, and anus) are like channels into which water flows. A state of clarity and unobstructed passage is like water shining clear within; the flow of breath is like water moving without rest.

Heaven and earth are used to compare Yin-Yang; if one matches these images to the activities of the human body, then the "heaven and earth" here refers mainly to Yin-Yang.

The sweat transformed from yang qi is compared to the rain between heaven and earth. Human sweat is discharged through the skin's interstices (couli, the texture of the skin and the spaces within it), and this is a manifestation of yang qi dispersing. Judging from the similarities among heaven, earth, and the myriad things, this resembles clouds rising and rain falling, so the sweat transformed from yang qi is named after the rain of heaven and earth.

The activity of yang qi is compared to the swift wind between heaven and earth. When yang qi disperses, it is like a swift wind flying, so the swift wind is used to correspond to it. The older edition of the text lacks the words "is named," but based on the similar sentence patterns before and after, the annotator holds that they should be supplied.

A violent wind is like thunder.

Violent winds surge and strike, producing a whirling, howling sound.

When qi (vital energy) moves against its proper course, it is like yang qi rising upward, and as the reversed qi surges up, the yang qi moves along with it.

Therefore, if treatment does not follow the regular patterns of Heaven (tian) and does not rely on the principles of changes in Earth qi (dìqì), calamity will arrive. Going against the regularities of Heaven and Earth causes the qi movements of the Six Channels (liujing) to fall into disorder, and the Five Qi also alternate and become irregular, damaging the body's true qi (zhenqi). Once true qi is injured, calamity follows, and this can be foreseen. The New Collation states: the earlier passage mentions "Heaven has eight guidelines and Earth has five divisions," and the character for "principle" in this commentary should be written as "division."

Evil wind invades the body with rapid force, like wind and rain. "Arrival" (zhì) refers to evil qi reaching the person's body.

Thus, a skilled physician treats the skin and body hair first, which halts the evil qi at the first sign of its emergence. Next, the physician treats the flesh and skin, rescuing the illness that has already begun. Then the sinews and vessels are treated, attacking the disease that has taken shape. After that, the Six Bowels are treated, dealing with a condition that has become more serious. Only last are the Five Zang organs treated. When the illness reaches the Five Zang, the patient stands in a critical state, half dead and half alive. Shennong said: "When a disease has taken hold, curing half of it counts as success; when the illness has just begun, recovery is easy, but if it drags on for a long time, it will damage the body." Therefore, by the time the illness reaches the Five Zang, the patient is already half alive and half dead.

Evil qi from Heaven that invades the body injures the Five Zang. The qi of the four seasons and the winds arriving from the eight directions are all classed as heavenly evils. The Jin Gui Zhen Yan Lun (Discourse on True Words from the Golden Cabinet) states that winds from the eight directions give rise to evil qi; when evil wind enters and offends the Five Zang, the evil qi erupts into illness. Therefore, an invasion of heavenly evil injures the Five Zang.

Unsuitable hot or cold conditions in food and drink injure the Six Bowels. Heat evil injures the stomach and bladder, and cold evil injures the intestines and gallbladder.

Damp qi from Earth that invades the body injures the flesh, skin, sinews, and vessels. When dampness is excessive, the nutritive qi (yingqi) and defensive qi (weiqi) cannot circulate smoothly, so an invasion of damp evil injures the flesh, skin, sinews, and vessels.

A skilled practitioner of acupuncture can guide the yin aspect into the yang aspect and the yang aspect into the yin aspect. They treat the left side using methods applied to the right, and the right side using methods applied to the left. They also infer the condition of others from their own understanding, and understand the interior from the exterior manifestations of the body. By observing the patterns of excess and deficiency in qi movement, they detect subtle changes and identify the location of the disorder. Only when the needling is applied in this way is it free of danger, because the practitioner has deep understanding of these principles.

A skilled diagnostician observes the complexion, examines the pulse, and first distinguishes yin from yang. When the yang aspect is clear, one knows where the disease lies; when the yin aspect is clear, one can judge the prognosis and the severity of the condition.

One must also examine the clarity or turbidity of the complexion to understand the location of the disorder. Here, "clarity and turbidity" refers to observing the five colors of green, red, yellow, white, and black. "Location" refers to the positions of the Five Zang and Six Bowels, that is, the sites by which the condition of the illness can be judged.

By observing the breath and listening to the voice, one can tell where a patient is uncomfortable. Here, "listening to sounds" means distinguishing the five tones: gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu. "Observing the breathing" means watching whether the breath is long or short.

By observing quan (the weight), heng (the beam), gui (the compass), and ju (the carpenter's square), one can judge which aspect the disorder mainly lies in. Quan is the weight on a steelyard and heng is its beam. Gui denotes the round and ju the square. Quan is used to examine interior and exterior, and heng to judge high and low. Gui reveals weakness and depletion, and ju reveals strength and excess. The Maiyao Jingwei Lun (Essentials of the Pulse) says that spring corresponds to gui, indicating yang qi that is gentle and harmonious. Summer corresponds to ju, indicating yang qi that is vigorous and robust. Autumn corresponds to heng, indicating yin qi rising and yang qi descending, so that qi differs in height. Winter corresponds to quan, indicating yang qi hidden below. A skilled diagnostician must therefore observe all of these signs together. To judge the principal nature of a disorder is to see which of the seasonal qi the illness corresponds to, and whether the disease lies high or low, interior or exterior.

By examining the pulse at the cunkou (inch opening) and the chi bu (cubit portion), and observing whether it is floating, sinking, slippery, or choppy, one can determine where the disorder lies and treat it accordingly. A floating pulse is felt with light pressure, and a sinking pulse only with heavy pressure. A slippery pulse flows smoothly, while a choppy pulse moves haltingly. Carefully examining the floating and sinking of the cun and chi pulses allows one to know where the disorder lies and to treat it. The Xinjiao Zheng (New Collation) notes that the Jiayi Jing (Classic of Categories) reads "know where the disorder lies and treat," without the phrase "then there is no error." It also says that "continue this as a sentence" should be punctuated here. The word for "choppy" is pronounced se, like the word for color.

When diagnosis is free of error, treatment will not go wrong. Therefore it is said that at the onset of an illness, acupuncture may be used, because the disease's momentum is still slight. When the disease is at its peak, one may wait for it to decline before treating. Treating at full strength may damage the zhenqi (true qi), so one should wait until the force weakens. When the disease is mild, one promotes dispersal to drive out the pathogenic qi. When it is severe, one reduces its force. When it is declining, one further clarifies and consolidates, so that the pathogenic qi is removed, the true qi becomes firm, and the complexion regains its brightness.

When the body is deficient, it is nourished with qi. When jing (essence) is deficient, it is supplemented with the five flavors of food and drink. Here "qi" refers to weiqi (defensive qi), which circulates beneath the skin and warms the muscles, and "flavors" refers to the five flavors that the five zang organs require. The Lingshu Jing (Spiritual Pivot) says that weiqi can warm the muscles, nourish the skin, and fill the couli (skin texture and sweat pores), and it also governs...

When the opening and closing are appropriate and the defensive qi (weiqi) is gentle and harmonious, the bodily functions can operate normally. This statement comes from the Shang Gu Tian Zhen Lun (Treatise on True Perfection in High Antiquity).

The kidney governs water. It receives the jing (essence) and qi of the five zang and six fu organs and stores them. Only when the five zang are full can the kidney properly discharge its jing. Therefore, a person whose jing is insufficient may nourish themselves with foods that correspond to the five zang.

When the illness lies in the upper body, use an emetic method to expel the pathogenic qi. The word pronounced yue here means causing the pathogenic qi to rise upward and be expelled.

When the illness lies in the lower body, guide the pathogenic qi downward so that it is drained away. The word pronounced yin means to guide and to drain.

When there is distension within the abdomen, apply a purgative method from inside the abdomen.

When pathogenic qi invades, one may allow it to soak into the surface of the body and then expel it through sweating. The word pronounced xie here refers to wind pathogens. When wind invades the exterior of the body, sweating can disperse it outward.

When the pathogen lies in the superficial layer of the skin, it is also expelled by sweating. Because the pathogen is at the exterior, the sweat is induced so that the pathogen escapes outward.

When the qi is violent, rushing, and swift, use pressure to make it converge. The word pronounced biao means rapid, and the word pronounced han means strong and forceful.

When pathogenic qi accumulates excessively, use methods of dispersing and purging. For excess yang pathogens, dispersion is suitable; for excess yin pathogens, drainage is suitable. The following text therefore says that one must distinguish yin from yang and clarify softness from hardness: yin belongs to softness, and yang belongs to hardness.

Yang disorders may be treated from the yin aspect, and yin disorders from the yang aspect. This is what is called drawing yang from yin and drawing yin from yang. In other words, when the illness is on the right side, it may be treated from the left, and when it is on the left side, it may be treated from the right.

One must determine the condition of the blood and qi so that each returns to the position proper to its own channel. The word pronounced xiang here refers to the position in which the qi and blood of this channel reside.

When blood is in excess, one should clear and expel the stagnant blood. When qi is deficient, one should guide it so that its circulation becomes smooth. The collation note states that the Jiayi Jing writes a rarer, variant character at this point, where the standard text reads che, meaning to pull or drag.