《皇極經世》Vol. 23

To rejoice or grieve because of external things, and to express these feelings in due measure, is for emotion to arise in accordance with proper limits.

Patterns appearing in stone and salt gradually dissolving are changes of this kind.

Things in water and things on land do not differ in their essential nature; they simply have different qualities, such as cold and heat. Broadly speaking, land is Yin within Yang, while water is Yang within Yin.

The sun, moon, and stars together form Heaven; water, fire, earth, and stone together form Earth. Ears, eyes, nose, and mouth together make up the head; marrow, blood, bones, and flesh together make up the body. All these reflect the number five.

Fire arises from nonbeing; water arises from being.

Only by not regarding oneself as one thing among the myriad things can one govern the myriad things.

From the hour of the Dragon until noon is “generation”; from noon until the hour of the Dragon is “function.” Broadly speaking, following the course of movement is generation, while reversing its course is function.

The Book of Changes contains 384 lines and is truly a study of celestial patterns.

Birds such as eagles and falcons eat living creatures; birds such as chickens and ducks do not eat only living creatures. Animals such as tigers and leopards eat living creatures; cats and dogs eat both living creatures and grain. By reasoning from differences of this kind, one can understand other things as well.

Horses and oxen both belong to the Yin category; on closer examination, horses belong to Yang and oxen to Yin.

Flying animals favor the wind and are adept at rising upward; running animals favor the earth and are suited to moving downward.

The eggs of birds and insects, like fruits and grains, can produce offspring. Grains generally bear many seeds, and insects show a similar pattern.

Creatures such as silkworms are produced when moths lay eggs one year, which hatch into silkworms the next. Plants such as turnips grow roots and shoots one year, then produce seeds from their shoots the next.

When the Qi of Heaven and Earth moves from north to south, society becomes stable; when it moves from south to north, society falls into disorder. After disorder continues for a long time, the course of Qi turns back from north to south. The Way of Heaven and human affairs both follow this pattern. By examining the rise and fall of successive dynasties, one can see how things wax, wane, and change.

Acting according to one’s own intentions leaves one pulled along by emotion. When emotion pulls a person along, it clouds the mind and makes it confused. Responding to the inherent nature of external things enables one to accord with their nature; when one accords with their nature, the spirit becomes open and clear-sighted. The spirit can remain concealed between Heaven and Earth and reach its destination without acting, untouched by the changes of Yin and Yang.

Animals that live in water do not close their eyes; animals that live in the wind do. In animals that run well, the upper eyelid closes downward; in animals that fly, the lower eyelid closes upward. This results from their respective habits.

Fish that live in water have scales and fins, like flying animals. Creatures such as turtles and otters are like animals that run well.

The “Four Images,” the four basic phenomena, can be combined and applied flexibly. In this way, the sun and moon are the Yin and Yang of Heaven, while water and fire are the Yin and Yang of Earth.

The Yin and Yang on earth are the changes in firmness and softness among the stars and celestial bodies. Land and rock, too, each have qualities of firmness and softness.

Natural disasters account for only one-tenth of calamities; disasters caused by people account for nine-tenths. Natural disasters can sometimes be avoided, but it is difficult to escape disasters brought about by people.

Yang Qi governs opening out and growth; Yin Qi governs decline and urgency. When the sun’s course exceeds its proper measure, Yin follows Yang and changes accordingly. When the moon’s course falls below its proper measure, Yang follows Yin and changes accordingly.

Among flying animals are creatures like chickens and ducks; among animals skilled at running are creatures like dragons and horses.

The study of the precelestial (investigating the fundamental principles of things before they appear) lies in the mind; the study of the postcelestial (examining the traces of things after they appear) lies in their signs. What moves between being and nonbeing, life and death, is the Dao (the Way).

Shen has no fixed location, yet is everywhere. The Perfected (those whose cultivation has reached a profound level) can communicate with it in thought because their roots were originally the same. “Dao” and “One” are both names used to speak, however imperfectly, of Shen; calling Shen itself “Shen” is the most fitting expression.

The human body is like the earth: its foundation is stillness. The body can move because Qi and blood set it in motion.

Heaven and Earth bring forth and nurture the myriad things; sages bring forth and nurture the people.

Heaven and Earth accomplish the ceaseless work of generation and the propagation of all kinds of beings. Sages enable the people to fulfill their different abilities, distinguishing and classifying them.

Shen is the ruler of the human being. As one is about to fall asleep, Shen is in the spleen; in deep sleep, it is in the kidneys; as one is about to wake, it is in the liver (another account says the gallbladder); when fully awake, it is in the heart.

To observe things through the things themselves is to see their nature; to observe them from one’s own point of view is to bring personal feeling into it. Nature is impartial and clear, while feeling is partial and prone to obscurity.

Yang Qi governs opening and outward growth; Yin Qi governs gathering in and inward return.

When the sun is in water, all things grow; when it leaves the water, all things die. This refers to the difference caused by whether things join together or remain apart.

Yin and Yang stand opposite one another and form the two poles. Yet when Yang Qi arrives, all things live; when Yang Qi departs, all things die. Since Yang Qi governs the life and death of all things between Heaven and Earth, they are ultimately one.

Shen has no fixed direction, while human nature has a particular substance.

Feeling issues from nature and appears as emotion; emotion, in turn, is expressed in one’s complexion. Things respond to one another according to their kind.

Heaven and Earth undergo their greatest awakening in summer; the human Shen dwells in the heart.

Viewed in terms of Heaven and Earth generating the myriad things, the myriad things are simply the myriad things. Viewed in terms of the Dao generating Heaven and Earth, Heaven and Earth are themselves just one among the myriad things.

Creatures in water are governed chiefly by Yin, with Yang secondary; creatures on land are governed chiefly by Yang, with Yin secondary. Thus aquatic animals die when removed from water, while animals adapted to the air and life on land die when they enter water. Some creatures, however, can move between water and land, such as turtles, crabs, geese, and ducks.

The degree of union between Heaven and Earth is three-tenths.

With each change, one becomes two; with the second change, two becomes four; with the third, four becomes eight, and the Eight Trigrams take shape. With the fourth change there are sixteen; with the fifth, thirty-two; with the sixth, sixty-four.

The trigrams are now complete.

Fire in the heavens has no fixed form; fire on earth has a fixed form.

Human beings are noble because they embody the qualities of all things. By honoring themselves, they attain nobility and can therefore govern all things.

People’s goodness and evil show in their words and actions; that is how others can see them.

But when goodness or evil arises only in the heart and has not yet been spoken, the spirits already know. This is why the noble person is careful in speech and conduct when alone.

When Qi changes, the body changes with it.

Human beings possess the distinctive qualities of all things.

Fire itself has no fixed form; it takes form by relying on something else. Fire kindled in metal or stone burns more fiercely than fire among grass and wood because the substances on which it depends are different.

When Qi and the body are vigorous, the Hun and Po are vigorous too; when Qi and the body grow weak, the Hun and Po weaken with them. The Hun changes along with Qi, while the Po depends on the body for its existence. So long as the body remains, the Po remains; when the body changes and perishes, the Po disperses.

The spirit of a person is the spirit of Heaven and Earth. To deceive oneself is to deceive Heaven and Earth. How could one fail to be cautious?

People fear ghosts, just as ghosts fear people. When people accumulate good deeds, their Yang Qi grows strong, and ghosts fear them all the more. When people accumulate evil deeds, their Yin Qi grows strong, and ghosts fear them less. A person of lofty De accords with the auspicious and inauspicious transformations of spirits and ghosts. What, then, is there to fear?

The study of the highest principles cannot be understood without reaching utmost sincerity.

When investigating the principles of things, if there are points that cannot be understood, one must not force an explanation. Forcing one only introduces one’s own preconceptions; once these take hold, one departs from the principles of things and falls into techniques such as divination and numerology.

The stars are the Sun’s dispersed residual Qi, and the divisions of time are the Moon’s dispersed residual Qi.

Even stars so tiny they are like grains of dust or sand, when they fall, can accumulate into mounds of earth.

Only with a focused mind, undistracted, can one respond to things without going against principle. This is why the noble person keeps the mind empty and still, and does not let it be easily unsettled.

The zang organs are the movements of Heaven; the fu organs are the movements of Earth. Heaven and Earth move together, and their pairing gives rise to the Eight Trigrams (Bagua).

The sage brings benefit to all things without acting out of self-interest.

In places of light there are the Sun and Moon; in places of darkness there are ghosts and spirits.

The Yijing has only three basic numerical principles: combining the numbers of Heaven and multiplying by three gives nine; matching them with the numbers of Earth and doubling three gives six.

When the Eight Trigrams are interlaced—that is, combined with one another—they form the sixty-four hexagrams.

The Yijing takes Qian and Kun as its foundation and develops from the hexagrams Gou and Fu. Yang’s firm Qi meets Yin’s yielding Qi to form Fu; Yin’s yielding Qi meets Yang’s firm Qi to form Gou. From there, the patterns unfold without end.

The Suwen and Yinfu are books from the Warring States period.

The sage’s classics form a seamless whole, leaving no trace, just like the Way of Heaven. Thus, the Spring and Autumn Annals records…

Good and evil become apparent when things are carried through into action.

The Way of the Mean is inwardly aligned with what is centered and correct; this is the principle of Heaven. To act in an outwardly centered and correct manner, however, depends on human self-cultivation.

In the art of rhyme, changes between closed and open sounds correspond to the seasons: closed sounds followed by open ones are like spring; open sounds throughout are like summer; open sounds followed by closed ones are like autumn; and winter is closed and silent. The tonal categories “lü” and “lü,” which distinguish clear from muddy sounds, correspond respectively to Heaven and Earth.

Texts such as the Suwen and the Miyu can be said to explore the principles of numerical arts to the greatest depth.

Humaneness and virtue are expressed outwardly, while their function is concealed within. Was Mencius perhaps skilled at keeping that function hidden?

Stillness without movement, returning to the source and restoring tranquility—this is the season symbolized by the Kun hexagram. Once there is a response, one can understand the principles of all things under Heaven. When Yang Qi stirs within, the change comes in an instant; this is the meaning of the Fu hexagram.

Scholars such as Zhuangzi and Xunzi erred by arguing too much.

Eastern sounds belong to spring, and Yang sounds belong to summer. This shows that the person who devised the rules of rhyme was also highly perceptive. Words such as “xian” are mostly sounds of winter.

To act rashly without first seeing things change is reckless action; this is the situation symbolized by the Pi hexagram. To act after seeing change accords with the Way of Wuwang. But if calamity still follows, it is because Yang Qi is weak and receives no response. If there is a response before one acts, the result will be beneficial.

When Jing and Qi gather, they form the myriad things: this is physical form. When the wandering soul disperses and things undergo change, this is spirit. Put another way, the gathering of Jing and Qi forms substantial beings, while the transformations of the wandering soul bring their functions into play.

A noble person’s learning should take self-cultivation as its foundation. Governing others and dealing with things are merely extensions of that foundation.

Decisive action and sound judgment depend on talent and strength; distinguishing right from wrong depends on wisdom and insight; generosity and breadth of spirit depend on virtue and character. None of these three can be dispensed with.

Those without virtue are quick to blame and resent others. Once discontent fills the heart, they come to a standstill.

The dragon can grow large or small, yet it too is subject to constraint. It is governed by Yin-Yang Qi: when the time is right, it can transform; when the right moment has passed, it can no longer do so.

Boyi held fast to what was right and refused to eat the grain of the Zhou dynasty, even to the point of starving to death. All he achieved was the fulfillment of humaneness and virtue.

Among three people walking together, there is always someone from whom one can learn. One can also learn from the worthies of one’s district, or from the worthies of the whole world. If the people of the world still seem insufficient, one can look further back to the ancients. When there is no one who surpasses them, the ancients become the highest standard.

If one values what is right, one’s inner life grows fuller; if one values profit, one’s thoughts turn outward.

“Dui” means joy. Other kinds of joy may bring harm, but studying and discussing learning with friends does not carry this danger. This is why it is called the highest form of joy.

When one can act in accordance with Heaven’s principles, the power of creation seems to be in one’s own hands.

Learning that does not unite the Way of Heaven with human affairs cannot yet be called genuine learning.

When a noble person studies the Yi Jing, they should examine closely the hexagram images, numbers, statements, and underlying meanings.

To be able to cure illnesses that people can usually cure is not enough to be called a great physician. The finest physician under Heaven can cure illnesses that others cannot. Likewise, one who can handle matters others cannot handle can accomplish what others cannot do.

People should fear becoming complacent: once complacent, they stop making progress. Yu the Great became a worthy sage because he was never complacent or self-satisfied. Even after learning a great deal, one should still feel that one has not learned enough. One should not assume oneself lofty simply because one occupies a low position.

As long as you apply yourself, you will surely gain something; the only difference is whether you gain much or little. This is because people vary in the depth of their wisdom and understanding.

Only after investigating things and their underlying principles can one understand human nature. Only after fully examining human nature can one understand Heaven’s mandate. And even after gaining this understanding, one must continue onward to a deeper level.

If someone first places themselves in a position where they might lose what they have, then they will not be excessively pleased when they gain something. But if they assume from the start that they already possess it, then losing it will be unbearable, and they will surely be thrown into confusion.

People must have De (Virtue/Power) and breadth of character. Then, whether serving as a high official or living as an ordinary person, even if their learning is unmatched under Heaven, they can act as though it were nothing extraordinary and take no pride in it.

People must value what is within. When they do, external fame and profit seem insignificant. If they disregard what is within, they will inevitably prize external things, pursue profit and reputation, and be capable of doing anything to obtain them.

Understanding the principles of Heaven—the fundamental order underlying all things in the universe—can nourish not only the body but also the heart and mind. It can nourish not only the heart and mind, but even a person’s nature and life.

Many people in the world say they read, but few truly know how to read. If you can appreciate the genuine joy that comes from understanding the principles of Heaven, what book could you not understand? What difficulty could you not overcome? What principle could you not investigate to its finest detail?

Calendars—the systems used to calculate years, seasons, and celestial phenomena—cannot be entirely free of errors. Today, those who study calendrical science know its methods of calculation but do not understand the principles behind them. Luo Xiahong, a Han dynasty calendrical scholar, knew how to set up and work through calculations. Gan Gong and Shi Gong, ancient astronomers, knew how to calculate the movements of celestial bodies and determine the seasons. Luo Xiahong knew only the methods of calendrical science; Yang Xiong, a Western Han scholar, understood both its methods and its principles. According to this account, the accumulated intercalary days in a year belong to six Yin and six Yang divisions: after three years, they amount to thirty-six days, so an intercalary month is added every three years; after five years, they amount to sixty days, so another intercalary month is added after five years. The workings of Heaven, the patterns of the Earth, and human affairs are all difficult to understand fully.

A person’s natural disposition comes from Heaven, while learning comes from what is acquired afterward. Natural disposition arises from within; learning comes from without. “Through sincerity, one becomes clear” describes an inborn nature. “Through clarity, one becomes sincere” describes a state attained through learning.

Yan Hui did not direct his anger at others, nor did he repeat the same mistake. Transferring anger and repeating mistakes are expressions of emotion, not of one’s nature. Unless one reaches an understanding of nature and Heaven’s mandate, one cannot be called truly devoted to learning.

Bo Yi and Liu Xiahui, ancient worthies, each embodied one aspect of sagehood. The aspect of sagehood embodied by Bo Yi—

Hui of Liu Xia embodied the clarity and equanimity of a sage. Confucius could adapt to the times: sometimes he was clear, sometimes accommodating, sometimes he acted, and sometimes he stopped. He therefore understood that a sage acts in keeping with the moment.

The Taixuan assigns nine days to each of two hexagrams, while the remaining hexagram corresponds to four and a half days.

In composing the Taixuan, Yang Xiong may be said to have grasped the underlying principle by which Heaven and Earth move.

The principle of using military force is this: one must wait until the people are prosperous, the granaries full, the treasuries well stocked, and the army strong before sending out troops. Only when the cause is just, the timing favorable, the terrain advantageous, and the people’s hearts won over may one take action.

The Changes originally had no fixed form. To say that it has definite rules is to give it a fixed form. For fear that people would therefore regard it as unchanging, it is said that the Changes cannot be fully confined by fixed rules: it has enduring principles, yet one must not be bound by rigid standards; it has a constant Way, yet also changes with change.

Zhuang Zhou (Zhuangzi) was a peerless debater; perhaps no one else has matched him in thousands of years. For example, when he spoke of Cook Ding carving an ox, he said that Cook Ding “paused and looked all around” with unhurried ease. When Confucius watched the water at Lüliang, he said, “The way of swimming is impartial.” These are both penetrating remarks that accord with reason.

The five thousand words written by Laozi are, for the most part, an exposition of the principles of things.

Suppose someone climbs onto two platforms of equal height. Because the platforms are the same height, their relative heights cannot be distinguished. Only when one becomes taller does the other become lower by comparison.

If learning has not reached the point where it becomes a source of joy, it cannot be called true learning.

The principles for governing a state, managing a household, and cultivating oneself are connected. Only by governing oneself well can one manage a household well; only by managing a household well can one govern a state well; and only by governing a state well can one govern the world. The mind is the foundation of the self, the household is the foundation of the state, and the state is the foundation of the world. The mind can direct the body. If the mind is unwilling, can the body still carry on as usual?

A person’s spirit is best gathered and nurtured before being put to use. Those who flaunt their abilities often end up failing. It is like a sharp knife: when something is in its path, simply let it cut through. If, relying on its sharpness, one goes out looking for things to cut, both the knife and the things will be damaged.

When words come from sincerity, the heart is not burdened but at peace. In time, people will naturally trust you. Deception and tricks may fool others for a while, but sooner or later they will be exposed.

A person’s greatest worth lies in De (virtue). Even among petty people, some are capable, so one cannot rely on ability alone. Virtue, however, is indispensable.

Heaven, Earth, the sun, and the moon move on without end. So people should look to the long term rather than only to what lies before them.

When a gentleman is in the fields, he does what belongs in the fields; when he is at court, he does what belongs at court. Thus, wherever he is, he can remain at ease.

Cleverness and political maneuvering may work for a time, but eventually they will fail. Only utter sincerity...

If Heaven and Earth were to endure forever, sincerity could cease when they perished. If Heaven and Earth do not perish, sincerity will not cease either.

When a cart is built indoors, as long as its wheels’ tracks and dimensions meet the standard, it can travel throughout the realm. So it is with human affairs: as long as they accord with what is right and make sense to people, they can be carried out wherever the sun and moon shine.

The Mean is not a principle that arose on its own, as if grown from Heaven and Earth. It means measuring the patterns of things, understanding human feelings and circumstances, and doing what people can accept with ease of mind. Only then is something appropriate.

Only by gathering the wisdom of people throughout the realm can one be called wise; only by gathering their good deeds can one be called good. This is what makes a person broad-minded. Acting solely on one’s own ideas makes one’s understanding narrow.

Han dynasty Confucian scholars called “going against the ordinary rules while following the Great Dao” the exercise of Quan, or flexible judgment—responding to circumstances as they arise. But this describes only one aspect. Quan means weighing the relative importance of things. When sages exercise Quan, they consider the balance of things before acting, so that their response is appropriate. Thus, one who speaks only of holding to the Mean but does not understand Quan will still fall into bias. Wang Tong discussed the kingly way and the exercise of Quan in the Spring and Autumn Annals, and judged that no one but himself had reached this level. When Quan is applied to one person, it is one person’s Quan; when applied to a village, it is a village’s Quan; when extended throughout the realm, it is the realm’s Quan. Though the scope differs, the principle of weighing remains the same.

A bow may be strong or weak by nature, yet when two people draw the same bow, the stronger person may find it weak, while the weaker person may find it strong. The stronger person should not declare the bow weak just because their own strength is more than enough; nor should the weaker person declare it strong just because their own strength falls short. How can one fail to consider this? The bow itself has not become stronger or weaker; only the strength of the two people differs.

There is a cup of food before two hungry people. If they yield to each other, they can divide it evenly. If they fight over it, they may come to blows, and one of them may even go without food. Both responses arise from ordinary human feelings. Few people understand this. Once they do, they will see that affairs throughout the realm follow the same pattern.

The Changes is a tool by which sages support the noble person and restrain the petty person. To support the noble person, one must open the way before events have taken place; to restrain the petty person, one must prevent trouble before it takes shape. Decline and growth, closing and opening, alternate in their workings without leaving a trace. Who could accomplish this without the most wondrous wisdom in all the realm?

The Great Exceeding describes things whose roots and tips are both fragile. To save such a situation requires a person of great virtue and high position. According to ordinary principles, some boundaries may be crossed and others may not. Only someone with great virtue and high position may cross certain boundaries…

Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou were such men. No one may presume to surpass them. They possessed great De, yet held no eminent rank; this does not mean they fell short in any way. Confucius and Mencius were such men too, and no one may slander them. Could their rank have been inferior to their De? How important rank is! It is the place where capable people await the chance to put their abilities to use.

The Hexagram of Stripping follows the Hexagram of Return. Does this mean that good governance emerges amid disorder? The Hexagram of Resolving follows the Hexagram of Encounter. Does this mean that disorder arises amid good governance? Such things are determined by the times! The times! Stripping always turns to Return, and Resolving always turns to Encounter. Guard against trouble before it arises; be vigilant and take precautions! In this way, the state and family can endure, and descendants can flourish. That is why sages value prevention in advance: this is the broad outline of the Yi.

The Learning of the Former Heaven, which explains the generation and transformation of the cosmos through the Former Heaven trigrams, concerns the method of the mind. Thus, the diagrams all begin at the center; the myriad transformations and affairs all arise from the mind.

The Learning of the Former Heaven takes sincerity as its guiding principle. Utmost sincerity can reach and move the spirits; without sincerity, one cannot attain the Dao.

At the center of the Former Heaven diagram is a revolving center.

In undertaking any task, one must assess one’s own strength. Acting within one’s means is the way to endure.

The road one travels must be broad; the broader it is, the fewer the obstacles.

Those who understand the Yi need not cite it to explain things; that is what it means to understand the Yi. Mencius never spoke of the Yi, yet its principles were already contained in his words. Few people are able to recognize this. Only those who put the principles of the Yi into practice can be said to understand it. A person like Mencius may be said to have been skilled in applying the Yi.

Study should give priority to human affairs. The classics of today record the deeds of people in antiquity.

Besides the Three Commentaries on the Spring and Autumn Annals, one may also read the works of Lu Chun and Yan Zhu.

The terms “August Sovereign,” “Emperor,” “King,” and “Hegemon” do not refer only to the Three August Ones, the Five Emperors, the Three Kings, and the Five Hegemons. They can also describe different modes of rule: governing through Wuwei is the way of the August Sovereign; extending kindness and keeping faith is the way of the Emperor; upholding impartial justice is the way of the King; relying on strategy and force is the way of the Hegemon. Below the Hegemons are the Yi and Di peoples; below them are the beasts.

Ji Zha’s talent and virtue approached those of Bo Yi. Shu Xiang, Zi Chan, and Yan Zi were equals in ability.

Guan Zhong was skilled in strategy and political arts, and only in his later years came to understand the principles of things. On the whole, his talent and ability surpassed those of ordinary people.

The Five Hegemons were leaders of the greatest achievements and also the chief culprits in the gravest crimes. The Spring and Autumn Annals is Confucius’s book of judgment. Achievements cannot conceal faults, nor faults achievements. The sage first commends their accomplishments, then condemns their wrongs. Thus, even when the guilty have rendered service, that service must be recorded; they must also be shown some leniency.

In the phrase “he first built the two towers,” the word “first” is condemnatory: it rebukes him for establishing an institution that had not existed before. In “he first presented the six plumes,” however, “first” is commendatory, because he replaced the usurped eight rows of dancers with six rows.

Someone studied the Spring and Autumn Annals with Yin Shilu, who had learned it from Mu Bochang. Later, someone criticized Mu Bochang, saying that the Annals offered no praise, only blame. Tian Shugu and Sun Fu also said that the Annals censured people but never praised them.

Some argue that, amid the decay of ritual and law and the disorder between ruler and minister recorded in the Annals, anyone who still managed to do a little good should surely receive some recognition. Moreover, the Five Hegemons—the five lords who led the feudal states and maintained order during the Spring and Autumn period—did in fact benefit the realm. Though they fell short of the Zhou Son of Heaven, they were still better than the Yi and Di peoples. How could they not be acknowledged? Anyone who studies the Annals without distinguishing titles from realities or judging the merits and faults of the Five Hegemons cannot yet be said to understand it. One should first judge the Five Hegemons, then read the Annals in light of that judgment; this is how to grasp its general meaning. If one examines each event in isolation, it is impossible to make sense of the whole.

In scholarship, people often become biased by clinging too firmly to their own views.

In name, King Ping of Zhou was a king, but in reality he was weaker than even the ruler of a small state. In name, Qi and Jin were feudal lords, but in reality they usurped royal authority. This is a case in the Annals where titles and realities do not match. Zigong once wanted to do away with the sheep offered in Lu’s observance of the “announcement of the new moon” rite. The sheep was merely the outward form; the rite was what mattered. Better to retain the form after its substance has disappeared than to lose both form and substance. As long as the proper title remains, who can say that a true king will not arise in a later age? Therefore, the title should be preserved for those who come after.

Duke Mu of Qin had served the Zhou house and was able to reform himself; he was the finest of the hegemons. Marquis Wen of Jin’s family had for generations worked diligently to support the Zhou king, and he escorted King Ping to the new capital at Luoyi; his achievements came next. Duke Huan of Qi brought the lords together peacefully, without deploying chariots; his achievements came after that. King Zhuang of Chu was powerful and ranked below him. Duke Xiang of Song claimed hegemony, but his power was weak. When he convened the lords, Chu captured him, so there is little more to say about him.

Anyone who studies the Annals without first judging the merits and faults of Qin, Jin, Qi, and Chu has no guiding principle for discussing events and cannot understand the sage’s intent. In the Spring and Autumn period, no state whose ruler did good deeds surpassed these four in merit; no state whose ruler committed wrongdoing surpassed them in guilt. Thus these four states stand out both for their greatest achievements and for their gravest offenses.

Some say that the Spring and Autumn Annals is not a book concerned with the principles of human nature and life. This is mistaken. For example, the text records that during a Lu sacrifice, the ox’s mouth was injured; another ox was substituted, but it too died, and Lu nevertheless proceeded with the “Three Offerings” sacrifice to the mountains and rivers. These records use events in Lu to express censure. The sage did not mix in personal bias. It was precisely because he was free of self-interest that he could judge in this way. Is this not to offer an interpretation grounded in the principles of human nature and life? Moreover, the Annals praises and censures only on the basis of specific events. How could anyone insert private opinions at will?

In the Spring and Autumn Annals (a Confucian classic), the sage’s selection and revision of historical events offers the fairest judgment in the world. Yet people do not understand where the sage’s impartiality lies. For example, the record that Lu stopped a sacrifice because an ox had been injured reveals that Lu had previously overstepped the ritual order for feudal lords by making sacrifices to Heaven in the open country. The record that Lu began presenting six feathered ornaments reveals that it had previously overstepped ritual by using the Eight Rows of Dancers, a dance reserved for the Son of Heaven. The record that Lu built a new pheasant gate, a palace gate in Lu, reveals that Lu had no such gate before. The sage did not deliberately favor or censure anyone in these matters. Thus, the Spring and Autumn Annals is a book that fully reveals the nature of things.

The Spring and Autumn Annals was written for a time when rulers were weak and their ministers were powerful. It is therefore also called a book that clarifies distinctions of rank and the proper order of status.

The challenge for a sage is to achieve worthy deeds without losing benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness. How can this be done? The key is to eliminate the four kinds of private bias described in the Analects: forming arbitrary opinions, insisting on certainty, clinging stubbornly to one’s views, and being self-centered.

Someone who owns a horse and lends it to another person to ride sets aside their own plans and responds to another’s needs.

Someone asked, “Why do you say that talented people are hard to find?” The reply was, “It is when great affairs arise that we see how hard they are to find.” The questioner then asked, “Why single out talent in particular?” The reply was, “Talent is a fine endowment bestowed on a person by Heaven; study enables a person to cultivate that endowment into ability.” The questioner asked again, “Some people in ancient times achieved great things without studying. Why insist on study?” The reply was, “Zhou Bo and Huo Guang achieved great things precisely because they lacked learning, and so their work was not fully perfected. Without learning, people cannot understand principles; without understanding principles, they are apt to cling to their own views and act ineffectively. A person with exceptional ability must use strength of character to overcome difficulties. When properly directed, that strength is enough to achieve one’s aims and face adversity. Directed elsewhere, it can turn into wickedness. That is why Confucius did not consider Shen Cheng truly strong: once desire takes hold in a person’s heart, they cannot remain upright and selfless.”

The noble person understands righteousness; this is the realm of the worthy. The petty person understands only profit. To forget both righteousness and profit is something only a sage can do. The noble person reveres the Way of righteousness and therefore refrains from certain actions; the petty person has no reverence for righteousness at all. The sage never acts outside the bounds of principle, so what is there for the sage to fear in righteousness?

Yan Hui did not repeat his mistakes. Confucius said, “When he made a mistake, he was never unaware of it; once he recognized it, he did not make it again.” In other words, he never repeated the same mistake. Han Yu held that Yan Hui’s true achievement was to cut off a mistake as soon as it arose in his heart. If one treats a mistake as a private matter, how could one attain the Way? Someone said, “Isn’t it better to treat goodness as a mistake than to treat evil as one?” The reply was, “The sage does not make this distinction. To approach a mistake with private motives is equally wrong, whether one treats it as good or as evil.”

In learning and cultivating one’s nature, the greatest danger is straying from the right path and being led by private gain and desire. If one follows the right path with complete sincerity, nothing is beyond one’s reach. The principle governing the movement of Heaven and Earth lies in a single word: straightforwardness. One should act according to the Way of uprightness…

To pursue something through cleverness, calculation, and shortcuts is to make Heaven and Earth submit to human desire. Is that not difficult to do?

In matters great and small, there are principles of Heaven and practical affairs of human life. Cultivating oneself is within human power; whether one encounters an opportunity is decided by Heaven. Striving to pursue something is a human matter; whether one can obtain it is decided by Heaven. To remain inwardly unmoved by either gain or loss is to follow Heaven’s will. To demand something by force, convinced that one must obtain it, is to defy Heaven’s principles; disaster is bound to follow.

The state of Lu built two towers and also held suburban sacrifices and the Great Di sacrifice, a major ceremony to honor the ancestors. All of these were contrary to ritual norms. It was acceptable for a feudal ruler to make the Di sacrifices held in the four seasons part of the regular rites. The Great Di, held once every five years, was not permitted.

Zhonggong, the disciple of Confucius also known as Ran Yong, was fit to rule a state and to take charge of its affairs.

Who can leave home without going through a door? A door is a passageway. No one can accomplish things without following the proper way. To leave without going through a door is like digging a hole in a wall or squeezing through a crack.

Hear much, then select the sound principles and put them into practice; see much, then weigh what you have seen. No matter how much one hears, one must choose what is good and follow it. No matter how much one sees, one must be able to distinguish right from wrong.

Someone asked, “What does it mean to be ‘manifest in benevolence and concealed within function’?” The answer was: “The sun and moon shine upon all things, and the four seasons run their course to form the year. These are ‘manifest in benevolence.’ All things move according to their own fixed patterns and order, but people do not know why those patterns are as they are. This is ‘concealed within function.’”

Luo Xiahong, the Han dynasty calendrical scholar, revised the Zhuanxu Calendar. Yang Xiong, whose courtesy name was Ziyun, composed the Taixuan on the basis of the Taichu Calendar. The work contains eighty-one trigrams. Using a system of ninths to calculate them, each is divided into two trigrams: one takes five parts and the other four. On further subdivision, each trigram amounts to four and a half parts. The trigram Qi begins at the center, so the first trigram is the “central trigram.”

“Taking three from Heaven and two from Earth to establish the numbers” does not refer to the exact number of Heaven and Earth themselves. “Taking” means making an analogy: one models and derives numbers according to the numerical principles of Heaven and Earth.

Yuan, Heng, Li, and Zhen—the four qualities of the Qian hexagram in the Book of Changes—change along with transformations. This is the changing Dao of Heaven. Auspiciousness, misfortune, regret, and distress—the states of fortune and loss described in the Book of Changes—also shift without fixed course. These are the ways human life responds to Heaven’s transformations.

Ghosts and spirits have no physical form, yet they can exert effects; their nature can be understood through those effects. Human ears, eyes, nose, mouth, hands, and feet, as well as the branches, leaves, flowers, fruit, and colors of plants, are all expressions of the effects of ghosts and spirits. Who governs the bestowal of blessings on the good and the bringing of calamity upon the wicked? What power makes people wise and upright? Some things happen quickly without being urged, and some arrive without traveling. Who is in command behind them? These are all manifestations of the nature of ghosts and spirits.

The Book of Changes (Yi Jing) contains images and meanings. The meanings are established to explain the images; words and phrases bring all three together.

Some images do not imitate specific things, but describe matters directly in words. Others seem to imitate particular things in order to express an idea. Still others use numbers to represent images, as in references to seven days, eight months, three years, or ten years.

The numerical principles of the Book of Changes trace the beginning and end of Heaven and Earth. Someone asked, “Do Heaven and Earth have beginnings and ends?” The reply was, “Since there is waning and waxing, how could there be no beginnings and ends? Vast as they are, Heaven and Earth are still only two formed things.”

The Book of Changes has inner images, such as the principles and unfolding patterns of things; it also has outer images, which point to particular things and do not change.

In human beings, the Way of Qian is expressed as male and the Way of Kun as female. Among the myriad things, the Way of Qian is expressed as Yang and the Way of Kun as Yin.

Spirit-like transformation has no fixed location, and the Book of Changes has no fixed form. If one clings to a single direction, transformation becomes impossible, and there can be nothing spirit-like about it. If something has a fixed form, it cannot pass freely through change, and so it cannot be called the Book of Changes. Although the Book of Changes appears to have form, what is called form is only an “image”: the underlying reality is revealed through images, though it has no fixed form of its own.

The alternating movement of Yin and Yang is called the Dao. The Dao has no sound or shape and cannot be seen directly, so it is named with the same word as a “road.” Whenever people act, they must follow a road; the alternating movement of Yin and Yang is the road of Heaven and Earth. The myriad things are born from it and brought to completion through it.

In every matter, large or small, there is a principle running through it. To remain true to one’s proper place is called being in accord with the Dao; to fail to do so is called being out of accord with the Dao. The effects of Heaven and Earth in giving life to the myriad things are visible, and people can see them. But how Heaven and Earth bring the myriad things into being cannot be seen by people. This is the way their workings remain hidden within.

When correcting musical pitches, the count stops at seven. On the day of the summer solstice, the sun rises during the hour of Yin and sets during the hour of Xu. By the hours of Hai, Zi, and Chou, the sun has fallen below the horizon and is no longer visible to the human eye. The count for these three hours therefore no longer proceeds: they stand for that stretch of time in which nothing can be seen. The numerical principles governing the generation of the myriad things work in the same way. They have not ceased to operate; they remain in operation, but people cannot see them.

The moon is dark by nature. It appears bright only when illuminated by the sun.

In the human body, Water corresponds to blood and Earth corresponds to flesh.

The ability to govern the affairs of the world is called talent. To gaze into the distance and see where one is bound to arrive is called aspiration. The ability to embrace many different things at once is called breadth of mind.

“The six voids” refers to the six line positions in a hexagram of the Book of Changes. The line positions are empty, awaiting changes in things.

Where there is form, there is substance; where there is nature, there are emotions.

Heaven governs and acts; Earth bears all things. The sage governs and acts; the people bear all things. Thus, in their daily lives, the people are subject to its rule without knowing it.

The gallbladder and kidneys both belong to Yin; the heart and spleen both belong to Yang. The heart governs the eyes, and the spleen governs the nose. Yang within Yang is the sun; Yin within Yin is the moon; Yang within Yin is the stars; Yin within Yang is the hours. Softness within softness is water; firmness within softness is fire; softness within firmness is earth; firmness within firmness is stone.

The principles for governing the world began with Fuxi and were established in the time of Yao. They underwent changes under the Three Kings, reached their height under the Five Hegemons, and were severed in the Qin dynasty. The patterns of order and disorder, rise and decline, throughout the ages have all followed this rule.

The sun corresponds to the heart, the moon to the gallbladder, the stars to the spleen, and the hours to the kidneys; these are the zang organs. Stone corresponds to the lungs, earth to the liver, fire to the stomach, and water to the bladder; these are the fu organs.

The generative number of the Changes is 129,600, totaling 4,224. This is the great number of waxing and waning, and the number obtained by calculating the hours across thirty years. Each year has 360 days, making 4,320 hours; multiplied by thirty, this gives the stated number. Any era that begins with a Jiazi or Jiawu year follows the numbers of the Classic of Supreme World Ordering. Its sequence begins with Jia for the day, Zi for the month, and Jiachenzi for the stars. It is also said that this system of world-ordering numbers takes Jia for the day as its starting point, followed in sequence by Zi for the month and Jiachenzi for the stars.

The nose detects scents, the eyes see things, the mouth speaks words, and the ears hear sounds: these are like things responding to one another.

The “canopy theory” holds that the Earth is like a domed parasol, its edges sloping down on all sides to form the seas. On examination, this theory does not hold up. The Earth is flat, square, and still; how could it be like the round celestial body that revolves without ceasing?

The tides are the Earth’s breathing. They respond to the moon because the two belong to the same kind.

The Ten Heavenly Stems belong to Heaven, and the Twelve Earthly Branches belong to Earth. Their pairing expresses the workings of Heaven and Earth.

Animals begin to grow from the head, while plants begin to grow from the root. Animals receive life through the head, so the head is the root of their life; plants receive life through the root, so the root is the foundation of their life.

Shen is the master of the Changes, and therefore has no fixed position. The Changes are the workings of Shen, and therefore have no fixed form.

What accords with the ordinary course of things is normal; what goes beyond it is an anomaly.

Wind and water are alike in kind, but their sizes are exactly opposite.

The Zhen trigram symbolizes the dragon: a single Yang line stirs beneath two Yin lines, and this is Zhen. Beneath the deep waters there are living creatures in motion—could they not be dragons?

One, ten, a hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, and a hundred million are the odd numbers of Heaven. Two, twenty, one hundred and twenty, one thousand two hundred, twenty thousand, and two hundred million are the even numbers of Earth.

Yang qi in Heaven moves through the southeast, where the sun and moon dwell. Yin qi in Earth gathers in the northwest, where flint is formed.

The human body belongs to Earth, and its foundation lies in stillness. The body’s ability to move results from the activity of qi and blood.

Fire is governed primarily by its nature, with its physical form secondary; water is governed primarily by its physical form, with its nature secondary. Yang is expressed as nature, while Yin is expressed as emotion. Nature belongs to Shen (spirit), and emotion belongs to ghosts.

The passage “beginning with Zhen and ending with Gen” concerns King Wen’s Bagua (Eight Trigrams); the passage “Heaven and Earth take their positions” concerns Fuxi’s Bagua. The trigrams interweave, showing how they combine with one another to form the sixty-four hexagrams.

To calculate what has already happened, one proceeds in sequence. This is like following the direction of the heavenly bodies’ movement—that is, turning left. Since the calculation concerns hexagrams that have already formed, it is called “counting the past.” To know what is yet to come, one proceeds in reverse. This is like going against the direction of the heavenly bodies’ movement—that is, moving right. Since the calculation concerns hexagrams that have not yet formed, it is called “knowing what is to come.” The numbers of the hexagrams in the Yi are formed precisely by proceeding in reverse. This passage directly explains the meaning of the diagram: it is like tracing the changes of the seasons from the opposite direction.

The “Canon of Yao” says that a year has 366 days. Over the course of a year, the sun’s motion exceeds this count by six days, while the moon’s motion falls short by six days. Subtract the combined twelve-day difference between the sun and moon, and 354 days remain. This is the count of the sun’s motion referred to here. Dividing it by twelve gives twenty-nine days in each month.

The discussion then uses numbers to explain the workings of Heaven and Earth and the development of Yin and Yang. Divide “five” according to the ratio of three parts for Heaven to two for Earth, then double each part to obtain six and four. These are the numbers by which Heaven and Earth divide the Taiji (Supreme Ultimate). Heaven’s transformations are based on six; six multiplied by itself six times gives thirty-six, the number of one line in the Qian hexagram. The tally sticks for all six lines amount to 216, the total number of tallies for the Qian hexagram. The tally sticks for one line of the Kun hexagram number twenty-four; across six lines they amount to 144, the total number of tallies for the Kun hexagram. The tallies for the upper and lower sections together total 11,520.

The Basic Questions says that the lungs govern the skin and body hair, the heart governs the vessels, the spleen governs the muscles, the liver governs the sinews, and the kidneys govern the bones. These correspondences proceed from top to bottom and from outside to inside. The joining of heart blood with kidney bones is a method of application; “joining” means interaction.

The Yi began in the age of the Three Sovereigns, the Documents in the age of the Two Emperors, the Odes in the age of the Three Kings, and the Spring and Autumn Annals in the age of the Five Hegemons.

The Qian hexagram belongs to the category of Heaven as its original image; when it belongs to the category of Metal, that is the image assigned to it.

The Yi begins with Qian and Kun, places Kan and Li in the middle, and ends with the interaction or non-interaction of water and fire. These arrangements all contain profound principles.

Heaven and Earth move in parallel and correspond respectively to the internal organs: Heaven corresponds to the four bowels, Earth to the four organs.

From Qian and Kun to Kan and Li, the subject is the Way of Heaven; from Xian and Heng to Jiji and Weiji, the subject is human affairs.

Taiji (the Supreme Ultimate) is the foundation of unity. When still and unmoving, it is “one.” When it stirs from stillness, it divides into “two,” and Yin and Yang emerge; this is called Shen (spirit).

Fire can generate dampness; water can generate dryness.

Shen produces number; number produces images; images produce objects.

When Taiji is still, it is “nature”; when it stirs, it appears as Shen. Shen appears as number, number as images, and images as objects. When the transformations of objects reach their limit, they return to Shen.

From the Return hexagram to the Creative hexagram there are 120 Yang lines; from the Gou hexagram to the Receptive hexagram there are 80 Yang lines. From Gou to the Receptive hexagram there are also 120 Yin lines; from Return to the Creative hexagram there are 80 Yin lines.

The Creative hexagram is odd-numbered and symbolizes strength and vigor, so nothing under Heaven is more vigorous than Heaven. The Receptive hexagram is even-numbered, belongs to Yin, and symbolizes gentleness and compliance, so nothing under Heaven is more yielding than Earth. Earth’s yielding nature means that it follows the Way of Heaven.

The Zhen hexagram signifies beginnings: one Yang first arises. “Arising” also means setting things in motion, so nothing under Heaven stirs things into action more than thunder. The Kan hexagram signifies sinking: one Yang is trapped between two Yin lines and lies below, so nothing under Heaven is lower than water. The Gen hexagram signifies stopping: one Yang comes to a halt there, so nothing under Heaven can halt things more than a mountain. The Xun hexagram signifies entering: one Yin enters beneath two Yang lines, so nothing under Heaven penetrates everywhere more than wind. The Li hexagram signifies attachment: one Yin attaches between two Yang lines, and the interwoven lines form patterns that appear beautiful. Nothing under Heaven is brighter and more beautiful than fire; thus “beauty” also implies attachment. The Dui hexagram signifies joy: one Yin appears on the outside, meets things beyond itself, and rejoices. Nothing under Heaven brings greater pleasure than a marsh.

Fire is dark within and bright without, so the Yang line of the Li hexagram is on the outside; the effects of fire appear externally. Water is dark without and bright within, so the Yang line of the Kan hexagram is on the inside; the effects of water appear internally.

“Three for Heaven and two for Earth, upon which the numbers are based” does not refer to the original numbers of Heaven and Earth. “Based upon” means taking these as models and imitating the proper numbers of Heaven and Earth in order to derive further numbers.

Human deliberation means planning from the human point of view; spirit deliberation means planning from the perspective of Heaven’s will and the spirits. When Heaven and humanity deliberate together, and all actions are fitting, affairs can succeed and bring good fortune.

When King Tang drove out Jie of Xia and King Wu attacked Zhou of Shang, their actions cannot simply be counted as regicide. As Mencius said, propriety forbids men and women from touching when they give and receive things; yet if one’s sister-in-law falls into water, reaching out to save her is an appropriate exception. Confucius honored Boyi and Shuqi, and also approved of Tang and King Wu: Boyi and Shuqi embodied humaneness, while Tang and King Wu embodied righteousness. Only actions such as theirs are permissible; in circumstances unlike theirs, such acts would amount to usurpation.

Among all the hexagrams, those not formed by the interaction of the Qian and Kun hexagrams derive from the Pi and Tai hexagrams. Pi and Tai result from the union of Qian and Kun; Qian and Kun, in turn, originate in odd and even lines, which themselves arise from Taiji (the undivided fundamental state of the cosmos).

As the Tai hexagram changes into Pi, the “Insect” hexagram appears; as Pi changes into Tai, the “Following” hexagram appears.

What Heaven endows me with is called “Mandate”; the nature bestowed on me by that Mandate is called “nature”; when nature is expressed in all things, it is called “principle.”

Adapting one’s conduct to changing circumstances so that the affairs of the world do not violate the fundamental principles of ritual; responding to the changing principles of worldly affairs and grasping how to apply righteousness flexibly—these are the standards that guide a gentleman’s conduct.

“Shuoyi” describes Yang Qi beginning to arise in the north, then completing its course and waning there again. It refers to the cyclical changes of Yin and Yang.

In spring, Yang Qi gains the upper hand, so drought is common; in autumn, Yin Qi gains the upper hand, so rain is common.

“Origin” has two meanings. One is the beginning from which Heaven and Earth were created: Taiji. The other is the beginning of each individual thing, the root from which life arises.

The theory of the Five Stars (the five major planets) began with Master Gan and Master Shi.

The heart of Heaven and Earth is the root from which all things are generated. The feelings of Heaven and Earth refer to their condition, which is the same as the condition of ghosts and spirits.

Heaven has five celestial bodies: the sun, moon, stars, planets, and Heaven itself. Earth has five phases: Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth.

There are hot springs, but no cold fires. This is because Yin can depend on Yang, but Yang cannot depend on Yin.

Where there is thunder, there is lightning; where there is lightning, there is wind.

Trees are hard, but without thunder they cannot be shaken; grasses and trees are soft, but without dew they cannot be moistened.

The stronger human intelligence becomes, the less intelligence other things display.

The Yang count exceeds three hundred and sixty, while the Yin count falls short of three hundred and sixty.

Humans are the most spiritually refined of all things. They belong to the category of beings that walk, and walking belongs to Yin; hence their number is one hundred and twenty.

Rain is generated by the Qi of water, dew by the Qi of earth, thunder by the Qi of stone, and lightning by the Qi of fire. Lightning and wind both arise when Yang Qi reaches its utmost intensity, so wherever there is lightning, there must be wind.

Zhuangzi and Huizi were strolling on the bridge over the Hao River. Zhuangzi said, “The white fish swim about so freely; this is the joy of the fish.” He had fully realized his own nature and could also understand the nature of all things. Fish are not the only ones this applies to; it is true of everything under Heaven. Someone like Zhuangzi can be said to understand all things well.

Zhuangzi wrote “The Robber Zhi” to reveal that even the most wicked person cannot be… even the most sage-like person cannot…

Moral instruction cannot change everyone because those of superior wisdom and those of inferior dullness are often both difficult to change.

The Confucian from the state of Lu refers to Confucius.

Laozi understood the fundamental nature of the Book of Changes.

Things in the world that begin with excess often end in deficiency; those that begin with abundance often end in scarcity. How much more so when one begins carelessly and shallowly? Few people go wrong through excess, but many go wrong through taking things too lightly; few go wrong through abundance, but many through shallowness. Thus, the noble person does not worry about being too substantial, but often worries about being too casual; does not worry about being too thorough, but often worries about being too superficial.

Zhuangzi spoke of “making all things equal,” viewing the myriad things as one, yet he had not escaped comparison and measurement. Once things are compared and measured, disputes arise; where there are disputes, fairness is hard to achieve; without fairness, harmony cannot be attained.

To be without thought and without action is to reach a state of wondrous single-mindedness, what is called “pervading all with oneness.” The sage uses this to cleanse the heart and withdraw into hidden depths.

“Do not yield to your teacher when it comes to benevolence” means that those seeking to advance along the Dao need not defer even to their teacher when they encounter an act that accords with benevolence and righteousness.

Duke Mu of Qin invaded Zheng, failed, then came to regret it and vowed to mend his ways. This was more than a hegemon could achieve; it approached the Way of the King. To be able to repent is to avoid repeating one’s mistakes. The sage therefore recorded this event at the end of the Book of Documents.

Liu Xun asked what Wuwei (non-action) means. The reply was: Speak when the moment is right, and people will not tire of your words; laugh when you are truly glad, and people will not tire of your laughter; take what you need when it is right to do so, and people will not tire of your taking. This is what is meant by Wuwei.

Gusou, Shun’s father, killed someone. Shun would rather give up all under Heaven than abandon his father: he carried him away and settled with him by the sea. Even if he had to live that way for the rest of his life, he would still have been happy, forgetting all under Heaven. Even possessing the vast realm of all under Heaven would not change the sage’s innate love for his family.

Wenzhongzi said, “Those who are quick to rejoice are often quick to grieve; those who give things away carelessly often like to take things by force.” Someone asked, “Everyone under Heaven pursues profit and casts righteousness aside. What should I do?” Wenzhongzi replied, “Let go of what everyone else is fighting to obtain, and pick up what everyone else has cast aside. Is that not what a noble person does?” Words of this kind concern the principles of ritual and righteousness. The distinction between what one thinks inwardly and how one acts outwardly has long existed. Words of this kind also concern the principles governing the workings of creation.

Zhuangzi’s words were bold and expansive; his account of the Lüliang story, for example, carried its meaning to the utmost. The story of Robber Zhi speaks of how some things are unavoidable, beyond even a sage’s ability to deal with. “The Fisherman” speaks of how some things cannot be forced, and cannot be changed by a sage’s insistence. These passages illuminate the principles of action and non-action: to follow the natural course of things is Wuwei; to force matters is action.

Metal must be hammered again and again before it becomes pure. The same is true of people.

Buddhism (the Buddha’s teaching) casts aside the ethical Way governing relations between ruler and minister, parent and child, and husband and wife. Can this really accord with the principles of nature?

In general, those who set their resolve on seeking the Dao (the Way) are wholly devoted to it. De (Virtue/Power) is gained through putting it into practice oneself, and so can serve as a basis for reliance. Since De is centered on benevolence, one should follow De.

Zhuangzi said, “Even if the cook does not personally prepare the food, the officiant in charge of the sacrifice will not step over the wine vessels and sacrificial dishes to do the work for him.” This means that a gentleman does not take on tasks beyond the scope of his duties: he accepts his position and carries out what is his to do.

In the state of Jin, Hu Shegu killed Yang Chufu. The Spring and Autumn Annals records this as “Jin killed the minister Yang Chufu” because someone had leaked confidential information. When a ruler fails to guard secrets carefully, he loses the trust of his ministers. That is why the annals records the matter as “Jin killed him.”

When a person receives Qi (vital energy) in a balanced and harmonious state, firmness and gentleness are in equilibrium. An excess of Yang Qi makes one more inclined toward firmness; an excess of Yin Qi makes one more inclined toward gentleness.

In cultivating the Dao, one should reach a state that even ghosts and spirits cannot fathom. Only then has one attained the utmost.

The author of the Book of Changes perhaps understood the secret of drawing upon the myriad things of Heaven and Earth: the sage knows the principles of all things under Heaven and unifies them through one fundamental principle.

The “great broth” (meat broth used in ancient sacrifices) can be seasoned, and “dark liquor” (plain water used in ancient sacrifices) can be diluted. It follows that the workings of creation, too, can be blended and thinned.

Some things exist for a day; others for a month, a season, a year, or ten years, and still others for a hundred, a thousand, or ten thousand years. Heaven and Earth are also things, each with its own span of life. A sparrow can live for three years, and a horse for thirty; the lifespans of birds and beasts can all be calculated. A human being is a thing that can live for one hundred and twenty years.

Taiji (the Supreme Ultimate) is the utmost limit of the Dao; Taixuan is the Dao’s profound depth; Taisu is the source of color; Taiyi is the beginning of number; Taichu is the beginning of things. The end they reach is, in essence, one and the same.

If one were to exchange positions with others when dealing with them, one would not look out only for oneself.

Yin is the shadow of Yang; ghosts are the shadows of human beings.

Qi undergoes six transformations, and forms fall into four categories.

Looking down from a position of authority is called “approaching”; viewing from above downwards is called “observing.”

Do not make guesses without grounds, be dogmatic, cling to fixed views, or put yourself at the center. Taken together, these principles amount to one thing; considered separately, they make two, and can also be divided into four. A person’s partiality begins with preconceived ideas and ends with self-centeredness: first comes a preconceived idea, then dogmatism; prolonged adherence to fixed views gives rise to the self. A preconceived idea is a bias in the mind; clinging to fixed views means refusing to change one’s thinking; self-centeredness means putting oneself at the center in all things.

Learning that consists only of memorizing and answering questions is not enough to accomplish anything.

The Marquis of Liu—Zhang Liang, a founding minister of the early Han—was truly wise, skilled at keeping his talents and abilities concealed.

As soon as a thought arises, spirits and deities can know it. Therefore, a noble person must be careful in speech and conduct when alone.

Speak only when the time is right; then what one says is no longer determined by oneself alone.

The value of learning lies in persevering without interruption. That is why Wang Tong said that learning is never complete, even after a lifetime.

“Sincerity” is the foundation that sustains one’s nature. It has no fixed beginning and no fixed bounds.