《南华真经章句音义(陈景元)》Vol. 1

The preface to Nanhua zhenjing zhangju yinyi is attributed to “Bixuzi.” “Nanhua zhenjing” is the Daoist honorific title for the Zhuangzi; “zhangju yinyi” refers to annotations on the scripture’s chapters and passages, pronunciation, and word meanings.

The Grand Historian says: Zhuangzi once served as a minor official overseeing a lacquer garden in Meng and wrote more than a hundred thousand words. The Treatise on Arts and Letters in the Book of Han records that the Zhuangzi had fifty-two chapters. The Treatise on Bibliography in the Book of Sui records that Xiang Xiu’s annotated edition comprised twenty scrolls and Guo Xiang’s thirty-three; under the Liang dynasty there was also a twenty-five-scroll Discourse on the Southern Florescence. In the preface and catalogue to the Declarations of the Perfected, Tao Yinju (Tao Hongjing) says that Zhuangzi received the subtle teachings of Lord Changsang and wrote seven scrolls of inner chapters. The titles use three characters, modeled on the revolving motion of the xuanji, an ancient instrument for observing the heavens, and the brilliant radiance of the Three Luminaries—the sun, moon, and stars. For this reason, when Tao Hongjing compiled the Declarations of the Perfected, he arranged it in seven sections and also gave them three-character titles. This shows that Tao Hongjing’s writings carried on an earlier tradition. During the Tianbao era of the Tang, the emperor issued an edict conferring a title on Zhuangzi and, following the old name, honored the Zhuangzi as the True Scripture of the Southern Florescence. We can see, then, that the name “Southern Florescence” has a long history.

Since childhood, I have enjoyed reciting this scripture. When I have nothing to do, I open it and read a few scrolls. This is a Daoist practice, concerned above all with seeking long life and lasting vision—living long while keeping the spirit bright. It does not take praise or blame to heart, and holds firm confidence in the Dao. How could this be compared with people who depend on external things in everything they do?

I have now compiled and annotated the chapters and completed seven scrolls. “Chapter-and-phrase annotations” means dividing the text into chapters and phrases and carefully tracing the structure of its passages. The inner chapters comprise seven pieces: “Free and Easy Wandering,” “Discussion on Making All Things Equal,” “The Essentials for Nurturing Life,” “In the World of Men,” “The Sign of Virtue Complete,” “The Great Ancestral Teacher,” and “Fit for Emperors and Kings.” These are indeed the chapter titles given by Zhuangzi of the Lacquer Garden. The other pieces generally take their titles from the first two or three words of the text. There are therefore fifteen outer chapters and eleven miscellaneous chapters. Some say that Guo Xiang abridged and revised the outer and miscellaneous chapters. Yet Tao Hongjing says only that Zhuangzi wrote inner and outer chapters; he does not mention miscellaneous chapters. Moreover, earlier commentaries often omit too much, making it difficult to check and verify the text.

I have now selected seven of the twenty-six chapters whose titles consist of two characters and whose contents form distinct pieces: “Joined Toes,” “Horses’ Hooves,” “Rifling Trunks,” “Concentrating on Purpose,” “Cultivating Nature,” “Discussing Swords,” and “The Old Fisherman.” Following the pattern of the inner chapters, I have designated these as outer chapters. The remaining nineteen are “Yielding the Throne,” “Robber Zhi,” “Letting Things Be,” “Heaven and Earth,” “The Way of Heaven,” “The Course of Heaven,” “Autumn Floods,” “Perfect Happiness,” “Understanding Life,” “Mountain Trees,” “Tian Zifang,” “Knowledge Wanders North,” “Gengsang Chu,” “Xu Wugui,” “Ze Yang,” “External Things,” “Parables,” “Lie Yukou,” and “All Under Heaven.” These chapters alternate in number with the inner and outer chapters, while those arranged by the names of their characters each form their own category. Examining their principles, we find that they accord with the patterns of Yin-Yang; exploring their meanings, we find that they accord with the subtle truth that lies between speech and silence. For this reason, they are called miscellaneous chapters.

I have divided the thirty-three chapters into 255 sections and assigned titles based on each section’s content; these are called “chapter-and-phrase annotations.” Under each chapter, I have marked the pronunciation of words, explained their meaning, and described relevant matters; these notes are called “chapter explanations.” After completing the book, I counted the text: it contains 65,923 characters, forty percent fewer than the “more than a hundred thousand” recorded by Sima Qian.

I also took several editions of the Zhuangzi preserved in the Comprehensive Record of Precious Texts at Zhongtaiyi Palace, along with handwritten copies from my book chests, and collated them against the editions held by various scholars. Compared with the edition printed by the Directorate of Education in the fourth year of Jingde, they differ in 349 places. I have explained each reading according to its source and compiled a separate scroll, Errors and Omissions, to examine doubtful and mistaken passages. I have also appended the three chapters of Gongsun Long for readers to consult.

Alas, later scholars have been unable to see the original bamboo slips of Zhuangzi of the Lacquer Garden in their complete form. The overall design and subtle meaning of the chapters have gradually been divided apart by the various editors.

Zhuangzi’s surname was Zhuang and his given name Zhou. Some say his courtesy name was Zixiu. He was from Mengcheng in the state of Song. He lived during the reigns of King Hui of Liang and King Wei of Qi, and once served as a minor official in a lacquer garden. He studied under Master Chang Sang, grasped the subtle meaning of his teachings, and wrote a work of more than a hundred thousand characters entitled Nanhua.

His teaching was fundamentally rooted in the Daoist thought of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. He also studied under Yuanyuan, a man of Chu. Later, he lived in seclusion on Baodu Mountain, consumed the Northern Nurturing Fire Elixir, ascended to immortality in broad daylight, and was appointed an Editorial Official of the Taiji Palace.

On the fourth day of the fifth month in the nineteenth year of the Kaiyuan era of the Tang dynasty, Pei Guangting, Minister of the Left, petitioned to grant honorific titles to four Daoist works. On the twentieth day of the second month in the first year of the Tianbao era, the court issued an edict conferring a title on Zhuangzi, retaining the old name and designating the work the True Scripture of Nanhua. The work of Wenzi was called the True Scripture of Penetrating Mystery, the work of Liezi the True Scripture of Emptiness and Subtlety, and the work of Gengsangzi was renamed the True Scripture of the Grotto’s Numinous Power.

The name “Nanhua” draws its meaning from the brightness of Li, signifying the flourishing of refined brilliance and the illumination of the Dao’s wondrous principle.

The first chapter of the Inner Chapters: “Free and Easy Wandering.”

The titles of the “Inner Chapters” were set by Zhuangzi, also known as Master of the Lacquer Garden. Only when a person has forgotten the self and completely let go of fame and achievement can the Free and Easy Wandering be discussed. To wander freely is to transcend the world of convention on one’s own. But if any pride remains, the discussion must continue with the Discussion on Making All Things Equal.

To make all things equal is to forget external things and allow the myriad beings to be equal of themselves. If this unity has not yet been attained, there will still be a distinction between “that” and “this,” between the other and the self. They stand opposed and turn back upon one another. Only by entering the empty, undifferentiated center of the circle can one attain unity. One may use an empty, clear mind to make all things equal and still not understand the root that governs life and death; so the discussion continues with the Nourishing the Lord of Life. Here, “Lord” means the true governor behind both spirit and body. The body is like firewood, and its governor like fire: the wood bears the fire, and when the wood is spent, the fire too goes out. Only those who know how to nourish life can keep it from being used up too soon.

There are also those who shine alone and cannot get along with other people, so the discussion continues with the In the Human World. To live in a polluted environment without being stained by it requires knowing how to temper one’s brilliance and live among others. Being able to blend with the world of dust is what gives virtue its expression, so the discussion continues with the Signs of the Fullness of Virtue. When virtue shows itself outwardly, people can become attached to external things. Only by keeping it hidden can one preserve one’s true nature. And only by preserving one’s true nature can one serve as a teacher, so the discussion continues with the The Great and Venerable Teacher.

No one is more fit to be a teacher than a True Person. How could a True Person be attached to anything? Only by having no mind and no attachments can one move in step with the transformations of creation. The discussion therefore continues with the Responding to Emperors and Kings. Emperors and kings are rooted in the Great Dao and govern the work of transformation. They rank among the four great powers of heaven, earth, humanity, and the Dao, and are honored as the foremost among the myriad beings. The Great Dao is vast and profound; even those skilled at observation cannot fathom it.

The chapters from Webbed Toes onward have no separate, special purpose. Their order serves to expound again and again the subtle principles of the Inner Chapters.

Respond to change and live freely, at ease.

Beiming is also written as “Beiming” with the character meaning sea. The word ming suggests something profound and vast, with no visible bounds. Ji Kang said it conveys depth and immensity without limit; Emperor Jianwen of Liang said that “youming” means endless.

“Kun” is pronounced “hun.” The Erya explains it as fish roe. Calling it Kun means that the fish eggs have only just come into being and cannot yet be distinguished as destined to become a whale or a loach; the name conveys a state of undifferentiated chaos. When Kun is about to grow, no one knows whether it will be several thousand li in size.

“Peng” was written with the ancient character “peng.” Since “peng” can mean companions of the same kind, it is pronounced like the word for birds; here it means a companion among birds. When Peng is about to take flight, no one knows whether its wings will span several thousand li. The Southern Sea is the South Sea, and its name has the same meaning as the Northern Sea.

“Qixie” is pronounced “hu jie.” Sima Biao considered it a person’s name, while Emperor Jianwen of Liang considered it the title of a book. “Bo” is pronounced “tu duan”: it describes a bird striking the air with its claws and using the force to rise aloft. “Fuxiao” means whirlwind. Here, “ye” is a particle that helps convey the sentence, leaving its meaning open; the same usage occurs later. In the phrase “shi er yi yi,” the Wenruhai edition reads it this way, while the old edition has “ze.”

“Aotang” is a low-lying place in the courtyard of a hall. “Jie” means a small plant. “Jiao” is pronounced “gu yao,” though it may also be read according to its ordinary pronunciation; Li Yi explains it as “to stick fast.” “Feng si” is pronounced “xiang zhi” and means to split apart or disperse. “Pei” is pronounced “bo hui” and means to add to or repair. The Book of Rites says, “Do not repair the burial mound”; “repair” here is the meaning of “pei.” “Yao” is pronounced “yu biao”; Sima Biao explains it as “to break.” “Guan” is pronounced “yu ge”; Sima Biao explains it as “to stop,” and Li Yi as “to block.”

“Tiao” is pronounced “tian liao” and means cicada. “Xuejiu” is pronounced “yu jiao.” Some versions write it as “xue” or “xue,” and it is also read as “yu.” Sima Biao explains it as a small dove; the Treatise on the Plants and Trees of the Mao Poems says it is a falcon-dove, that is, a turtle dove. “Wo” is pronounced “yu ge”; Sima Biao explains it as “to stop,” and Li Yi as “to block.” “Jue” is pronounced “xi que” and means swift. “Qiang” is pronounced “qi liang”; Sima Biao explains it as “to gather,” Cui as “to touch,” and Zhi Dun as “to collide with.” “Yu” is pronounced “yu” and is the name of a tree. “Fang” is pronounced “fang”; Li Yi says it is a kind of sandalwood. The Wenruhai edition and the old Jiangnan manuscript read, “It struck the elm and the fang tree, then stopped.” “Kong” is pronounced “ku gong”; Sima Biao explains it as “to throw” or “to pull,” and Cui as “to strike.”

“Mang” has two pronunciations: “mo lang” and “mo lang.” “Cang” is pronounced “qi dang,” though it may also be read according to its ordinary pronunciation. It describes looking into the distance across the countryside and seeing only a vast, indistinct expanse, with the landscape unclear. “Can” is pronounced “qi dan.” One version writes “guoran” as “keran,” describing a plump, full appearance. “Chong” is pronounced “shu rong,” and “liang” is pronounced “liang.” In the phrase “What could those two creatures know?”, the text has this wording, while the old edition reads, “What could those two creatures know?”

“Zhaojun” is pronounced “qi yun.” Sima Biao says it is a fungus that grows in dung, appears in cloudy weather, and dies as soon as it sees the sun. It is also called baiji. For this reason, it does not know the passage of a month from beginning to end. Cui likewise says it grows in dung, appearing in the morning and dying by evening. Those whose lives do not last until the end of the month cannot see its beginning, and those whose lives do not last until the beginning cannot see its end. Zhi Dun says it resembles the Shun flower, blooming in the morning and withering by evening. Pan Ni says it is a kind of plant; other commentators say it is a fungus that suddenly springs up. In “huisuo,” “shuo” means the beginning of the month, while “hui” means its end, the time of darkness.

“Hui” and “gu” are the pronunciations of the two characters in “huigu.” Sima Biao says it is a cold-weather cicada, also called diliao. Those born in spring die in summer, and those born in summer die in autumn. Cui says it is the same as diaoliao. Another explanation calls it a mountain cicada: those that call in spring do not live until autumn, and those that call in autumn do not live until winter. The Songs of Chu calls it a cold cicada; another view holds that it is a summer cicada that lives in wheat stalks, also called “wheat joint.” It is born in summer and dies in autumn, and therefore knows nothing of spring or autumn.

Some versions write “mingling” as “ming.” Li Yi says it is a tree that grows south of the Yangtze River, taking the growth of its leaves as spring and their fall as autumn; for this tree, two thousand years count as one year. “Dachun” is pronounced “chou lun.” Li Yi says it grows south of the Yangtze, while another view places it in the north. For this tree, thirty-two thousand years count as one year. This is what is meant by great longevity. This sentence is missing from one version.

Cheng Xuanying says that Peng Zu’s surname was Qian and his personal name was Keng, and that he was a distant descendant of Emperor Ku. He was skilled in nourishing life and cooking, and once prepared pheasant soup for Emperor Yao. Yao thought that someone skilled at seasoning food must also understand how to nourish life, and that one who could nourish life could also care for others. He therefore enfeoffed Peng Zu at Pengcheng. Because his Daoist methods were worthy of emulation, people called him Peng Zu. He lived through the Xia and Shang dynasties and into the Zhou, reaching the age of eight hundred. In one version, “te wen” is written as “dai wen.”

The explanation of the posthumous title Tang, as quoted in the Records of the Grand Historian, says that someone who can eliminate tyranny and eradicate harm is called “Tang.” Tang was descended from Qi, who came after Emperor Ku, and belonged to the Zi lineage. His courtesy name was Tianyi. He possessed sage-like virtue and once exiled Xia Jie to Nanchao.

Ji, Li, Gong, and Wan were all worthy men of the time of Tang; Ji was learned and widely informed. “Qiongfa” refers to the treeless region in the north; the trees and plants on a mountain are like its hair. “Ram’s horn” means a wind that spirals upward in a shape like a ram’s horn. “Chi” is pronounced with the fanqie spelling chang-shi. “Zhi” means a name and can also mean “great.” “Yan,” also written “yan,” is pronounced with the fanqie spelling yu-lian and refers to a kind of sparrow. “Soaring” is pronounced with the fanqie spelling wu-dao and means circling flight; “xing” is pronounced with the fanqie spelling xia-meng. “Bi” is pronounced with the fanqie spellings pi-zhi or fu-zhi. Li Yi says it means “to join.” The Yupian gives another reading, “neng,” pronounced with the fanqie spelling nu-deng. The Shuowen says it belongs to the bear family and has feet like a deer. The phrase “neng beast” refers to an animal that is firm within; this is why “worthy and capable” also uses the character “neng.” Some commentators take “er” in its original sense of “to be at ease” and cite the Book of Changes: “It is fitting to establish a feudal lord, yet not to remain at rest.” Zheng Xuan reads it this way too, but that interpretation is not adopted here.

“Zheng” is read according to its usual pronunciation. Sima Biao explains it as “trustworthy,” while Cui Zhuan explains it as “accomplished.” Song Rongzi was a worthy man of the state of Song. Li Yi explains “still laughed at it” as meaning that he continued to regard the matter as a joke. “Jia zu” is pronounced with the fanqie spelling ci-lü and means to be damaged or thwarted.

“Shuashuai” is pronounced shuo, as are the occurrences below. Sima Biao explains it as pursuing something eagerly; Cui Zhuan says it describes a pressing, urgent manner. The Jianwen text reads it with the fanqie spelling suo-yu and explains it as calculating or weighing things up. Liezi was from the state of Zheng. His name was Yukou, also written Yukou. Tradition says he acquired the art of the Wind Immortals and could ride the wind; he lived at the same time as Duke Mu of Zheng. Lu Ji’s Yaolan says that Liezi often rode the wind at the beginning of spring and returned from the remote regions of the eight directions. “Lingran” is pronounced ling; Cheng Xuanying explains it as light and buoyant.

The “Six Qi” are wind, cold, heat, dampness, dryness, and fire. Sima Biao, however, says they are Yin, Yang, wind, rain, darkness, and brightness. “Bian” is pronounced with the fanqie spelling ping-mian and means “change.” Guo Xiang’s commentary says that “roaming through the changes of the Six Qi” means wandering along the paths of transformation. “Ehu” is pronounced wu; Cheng Xuanying explains it as “in what place.” “Wuji” is pronounced ji.

“Wandering freely without a self” means that when one forgets the self and is not burdened by selfish desires or external things, one can roam at ease.

Yao, an ancient ruler, had the surname Yiqi and the courtesy name Fangxun. He was the son of Emperor Ku. Possessed of sage virtue, he was enfeoffed as the Lord of Tang at the age of fifteen and ascended the throne at twenty-one, establishing his capital at Pingyang. Seventy years after Yao took the throne, he found Shun; twenty years later, he had grown old. Shun administered the affairs of the Son of Heaven in Yao’s place, and Yao recommended him to Heaven. Yao died twenty-eight years after abdicating, at the age of 118. He had ruled for ninety-eight years and was buried at Yangcheng, the place called the State of Tang in the Book of Songs.

Xu You was a reclusive man of lofty character. The Biographies of Lofty Men says his courtesy name was Zhongwu and that he came from Huaili in Yangcheng. He lived in seclusion, farming on the north bank of the Ying River at the foot of Mount Ji. After his death, he was given the posthumous title Lord Ji.

“Flickering torch” is pronounced jue huo, also read with the pronunciation “zi zhao qie.” It refers to a torch, though some say it means a small flame. “Timely rain” refers to the era of Shennong, when rain fell once every fifteen days; this was called timely rain. “Immerse” is pronounced with the reading “zi zhen qie”; “irrigate” with “gu luan qie.” In the phrase “the world is well governed,” “govern” is pronounced with the reading “zhi li qie” and means to govern well and accomplish great deeds. It may also be read “zhi ji qie,” meaning order or principle.

“Wren” is pronounced with the reading “zi yao qie,” and “little wren” with the reading “liao.” Guo Pu says it is a peach-colored sparrow. Cheng Xuanying says it is the tailorbird, also called the skillful sparrow or the female artisan.

“Water rat” is read according to the usual pronunciation of the characters. Xu Shen says it is a mole; Li says it is a shrew. Cheng Xuanying describes it as as large as an ox, with reddish-black fur, a white tail tip, and a fondness for drinking from rivers. The Golden Tower Book records that large rats lived around Jinning County. They looked like oxen, and local people called them water rats. Legend has it that when disaster was about to strike, they would emerge from the mountains and roam through the fields. The fur they shed would turn into little rats, which devoured the crops.

“Kitchen steward” is pronounced with the reading “bao jiao qie” and refers to the person in charge of the kitchen. The Rites of Zhou includes an office called kitchen steward. “Ritual officiant” is pronounced with the reading “zhi liu qie.” The “corpse” was the tablet representing a deity and receiving offerings in the ancestral temple. The “invoker” was the person who conducted the sacrifice, holding a ritual tablet and addressing the represented deity. Some say the invoker was simply the person who conveyed the words of spirits and deities.

“Wine vessel” is pronounced with the reading “zi cun qie.” Its original written form is “zun,” and it is a vessel for holding wine. “Meat platter” is pronounced with the reading “ce lv qie” and is a vessel for holding meat.

Shuanyu was a worthy man, while Lianshu had attained the Dao (the Way). Jieyu (Lu Tong, styled Jieyu) was a reclusive worthy from the state of Chu who lived at the same time as Confucius. He feigned madness and refused to take office, often working the fields himself. The king of Chu sent messengers with a hundred yi of gold and two chariots to recruit him, but Jieyu declined. Later, he set out on travels through mountains and seas, leaving his wife behind and carrying his belongings. No one knew where he eventually went.

“Unfitting” refers to grand words that have no practical application. “Astonishment and fear” means being afraid. “Deviation” describes speech and conduct that go too far and stray widely from the proper course; it can also suggest pressing straight ahead without regard for consequences. “Miao” means distant. Gushe is the name of a mountain said to lie in the Northern Sea. “Ruoyue” describes a delicate, fragile appearance. “Innocent maiden” refers to someone who, like a maiden, preserves quiet gentleness and is unharmed by external things. “Flaw” means a defect or damage; “disease” means a grave illness; “madness” means foolishness; “blindness” means loss of sight; and “deafness” means inability to hear. “Timeless maiden” can be understood as an innocent maiden; it also refers to someone who is still, gentle, and yielding, lives in harmony without contention, and does not seek to take from others, yet is admired by them.

“Vast and undivided,” also written “boundless,” here refers to all things being blended into one. “What the world seeks” means what people pursue. “Hustling and striving” describes being busy making arrangements and rushing about without pause. “Gradually” suggests a deepening over time; “reach” means arrive at; “sink” means become mired. “Dust and grime” is a metaphor for contamination. “Chaff” is a metaphor for petty, troublesome things. “Pottery” means making vessels from clay, and “casting” means smelting metal.

Yao and Shun were ancient rulers. According to tradition, Shun was the sixth-generation descendant of Zhuanxu. His father was called Gusou and his mother Wodeng. Legend says that his mother conceived after being touched by a great rainbow, and that Shun was born at Yaoxu, which is why his surname was Yao. Because he was also born near the Guishui River, he was known as the Guishui clan. Shun had double pupils and was therefore also called Chonghua. He was renowned in his community for kindness and filial devotion. When Yao heard of his worth, he gave him his two daughters in marriage and enfeoffed him in Yu. By the age of twenty, Shun was known for his filial piety; at thirty, he oversaw the officials; and at fifty, he acted in the emperor’s place. After Yao’s death, Shun succeeded him. He ruled for thirty-nine years and died while making a southern tour in the wilderness of Cangwu. He was buried in the area of Jiuyi Mountain in Jiangnan, which came to be called Lingling.

Namelessness and Ease

The people of Song sold merchants’ ceremonial caps (zhangfu) as merchandise. The people of Yue brought the caps to Shanyin County in Kuaiji. Later, someone climbed Mount Jiuyi and was buried there after death. This place is Lingling.

Namelessness and Ease

The people of Song sold merchants’ ceremonial caps as merchandise. The people of Yue went to Shanyin County in Kuaiji. Sima says that Wang Ni, Nie Que, Bei Yi, and Xu You once held a discussion on the north bank of the Fen River. The Fen rises in Taiyuan and flows west into the Yellow River; its northern bank is called “yang.” Today, Pingyang County in Jinzhou lies north of the Fen River; in ancient times it was the capital of Yao. “Yaoran” describes something remote and profound, or a feeling of wistfulness; “losing one’s breath” means losing one’s vital breath.

Huizi (Hui Shi, a native of the state of Song during the Warring States period) served as chancellor to King Hui of Liang, the title used by King Hui of Wei after he moved his capital to Daliang. King Hui had originally lived in Anyi, and his state was called Wei. Later, under pressure from the powerful state of Qin, he moved the capital to Daliang. The state was then renamed Liang, and its ruler adopted “Liang” as his royal title.

“Yi” means to give as a gift or to leave behind. “Hu” means gourd. “Zhong” is pronounced “zhangyongqie.” “Er shi wu shi” means that the gourd was large enough to hold five shi of something. “Sheng” is pronounced “cheng.” “Po” means to split or divide. “Piao” is a ladle used for scooping things.

In “huluo,” “hu” is pronounced “huguoqie” or “hu.” The original character is missing in the old text, so its pronunciation is noted as “huo.” The commentary explains that “huluo” is like “kuoluo,” describing something broad and open. Sima’s explanation is that “hu” means spread out and “luo” means scattered. Here, the phrase describes a gourd that is flat and shallow: water would spill out of it, so it could not hold anything.

“Xiaoran” is pronounced “xuqiaoqie.” Li explains it as describing something vast and hollow; the version used by Cui has a different character. “Wu wei” is pronounced “yuweiqie.” “Pou zhi” is pronounced “fanggouqie”; Sima explains it as meaning to smash. “Gui shou” is pronounced “guibeiqie” and refers to hands with skin that is dark, rough, cracked, and wrinkled. “Ping” is pronounced “fujingqie” and means to float; “pi” is pronounced “puliqie.” Li considers these words descriptive of the sound of water, while Cheng explains them as washing and treating. “Kuang” refers to fine, soft silk floss and can also mean a cocoon. Here, it means treating cocoon floss in water. Li explains “ping pi kuang” as washing floss by floating it on water; “kuang” means floss.

The words “yi bai jin” appear in an old Jiangnan manuscript; the old edition lacks them. Li says that one jin of gold weighed one jin, so a hundred jin meant one hundred jin in weight. “Yu” means to sell. “Ji” refers to a skill or method. In “yi shuo,” “shuo” is pronounced “shiruiqie,” though it can also be read with its usual pronunciation. “You nan” is pronounced “naidanqie,” “zhi jiang” is pronounced “zijiangqie,” and “da bai” is pronounced “bimaiqie.”

In “bu lv yi wei da zun,” “lv” is pronounced “biqie” and means to plan or consider. Sima explains that a “zun” resembles a wine vessel and can be tied to the body. It can be used to cross water while floating on rivers and lakes; the so-called “waist boat” is this kind of float, fastened around the waist.

As for “peng zhi xin,” Guo explains that when a fleabane plant grows, it cannot extend straight upward. Xiang says that fleabane is short, crooked, and unable to stretch out, and that it serves as a metaphor for people with narrow knowledge and limited understanding.

“Wuwei (non-action) and carefree wandering”: Let things follow their natural course and do nothing, and you can roam at ease.

“Chu” is the name of a tree. Cheng Xuanying says it resembles the oak and lacquer trees, has a very foul smell, and is an undesirable tree. Others say it resembles the Chinese toon. “Yongzhong” describes a trunk that twists and bends, with knots and swellings. “Bu zhong” means “not fit for use.” “Juanqu” means curved and crooked. In “tong qu,” qu is pronounced in its usual way, though another reading is “qiang lü qie.”

“Lili” is the name of a beast. “Sheng” is pronounced sheng. Sima Biao’s commentary is damaged at this point, so its precise meaning cannot be known. Li Yi says “cheng fu jian dai” means to take advantage of an opening and wait for the right moment to act. Sima Biao reads “ao” as “ao” and explains it as lying in wait to catch flying creatures such as chickens and mice. “Tiao” is pronounced tiao. In “bu bi,” bi is pronounced bi, meaning “avoid”; the same applies below. “Jipi” refers to devices for catching animals, such as a falling trap. “Wanggu” means nets, that is, nets for catching animals.

The yak, also called the wild yak, is found in the regions inhabited by ethnic minorities in the southwest. It is very large; seen from afar in the mountains, it looks like a cloud on the horizon.

“The land of No-Thing-There and the wilderness of Vast Emptiness” refers to a broad, open place where nothing exists. “Mo” means “nothing” or “not.” “Panghuang” is like roaming freely; some editions write “fangyang.” The Guangya says that “pangyang” means to wander about or stand leaning against something. Cheng Xuanying considers this to describe a state of unrestrained ease. Some editions write “Where, then, could there be hardship?” as “Where, then, could there be destitution?”

End of volume one of Nanhua Zhenjing Zhangju Yinyi. [Volume two follows.]

Volume two of Nanhua Zhenjing Zhangju Yinyi, by Bixuzi.

Inner Chapter Two: “Discussion on Making All Things Equal.”

Qi Wo

Nan Guo Ziqi, a figure in Zhuangzi’s writings, sat leaning against a low table, breathing out with his face turned upward. He seemed dazed, as though his body had loosened and his body and spirit had fallen apart. Yan Cheng Ziyou, a disciple of Ziqi, asked him, “What has happened to you? Your body is like withered wood, and your mind and spirit like dead ashes.”

“Human music” refers to sounds made by instruments such as the xiao flute. These instruments have pipes of different lengths, producing a variety of sounds when played. Later, “music” came to refer broadly to all kinds of sounds, giving rise to the terms “earthly music” and “Heavenly music.” Earthly music is the sound made when wind passes through the hollows in all things. Heavenly music is the whole sound that seems to arise naturally when human music, earthly music, and other sounds come together.

The “Great Clod” refers to the primordial Qi that forms spontaneously between Heaven and Earth. When it breathes out, the myriad hollows answer with sound, like a raging gale or a long, drawn-out wind. As the wind passes through openings of different shapes, some sounds resemble snorting or a human mouth; others sound like the square blocks atop pillars, cup rings, stone mortars, and the like. The hollows differ in depth and curve, so their sounds differ too: some resemble rushing water, others an arrow skimming past; some are like scolding, breathing, shouting, or wailing. Some are deep and muffled, others piercing and mournful.

At times, these sounds rise and answer one another, as if singing back and forth. A light breeze brings soft, gentle sounds; a whirlwind is swift, and a strong wind fierce. When the wind stops, the hollows fall silent. The sounds rise with the wind and cease with it, each seeming to follow its own nature and find its own expression.

Great wisdom is spacious and free; lesser wisdom gets caught up in minute distinctions. Words that flaunt their force reveal the edge of the disputant; a clever, eloquent manner often becomes mere ornament. In sleep, the hun and shen join, and the body and mind turn inward. On waking, body and awareness unfold, making contact with the world outside and entering into all kinds of relationships.

Some people are open and easygoing, while others are secretive and stubborn. Some conceal their thoughts; others are inwardly uneasy and afraid. People’s temperaments gradually forget their original nature, like a crossbow’s trigger and arrow notch constrained by their mechanisms. They are also bound by words such as curses and oaths. Emotions may fade or become excessive, as if tangled in ropes and sunk into the depths. Then life stirs once more, and sorrow and joy move the mind and spirit.

“Heat” describes something being stirred by contact. “Si” can mean stillness, though it has also been interpreted in different ways, including as frivolous or prolonged. “Yi” means unrestrained, and can also imply excess; “qi” describes an opening or spreading; “tai” means arrogant and wanton, and can also refer to the mind’s intent. As things steam and grow, they form fungi. To understand this way of forgetting words is to understand the constant Dao. It has no fixed name, so for now it is called the Dao.

“True Ruler” refers to the sovereign who nurtures life. The signs of things are the first traces of change as it appears. “Hundred bones” means the joints throughout the body. Commentators disagree about the “six viscera.” One ancient version reads “five viscera and six bowels”: the five viscera are the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, and kidneys, while the six bowels include the small and large intestines, bladder, and triple burner. Another old explanation divides the kidneys into left and right viscera, calling the right one the “Gate of Life,” and thus counts six viscera. Yet another interpretation explains the “nine viscera” through signs of climatic influence in Heaven, humanity, and Earth: signs in the head belong to Heaven, those in the ears and eyes to humanity, and those in the mouth and teeth to Earth. Each category is further divided into three signs corresponding to Heaven, humanity, and Earth, making nine spirit-viscera in all.

“Gai” means complete or inclusive. “Di” means to alternate or take turns. “True Lord” refers to the revered deity Taiyi. “Nieran” describes exhaustion and debility; “manghu” describes dimness and obscurity. “Formed mind” means a mind shaped by human artifice and attached to distinctions between right and wrong. “Faction and followers” means allies and companions.

“Divine Yu” refers to Yu the Great, so called for his miraculous skill in controlling the floods. Yu’s personal name was Wenming. He was the son of Gun and the father of Qi. A commentary also records that he died during an eastern tour at Kuaiji, at the age of one hundred. “Chui” can mean to blow or to cry out. “Kou” refers to the chirping of a bird still inside its egg, and can also mean a nestling hatching.

“Equalizing judgments” means that, from the perspective of the Dao (the Way), opposing distinctions such as right and wrong, or true and false, can all be traced back to the same source.

In “Where is the Dao obscured?”, the character “where” is pronounced wu and means “by what”: by what is the Dao obscured? Some editions read “true and false” as “true and strange”; the edition consulted by Cui reads “true and so.”

Confucians honor the Duke of Zhou and King Wen, while Mohists honor Yu the Great. “The pivot of the Dao” means that the Dao is like a door’s pivot: though hollow, the pivot allows the door to turn. This serves as a metaphor for the Dao occupying the center of change among things.

“To use a finger to show that a finger is not a finger, and a horse to show that a horse is not a horse” concerns the relationship between names and things in the cases of “finger” and “horse.” Sima Biao, Xiang Xiu, Guo Xiang, and many Tang dynasty scholars took this to mean that Zhuangzi was expressing his ideas through allegory. After examining Gongsun Long’s writings, Chen Jingyuan pointed out that the Gongsun Longzi already contained the “Discourse on the White Horse” and the “Discourse on Things and Fingers”; Zhuangzi’s statements therefore had a basis in those works. Chen copied the two treatises and appended them to this book for later readers’ reference.

“Beam” is pronounced ting; Sima Biao explains it as a roof beam. “Column” is pronounced ying and refers to a pillar. “Loathe” is usually pronounced with its standard reading and means to detest; Li Yi reads it as lai and explains it as suffering from leprosy. According to Sima Biao, “Xi Shi” here refers to Xia Ji; Chen Jingyuan, however, argues that she was the beauty Yue King Goujian presented to the King of Wu. “Vast” is pronounced hui and means expansive. “Strange” is pronounced wei; Cheng Xuanying explains it as an unusual transformation. “Bizarre and uncanny” means aberrant and extraordinary.

“Return” is pronounced according to the context. “Almost exhausted” is pronounced ji and means “nearly brought to an end.” “This is called the Dao” should be punctuated as a complete sentence. Lao’s explanation is that following nature is the work of the Dao.

“Keeper of the monkeys” is pronounced xu. Sima Biao says this was a person in charge of monkeys; Cui says it was someone who raised them. “Monkey” here means macaque. In “distributing acorns,” “acorns” is pronounced xu, interchangeable with a character meaning “acorn”; “distributing” means apportioning or giving. Sima Biao explains “three in the morning and four in the evening” as giving three measures in the morning and four in the evening.

Some editions write “Heavenly equilibrium” as “Heavenly potter’s wheel”: like a potter’s wheel, it brings things into balance and refers to nature’s harmonizing action. Regarding “Zhaowen playing the zither,” Sima Biao says Zhaowen was an ancient master of the instrument. Shi Kuang was the musician to Duke Ping of Jin and had the courtesy name Ziye; another account describes him as a virtuous senior official skilled in music. In “supporting a staff and keeping time,” “supporting” means a prop and “staff” means a walking stick. Cui instead explains it as raising a stick to beat time.

Regarding “Huizi leaning on a wutong-wood stand,” Cheng Xuanying says that Huishi leaned on a table made of wutong wood as he talked. Some explain “wutong” as a zither, but Chen Jingyuan considers this incorrect. The text records the episode because Huishi always enjoyed discussion and never gave up the habit.

“Bringing the debate over hardness and whiteness to its end” concerns Gongsun Long’s theories of disputation, such as “Separating Hardness from Whiteness” and “Identifying Differences as the Same.” Interpretations have varied through the ages. Chen Jingyuan therefore added the “Discourse on Hardness and Whiteness” after the “Discourse on Things and Fingers” and the “Discourse on the White Horse” to fill a perceived gap. In “bringing the strands of writing to an end,” “strands” is pronounced lun and means threads or lines of thought; Cui explains it as the strings of a zither. Some old Jiangnan library copies read, “Though I achieved nothing, this may still be called an achievement,” while older editions read, “Though I too achieved something.”

“Confused and uncertain” is pronounced mo and means muddled. “What is mapped out” refers to the scope of what is planned or depicted, and can also mean drawing boundaries. “Autumn hair” is a rabbit’s fur grown in autumn, fine and pointed, used as a metaphor for something exceedingly small. “A prematurely dead child” means someone who died young; another account says that those who died before the age of nineteen were called prematurely dead. “A skilled calculator” refers to someone proficient in calendrical methods and calculation.

Equality of the Dao

“Having boundaries” means having a territory; “having borders” means having limits or boundaries. “Li” is pronounced ju here and refers to the divisions of territory, field boundaries, and roads. “Having a left and a right”: the left belongs to Yang and the right to Yin. Some also say that those who die before the age of nineteen are called “prematurely dead.” “Skilled calendar reckoners” refers to people proficient in calendrical calculations.

“Having norms and principles” appears in the Cui edition as “having arguments and discussions.” In “having distinctions,” the word “distinctions” is read in its ordinary sense. “Having differentiation” means making distinctions. “Having rivalry and contention”: “rivalry” means pursuing side by side, while “contention” means arguing with one another and may also refer to fighting. “Not being matched” is pronounced chǐ zhèng. “Not being full” is pronounced qī diàn and means being filled to capacity; it can also refer to the place where apes store food. Here, “not being full” means having no reserves or stored provisions. Xu Miao reads it as “modest” and explains it as not being greedy, so there is nothing one needs to yield.

“Constant in benevolence yet not all-encompassing” appears in an old Jiangnan manuscript; earlier editions read “complete.” “Not going against” means not opposing or harming. “Garden” is pronounced wǔ wán and means round. “Almost” is pronounced xiàng qí. “The Celestial Treasury stores nothing that it does not store” means that the Celestial Treasury leaves nothing uncollected; “the hidden light obscures nothing that it cannot obscure” means that the hidden light can conceal everything.

Equality in Governance

For the passages concerning Yao and Shun, see the chapter “Free and Easy Wandering.” “Zongkuai” is pronounced gǔ wài, “Xu” xī xú, and “Ao” wǔ gāo. The passage refers to three states. Cui’s view is that Zong, Kuai, and Xu-Ao are three separate states. Another interpretation divides the names as “Zongkuai, Congzhi, and Xu-Ao,” and takes “fleabane and mugwort” as a metaphor for these states: flourishing, yet low in rank and small in scale.

The story of “ten suns rising together” appears in the Huainan Honglie Jie: in the time of Yao, ten suns appeared at once, an omen of disaster. Yi shot down nine of them; crows fell and died. This was interpreted to mean that nine suns had withdrawn.

Equality of Things

Nie, Que, and Wang Ni are all personal names. “Nie” is pronounced “Nie,” “Que” as “Yue,” and “Wang Ni” as “Ji.” The Biographies of Recluses says that Wang Ni and Nie Que were both worthy men who lived in the time of Emperor Yao.

“Ehu” is pronounced “Wu” and means “where” or “why”; the same applies below. “Yongju” is pronounced “Yongju”: “yong” means ordinary, while “ju” means what or how. Sima Biao explains “pian si,” or “one-sided death,” as dying when one side of the body withers.

“Qiu” is pronounced “Qiu” and refers to a kind of fish. “Zhui,” “li,” and “xun” are pronounced “Rui,” “Li,” and “Xun”; all three describe trembling with fear. “Yuanhou” means ape or monkey.

“Chu” is pronounced “Chu” and means stalks of grass eaten by livestock; “huan” is pronounced “Huan.” Sima Biao says that grass eaten by cattle and sheep is called “chu,” while food eaten by dogs and pigs is called “huan”; the names derive from what the animals eat. “Jun” is pronounced “Mei.” Cheng Xuanying says it resembles a deer but has a longer tail. “Jian” is pronounced “Jianlian.” Sima Biao says it means fine grass; the Three Cang says that grass eaten by the six kinds of domestic animals is called “jian.”

“Ji” is pronounced “Ji,” and “qu” as “Ziyu”; together they refer to the centipede. The Erya records that the “jili langqu” resembles a locust, with a large belly and long horns, and can eat the brains of snakes. Cui says it is a snake; the “langqu” likes to eat snakes’ eyes. “Chi” is pronounced “Chiyi” and refers to a kite; “ya” is pronounced “Wujia” and refers to a crow. “Shi” is pronounced “Shizhi.”

“Bian” is pronounced “Pixian,” and “ju” as “Qixuren.” Sima Biao says that the “bianju,” also called “geyang,” resembles an ape but has a dog’s head. The male likes to mate with apes; this is mating between males and females of different species. “Ge” is pronounced “Ge,” and “yang” as “Zang.” It is incorrect to divide “bianju” into two names, or “geyang” into two names. “Wei ci” can be read according to the characters, though some read it as “wife.”

“Mao Qiang” is pronounced “Liang” and was the beautiful consort of the King of Yue. “Li Ji” is pronounced “Lizhi”; she was the favored concubine of Duke Xian of Jin and was later made his wife. “Jue” is pronounced “Que,” and “zhou” as “Shijiu.” “Jue zhou” describes running at great speed. Cui says it means running headlong, heedless of everything. “Fanran” is pronounced “Fan” and means tangled and confused. “Yaoluan” is pronounced “Hejiao” and means mixed up and chaotic.

The pronunciation and meaning of the character “shang” are damaged, and cannot be determined from the surviving text. In “a whirlwind shakes the sea,” “piao” is pronounced “Pixiao.” The version of the text by the Li family of Jiangnan contains this phrase, while the old editions omit it. The passage beginning “Merit; therefore, he descended again” records how the mother of the Yellow Emperor, Xuanyuan, was moved by thunder and lightning, dreamed of a celestial being, and became pregnant. The Yellow Emperor was born at Shou…

Seeing Life and Death as Equal: To regard life and death as being on the same level, feeling neither joy at being alive nor fear or sorrow at dying.

Qu Quezi is an honorific for a scholar, similar to the titles found in the Heguanzi. Changwuzi’s given name was Li. Li Yi thought he received this title because he lived beneath a catalpa tree; Emperor Jianwen, however, said he was a frontier guard from the region of Changwu. Xiang Xiu said that Qu Quezi was Changwuzi’s teacher.

“Menglang” has several interpretations. Xiang Xiu said it was pronounced “manlan” and described a lack of clear choices. Li Yi took it to mean “rough” or “cursory,” while Cui Zhuan understood it as “lacking what is essential.” Others thought it meant acting impulsively and carelessly. In “zhi xing,” the character xing is read as meng.

Here, the Yellow Emperor is called the Sage Ancestor Celestial Worthy of the present dynasty. The commentators cite “Record of the Descent of the Sage Ancestor, the Celestial Worthy Who Commands the Nine Heavens and Preserves Life,” composed by Emperor Zhenzong of the Song on the twenty-fourth day of the tenth month in the fifth year of the Dazhong Xiangfu era. It says that the Sage Ancestor was one of the nine Human Sovereigns and an ancestor of the Zhao clan. He was able to speak from birth and later attained the Dao and ascended to heaven.

“Ting” is read as ding, and “ying” as jiong. The commentators explain the phrase “recognizing the Dao as wondrous and constant is like hearing the color of jade with the ear”: to grasp the Dao’s enduring mystery is like hearing the color of jade without using one’s eyes, a form of understanding that goes beyond the ordinary senses.

“Shiye” refers to a rooster that crows at the proper times. Seeing a pellet and thinking of an owl means that before the shot has even been fired, the bird has already been imagined as prey. The owl is a bird resembling a turtledove. In ancient times, people considered its meat suitable for roasting. It was also called xiao or xiu; in the Wu region it was known as “hun,” and its call was considered inauspicious. Jia Yi said that the great peng resembled an owl, while some believe the two are in fact the same bird.

“He” asks about a sound; “pang ri yue” means “relying on the sun and moon.” “Yi” is read as “bo guang,” and “xie” as “hu die.” The Cui recension has “fu.” In “universe,” yu refers to the four directions of heaven and earth, while zhou refers to time from antiquity to the present. “Wen” is read as “wu zhen”: Li Yi said it describes a surface without ripples, while Xiang Xiu explained it as lips pressed together. “Hua” is read as “gu mo” and means disorder; the text used by Xiang Xiu has “gu.” “Min” is read as “hun” and describes confusion that has not yet settled. “Yuan” is read as “tu ben” and describes someone dull and ignorant, moving straight ahead. Liu Deyi’s edition has “mao,” read as “mo bao,” with a note saying it resembles foolish confusion. The Shuowen Jiezi explains “mao” as referring to plants spreading over and covering the ground.

“Yun” is read as “yu ben” and means to accumulate. “E” is read as “niao”; the same pronunciation applies to “e hu” below. “E si” is read as “wu lu.” “Ruosang” is read as “xi lang.” The commentators say that when children from the state of Qin moved to Chu, they grew attached to Chu and forgot Qin, which is why they were called “ruosang.” The explanation of Li Ji appears earlier. “Aifeng” refers to the daughter of a frontier guard from Ai, in the state of Lirong; “Wang” is an assumed title for Duke Xian of Jin. “Qi” is read as “qi” and means to seek; “jue” is read as “jiao,” as it is below. “Qieqie” describes acting out of self-interest, like a thief concerned only with personal gain.

“Diao” is read with its ordinary pronunciation: offering comfort to the living is called “yan,” while mourning the dead is called “diao.” “Gui” is read as “jiu wei,” and “jie” as “xie.” “Danmu yu zhi” means that someone who has grasped the great Dao sees ten thousand generations as no more than a morning or an evening. The commentators cite a passage from the Shiyiji: the Fusang tree withers only once every ten thousand years, so for an immortal, witnessing its birth and death is like experiencing only a morning and an evening. The meaning is much the same.

Equalizing Differences

“Nan’an” is read as “dark.” Li says it describes a state of dimness and obscurity. “E neng” is read as “wu neng,” meaning “how could it?” “Heaven’s dividing lines” refers to distinctions formed naturally.

The original text speaks of the difference between “this is so” and “this is not so”: if things are truly as described, then there is no way to dispute the distinction between “this is so” and “this is not so.” The ancient Jiangnan recension reads “then there is no dispute,” while the old recension reads “there is likewise no disputing it.” Similarly, if things are truly as described, then there is no way to dispute the distinction between “so” and “not so.” The ancient Jiangnan recension includes the word “then”; the old recension does not.

“Sounds of transformation” refers to the utterances made when arguing over what is right and wrong. Like the transformations of the myriad things, they are not fixed or unchanging. “Man yan” describes something that does not come to a halt and has no limit. “Zhan” can mean to unfold, to flow freely, or to stop. “Without end” means having no conclusion or limit. “Jing” is an alternate form of “jing,” meaning “end.”

The Causes of Equalization

“Wangliang” refers to the faint shadow beyond a shadow. Some versions write “wanglang,” describing a state that seems to exist and yet not to exist. “Nang” means “formerly” or “previously”; “without anything particular” means “having no independent existence.” In “holding to what remains,” “yu” is read as “yu.”

“Snake slough” refers to the skin shed by a snake, and “cicada wing” to the shell shed by a cicada. The passage says that the transformations of the myriad things do not rely on anything in the way that snake skins and cicada shells do. “Self-transformation” means that change happens naturally, without depending on any external condition.

Equalizing Transformation

“Hudi” means butterfly. “Xuxu” describes a carefree, contented state; it is also interpreted as ease or delight. Another version reads “pianpian.” “Ziyu” can mean delight or understanding. “Zhi” is read as “memory” or “thought”; “jue” means “to awaken.” “Ququ” describes having a physical form and can also convey surprise. Another version reads “juju.”

Inner Chapter Three: The Master Who Nurtures Life

Nurturing Nature

“Youya” is read as “youya,” meaning having boundaries or limits. In “follow the central line and take it as the constant rule,” “follow” means to proceed along or abide by; “the central line” refers to the Way of central correctness; and “constant rule” means a regular principle. The sentence as a whole means to abide by the Way of central correctness and make it the constant rule for nurturing life.

Understanding the Principles of Life

Cook Ding: a cook.

The Means of Nurturing Life

Human life is limited. “Follow the central course and make it your constant rule” means to follow the way of balance and rightness, taking it as a regular guiding principle for preserving life.

Understanding the Principles of Life

Cook Ding was butchering an ox for Lord Wenhui, also known as King Hui of Liang. His hand touched it, his shoulder leaned against it, his foot pressed on it, and his knee braced it; each movement produced sounds like “huo,” “xiang,” and “huo.” The rhythm of his knife matched the music, as if he were performing “Sanglin,” said to be a dance from the time of King Tang of the Shang, and “Jingshou,” said to be a piece from “Xianchi,” though other accounts differ.

Lord Wenhui asked, “Wonderful! How has your skill reached such a level?”

Cook Ding set down his knife and replied, “I seek the underlying patterns of things, which goes beyond mere technique. When I first began butchering oxen, all I saw was the whole ox. After three years, I no longer saw it as a single whole. Now I grasp the ox’s structure with my spirit rather than looking at it with my eyes. I guide my knife along the ox’s natural contours. It moves through the gaps between the joints and avoids the places where sinews and bones meet. So it never strikes the large bones, much less the great bones.”

“A skilled butcher replaces his knife every year because he cuts through flesh. An ordinary butcher replaces his knife every month because he chops through bones. I have used my knife for nineteen years and butchered several thousand oxen, yet its edge is still as sharp as if it had just come from the whetstone. There are gaps between the joints in an ox’s body, while a knife’s edge is almost without thickness. A blade so thin can pass easily into those gaps, with plenty of room to spare. That is why, after nineteen years, my edge is still sharp.”

“Even so, whenever I come to a place where sinews and bones cross and the cut is difficult, I proceed with particular care. I focus my gaze and slow my movements. Once the ox has been taken apart, I put my knife away.”

Lord Wenhui said, “Excellent! From Cook Ding’s words, I have learned how to preserve life.”

Zhili Shu and the Right Minister, Whose Bodies Were Burdened by Mutilation

Fu Wenxuan was the name of the Minister of War. Sima says that Fu Wenxuan, surnamed Gongwen and named Xuan, was from the state of Song. “Right Minister” was also an official title, and the person who held it was likewise from Song. “Where” is pronounced wu and means “in what place”; “crippled” is pronounced jie. Cui’s edition writes the character as wu; another edition has a missing character, referring to a severed foot. Guo Xiang says that “crippled” means limping to one side, with one foot missing. In “Heaven gave him his body,” the character “gave” is read in its ordinary sense, though some read it as “I.” Sima says that “Heaven” refers to destiny and “body” to what is brought about by human effort. “Alone” has two interpretations: Sima says that a person with one foot is called “alone”; others take “alone” to mean “crippled.” “Together” is read in its ordinary sense. Guo Xiang says that walking on two feet together is called “together.”

Free from the Cage

A “marsh pheasant” is a wild pheasant living in marshland. “Peck” is pronounced zhijiao. “Seek” is pronounced qi and means to pursue or obtain. “Cage” is pronounced fan. Li says it means a fence, that is, a cage for keeping a pheasant in. “Though” is pronounced kuangyuqie and describes a spirit that is content and joyful; it can also mean flourishing.

Undoing the Bonds

“Lao Dan” is pronounced tulanqie. The Guangsheng yi says that Lao Dan’s courtesy name was Boyang, though some say it was Dan. He was born in Li Township, Ku County, in the state of Chu. He was nine feet tall, with a stride of five feet, handsome brows and eyes, and a square mouth. His features included “twin pillars and three openings, a sun-shaped forehead and a moon-shaped hollow,” the appearance of a great sage. He lived south of Mount Qi. King Wen of Zhou appointed him Keeper of the Archives, an official responsible for the classical texts. During the reign of King Kang of Zhou, he served as the Historian at the Pillar. During the reign of King Zhao of Zhou, he traveled west through the Hangu Pass. It is said that he lived for more than two hundred years during the Zhou dynasty.

Another edition writes “Qin Shi” as “Qin Xia”; each character is read with its usual pronunciation. Qin Shi was a friend of the Lord Lao. “Three titles” is pronounced huqaoqie. Some editions read “that person,” while others read “the Perfected Person.” “Few” is pronounced shizhaoqie. “Evade Heaven” is pronounced dunxunqie and means to flee the principles of Heaven. “Add to one’s feelings” is pronounced buduiqie: “add” means to increase, so the phrase refers to intensifying worldly emotions. In “grief and joy,” “joy” is pronounced luo, as it is below; two other editions read “sorrow and joy.” Cui says that “suspended” means that birth is regarded as being hung up and bound, while “release” refers to death undoing those bonds.

“Fire is passed on” is read “straight and specialized.” “Passed on” means to transmit and continue.

End of Volume Two of The Phonetic and Meaning Annotations to the True Classic of the Southern Florescence.

The Phonetic and Meaning Annotations to the True Classic of the Southern Florescence, Volume Three, written by Bixuzi.

Inner Chapter: “In the World of Men,” Chapter Four

Transforming and Guiding

Yan Hui: According to the Records of the Grand Historian, his courtesy name was Ziyuan, and he was from the state of Lu. By the age of twenty-nine, his hair had already turned completely white; he died young. Confucius: According to the Records of the Grand Historian, his surname was Kong, his personal name Qiu, and his courtesy name Zhongni. He was from the state of Lu and a descendant of Tang of Shang. He lived when the Zhou dynasty was in decline, possessed the great virtue of a sage, and was Yan Hui’s teacher.

The ruler of Wei: Sima Biao considered him to be Duke Zhuang of Wei, Kuai Kui. According to the Zuo Commentary, Duke Zhuang returned to Wei and took the throne only in the winter of the fifteenth year of Duke Ai of Lu, by which time Yan Hui had already died. The ruler of Wei mentioned here therefore cannot have been Duke Zhuang; he must have been Duke Chu of Wei, Zhe.

“Conduct” is pronounced with the sound “meng.” Cui Zhuan took it here to mean acting unilaterally and arbitrarily. “Measure of the state” is pronounced with the sound “liang.” In “like a banana plant,” “banana” is pronounced with the sound “yao” and refers to grass that is not resilient, a metaphor for a virtue that is only skin-deep. “Physician” is pronounced “yuqi.” In “Consider his conduct, and perhaps his state may recover,” “recover” is pronounced “chouyou” and means to be cured. In the Jiangnan Li edition, the text at “his conduct” was originally missing.

“Alas” is pronounced with the sound “xi” and expresses a sigh. “If you go there, you will probably be put to death” appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition; the old edition reads, “If you are probably to be put to death, go there.” “What he does” is pronounced “ziwei.” “Crushing one another” is pronounced “yudian” and means to grind down or trample. “Trustworthy and steadfast” is pronounced “kujiang”; the Jian edition explains it as describing someone honest and solid in character. “Strong” is pronounced “qiliang.” “Showing off” is pronounced “yingjuan” and means to flaunt oneself; the old Jiangnan collection has “methods” instead.

In “people dislike,” “dislike” is pronounced “wulu”; the same applies to “dislike the unworthy” below. Cui’s edition reads, “People dislike having their excellence.” Yu considers “dislike” here to mean showing off, with a sense close to “flaunting” above. “Disaster” is pronounced with the sound “zai,” as below; “disaster, husband” is pronounced “yinjue.” “What use is there?” is pronounced with the sound “wu.” The phrase “if only there were no instruction” ends here; “instruction” means to inform or speak. “Quick” is pronounced with the sound “jie.” “Glittering” is pronounced “hubian.”

Jie: According to the posthumous-title rules recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian, someone who harms the people and kills many is called “Jie.” Guan Longfeng: Cheng Xuanying considered him a worthy minister of Jie, beheaded for his sincere remonstrance. Zhou: According to the posthumous-title rules recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian, someone who harms benevolence and righteousness and destroys good conduct is called “Zhou.” Prince Bi Gan: Cheng Xuanying considered him Zhou’s uncle, whose heart was cut out because he remonstrated loyally.

“Pat” is pronounced with the sound “fu.” Li Yi explained “bend over and pat” as cherishing and showing affection. “Beneath, brushing against” is pronounced “fufu” and means to go against or clash with. “In order to push aside” is pronounced “ziji” and means to exclude. “This is good” is pronounced “hubao.” “Clustered branches” is pronounced “caigong.” The explanation of “Xu Ao” appears in the chapter “Discussion on Making All Things Equal.”

Youhu: pronounced with the sound “hu.” Sima Biao considered it the name of a state in Pingyi Commandery; according to historical identification, it corresponds to present-day Hu County in the Jingzhao region. Empty grave: read according to the characters, though it may also be pronounced “xu.” A dwelling with no one living in it is called “empty”; someone who dies without descendants is called “grave.” “Tell me” is pronounced “yuju,” as below, and means to inform me. “Disapprove” is pronounced with the sound “wu,” indicating disagreement, as below. At ease: Cheng Xuanying considered this to mean indulgence; the literal explanation is to follow one’s inclinations without restraint. “Slander” is pronounced with the sound “zi” and means to speak ill of someone. “Aspire to” is pronounced with the sound “qi.” “Hold up” is pronounced “qijing,” and “kneel” is pronounced “qili”; to hold up is to clasp the hands, while to kneel is to remain on one’s knees. Curled fist: pronounced with the sound “quan,” a ceremonial posture. Without blemish: pronounced “caisi” and means free of fault. Punish: pronounced “zhige” and means to impose a penalty. “Do not scheme” is pronounced “tu xie”; in the military, sending someone to sow discord and gather intelligence is called espionage.

“Taking one’s own mind as one’s teacher” means treating one’s own opinions as the standard. “Having a mind and acting on it—is that easy?” appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition; the old edition reads, “Having and acting on it—is it easy?” “Bright Heaven” is pronounced “hulao”; “bright” means luminous. The Shuowen Jiezi explains “suitable” as fitting and secure. “Not eating” is pronounced with the sound “ru” and means not to eat; “pungent” is pronounced “xuyun” and refers to vegetables with a sharp, spicy smell.

The phrase “never yet managed to make oneself” ends here. It means that one has never been able to make oneself empty-minded or truly experience the existence of this body. In “its boundaries are empty,” “empty” is pronounced “kuxue” and means vacant. In “life-giving brightness,” “brightness” refers to the Yang-Ming Qi. In “good fortune gathers and stays,” “good fortune” means the Dao: when the mind and spirit are empty and still, and distracting thoughts are cut off, the Dao gathers.

“Seated yet wandering” means that the body sits still while the mind and spirit roam outside. “To devote oneself” is pronounced “jun”; Li Yi explains it as “to put to work.” “What binds” is pronounced “nüjiu” and means to fasten or hold together; Cheng Xuanying explained it as the guiding framework and ties.

Fuxi: pronounced “xuyi”; he is Taihao, the foremost of the Three Sovereigns. Jiqu: pronounced “qiju”; Xiang Xiu considered him an ancient ruler. “Scattered and at ease” is pronounced “xidan”; Li Yi explained it as letting oneself go, while Cui Zhuan took it to mean people whose virtue fell short of that of sage-kings.

“Serving under orders” means being dispatched on a mission. The Duke of Ye (the governor of Ye) is pronounced “She.” His surname was Shen, his given name Zhuliang, and his courtesy name Zigao. He was a distant descendant of King Zhuang of Chu and the son of Shen Yin Xu. He served as a senior official in Chu and held Ye as his fief, which is why he called himself the Duke of Ye. At the time, the Di people of the north attacked Chu. King Zhao of Chu was very afraid and sent Zigao to Qi to seek help. “About to serve on a mission” means about to be dispatched; “suoliqie” gives one pronunciation of the character shi, “to dispatch.” “The following instance of shi has the same pronunciation” indicates that the character shi later in the text is pronounced the same way. “The dispatched one” means a person sent on a mission under orders. “The one under orders” refers to someone assigned a task. “It means an order” explains that shi carries the sense of commanding or dispatching.

In the text, “few fail to follow the Way in bringing joy to completion” appears in an ancient Jiangnan manuscript as “few have no Way in bringing joy to completion.” In “handling the coarse,” cu means coarse or vulgar; “not good” means bad or unworthy. “Cuan” is pronounced like “cuan.” In “seeking coolness,” qing should be understood as the character for “cool,” meaning coolness here; the text uses a different character as a phonetic loan. “Heat and coolness” sets heat against coolness; “caution and pleasure” follows the same pattern. In “to take responsibility,” ren is pronounced like “lin.” The le in “sorrow and joy” is pronounced like “luo.” “Not change” can be read according to the character’s usual pronunciation, meaning not to alter; it can also be read as yi, meaning to treat lightly or carelessly. The e in “and detest” is pronounced “wu lu qie.” “Liang” means trustworthiness. “Sang” is pronounced like “lang.” The ci in “partial words” is pronounced like “pian”; the Cui edition writes it as pian, pronounced like “bian.” In “the breath is pronounced and vigorous,” fu is pronounced like “fu”; Cui reads it as bo, describing breath that is evident or vigorous. “The heart is severe” is read according to the character’s usual pronunciation; Li reads it as lai. “Examine and verify” is pronounced like “ge” and means to investigate and check. In ancient books, he is also often used interchangeably with he, carrying the sense of examining and verifying.

A “tutor” is someone who instructs and assists a ruler. Yan He is pronounced “Hu La Qie”; the Cui edition writes the name as Lu. Yan He was a worthy man of the state of Lu.

Yan He, a worthy man of Lu who had once lived in seclusion, first served Duke Ding of Lu and later went to Wei to teach Prince Kuai Kui, the heir to Duke Ling. Hearing that the prince had poor character, he went to ask Qu Boyu, a worthy minister of Wei: “There is a man whose nature is to love killing and who regards killing people as a virtue. He acts without reason and often brings about calamities and disasters. His temperament is as unrestrained as an infant’s; he acts without limits and pays no heed to ritual or law, yet he shows no obvious fault. Surely such a person would be hard to transform?”

Qu Boyu replied: “This is dangerous indeed! Why trouble yourself so much? Just be careful to guard yourself, and do not make your conduct look as though you are deliberately trying to please him. If you go along with him, he will be pleased; if you flatter him, he may grow accustomed to your company. But in the end, this will only encourage his wrongdoing. You cannot counsel such a person in a blunt, forceful manner, nor should you simply go along with him and make him even more unrestrained. If you try to correct him by force, he may take your words as an insult; if you only accommodate him, he will think everything he does is perfectly reasonable. It is like a mantis raising its forelegs to block a cartwheel: it is bound to be futile.”

The text also explains that a mantis is a living insect capable of raising its forelegs; “able to withstand” means capable of bearing or resisting something; and “without blemish” means showing no obvious fault. “Field boundaries” refers to the borders between plots and, by extension, to rules and limits; “without bounds” means lacking the restraints of ritual and law.

The text then mentions circumstances involving shellfish, mosquitoes, and other creatures. “Arrow” is written as “excrement” in some versions; “tread upon” means to step on, and “discharge” refers to waste. “In dense swarms” describes mosquitoes gathered together, while “strike” means to swat. At the end, “unfit and notorious” means to be of no use and to leave behind a bad name.

Carpenter Shi: “Shi” is a person’s name, so “Carpenter Shi” means a carpenter named Shi. Quyuan is a place name. The li tree is a tree species, the sawtooth oak, and is considered useless timber. “Altar tree” means a tree beside an altar to the god of the soil. “Altar” refers to an earthen mound built as a shrine. The word for “soil” carries the sense of bringing forth life; because soil is said to give rise to all things, such a tree is called an altar tree.

“It was large enough to shelter several thousand oxen.” Some versions read “several thousand oxen”; these words are missing from older editions. To measure by wrapping a cord around a tree means to measure its girth with a rope. “A hundred circumferences” refers to a trunk one hundred such measurements around. Li Yi says one circumference equals a diameter of one chi, making the total roughly ten zhang. In “ten ren,” seven chi make one ren.

To look means to observe. “Chief Carpenter” means the leader of the carpenters; “chief” means a leader. To not stop means to continue without pause. To be satisfied means to feel content. “Scattered wood” means a tree whose timber is useless: wood is called “scattered” when it is unsuitable for use. To rot quickly means to decay in a short time. “Sap” means tree juice. “Resin” means the oily fluid that seeps from a tree. Sima Biao says that the fluid is sap, describing resin that keeps flowing out; Cui Zhuan says it is black juice. “Wood-boring insects” means insects that bore into trees.

“To appear in a dream” means to visit someone in a dream. “How” or “where” asks what someone could know, or how they could know it. “Fine-grained wood” means wood of good quality. The sumac, pear, orange, and pomelo are various fruit trees. “Fruits and gourds” refers to their produce: fruit borne by trees is called “fruit,” while produce borne by herbaceous plants is called “gourds.” To scatter means to fall or spill. To wither and fall means to dry up and collapse onto the ground. Some versions read “wither” instead of “suffer.” To beat means to strike.

The sentence “And how would I know that I am a useless person, close to death?” should be punctuated after “useless person.” “How would Carpenter Shi understand the principle of useless trees?” means that Carpenter Shi cannot grasp it. He regards an unfit tree as useless wood, while the altar oak is condemned to uselessness because it has qualities of its own. That is why Carpenter Shi is called a “useless person” here.

To awaken means to wake from sleep. “Examine” means to divine or inspect; here it refers to interpreting a dream. To revile means to insult, and “affliction” means illness or pain. “Near” means close to. To cut down means to fell a tree.

The spirit does not boast of its abilities.

Nanbo Ziqi is the same figure as Nanguao Ziqi, mentioned in the “Discussion on Making All Things Equal.” “Bo” means an elder. “Shang” is pronounced as in “Shangzhiqie”; “li” is read in its usual form and means to revile or humiliate, and can also refer to illness; “ji” is pronounced “ji” and means to approach; “jian” is pronounced “qian” and means to attack.

The Spirit Does Not Boast of Its Abilities

“Shang” is a place name. Sima Biao says that at the time it was in the vicinity of Suiyang in the state of Liang. “A thousand chariots” means one thousand war chariots; a chariot drawn by four horses was called a “sheng.” “Concealed beneath what sheltered its sounds” appears in the Zhang Junfang edition; older editions read “concealed and sheltered beneath what sheltered its sounds.” The “fu” in “woodworker” is pronounced “fu.” “Quanqu” is pronounced “quanqu” and describes something bent; “zhuzhi” is pronounced “zhuzhi” and means straight as an axle. “Jie” refers to clothing coming undone, straight as an axle. “Gua” is pronounced “zhi,” and “xiu” is pronounced “xujiao.” “Kuangcheng” is pronounced “cheng”; falling ill after drinking too much is called “cheng.”

The Nature of Useful Timber Brings Misfortune

“Jingshi” is a place name. Sima Biao says it was also the name of a village, and that the state of Song had a place called Jingshi. “Qiu, cypress, and mulberry” are three kinds of trees suitable for timber. “Gong” is pronounced “gongyong” and means to encircle with both arms; “ba” is pronounced “baiya” and means to grasp with one hand. Sima Biao explains that “gong” means holding around something with both arms, while “ba” means grasping it with one hand.

“Ju” is pronounced “qiyu” and means monkey; “hou” is pronounced “hou” and here refers to a macaque. “Yi” is pronounced “yizhi” and means a wooden stake to which a monkey is tethered. Cheng Xuanying says it was a wooden pole or peg used to tie up macaques. The Sima edition reads “ba,” pronounced “ba,” and explains it as a place for macaques to perch and play; the Cui edition reads “ba,” pronounced “ba,” and explains it as a cangue.

A tree “three arm-spans around” means its trunk has a circumference of about three arm-spans; one “span” is measured by a diameter of one chi. “Li” is read in its usual form and means a roof beam. “Chan” is pronounced “shan”; “bang” is pronounced “bogang.” Sima Biao says that when a coffin is made from whole planks, one of its sides is called “chanbang.” “Jie” is pronounced “guimai” or “jiamai” and means to purify by exorcism: performing a sacrifice to dispel misfortune and make offerings to spirits. “Sang” is pronounced “xidang” and means forehead; “kang” is pronounced “kuzang” and means high. A sunken, broken nose bridge with the nose turned upward is called “e zhe.” “Zhi” is pronounced “zhili.”

“Offering someone to the river” is explained by Sima Biao as drowning a person in the river as a sacrifice. When Ximen Bao served as governor of Ye, he put a stop to this practice.

Cultivating De and Nurturing the Body

Zhilishu (the name of a man whose body was incomplete, crooked, and misshapen) was so called because his limbs were deformed, and his body was slack and twisted in various places. “Yi” is pronounced like “yi” in the fanqie spelling “yi-qie” and means the chin. “Above the crown” means that his back was hunched and his neck drawn in. Sima Biao says, “His spine was bent, and his neck was shortened.” The Huainanzi says, “His spine rose above his head.”

“Hui” is pronounced either “gu-wai” or “gu-huo”; “cuo” is pronounced either “zi-wai” or “zi-huo.” “Pointing toward the sky” means that the topknot on his head pointed upward. Sima Biao says, “This refers to the topknot at the crown.” In ancient times, people coiled their hair at the back of the neck. Because Zhilishu’s back was hunched and his neck drawn in, his topknot pointed toward the sky. “The five conduits” refers to the Shu points of the five viscera, the points that connect with the organs. Li Yi says, “‘Conduits’ means Shu points; the Shu points of all five viscera are in the upper part of the body.”

“Two organs” is pronounced with “bi” as in the fanqie spelling “bi.” Cui Zhuan says, “A hunchback’s abdomen is hidden within the thigh bones.” “Becoming the ribs” is pronounced “xu-jie” in fanqie. Sima Biao says, “His back was hunched and his thigh bones stood upright, so his abdomen and ribs came together.”

“Cuo” is pronounced “cun-wo” in fanqie and means to break or bend out of shape. “Zhen” is pronounced “zhi-jin” in fanqie. Sima Biao says, “A curved needle for sewing clothes.” “Repairing worn garments” is pronounced “xie” and means mending old clothes—that is, patching sleeves. “Filling his mouth” is pronounced “hu” and means obtaining food and making a living.

“Beating the stalks” is pronounced “chu-ge” in fanqie. Cui Zhuan says, “Shaking the yarrow stalks to divine.” “Scattering the essence” is Cui Zhuan’s phrase for interpreting the hexagrams through divination and examining signs of good or ill fortune. “To eat” is pronounced “si.” “Seizing” is pronounced “ru-yang” in fanqie. “Three zhong” is Sima Biao’s wording; six hu and four dou make one zhong.

Usefulness Brings Calamity

Confucius went to the state of Chu. Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian says that when Confucius was besieged between Chen and Cai, King Zhao of Chu sent troops to welcome him, and Confucius then went to Chu. “Only just” is pronounced “jin” and means “barely.”

“Drawing on the ground” is pronounced “huo.” “Withdrawing and bending” is pronounced “que-qu,” with “qu” pronounced “qu-qi” in fanqie; it means yielding, bending oneself to preserve one’s safety. Here it means withdrawing and submitting in order to protect oneself. The phrase “withdrawing and bending” appears in the Zhang Junfang edition. Older editions read “my conduct was winding and crooked,” a corruption caused by repeated copying. “Que” is pronounced “qi-ni” in fanqie, but that pronunciation is not adopted here.

Inner Chapter: The Sign of Virtue Complete, Chapter Five

Jian Dao

Wu (a person who has lost a foot) is read as “yue,” meaning someone whose foot has been cut off. The name “Wang Tai” can be pronounced with either the “tai” or “dai” reading. No biography of him has been preserved in the records of the state of Lu. In “those who studied with him,” “follow” is read with its usual pronunciation, while “li” is pronounced like “cai.” The same applies below. Chang Ji was a disciple of Confucius. Confucius said, “I was simply born later than others and had not yet had the chance to visit him.” Here, “zhi” means “simply,” and “later” refers to being born later. “Wang” means great or surpassing; he was far removed from ordinary people. Confucius placed himself among the mediocre. Wasn’t it excessive of him to put it that way?

In “the earth overturns,” “overturns” is pronounced like “fang,” and “falls” is pronounced like “zhi lei.” The sentence “He is one who preserves his source” appears in the Jiangnan manuscript; it is missing from the old edition. In “liver and gallbladder,” “gallbladder” is pronounced “ding lan.” In “what is lost,” “lost” is pronounced “xi lang”; the same applies below. “Gather” is pronounced “cu hui” and means to collect. “Mirror” is pronounced “gu zan.” Cui’s edition writes “foam water” as “Mo Water.”

The sentence “Of those who receive their mandate from the earth, only the pines and cypresses remain green through winter and summer; of those who receive their mandate from Heaven, only Yao and Shun stand at the head of all things” appears in the edition by Zhang Junfang; it is missing from the old edition. In “the sign of preserving the beginning,” “sign” means accomplishment: the phrase means to preserve and fulfill something from beginning to end. One explanation of “the nine armies” is that the Son of Heaven commands six armies and the feudal lords three, making nine in all. This explanation appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition and is missing from the old edition. The bamboo manuscript instead says that military treatises speak of attacking the nine heavens and capturing the nine earths, hence the term “nine armies.” In “to bind oneself,” “bind” is pronounced “yi yao.” “The six limbs” refers to the head, the body, and the four limbs. In “borrowed person,” “borrowed” is pronounced “gu ya.”

Inner Wandering

Shentu Jia was a worthy man of Zheng. Shentu was his surname and Jia his given name; he had lost both feet as a result of punishment. Zichan’s surname was Gongsun, his given name Qiao, and his courtesy name Zichan. He was a worthy chief minister of Zheng. “The man who was no one” refers to Bohun Wuren, an ancient man of the Dao whom Liezi once took as his teacher.

“Yi” is pronounced “yi.” He was an archer of great skill during the reign of Emperor Yao. “Drawn taut” is pronounced “gou” and refers to drawing a bow to its full tension. Guo Xiang’s commentary says that the range reached by an arrow is called “within the bow’s reach.” In “hit the target,” “hit” is pronounced “ding zhong”; the same applies to “miss” below. “Furious” is pronounced “fu fu” and describes a state of violent anger.

The sentence “I do not know whether the Master has cleansed me through goodness, or whether I have awakened on my own” appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition; it is missing from the old edition. It means: “I do not know whether the Master has cleansed and awakened me through the good Way, or whether I have awakened by myself.” “Zi” is pronounced “se bai.” “Startled and abashed” is pronounced “zi liu” and describes a mixture of surprise and shame. “Lift” has its usual pronunciation and means to raise.

“Angry expression” describes the appearance of someone in a rage. “I do not know whether you have cleansed and inspired me with the good Way, or whether I have awakened on my own”: I do not know whether the Master has cleansed and enlightened me through the good Way, or whether I have come to my senses by myself. This sentence appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition but is missing from the old edition.

“Zi” is pronounced “se bai qie”; “cùrán” is pronounced “zi liu qie” and describes a look of surprise and shame. In “nǎi chēng,” “chēng” has its usual pronunciation and means “to raise.”

Preserving Wholeness

Shushan Wuzhi: Shushan is his courtesy name, and Wuzhi means that he had no toes. “Zhǒng” is pronounced “zhu yong qie.” Xiang Xiu takes “zhǒng” to mean the heel; Cui Zhuan says that, because Shushan Wuzhi had no toes, he walked on his heels. “Jiàn” is pronounced “xian bian qie.” The sentence “You are not careful” should be punctuated after “you.” In “qiánxíng,” “xíng” is pronounced “xia meng qie.” “Yǔ” is pronounced “yu ju qie.” Zhang Junfang’s edition omits the character “qi” from “Kong Qiu zhi yu zhiren, qi wei xie” (“As for Confucius in relation to the perfected person, perhaps he has not yet reached that level”).

“Bīnbīn” describes things mixed together, with no distinction between inner and outer or between primary and secondary. “Qí” is pronounced “qi.” “Chù” is pronounced “chi shu qie,” and “guǐ” is pronounced “jiu wei qie”; “chùguǐ” refers to the strange and unusual. “Huàn” is pronounced “hua ban qie.” “Zhì” is pronounced “zhi shi qie” and refers to a wooden device fitted around the feet; “gù” is pronounced “gu du qie” and refers to a wooden device fitted around the hands.

Virtue in Balance

Duke Ai of Lu asked, “What sort of person is Ai Taituo?” Ai Taituo was a man from the state of Wei. He was extremely ugly; “Tuo” was his name. Yet he got along very well with people. They often stayed with him and were even reluctant to leave. Men who spent time with him grew fond of him. Women who saw him admired him and wanted to marry him, preferring to become his concubines rather than return to their parents’ homes.

Ai Taituo had no power with which to save people from death, no wealth for others to enjoy, and no gift for flattering people with words. His ugliness was enough to repel others, yet he could draw them close. Before a year had passed, people trusted him; after several years, they entrusted him with affairs of state. He did not want to be ruler, so the ruler handed the affairs of state over to him. Still, he remained withdrawn and unresponsive, as though he noticed nothing, as though he had no ties to worldly affairs. In the end, the ruler entrusted the state to him. Not long afterward, Ai Taituo died. The ruler attended his funeral, but they did not use a ceremonial fan, an implement carried in funeral processions. People said that his ugliness had somehow moved the whole world, drawing everyone to him.

Someone asked Confucius, “What was it that enabled him to do this?” Confucius replied, “Once, when I was in the state of Chu, I saw a group of little pigs nursing from their dead mother. Before long, they suddenly panicked, abandoned her, and ran away, because their mother could no longer look at them. They loved their mother not for her appearance, but because she was alive and could care for them. The dead are buried without ceremonial fans for the same reason: the fans are merely funeral ornaments; they cannot bring the dead back to life.

“Men take wives and women marry because they seek closeness with one another. Even palace women are willing to serve a man whose body is impaired; some women are willing to marry a convicted criminal who has been punished by having his feet cut off. This shows that what people admire is not entirely a matter of appearance. I have heard that Minzi—Min Ziqian, a disciple of Confucius—asked the ruler of Lu for nothing more than a horse and a carriage. The woman he was to marry said, ‘As someone close to the ruler, you could have received much more. The fact that you received so little shows that you do not covet wealth or use power to oppress others. Though you have lost a foot, you are still more worthy of respect than those who are physically whole but lack benevolence.’ She then took leave of her parents and married Minzi.

“So a person of lofty De (Virtue) can make others forget his appearance. A virtue that makes others feel they fall short can even make them forget a person’s physical impairment. The people of the world pursue many things, yet they do not understand the kind of De that can make others forget both appearance and bodily imperfection.”

“Yin” (yīn) means bent or curved. Here, “qi” (qí) refers to an awkward way of walking. “Yin qi zhi li” describes someone whose legs are often bent, whose gait is crooked, and whose body is hunched. “Wu shen” (shèn) is a person’s name; “shen” can also mean the buttocks. Another interpretation takes “yin qi” as “yan qi,” with “qi” referring to walking.

“Shuo” is pronounced “rui,” as it is below. “Dou” (dòu) means neck. “Jian jian” describes someone who is frail and short. “Weng” is pronounced “song,” and “E” is pronounced “zang.” Li Yi considered “weng E” a description of a large goiter growing on the neck. These terms appear in the “In the Human Realm” chapter, where the story of Duke Ling of Wei also occurs.

According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Duke Huan of Qi was the younger half-brother of Duke Xiang of Qi, and his name was Xiaobai. The posthumous title “Huan” is explained as meaning that he could bring neighboring states into submission and annex their lands. In “wei nie,” “nie” is pronounced “lie.” In “e yong,” “e” is pronounced “wu,” as it is below. In “bu zhuo,” “zhuo” is pronounced “jue”; carving is called “zhuo.” In “wu sang,” “sang” is pronounced “lang.” In “tian yu,” “yu” is pronounced “yu” and means to nourish. In “tian shi,” “shi” may be pronounced “si,” or read according to its written form. In “shou shi,” “shi” may be read according to its written form, or pronounced “si.”

The Absence of Feelings

“Miao” (miǎo) describes humility and smallness; “ao” (áo) describes boasting and self-importance. In “e de,” “e” is pronounced “wu,” as it is below. In “hao e,” the two words are pronounced “hu bao” and “wu lu,” respectively. “Yi” is pronounced “qi.” In “gao wu,” “gao” is pronounced “ku lao,” and “wu” is pronounced “wu”; “ming” is pronounced “mian.” Cheng Xuanying says that a “gao wu” is a small table used to rest one’s knees against. Hui Shi liked discussing questions of names and principles. When walking, he would lean against trees and recite; when seated, he would doze while leaning against a small table.

In “tian xuan,” “xuan” has several possible pronunciations: “xuan zhuan” or “xi lian.” It means to confer, grant, or appoint. “Wu” refers to words that make no sense.

End of Volume Three of the Nanhua True Scripture: Notes on Its Chapters and Pronunciations.

Volume Four of the Nanhua True Scripture: Notes on Its Chapters and Pronunciations, compiled by Bixuzi.

The breathing of the Perfected is deep and quiet, as though their breath reaches all the way to their heels; ordinary people breathe only in their throats. When breath is obstructed there, it becomes short and labored. The Perfected have far-reaching thoughts, and their inner clarity is lucid. Ordinary people’s thoughts are narrow, and their inner awareness is clouded, so they dread death and delight in life.

The Perfected move freely, unbound and untroubled by external things. The text then names the ancients Hu Buxie, Wu Guang, Boyi, Shuqi, Jizi Xuyu, Jituo, Shentu Di, and others, showing that each had different ways of acting and different fates. Commentators disagree about who these figures were and what they did. Some praise them for withdrawing from the world and refusing to rule it; others say they suffered disaster or took their own lives after their remonstrances went unheeded.

“Qi gu” refers to a wine vessel. “Bingbing” means bright; “cuihu” suggests movement or distance; “chuhu” means gathering or stagnation. “Lihu” describes severity; “ao” means rising above worldly conventions; “chuo” means ease and spaciousness; and “zhuo” refers to standing apart and transforming oneself.

When a spring dries up, fish are stranded on land and can only moisten one another with their breath and spittle. Yet rather than struggle to sustain each other this way, they would be better off living separately in rivers and lakes, where they can forget one another. The state of the Perfected, too, lies in being unbound by external things.

Not Escaping Transformation

The “Great Clod” (Heaven and Earth) makes all things undergo various hardships and conditions of opposition. These matters have already been explained in the “Discussion on Making All Things Equal.” “Yi” is pronounced like “yi” in “ease.” “He” is pronounced “huo ge.” “Dun” means to flee or move elsewhere. In “taking joy,” “joy” is pronounced “luo”; in “can overcome,” “overcome” is pronounced “sheng.”

In “good at dying young,” “young” means childish or youthful, according to Xu Guang’s commentary on the Records of the Grand Historian. The Zhang Junfang edition has “young” instead, pronounced “shi zhao.”

The Marvel of Attaining the Dao

“Can be transmitted” is pronounced “zhi zhuan.” “Taiji” refers to the time before Qi had yet become manifest. “Six Extremes” means six in the earthly numbering, hence the name; it refers to Yin Qi reaching its utmost limit. “Before Heaven” is pronounced “xi jian,” and “grew in” is pronounced “ding zhang.”

“Xi Wei” is pronounced “xu qi.” Sima Biao says this was the name of an ancient emperor. “To grasp” is pronounced “ku jie.” Cheng Xuanying explains that it means ruling over the myriad things and taking hold of the two Qi of Heaven and Earth, Yin and Yang.

“Fu Xi” is pronounced “xi.” He was one of the Three Sovereigns. Tradition says he provided livestock for people to eat, which is why he was called Fu Xi. On “entering and merging with the mother of Qi,” Sima Biao explains: “To merge” means to enter; the “mother of Qi” is the mother of primal Qi, that is, the Dao. He also says that Fu Xi entered and merged with primal Qi, and was therefore called an “emperor.”

According to Li Yi, “the pivoting Dipper” refers to the Northern Dipper, which is like a cord binding together the framework of the world. In “from beginning to end of time, it never errs,” “errs” is pronounced “ta de” and means to be mistaken. The meaning is that from ancient times to the present, the direction indicated by the Northern Dipper has always remained constant and has never been wrong.

“Kan Huai” is pronounced “fu mei,” and is also read “pei.” Sima Biao says this is the name of a spirit with a human face and an animal’s body. “Kunlun” is the name of a mountain north of the Northern Sea.

According to Sima Biao’s quotation from the Record of the Clear and Still, “Feng Yi” was a native of Dishou, Tong Township, Huayin. After taking eight kinds of mineral medicine, he became an immortal of the waters, that is, the River Earl. “Great River” refers to the Yellow River. “Jian Wu” is the name of a spirit. “Mount Tai” is the Eastern Peak, Mount Tai. The explanation of the Yellow Emperor appears in the “Discussion on Making All Things Equal.”

“Mysterious Palace” refers to Gaoyang, who came after the Yellow Emperor. Tradition says he was born with supernatural powers and, after attaining the Dao, lived in the True Palace. The True Palace refers to the palace of the northern direction.

“Yu Qiang” is pronounced “yu.” The Classic of Mountains and Seas says that on an island in the Northern Sea there is a spirit with a human face and a bird’s body, two green snakes hanging from its ears, and two red snakes beneath its feet. It is called Yu Qiang. “North Pole” is the name of a mountain.

According to the Account of the Queen Mother of the West, the “Queen Mother of the West” had the surname Wei and the courtesy name Wan Jin. She was the Golden Mother of the Ninefold Numinous Marvelous Turtle Mountain, and the supreme deity of the western realm of ultimate mystery and cavernous Yin. She wore an ornate headdress and a tiger-shaped talisman, and usually lived in a cave called Shaoguang on Mount Kunlun. She no longer underwent birth and death, so no one knew her origins or her end. Another account says that the figure with disheveled hair, an ornate headdress, tiger’s fangs, and a talent for long whistles was the Queen Mother’s messenger, the spirit of the White Tiger of the West, and not the Queen Mother’s true form.

The explanation of “Peng Zu” appears in the “Free and Easy Wandering.” The “Five Hegemons” include Kunwu of the Xia dynasty; Da Peng and Shi Wei of the Shang dynasty; and Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin in the Zhou dynasty. “Hegemon” is also pronounced “ba.”

“Fu Yue” is pronounced “yue,” and “to assist” is pronounced “xi liang.” King Wu Ding of Shang once held all under Heaven. Sima Biao says Fu Yue was the prime minister of Shang, and Wu Ding was Gaozong of Shang. Wu Ding dreamed of Fu Yue, then ordered a search throughout the realm. He eventually found him at the place in Fu Yan, Hebei County, Shan Prefecture, where a wall was being built. Wu Ding appointed him prime minister, and the country became peaceful and well governed. Tradition says Fu Yue was the essence of a constellation, located east of the Celestial River, between the Ji and Dou constellations. A star named Fu Yue lies above the Wei constellation, which is why it is said that he rode the celestial cord, between the Ji and Wei constellations.

The Cui Zhuan edition adds here: “He was born without parents; after death he ascended to Heaven, and three years later his form dissipated.” This means that what is wondrous and subtle cannot be fully explained by names.

Nanbo Zikui—some say this is another name for Nanbo Ziqi. Nü Yu is the name of a person, an ancient adept of the Dao. In the phrase “nian zhang,” zhang is pronounced “zhang” with the fourth tone. “Ruzi,” pronounced “ru yu,” refers to a young child, and also to a young, frail child. In “e e hu,” e is pronounced “wu” and is a particle expressing tone; its sound here has not been fully established. The term was already explained in the “Renjian Shi” chapter, so the explanation is not repeated afterward. The pronunciation of “e hu” below is the same.

Bu Liangyi: Bu Liang is the surname, and Yi the given name. He was a capable and discerning person. “Yi” is pronounced “yi chi.” “Can ri” is pronounced “san ri.” Sima says “chao che” means morning; “che” means to penetrate subtle principles. This passage appears in an old manuscript preserved in Jiangnan, but is missing from older editions.

“Those who put an end to life do not die” means that by eliminating the impulse to cling to living, one’s life is instead preserved. “Those who keep augmenting life do not live” means that trying recklessly to prolong and increase life only brings death all the sooner. In “ying ning,” ying is pronounced “ying.” It describes the sage responding through movement and stillness as things change; even when disturbed by external things, the mind remains at peace. Gao You’s commentary on the Lülan says that ying means to come into conflict with or go against something.

“Fu mo” refers to writing that supports and conveys teachings—in other words, the instruction found in classical texts. From this point on, the statements are all allegorical. “Luo song” means to recite fluently; “zhan ming” means to perceive how things stand and understand their principles. According to Xu Shen’s Shuowen Jiezi, “nie” means to whisper close to someone’s ear; here it refers to a private understanding and mutual pledge. “Xu yi” is pronounced “xu yi”: xu means to wait, and yi means to be assigned or put to use. “Dai yi” therefore means to wait to be assigned a task or called into service. “Yu ou,” pronounced “wu hou,” means to sing the praises of excellent virtue.

“Xuan ming” refers to profound stillness. Ming means dim and empty; here it describes realizing the Dao in its profound and mysterious depth. “Can” is pronounced “nan,” and “liao” is pronounced “li diao.” Can means to receive and carry forward; liao means empty and still. Together, they mean to carry forward the ultimate reaches of the Dao and arrive at an open, empty expanse. “Yi shi” means that the beginning of things cannot be known. “Mo zhi qi mo shi you shi” means that one cannot even determine whether there truly was a beginning at the very outset.

From “fu mo” to “yuan ming,” seven successive stages must be traversed before one can rise to the spacious emptiness of “can liao.” Reaching “yi shi” requires nine stages, leading into the Great Void, formless and beyond measure: the realm in which the Dao has no beginning.

In the passage about Zisi, Honglie explains “Zisi” as “Ziyong.” Ziyu was fifty-four years old and became hunched after falling ill. Ziyu, Zili, Zilai, and Zisi were all people who had transcended the ordinary world.

Ziyu said, “How extraordinary! Creation has made me like this!” He stooped, his backbone jutting out, and a growth had appeared on his neck. He raised his head to look at the sky, and his internal organs seemed to have shifted out of place. He struggled over to a well to look at his reflection and sighed, “Alas, creation has made me like this again!”

Someone asked him, “Do you dislike how you look?” He replied, “No. Why should I dislike it? Perhaps creation will gradually turn my left arm into a rooster, so I can announce the dawn; turn my right arm into a crossbow, so I can shoot down an owl to roast; and turn my buttocks into wheels and my spirit into a horse. Then I could ride off on them. Why would I need another carriage?”

“To receive life is to follow the times; to lose life is to follow change. If you are at ease with the times and follow change, sorrow and joy cannot enter your heart. It is like freeing yourself from being bound upside down, no longer entangled by external things. People are bound by external things for a long time without knowing how to free themselves. Now I have already been freed, so why should I dislike it?”

“If creation turns my left arm into a chicken, I will use it to announce the dawn. If it turns my right arm into a crossbow, I will use it to shoot birds. If it turns my buttocks into wheels and my spirit into a horse, I will ride off on them. Why would I need to drive a carriage?”

“To receive life is to follow the times; to lose life is to follow change. If you are at ease with the times and follow change, sorrow and joy have no way to enter. Breaking free of restraint is like escaping from being bound upside down. People are often held fast by external things without knowing how to free themselves. Now I have already been freed, so why should I dislike it?”

“Rat liver and insect limbs” uses tiny, lowly things as metaphors to show that whatever form the human body changes into, one can accept and adapt to it. Moye was a famous ancient sword, said to be one of a male-and-female pair with Ganjiang. The great furnace mentioned here is an image of casting and transformation, illustrating how the body can change along with creation.

“Qu ran” describes the body stretching out as one wakes; “soul mingling” refers to the spirit being in a confused, interwoven state.

“Friends who forget one another” refers to Zisang Hu, Meng Zifan, and Ziqin Zhang, three friends who had moved beyond worldly concerns and understood one another deeply. When they were together, sometimes they spoke warmly and intimately, and sometimes they sat in quiet silence. After a while, Zisang Hu attended to them nearby, arranging lyrics to accompany the sounds of the qin. The music and the words answered one another in song. Here, “forgetting one another” does not mean that they forgot each other. It means their friendship unfolded naturally, without formalities or any need to speak deliberately.

The notes explain that “forgetting” is read as “perishing.” “Attending to affairs” means serving nearby. “Setting the music” means arranging lines of lyrics to fit the sounds of the qin. “Silent” describes being still and wordless. “Visiting one another” means going to see each other.

Here, “the arts of the Dao” refers to the roads between human settlements, though some interpret the phrase as ditches and small paths. An “eccentric person” is someone who does not fit in with worldly conventions or conform to others; “in accord with Heaven” means being in harmony with nature and following one’s inborn nature. A “solitary wayfarer” is someone who does not cater to worldly conventions and lives according to their natural disposition.

Meng Suncai is the descendant of the Three Huan line mentioned by Li. His given name was Cai, and he was a worthy man of Lu. Cui says that “Cai” is sometimes written “Niu.”

In “how could one know,” the character e is pronounced wu; the same applies below. In “as if awakening,” jue is pronounced gu xiao qie; the same applies below. “Startled body” is written “hai” in Cui’s edition. Cui explains it as resembling the form of an infant. “Morning dwelling” means that the body is like a house where the spirit resides. It describes how quickly the body changes, as if one moved house between morning and evening.

The character nai appears in the Shuowen Jiezi, where it is explained as describing breath that cannot be exhaled smoothly. Yongju is pronounced qi shu qie; see the following chapter. Li means “to reach.” In “bringing about the fitting,” zao means to make or bring into being; in “displaying a smile,” xian means to set forth or present. Jipai is pronounced pi jie qie, and pai means to push.

Liao tian yi is pronounced li diao qie. Liao describes the sky as vast, open, and lofty; yi means undivided, blended into oneness. It is a realm of wandering in the Dao.

Yierzi (a personal name; the worthy man spoken of by Master Li). Zi means to provide or rely upon. Zhi, pronounced “shi,” is a particle. Qing, pronounced “jing,” refers to tattooing characters on the face and applying ink; yi, pronounced “qi,” means cutting off the nose. Master Li says: “To discard De and exalt benevolence and righteousness—isn’t that like tattooing someone? To disrupt a state of undivided wholeness in order to distinguish right from wrong—isn’t that like cutting off someone’s nose?”

Yaodang means unrestrained and drifting; zisui, pronounced “xu wei,” describes a self-satisfied manner, but can also mean moving about freely without constraint, or changing unpredictably. Fan, pronounced “fan,” means a region or boundary. Mang is written as miao in one edition and also refers to impaired vision; see the related discussion in “Free and Easy Wandering.” Yi yu, pronounced “yu,” means “and,” as it does below.

Fufu, pronounced “fu fu,” refers to the designs on ancient ceremonial robes: fu was made of white and black and shaped like an axe, while fu was made of black and blue-green, its pattern resembling two backward-facing characters for “self.” Guan was written in the ancient form luan.

Wuzhuang lost her beauty, and Jiliang lost his strength. Master Huang’s commentary says that Wuzhuang was a beautiful woman of antiquity who had devoted herself to adorning her appearance. Later, she met Master Gaoqiu, who guided her with the principles of the Dao. Once she understood, she let go of her adornments. Jiliang was an ancient strongman whose strength was so great that he could replace beams and columns, and who used his might to dominate others. Later, he met Xianmenzi, who guided him through Daoist principles. He, too, came to understand, and gave up his boastful, competitive ways.

Lu, pronounced “lu”; chui, pronounced “shui” or “rui.” Master Li says that chui is an iron tool shaped like an owl’s head, with a projecting mouth, used to blow air into a fire. Cheng Xuanying says that lu means a stove, while chui carries the sense of forging and refers to smelting and shaping metal. Yi, pronounced “yi,” is an exclamation of sighing. Master Cui says it is a particle; it is also written yi, meaning to call out the name “Yierzi.” Wo is pronounced “wei.” H, pronounced “zi,” means “to shatter.” Chang is pronounced “zhang.”

Zuowang (a practice of seated meditation in which one forgets the body and lets go of discriminating attachments).

Fu is pronounced “fu”; jian is pronounced “bian,” as it is below. Curan, pronounced “zi liu,” describes a change in facial expression. Hui, pronounced “gui,” means to destroy. Li xing is pronounced “zhi”; qu is pronounced “lü”; wu hao is pronounced “bao.”

Tui ji weiming means to pursue the investigation of principles to their utmost and entrust everything to fate.

If rain continues for more than three days, it is called “prolonged rain.” “Changing color” means that one’s expression changes; “falling” means destruction; “leaving one’s form” means separating from the body; “going” means departing; and “having no preferences” means favoring nothing in particular.

Following Fate to the End

Prolonged rain is rain that continues for more than three days. “In danger” means peril or distress; “food” is pronounced si; and “unable to bear” means incapable of enduring something. Cui explains that “unable to bear its sound” means being so exhausted that one cannot make a sound, while “striving to recite his verses” means forcing oneself to chant lines of poetry, but without any changes in pitch.

Inner Chapter: Responding to Emperors and Kings, Chapter Seven

The Teaching Without Words

Nie Que and Wang Ni are both figures who appeared earlier in “On the Equality of Things.” “Four questions and four times not knowing” means that he was asked four questions in succession and answered “I don’t know” each time. Some believe these four questions are the ones Nie Que asks Wang Ni in “On the Equality of Things”: Do you know that all things are the same? Do you know what you do not know? Then are all things without awareness? You do not know what is advantageous or harmful—does the Perfect Person, then, also not know what is advantageous or harmful?

According to the Shizi, when Pu Yizi was eight years old, Shun handed the realm over to him. Pu Yizi was also known as Bei Yi and was Wang Ni’s teacher. Sima explains Tai Shi as an ancient ruler, though some consider him an unnamed monarch. “Concealing benevolence” means keeping a benevolent heart within; Cui says this means using a benevolent heart to inspire and connect with others. The Jian edition writes the character as “zang,” meaning good. In “to make it essential,” “essential” is pronounced yao. The phrase “in the age of Tai Shi” appears in Liu Deyi’s edition but is missing from older editions. “Slowly and calmly” describes a peaceful, steady manner; Sima explains “carefree” as being unaware. The Jian edition, however, says “slowly and calmly, carefree” describes a state between waking and sleep.

Governing Through Wuwei (Non-action)

In “Riren,” “ri” is pronounced shi; “zhong” is read according to its usual pronunciation, though it may also be pronounced zhong as in Zhong.

“Shili” is a worthy man, and Chi is Jianwu’s teacher. Cui’s version omits the character “yue” (“said”). In “yi yu,” “yu” is pronounced ju. “Shumin jian” appears in Zhang Junfang’s version; older editions read “shiyi duren.” In “qide,” “qi” means falsehood.

In “crossing the sea and carving a channel through it,” “zao” is pronounced “zai luo qie,” as it is below. “Heming” refers to the vast sea, its waters boundless and its waves surging, making it difficult to cross. Trying to cut through the sea to make a channel would surely be futile. “Que” is pronounced “ku xue qie” and means firm or solid. “Zeng” is pronounced “ze neng qie” and refers to a short arrow used for shooting birds; “yi” is pronounced “yi zhi qie” and means an arrow attached to a cord, used for shooting birds. “Xishu” is pronounced “xi” and means a small mouse. “Shenqiu” refers to an altar to the local earth deity, where the Earth God is worshipped. “Xun” is pronounced “yun qie.”

“The Transformations of the Self-So”

“Tian’gen” is a metaphor for the realm without Qi, and “the Nameless Man” is a metaphor for the Dao; both are figures in the parable. Yin Yangwen says that Yinyang is the name of a mountain in Weizhou, and its southern side is called “yang.” Another interpretation holds that it is a place name. “Xishu” means a small mouse, “shenqiu” an altar to the local earth deity, and “xun” is pronounced “yun qie.”

“Liaoshui” is pronounced “liao” and is the name of a river. In “bu yu,” “yu” means ease and contentment. “Mang” is pronounced “mo wu qie”; “miao” is pronounced “miao xiao qie” and means subtle and minute. “Beyond the Six Extremes, outside Yin and Yang” means beyond the bounds of the four directions and the transformations of Yin and Yang. “Kuang” is pronounced “ku guang qie,” and “lang” is pronounced “li dang qie.” “Yi” is pronounced “yi” and means a rule or principle. “Yu dan” is pronounced “tu zan qie,” and “yu mo” is pronounced “mo.”

Yang Ziju—“Ju” is a personal name, and “zi” is a general form of address for a man. “Xiang” is pronounced “liang,” and “xu” is pronounced “liang” with a different tone. “Ji” means to detest; “qiangliang” refers to domineering behavior; “burong e” means not tolerating wrongdoing. “Wuche shuming” means seeing things thoroughly and understanding them clearly. “Yong” here is a generalizing term. “Bujiong zhuhua” means expending a little effort. “Xu” means mutually or together. “Yi” is pronounced “yi.” “Ji” is pronounced “qi” and refers to skill; “yi” also means skill. “Xi” is read according to its usual pronunciation. “Chuxin” is pronounced “chaili” and refers to inner alarm or fear. “Laitian” means going out to hunt.

Tigers and leopards are easily spotted by hunters because of the markings on their fur. “Yuan” is pronounced “yuan”; “ju” is pronounced “qiyu”; “zhi” is pronounced “pijian.” “Mao” has two pronunciations, “lai” and “li.” “Jie” is pronounced “ciye” and means to trample; it is interchangeable with “ji.” “Curan” is pronounced “ziliu” and describes a change in one’s expression. “Gonggai” means that achievements are equal. “Huadai” is pronounced “tudai.” In “mo juming,” “mo” means “none” and “ju” means “to make known”; the phrase means attributing one’s achievements to things outside oneself and not making one’s own reputation known.

The sage has no fixed mind.

The spirit medium is called Ji Xian. “Ji Xian” is his name. “Medium” is a general term for a spirit medium, and can refer to either a man or a woman. Liezi was captivated by his arts and had his mind and spirit confused by them. Huzu, whose personal name was Lin, was from the state of Zheng and was Liezi’s teacher.

The graph “wu” is written “wu” in Xiang Xiu’s version. Some old southern copies have “wan,” while others have “ji wan”; neither reading is correct. In “de dao yu,” the “yu” is pronounced “yu.” In “shi kang,” “kang” is pronounced “lang.” Pause after “fu” in “bi xin fu.” In “xiang ru,” “xiang” is pronounced “liang,” as it is below. “Xi” is pronounced “xi” and expresses an exclamation or sigh. In “xiang wu,” “xiang” is pronounced “liang.”

“Patterns of the earth” means that stillness and immobility characterize the earth. One version reads “neither stirring nor settling” as “neither yielding nor stopping”; both mean that neither movement nor stillness is apparent. “Gathering in the pivot of De” means drawing in the mind and spirit, holding the Dao within, and letting thoughts come to rest. In “you liao,” “liao” is pronounced “liu.”

“Heaven and earth” means that the generation of the myriad things characterizes Heaven. “Names and realities do not enter in through condemnation or praise; they do not enter the numinous mind” means that reputation, actual circumstances, slander, and praise cannot enter the mind. “The vital impulse stirs at the heels” means that the vital energy arises from the heels, after which the breath flows downward and through the body. In “bu qi,” “qi” is pronounced “jie,” as it is below.

“Ni” is pronounced “xi”; “huan ni” refers to a whale. “Huan” means to coil or circle around. In “zhi shen,” “shen” is read as written. The Jian text says that “shen” means a place. Sima says it should be written “pan,” meaning to gather; the Cui text writes “pan” and explains it as a place where returning waters converge. “Zhong” also means to gather. The deep waters have nine names: Ni, Zhi, Liu, Lan, Wo, Jiu, Yong, Qian, and Fei. Together they are called the Nine Abysses. The “Honglie jie” chapter of the Huainanzi mentions the “abyss of the Nine Xuan,” referring to an extremely deep abyss. “Zi shi” is read as written; Xu reads it as “yi,” meaning to disappear from view.

“Wei” is pronounced “wei,” and “she” is pronounced “zhi”; together they describe an extremely compliant manner. “Di” is read as written. An old commentary reads it as “tui,” describing a gentle and yielding manner. Another explanation says it means to droop without end, or to be humble and obedient. “Flowing like waves” describes something that appears on the surface yet is difficult to fathom. In “wei qi,” “wei” is pronounced “wei.” In “qi cuan,” “cuan” is pronounced “pan.” In “shi shi,” “shi” is pronounced “si,” as it is below.

In “carving and polishing,” “zuo” is pronounced “jue.” In “kuai ran,” “kuai” is pronounced “dui.” In “fen ran,” “fen” is pronounced “yun,” meaning disorderly. “Ran jian” appears in the Zhang Junfang text; the old text has a missing character. “Feng zai” means not to scatter. The Cui text reads “rong,” which is explained as closed in, or scattered.

In the phrase “entrust oneself,” the character zhen means “sign” or “omen.” It is pronounced zhi ren.

In “opening the apertures,” tiao is pronounced much like shu. Li Yi holds that “tiao-hu” is a metaphor for things with form and appearance, while “hundun” is a metaphor for the formless Dao. Hun is pronounced hu ben, and dun is pronounced tu ben. The Baoxuan Zhenjing says: “When the three Qi of Yin, Yang, and harmony have not yet separated, this is called hun. When the Five Phases have not yet appeared, this is called dun.” Jian Wen holds that “tiao-hu,” named for swiftness, symbolizes action, while “hundun,” named for unity and harmony, symbolizes Wuwei (non-action). Qiao in “seven apertures” is pronounced ku jiao and means “opening.” Cui Zhuan explains “hundun died” as follows: because he did not follow nature and forcibly opened the ears and eyes, hundun was made to die.

End of Volume Four of Nanhua Zhenjing Zhangju Yinyi.

Volume Five of Nanhua Zhenjing Zhangju Yinyi, compiled by Bixuzi. Outer Chapter Eight, Pianmu, is titled “Nurturing the Upright Nature and Life.” Pian is pronounced bu tian.

“Parallel” means joined together. “Fused toes” refers to the big toe and second toe being joined; “forked fingers” refers to fingers that branch or have an extra growth. “Excess” means having more than usual. Here, De (Virtue/Power) refers to a person’s inborn disposition and natural endowment. Robber Zhi believed that beauty of appearance is an endowment passed down by one’s parents. “Attached growth” refers to excess flesh or a tumor attached to the body; a “hanging wart” is also a kind of wart or growth.

The “Five Organs” are the liver, lungs, heart, kidneys, and spleen. The ancients matched them with five virtues: the liver corresponds to Wood and governs benevolence; the lungs correspond to Metal and govern righteousness; the heart corresponds to Fire and governs ritual propriety; the kidneys correspond to Water and govern wisdom; and the spleen corresponds to Earth and governs trustworthiness. All living, conscious beings possess inborn qualities such as benevolence and righteousness, though in differing degrees. These differences are already part of their nature. Even if we compare Yan Hui with Confucius, there is only a slight difference between them, yet Yan Hui ultimately could not catch up with him. How much greater, then, must the differences be between people who are farther apart?

Those whose nature contains more benevolence and righteousness lose their original nature if they use this to boast to one another. Those whose nature contains less lose their true nature if they devote themselves to admiring and trying to catch up with others. When people pursue self-praise and admiration of others, becoming immersed in disputes over right and wrong and constantly comparing themselves with one another, how can this be the proper path of moral conduct? If everyone were content with their own nature and stopped weighing differences in degree, each thing would keep to its proper place, and the principles of benevolence and righteousness would naturally come into harmony. If officials were appointed according to their respective abilities, the world could be governed well.

“Excessively perverse” means departing from the proper path. Cui says that fused toes, forked fingers, and warts are not the body’s usual form, yet they have arisen naturally in the body and should not be forcibly removed. The various dispositions expressed through the Five Organs may not fully match an ideal moral state, yet they are also part of one’s nature and should not be forcibly rectified. To establish teachings of benevolence and righteousness in order to correct the dispositions of the Five Organs is like cutting away fused toes, forked fingers, and warts: it damages the natural order and only adds to one’s afflictions.

In the phrase “adding many methods to the use of hearing and sight,” the older text includes the character fang, which Zhang Junfang thought should be deleted because the wording resembles expressions below, such as “adding to those who are already perceptive.” “Excess in sight” means that if fused fingers are compared with the usual number of five fingers, they will be seen as a deficiency; compared with the nature of others, however, they add something extra, and so may also be called an excess.

In “patterns and designs,” the combination of blue and red is called wen, while the combination of red and white is called zhang. “Decorative patterns” refers to the designs on ancient ceremonial robes; see the “Great Ancestral Master” chapter. “Brilliant” means bright, and can also describe something dazzling to the eyes. “Not so” means that something is not the case; “so” means that it is precisely the case. Li Zhu is also known as Li Lou. Sima says he lived in the time of the Yellow Emperor and could see the tip of a fine hair from a hundred paces away, and the point of a needle from a thousand li away. Some versions write “five sounds” as “five tones,” meaning gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu. The “Six Pitch Pipes” are Huangzhong, Dacu, Guxian, Ruibin, Yize, and Wushe. “Metal, stone, silk, and bamboo” refer to instruments such as bells, stone chimes, zithers, lutes, flutes, and pipes. Huangzhong is the principal pitch in the tonal system; Dalu belongs to the Six Lü pipes. See the “Discussion on Making All Things Equal” chapter for Shi Kuang. “Elevating De” means raising one’s moral conduct. “Reed blowing” refers to the reeds of a mouth organ; here, “blowing” means moving or blowing air through them.

Zengzi, whose personal name was Shen and courtesy name Ziyu, was known for practicing benevolence. Shi You, whose personal name was Yu and courtesy name Ziyu, was known for practicing righteousness. “Stacking tiles and tying knots” means piling up tiles and tying knots in cords; it is a metaphor for piling up useless words. “Concealed” can mean hidden or obscure. Sima explains that “concealed phrases” are crooked, obscure doctrines that force an interpretation onto things. “Worn-out steps” describes making extra effort while struggling to move forward. Yang Zhu was from the state of Qin; Mo Di was a minister of the state of Song. “Wild duck” means a duck; “shin” means the lower leg; “crane” is the crane; “gnaw” means to bite or nibble; and “call” means to cry out.

“Staring anxiously” is a metaphor for troubled, clouded thoughts, as though worry had blurred one’s vision. “Gluttonous” means greedy; “clamorous” describes people noisily competing to admire or emulate someone. “Bending and twisting” means contorting the limbs; here it refers to treating the bending and stretching of the limbs as ritual and musical ceremonies. “Yu” means to exhale or sigh, and can also refer to adopting a particular expression to display an appearance of benevolence and righteousness. “Mo” is a rope. “Drawn together, they all come to life” means that things attract and gather one another in order to enjoy life. “Seducing” can mean enticing or driving someone onward. “Without pause” means continuously; Sima says it refers to making people run back and forth without end between benevolence and righteousness, and between virtue and conduct. “Disturb” means to unsettle.

The “Three Dynasties” refers to Xia, Shang, and Zhou. “Devote oneself” can mean pursuing or managing something, and can also mean sacrificing one’s life for another. In some regional dialects, “store” has meanings such as goodness or fine books; other explanations connect it with sons born to daughters-in-law or maidservants and slaves. “Grain” can also mean goodness. In “herding sheep,” “herd” means raising animals. “Hold between” means to clasp or carry; “bamboo strips” were used for writing books in ancient times and were about two feet four inches long.

“Bo and se” were types of ancient board games. The Book of Han says that Wu Qiu Shouwang was skilled at the game of ge wu and was therefore summoned to serve. Cheng Xuanying explains that moving pieces along five paths and casting jade dice was called bo; playing without casting the dice was called se.

Bo Yi died for the sake of his reputation on Mount Shouyang; see the “Great Ancestral Master” chapter. Mount Shouyang is in Pufan County, Hedong. Robber Zhi died for the sake of profit at Dongling. The Book of Han describes Robber Zhi as a great bandit of the Qin period. Some say Dongling was Mount Tai; others say it was the name of a burial mound in the area of Dongpingling, in Jinan Commandery. The character e is pronounced wu and means “to hate.” “Attach to” means to be bound or affiliated; Xu reads it as zhu and explains it as “to adhere to.” “Yu’er” was a man in the time of the Yellow Emperor who was skilled at discerning flavors. Cui cites the Master of the Corpse, which says that the cook Yu’er seasoned food with yellow cassia and presented it to the ruler. In “conduct,” the character for “conduct” is pronounced meng and means “behavior.”

“Horse Hooves” is the title of a chapter in the Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi. “Horse” means a horse, and “hooves” refers to the hard coverings on its feet. The following gives the pronunciations and meanings of several terms: yu, he, qiao, zu, lu, xi, tai xi, and luqin.

Yu is pronounced “yulüqie” and means “ward off.” He is pronounced “henyiqie” and means “bite.” Qiao is pronounced “qirao qie” and means “raise.” Some editions have wei (“tail”) in place of zu (“foot”). Lu means “leap”; the Zhang Junfang edition uses a different character, explained as meaning that a horse is strong and vigorous. Xi is pronounced “xuyi qie” and means “raise” or “rear.” Tai xi refers to a raised platform. Luqin means the principal bedchamber, that is, the main hall in a palace.