《南华真经章句音义(陈景元)》Vol. 2

“Chamber” refers to a house. Bole (a person skilled at judging horses) was named Sun Yang and was skilled at driving horses. The Star Classic of the Shi Clan says that Bole was also the name of a star who governed the Heavenly Horses. Because Sun Yang was skilled at driving horses, people called him Bole. “Burning” means heating iron in a fire until it softens; “trimming” means cutting a horse’s mane; “paring” means shaping its hooves; and “bridling” means fitting a headstall over its head. “Halter” also refers to a headstall or another kind of horse restraint. An old southern edition reads “bridling” here.

A “stall” is a horse’s trough; a “stable” is a place where horses are kept. A “rack” is a wooden frame made of planks, like a bed, used to keep things dry; it can also mean a wooden shed. “Training” means schooling horses; “harnessing” means fitting them with driving gear such as the crossbar and yoke; and “reining” means controlling them with a bit and reins. “Bit” refers to the mouthpiece, and “ornamenting” means decorating it. A “whip” is a leather lash, while a “switch” is a whip made of bamboo or wood without a leather lash. A “kiln” is used for firing pottery; “clay” is the material used to make it.

“Fitting the circle” means conforming to the circle drawn by a compass. One version reads “grazing” instead of “natural freedom”; it means keeping animals. “Tian-tian” describes a heavy, solid appearance, while “dian-dian” describes single-mindedness. A “path” is a small track, and a “road” is a larger way; “boats and bridges” refers to boats and bridges. “Their villages were connected” means that settlements were linked to one another, with none cut off.

“Drawing” means pulling; “peering” means looking secretly; “not parting” means remaining together. “Bie-xie” describes walking with effort; “kicking” means stamping, while “standing on tiptoe” can suggest a proud, self-satisfied bearing. “Chan-man” describes unrestrained abandon, and “zha-pi” describes bending oneself and compromising one’s integrity. “Uncarved simplicity” refers to wood or metal that has not been worked; “unspoiled” means neither damaged nor ornamented.

A “sacrificial ox goblet” is a wine vessel decorated with the image of an ox. Some say the ox was painted on the vessel; others say it was carved as an ox’s head, or that the vessel was decorated with phoenix-feather patterns. A “gui” is a jade tablet pointed at the top and square at the bottom; a “zhang” is a half-gui-shaped jade tablet. “Necks crossed” means their necks meet, and “rubbing against one another” means they chafe against each other. “Following one another” means stepping on one another, while “kicking” refers to small, restrained kicks.

The “crossbar” is the horizontal beam at the front of a carriage shaft; the “yoke” is the piece of driving gear fitted around a horse’s neck. “Moon-shaped forehead ornaments” are crescent-shaped decorations on a horse’s forehead, or crescent-shaped ornaments hung from its head. “Jie-ni” describes something like glancing sideways. “Being bent and constrained at the yoke” describes a horse’s neck bending where the yoke presses against it. “Zhi” means butting, and “man” means surging forward. “Zhi-man” may refer to butting and surging forward; another interpretation is that it means charging off to the side. “Spitting out the bit” means ejecting the bit from the mouth, and “seizing the reins” means biting them. Ancient commentaries explain that these are all signs of a horse breaking free of bit and reins and becoming difficult to control.

The “Huangdi of the He-xu clan” is said to have been an ancient ruler, named for his outstanding virtue and the people’s allegiance to him. Some say he was the Flame Emperor. “Food held in the mouth” means having food in one’s mouth; “standing on tiptoe” means rising onto one’s heels.

“Abandon sageliness and discard cleverness” means rejecting the practice of flaunting sagehood and cunning. The commentator explains that several words here concern opening boxes, taking out objects, sealing them, and carrying them: qu means opening from the side; qie is a box; jianteng refers to cords used to tie and seal it; and jiong and jue are a door bolt and a lock.

The text says that without the way of the sage, even a good person would struggle to establish an undertaking; without relying on the way of the sage, Zhi the Robber, a legendary bandit, would also struggle to succeed. Seen in this light, the practical benefit the sage’s way brings to the world is not great. When sages appear, great robbers arise alongside them. If people did not cling to the sage’s way, perhaps great robbers would not flourish. If the sage’s way is held up as a model without end while great robbers persist, that may be a failing caused by the sage’s way.

The commentator further explains that what people call “sage wisdom” includes various systems and techniques, such as measuring vessels, weights and scales, tally tokens and seals, as well as bows, crossbows, and tools for fishing and hunting. These tools and systems cannot necessarily stop thieves: petty thieves steal belt hooks, while great thieves go so far as to seize the state’s seals and tallies. If systems and prohibitions are simply multiplied without the right people to put them into practice, laws may do little good.

The text also gives examples of sage kings and master craftsmen from earlier times, and recounts the fates of Longfeng, Bigan, Chang Hong, and Wu Zixu. Bigan was cut open for repeatedly remonstrating with King Zhou; Chang Hong was also killed; and after Wu Zixu died, his body was cast into the river. Through these stories, the commentator shows that being called a sage or worthy does not guarantee protection from calamity.

The story of “Lu wine was weak, and Handan was besieged” illustrates how events are often connected. The commentator records two versions. In one, King Xuan of Chu was angered by the weak wine presented by Lu. Lu was attacked, and Liang seized the opportunity to lay siege to Handan, the capital of Zhao. In the other, an official in charge of wine rites in Chu switched Zhao’s strong wine for Lu’s weak wine. The king mistakenly thought Zhao’s wine was weak, so he attacked Handan. The commentator uses this story to illustrate the causal links between events.

The text goes on to say that conflict, greed, and cunning grow ever more widespread in the world, while speech becomes increasingly elaborate and devious. People excel at making excuses and disguising their intentions, and society falls into great disorder. The commentator explains simplicity as each person keeping to their proper place and not encroaching on others, and crafty ingratiation as slyness and deceit.

Volume Six of The Nanhua True Scripture: Phrases and Pronunciations, compiled by Bixuzi. The eleventh chapter of the Outer Chapters, “Carving the Will,” centers on preserving simplicity and one’s original nature.

In “Carving the Will,” “carving” means shaping and honing: deliberately making the mind and will lofty. “Will” refers to the mind’s activity and to intention. “Esteeming conduct,” mentioned in the chapter, means valuing moral behavior; “leaving the world” means withdrawing from worldly affairs; “lofty discourse” means making elevated arguments; “resenting and criticizing” means resenting and condemning a disordered age, and feeling that one’s talents have gone unrecognized; “seeking the extreme” means pursuing the highest level; and “withering” means making oneself austere and worn.

“Serving at court” means holding office in the imperial court; “marsh” means a lake or wetland; and “fishing” means catching fish. “Bear movements” are stretches of the body like those of a bear, while “bird extensions” are stretches of the legs like those of a bird. Both are exercises for guiding and nourishing life. Guiding and nourishing means a method of exercise that regulates the breath and loosens the body.

The commentator explains that “substance” can mean uprightness. When a sage rests at ease, they become calm and simple; with a calm and simple state of mind, they can be tranquil and free of desires. “Evil Qi” means improper vital energy; “pure” means untainted and unmixed. In “never weary,” “weary” means fatigued, so the phrase means not becoming tired. “Not taking pleasure in music” means not making music a source of pleasure; “likes and dislikes” refers to preferences and aversions; and “oppose” means to go against.

“Gan-Yue swords” refers to famous swords made in the areas of Ganxi and the Yue mountains. Another account holds that Ganxi in the state of Wu and Mount Ruoye in Yue both produced good iron suitable for sword-making. A “sword case” is a scabbard.

Cultivating one’s nature amid worldly life is an attempt to restore the human being’s original state. Stirring desire through worldly thoughts is an attempt to make the mind clear. The mind may arise, but one does not act deliberately through the mind. One acts sincerely and without artifice, and does not pursue excess in one’s undertakings. Music is something people enjoy, yet indulgence in it can lead to dissipation and extravagance. Ritual is something people diligently practice, yet rigid attachment or careless neglect can also bring harm. To enjoy music without becoming troubled by it, and to observe ritual fully without becoming rigid, is perhaps possible only for a great sage.

Do not obscure or cover over the myriad things, leaving them confused and dim. In the undivided, all-embracing state before Heaven and Earth separated, do not disturb it or force it to answer the rhythms of the outside world. In the time of Suiren and Fuxi, legendary rulers of high antiquity, people were inwardly at peace. They did not vie in displays of wisdom, nor become caught up in competing with one another for fame and profit. When the age declined, people no longer valued this state. Instead, they prized standing apart from others and showing off their abilities. What need was there for this?

To remain whole and abide by one’s nature does not depend on external things. Gains and losses that arrive unexpectedly are merely chance occurrences. There is no need to alter one’s nature because of them, or to value external things above one’s inner life. To go against one’s nature and replace the inner with the external is to turn things upside down.

“Discussion of Swords,” the thirteenth chapter of the Outer Chapters, is the chapter title. “Numinous and martial” means wondrously powerful and imposing.

Sima Biao identifies King Wen of Zhao as King Huiwen of Zhao, whose personal name was He and who was the son of King Wuling of Zhao. The Dongji records that the seventeenth year of King Nan of Zhou was the first year of King Huiwen of Zhao. Another account, based on calendar calculations, places King Huiwen’s lifetime close to Zhuangzi’s. This story, however, may also be an allegory expressing the author’s ideas.

“To delight in swords” means to love swordsmanship. “The palace gates” refers to the gates on either side of the palace entrance. “Never satisfied” means that his enjoyment knew no limit. Kui was the name of the crown prince. “Recruit” means to enlist people; “speak to the king” means to explain or make a case to the King of Zhao. “Hair disheveled” describes tangled hair, or a helmet worn on the head. “Protruding temples” refers to hair sticking out at the temples; some explain it as short, stiff hair that could easily wound an opponent. “A drooping crown” means a hat pulled low or worn at an angle in preparation for a fight. It may also refer to a hat worn by mounted raiders. “A coarse, unadorned chin strap” was a rough hat cord without decoration; another interpretation is a strip of cloth wrapped around the neck and drawn across the forehead. “A short-backed garment” had a short hem at the back, making it easier to move and fight.

“To glare” means to open one’s eyes wide. “Speech made difficult” describes warriors so enraged that they struggle to speak; it can also mean that, in their anger, their words become fearsome. “Within a thousand li, none could pass unchallenged” conveys the swordsmanship’s overwhelming force: it could kill a person within ten paces, leaving no one across a thousand li daring to stand in its way. “Examine” means to assess and select. “Cut” here refers to having people test their swords against objects and sever them. “Use a staff” means to wield one. Yanxi was a place in the state of Yan.

The passage compares the King of Zhao’s sword to the realm’s territory: Yan’s Yanxi and the frontier’s Stone City form its point; Mount Dai in Qi is its edge; Jin and Wei are its spine; Zhou and Song are its guard, where the hilt meets the blade; and Han and Wei are its hilt. These place names are used to depict the sword’s different parts.

“To wrap it in the Bohai Sea and Mount Chang” means to use the Bohai Sea and Mount Chang as the sword’s covering or adornment. The passage then describes governing the world through the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, and Water), which generate and overcome one another; ruling the people through punishments and virtuous governance; and acting in accordance with the seasons of autumn and winter. The sword’s power is thus linked to the principles for governing the realm. “Bewildered” describes a dazed, disoriented state. “The four directions” means all around. “I privately think” means “I believe to myself.”

“To circle three times” means to walk three times around the food laid out on the mat. After hearing words in accord with the Way, he felt ashamed and circled the food three times, unable to sit down and eat. “Die in disgrace” means to kill oneself out of anger at having been slighted and denied the respect one felt was due.

Cherishing the True

“Cherishing the True” means that people should treasure their true nature.

“Ziwei,” according to Sima Biao, is the name of a place called the Black Forest. Some versions write it as “Ziwei” with a different character. “Apricot Terrace,” as Sima Biao explains, is a raised area in a marsh where apricot trees grow; it may also be a place name. Some say the “Fisherman” is Fan Li.

One version has “beard and eyebrows” where another reads “beard and whiskers.” In “both turned white,” “both” means all, and some versions write “bright white.” “Yú” means walking with one’s hands hanging inside one’s sleeves; “sleeves” refers to the sleeves of a garment. In “reaching the land,” “reach” means arrive. One version reads “putting ritual in order” instead of “adorning ritual”; the word for “put in order” means to regulate and arrange. In “equalizing the people,” “equalizing” means making things equal and also refers to ordinary people. In “you and I,” the character meaning “and” is pronounced “yú.”

One version reads “by means of falsehood” instead of “by means of danger.” Some versions have “their separation” where others read “their division”; the phrase means being parted or separated. “Staff” here refers to an oar. In some dialects an oar is called a “ráo,” sometimes written with a boat radical. “Ná” means to hold or draw along. Some versions read “turn back and head toward home” instead of “return home.” “Earlier words” means things said before, but can also refer to words left unsaid. Some versions read “I secretly attended” instead of “I secretly waited.” “Hāi” and “tuò” are phonetic notes for coughing and spitting. “Assist the hills” means to help.

“Xī” is a sound of laughter. The “good” in “of this goodness” is pronounced “hūbàoqiè,” and the “few” in “Qiu Shao” is pronounced “shīzhàoqiè.” “Jing” can mean to manage, govern, or measure; the “belong” in “does not belong” is pronounced “zhú.” The “long” in “young and old” is pronounced “dīngwénqiè”; the same applies to later occurrences of “long.” The “prevail” in “cannot prevail” is pronounced “shēng”; the “down” in “conduct does not fall short” is pronounced “mèngqiè”; and the “skill” in “craft and skill” is pronounced “qíqǐqiè.”

Some versions read “assigned duties” instead of “tribute and duties.” “Spring and Autumn visits out of rank” refers to court visits to feudal lords and the presentation of gifts during the Spring and Autumn period, carried out in violation of rank. “Expelling and attacking” means to drive out and wage war. The character in “not D” is pronounced “chì.” In “the Eight Faults,” “faults” means errors or shortcomings. “Surveying them” means taking stock of them and keeping watch over them. The “ruin” in “ruining others” is pronounced “bǔmàiqiè” and means to destroy other people. The “bad” in “bad people” is pronounced “wūlùqiè”; Zhang Junfang’s version reads “virtuous people.” The “hidden wrongdoing” in the phrase is pronounced “tādéqiè.” The “not” in “good or not” is pronounced “bēiměiqiè” and here means evil. “Both expressions remain composed” means being able to accept both good and evil while keeping one’s expression and bearing calm and measured. “Distinguish” in “to distinguish by” means to separate. The “greed” in the phrase is pronounced “tǔdāoqiè,” and “harsh” is pronounced “húhèqiè.” “Looking ashamed and alarmed” describes a state of embarrassment and fear.

The “often” in “more often” is pronounced “shuò”; the “depart” in “does not depart” is pronounced “lìzhìqiè”; the “force” in “therefore force” is pronounced “qízhàngqiè”; and the “joy” in “joy and happiness” is pronounced “luò.” “Lùlù” can be read as written or pronounced “lù”; it refers to ritual behavior being displayed outwardly. Sima Biao explains that “lù” means to direct and record. In “those who can go with you,” “go” means to advance. The “sink” in “sink early” is pronounced “dīngnánqiè” and means to become immersed. Some versions read “Qiu had this encounter,” without the final particle; this refers to Confucius encountering something. It may also mean that he came upon or experienced a mistake. “And compare” can be read as written, meaning to see with one’s own eyes and compare, or pronounced “pízhìqiè.” The “pierce” in “then pierce” is pronounced “qīyìqiè.”

“Once the waves settle” means that after a boat passes, the waves gradually recede and the water becomes calm. The “beside” in “beside the carriage” is pronounced “bùlàngqiè”; the “chariot” in “ten thousand chariots” is pronounced “shéngzhèngqiè.” “Matching in ritual” means meeting one another with equal courtesy and ritual observance. “Haughty” means arrogant, and “proud” is pronounced “qūyàoqiè.” “Bending the waist” means bowing, while “bending like a sounding stone frame” describes bowing at the waist in ritual. The “speak” in “what I say” is pronounced “yújùqiè.”

Governing the Inner Realm (Governing Domestic Affairs)

Yao yielded the world to Xu You; the related account appears in “The Free and Easy Wandering.” Zizhou Zhifu—the character fu in “Zhifu” is read fu—Li Yi says that “Zhifu” is a courtesy name, meaning Zhibo. Zizhou Zhifu suffered from hidden anxiety. “Hidden anxiety” means a secret and profound sorrow. When the Lüshi Chunqiu quotes this passage, Gao You’s commentary explains that “hidden” means concealed. The Classic of Poetry says, “If hidden sorrow fills my heart, my heart will not be at ease.” Thus, he had no leisure to govern the world.

Settling Oneself

Shun yielded the world to Zizhou Zibo. Some say that Zibo was the same person as Zizhou Zhifu.

Contentment in Oneself

Shun yielded the world to Shanjuan. Shanjuan was a hermit whose family name was Shan and given name was Juan. He wore clothes made of animal skins and lived in Changlü.

Rising Above the World (Withdrawing from Society)

Shun yielded the world to his friend, the farmer of Shihu. “Shihu” is also written “Hou” and is a place name; “farmer” refers to a cultivator. “Quanquan” is read quánquán and describes being diligent and cautious. “Preserving his strength” means keeping it safe and protecting it. He went to live in the sea. Sima Biao says that whenever a text says someone “entered the sea,” it means that the person lived on an island in the sea, apart from the world of ordinary society.

Rising Above the World (Withdrawing from Society)

Shun yielded the world to his friend, the farmer of Shihu. “Shihu” is also written “Hou” and is a place name; “farmer” refers to a cultivator. “Quanquan” is read quánquán and describes being diligent and cautious. “Preserving his strength” means keeping it safe and protecting it. He went to live in the sea. Sima Biao says that whenever a text says someone “entered the sea,” it means that the person lived on an island in the sea, apart from the world of ordinary society.

Esteeming Life (Respecting Life)

King Tai Danfu—“Dan” is read dàn, and “fu” is read fǔ—was the grandfather of King Wen of Zhou. Deng is a place name. The Di people were the Xianyun. King Tai did not harm his people for the sake of land meant to sustain them: land exists to nourish people, but to kill people in order to seize land is to make the land harm them instead. Since the people are sustained by the land, they should not be harmed for its sake.

“Yin zhang” is read zhí liàng, and “ce” is read chū gé. “Following one another” can be taken literally to mean that people followed him in an unbroken line. Some earlier commentators instead read the phrase as lì zhǎn, or wrote the character as “tà,” taking it to mean carrying goods on poles. Mount Qi is read Qíyí and lies northwest of Meiyang in Fufeng. The Zhou Plain lies south of Mount Qi, which is why the Zhou later changed the name of their state to Zhou.

“Do not harm the body in seeking sustenance” means not damaging oneself in pursuit of support; “do not burden the body for the sake of profit” means not wearing down the body in pursuit of gain. Wang Xianqian explains that even the wealthy, though they have ample support, should not damage their health by indulging in pleasure; and the poor, though they lack material benefits, should not burden their bodies in pursuit of gain.

Loathing Calamity (Abhorring Misfortune)

The people of Yue killed their rulers for three generations in succession. The commentary identifies these three rulers, in order, as King Xi, King Hui, and King Shuai. Prince Sou was the son of King Ai, and his name was Sou. “Cinnabar Cave” refers to a cave in the southern mountains and also to Zhuya County, where one can face south toward the sunlight. “Jade carriage” means a carriage decorated with jade; “jade axle pins” are the fittings that secure the ends of the axle. Some versions read “royal carriage.” “Draw” means to pull; “cord” refers to the handhold strap on a carriage. “My lord, my lord” is a repeated exclamation expressing how difficult it is to bear the burden of rulership. “Abandon” is pronounced like “pick up”; “how” is pronounced with the sounds “wu” and “lu” combined. The phrase “true how” below and in the next chapter is pronounced the same way.

Knowing What Is Light and Heavy

Zihuaizi was a worthy man of Wei. Sima Biao held that Marquis Zhaoxi was a ruler of Han. “Seize” means to grab; “discard” means to cast away. Another interpretation is that “seize” means to take the inscribed document, while “discard” means to cut off the right hand. “It was all the more weightless to Han” should be read as a single phrase.

Keeping the Body Whole

Some versions read “Marquis of Lu”; Li Yi held that this refers to Duke Ai of Lu. The ruler of Lu first sent gifts, then dispatched someone to summon Yan He, hoping to appoint him prime minister. “Coarse hemp” is pronounced like “rough” and refers to hemp; writing it directly as “rough” is incorrect. “Feed the oxen” means to give them fodder. In “the one sent,” “sent” is pronounced with the sounds “suo” and “li” combined; the same applies below.

Lord Lu (in one edition, “Marquis of Lu”) refers to Duke Ai of Lu. Li says that Duke Ai sent gifts as betrothal presents and first dispatched someone to summon Yan He, intending to appoint him prime minister.

The character “ju” is pronounced like “cu” and refers to coarse hemp. It should not simply be read as “cu.” In “feeding oxen,” “feeding” is pronounced “fu wan qie” and means to give oxen food. In “his envoy,” “envoy” is pronounced “suo li qie”; the same applies in the next chapter. In “family and,” “and” is pronounced “yu.”

“Fearing that the listener might misunderstand” appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition; older editions read “fearing that the listener was mistaken.” The Lüshi Chunqiu quotes this chapter with the same wording as Zhang Junfang’s edition.

In “and leaves behind,” “leaves behind” is pronounced “wei ji qie”; the same applies in the next chapter. In “come back again,” “again” is pronounced “fu”; the same applies in the next chapter. “Leftover remnants” is to be read literally and refers to things that remain.

“Tu” is pronounced “chi ya qie,” though it may also be read literally; “ju” is pronounced “ce ya qie.” Sima says that “tu and ju” are like dung and weeds; Li says they are lees and dregs. None of these are truly valuable things. When the Lüshi Chunqiu quotes this chapter, Gao You’s commentary explains: “tu” means broken tiles and stones, while “ju” means thistles. A drum made from earth and a beater made from thistles were musical instruments in the time of Yiqi, a legendary ruler of antiquity.

The Classic of Filial Piety says, “To bring peace to the world and order to the people, nothing is better than ritual; to transform customs and change habits, nothing is better than music.” Ritual and music can therefore be used to govern the world. What must be examined is what a ruler relies on to attain the Virtue of a sage, cultivate himself, and govern the state; his actions should therefore be scrutinized. Here, “what he relies on” refers to the means by which his Virtue is applied to external things. “How he treats external things” is likewise something to be examined. Specific everyday actions, however, do not necessarily each need to be scrutinized individually.

The “Pearl of the Marquis of Sui” comes from a tale about the pearl’s origin. The state of Sui lay near the Han River, which produced pearls. The Marquis of Sui once saw a snake that had been injured and treated it with medicine. Later, the snake brought him a pearl one inch in diameter, pure white and luminous, which could light up a room at night. It offered the pearl in gratitude, and so it came to be called the Pearl of the Marquis of Sui.

In “what is sought,” “sought” is pronounced “yao.” “Far from the meaning” means that “far” is not being used here in its original sense.

Ziyang was chancellor to Duke Mu of Zheng. He disliked being called by others. Whenever the ruler issued an order, he carried it out at once. Even when the ruler merely stroked his chest with a sigh and indulged in comfort and pleasure, Ziyang paid attention. Yet when the ruler made mistakes, he refused to admonish him frankly. Later, turmoil broke out in Zheng. Ziyang was harsh by nature and pardoned no one who was guilty. One of his retainers broke a bow and arrows and, fearing Ziyang’s anger and punishment, seized the chance to kill him when the people of Zheng drove out the dogs of Chu.

Upholding the Law

After King Zhao of Chu lost his state, Tuyang Shuo followed him into exile. King Zhao, whose personal name was Zhen, was the son of King Ping of Chu. King Ping had listened to Fei Wuji’s slander and put Wu She to death; Wu Yuan fled to Wu. Before long, Wu attacked Chu and routed its army, and King Zhao fled to the state of Sui. At the time, Tuyang Shuo accompanied him into exile, then later returned to Chu. After King Zhao entered Ying, he wanted to summon Tuyang Shuo, appoint him to office, and give him money and goods. Tuyang Shuo declined, saying that Chu’s loss of its state was not his fault, and its restoration was not his achievement, so he should not accept these rewards. King Zhao then offered him the rank of the Three Banners, a position of honor among the three highest ministers, but Tuyang Shuo refused again. He believed that accepting a reward he did not deserve would mean acting against principle.

Preserving One’s Integrity

Yuan Xian, whose courtesy name was Zisi, was from the state of Lu and a disciple of Confucius. He lived in a small hut with walls ten feet square. Fresh grass covered the roof in place of thatch; the door was woven from reed grass, and its pivot was made from a bent mulberry branch. A broken earthenware jar served as the window. The husband and wife each occupied a separate room. Yuan Xian stuffed the window with coarse cloth, then sat upright, playing his zither and singing.

He wore a dark blue undergarment with a reddish tinge, beneath a white outer robe. This combination of a dark blue undergarment and white outer robe was also the dress of a senior official. He wore a fine cap made from tree bark, shoes that dragged along the ground, and leaned on a staff of pigweed as he went to answer the door—that is, to greet his visitor in person.

Someone gave a snort of laughter, and Yuan Xian stepped back a few paces. The man said, “What has happened to you? Have you really fallen into such poverty?” Yuan Xian replied, “I have heard that lacking possessions is called poverty, while studying the Dao (the Way) but being unable to put it into practice is called distress. As things stand, I am merely poor; I am not distressed.”

After the man left, Yuan Xian continued sitting upright, playing his zither and singing. Later, Zhuangzi commented: Acting to pursue worldly fame, drawing close to others and forming factions, appearing to care for others while actually looking out only for oneself, and using the instruction of others as a means to seek personal gain—all these are the afflictions of benevolence and righteousness. What is meant by “the evils of benevolence and righteousness” is using their names to conceal treachery.

“Wadded robe” refers to an old cotton robe padded with tangled hemp fibers. The phrase “wearing a worn wadded robe” in the Analects describes just such a garment. “Swollen blotches” refers to skin that is red, swollen, mottled, and uneven; it can also describe skin that is cracked and inflamed. “Calluses” are the hard patches that form on the hands and feet through labor. “The cord snapped” means that a sash or strap has broken; “the elbow showed” means that a sleeve was torn, exposing the elbow; and “the heel was exposed” means that a shoe was torn, revealing the heel. The “Hymns of Shang” are poems praising the virtue of the Shang dynasty.

Cultivating Conduct

“Thick gruel” is a dense porridge; “thick gruel” can also be pronounced to mean a dry cake. Some editions write “hemp and ramie” in the original as “hemp and ramie” using a variant character. In “finding joy in oneself,” the character for “joy” is pronounced as in “happiness.” “Looking troubled” describes an anxious or uneasy expression; another edition has “pleased.” In “burdening oneself through covetous desire,” the character translated as “covetous desire” appears in the Jiangnan Li edition, while older editions have “profit”; the phrase means to bring hardship upon oneself through greed. In the title “Cultivating Conduct,” the character translated as “conduct” is read with the falling tone. The character for “ashamed” in “not feeling ashamed” is pronounced “zài luò qiè,” meaning to feel shame.

Aspiring to the Heights

Prince Mou, according to Sima’s commentary, was a prince of Wei, enfeoffed in Zhongshan, whose personal name was Mou. Zhanzi was a worthy man of Wei. “The palace towers” refers to the tall towers before the palace gate, which marked the ruler’s palace. The two tall towers before the Son of Heaven’s palace gate were called the “Two Watchtowers.” In “valuing life,” the character translated as “valuing” is pronounced “zhí yòng qiè”; the same applies below. In “overcoming oneself,” the character translated as “overcoming” is pronounced like “shēng”; the same applies below. The sentence at “unable to overcome oneself” should be punctuated here. “The spirit has no aversion” follows the Zhang Junfang edition; older editions read “the spirit has no place.” In “ten thousand chariots,” the character for “chariots” is pronounced “shéng zhèng qiè.”

Taking Joy in the Dao

The sound of “bu san,” with san read as sǎn, is indicated by the fanqie spelling “su gan.” The sound of “shen bei,” with bei read as bèi, is indicated by “pi bai.”

“Driven out of Lu a second time” means that Confucius was rejected by the state of Lu for the second time. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Confucius was poor and of low status in his youth. As an adult, he served as an official under the Ji clan, managing its granaries and keeping fair accounts. He also served as an official overseeing livestock, helping the herds to thrive, and was therefore promoted to Minister of Works. Later, he left Lu and was rejected in Qi, expelled from Song and Wei, and besieged between Chen and Cai. Afterward he returned to Lu, where he was again treated with courtesy.

Duke Ding of Lu appointed Confucius magistrate of Zhongdu. Within a year, the people of the four quarters were taking his administration as their model. He was promoted from magistrate of Zhongdu to Minister of Works, then from Minister of Works to Grand Minister of Justice, who oversaw criminal law, and afterward acted in the capacity of chief minister. When the people of Qi heard of this, they grew afraid and said, “If Confucius governs, Lu will surely become hegemon.” So they selected women skilled in song and dance and sent them to the ruler of Lu. After the ruler accepted them, he neglected state affairs, and Confucius left Lu for Wei. This is what is meant by Confucius being driven out of Lu a second time.

“His traces were cut off in Wei” means that in Wei he was denied the courtesies he had received and lost all standing. The word xiao means to cut off. The Records of the Grand Historian says that Duke Ling of Wei had grown old and neglected government, and no longer considered employing Confucius. Confucius sighed, “If someone were to employ me, results would be visible within a month, and there would be achievements within a year.” Yet he was never given a position.

“Felling a tree in Song” is recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian: after Confucius arrived in Song, he and his disciples practiced ritual beneath a large tree. Huan Tui, the Marshal of Song, wanted to kill Confucius. After Confucius left, Huan Tui resented the place where he had sat and cut down the tree.

“Brought to hardship in Shang and Zhou”: the Records of the Grand Historian says that “Shang” here refers to Yin territory, and “Zhou” to the Eastern Zhou. During his travels among the states, Confucius fell into difficulties in these places.

“Besieged between Chen and Cai”: according to the Records of the Grand Historian, King Zhao of Chu sent someone to invite Confucius, and Confucius prepared to go. After conferring, the ministers of Chen and Cai sent people to surround him in the wilderness, preventing him from continuing. His attendants all fell ill, and none could get up.

Ji, read jí and pronounced “qin xi,” means to ruin; it can also mean to humiliate or oppress. Kui ran, read kuì rán and pronounced “qu kui,” describes the manner of sighing. Yu, read yù and pronounced “yu ju,” means to tell or admonish. “Facing danger,” with nan read nàn and pronounced “nai dan,” refers to confronting peril.

The sixteen characters meaning “Duke Huan gained it at Ju, Duke Wen gained it at Cao, and the King of Yue gained it at Kuaiji” appear in an old southern collection and in the Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Lü; earlier editions lack this passage.

Ai is read ài, though it also has the pronunciation “yu xie.” Xiao ran is read according to the written characters. “Taking up the qin” means playing the qin and describes its sound. Xi ran, read xì rán, is explained by Master Li as the appearance of rising up and dancing. Gan means shield. In “also delight,” le is read yuè; the same reading applies below.

Yu, read yú, is explained in the Guangya as meaning calm and settled. Another text writes it as yu, meaning amusement.

As for “Gong Bo attained his ambition atop the hill,” Master Sima says that Gong Bo’s personal name was He. He cultivated his character and cherished worthy people, and the feudal lords all regarded him as wise. After King Li of Zhou met with disaster, the throne was left vacant. The feudal lords all asked Gong Bo to become Son of Heaven, but he refused and instead temporarily administered the kingship. Fourteen years later, a great drought occurred and the palace buildings burned. The oracle indicated that this was the work of King Li’s spirit. The Duke of Shao then enthroned King Xuan, and Gong Bo returned to live among his clan, contentedly dwelling atop Mount Gong.

“Gong” refers to a hill. Mount Gong is now west of Gong County in Hanoi. The old southern collection reads, “Gong Bo attained his ambition atop the hill.” Another view holds that the text should read “atop Mount Gong,” while some maintain that “atop the hill” is correct.

“Quan” means a ditch between raised field ridges. The ridge is called a “mu,” and the furrow between ridges is called a “quan.” “Xing” is pronounced “Meng”; the same applies in the next chapter. “Man” has two pronunciations, “Wu Jian” and “Wu Pan,” and means filthy or polluted. The same applies in the next chapter. “Tou” means to submit to or seek refuge with someone. “Qingling” is pronounced “Ling.” The Qingling Abyss lies beneath Mount E in the west of Nanyang Commandery.

“Lianqing” means honest and uncorrupted. “Yin” means to take up an appointment or accept a position. Bian Sui was a man who upheld the Dao and lived in seclusion; Wuguang has also been explained in the “Great Ancestral Teacher” chapter. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Yi Yin was named Aheng. He wanted an audience with King Tang of Shang but had no way to gain access, so he became a dowry servant of the Youxin clan. Carrying a cauldron and chopping board, he used the principles of seasoning food to persuade King Tang, helping him put the kingly way into practice. Another account says Yi Yin was originally a recluse. King Tang sent people to invite him, and Yi Yin agreed to leave seclusion only after they had gone back and forth five times. He spoke to King Tang about becoming a “plain king” and governing the nine kinds of rulers, after which King Tang appointed him to oversee state affairs. “Zei” means to make covert judgments about the state of affairs. “Shu” is pronounced “Shuo.”

“Choushui” is pronounced “Zhiliu.” Some editions write “Tongshui” or “Choushui”; Sima Biao’s edition writes “Dongshui” and says it is in Yingchuan. Another account places it within the boundaries of Fanyang Commandery. “Qinan” is pronounced “Naidan” and means difficulty. “Wo xiang” means “I enjoy” or “I undergo.” “Lushui” is pronounced “Lü.” Sima Biao’s edition writes “Lushui” and says it lies on the border of Liaodong; another account places it within the boundaries of Beiping Commandery.

“Bishi” means withdrawing from secular society and living in seclusion.

Sima of Guzhu says: “The state of Guzhu was in the area of Lingzhi County in western Liaoning. Boyi and Shuqi were the two sons of its ruler. Their names were explained earlier, in the chapter ‘The Great Ancestral Teacher.’”

Qiyang refers to the southern side of Mount Qi, where King Wen of Zhou established his capital, roughly in the area of present-day Fufeng. Shudan is the Duke of Zhou, Dan. He was the younger brother of King Wu of Zhou, which is why he was called ‘Shu,’ meaning ‘younger brother.’

One edition writes ‘rank’ for ‘one.’ “Animal-blood sacrifice” means smearing the blood of an animal on a document of sworn alliance, then burying the document beneath the altar. “Xi” is pronounced as in “xuqi.” “Pray” means to seek blessings. In “fully govern,” “govern” is pronounced as in “zhili”; the word “govern” in “a well-governed age” below has the same pronunciation. In “raise and carry out,” “carry out” is pronounced as in “xiameng”; the words “my conduct” and “wayward conduct” below have the same pronunciation. In “thereby secure,” “secure” is pronounced as in “yiyao.”

According to an old manuscript preserved in Jiangnan, the phrase “the virtue of Yin declined” should read “Yin”; older editions have “Zhou.” “Lest it stain my person” means fearing that wealth and honor might tarnish oneself. Cheng Xuanying explains that if one lived alongside the Zhou dynasty, one might fear that it would stain one’s integrity. Some also hold that certain passages in the chapter “Yielding the Throne” repeat one another. Why did Wuguang and the “two or three gentlemen” in the text throw themselves into the water and die? An old commentary answers: The aim of the Zhuangzi is to lead people back to the root, and returning to the root first requires freeing oneself from splendor and honor. Thus, the text praises yielding the throne to reveal a noble aspiration that transcends the world. Its purpose is to refuse submission to worldly conventions and thereby encourage others, while neither clinging to one’s own life nor seeking to preserve it. When the text sometimes stresses preserving life, this too is meant to express the idea of relinquishing worldly splendor.

Being immersed in worldly affairs is a failing. Those of lesser attainment may wear coarse cloth and drink thin gruel, but they merely manage to preserve themselves. Those who truly attain the preservation of the Great Dao have higher aspirations: they stand beyond worldly conventions, free and at ease. They would rather cast themselves into cold waters than be entangled and subdued by the world. The notes on pronunciation appended to this old commentary are copied here together for reference, but its interpretation of the underlying principles is inappropriate.

End of Volume Six of Nanhua zhenjing zhangju yinyi.

Volume Seven of Nanhua zhenjing zhangju yinyi. Compiled by Bixuzi.

Miscellaneous Chapter Sixteen: “Robber Zhi.”

Following one’s nature.

Confucius and Liu Xia Ji (that is, Liu Xia Hui, whose surname was Zhan, given name Huo, and courtesy name Ji Qin) were friends. Some say Ji Qin’s courtesy name was Zi Qin. Others say he lived in a place called Liu Xia and practiced benevolence there, which is why he was called Liu Xia Hui. Still others say “Hui” was his posthumous title, or that “Liu Xia” was a place name. According to the Zuo Tradition, Zhan Qin lived during the reign of Duke Xi of Lu, more than eighty years before Confucius. By the time Zilu died, he would have been 150 or 160 years old, so he could not have been Confucius’s friend. This passage, then, is a fable.

In “Robber Zhi,” some commentators take “Zhi” to be a name for a great bandit of Qin. Master Huang says instead that Ji Qin’s younger brother, Yong, was a bandit, and that the people of Qin called bandits “zhi”; this is why he was known at the time as Robber Zhi. “Zhi” can also mean “to step on” or “trample.” “Zu” is pronounced “cu” and means “suddenly” here. “Xue shi kou hu” means breaking through a wall to enter a house and forcing open its door. The Sima edition has “shu” instead, meaning to break the door’s pivot and enter to steal things. “Bao” is written “bao” in some editions; Zheng Xuan explains it as a small town. “Zhao” means to inform, though some explain it as to teach. The character “wei” in “qie wei,” “qing wei,” “wei wo,” “shi wei,” and “yi wei” is pronounced the same in each phrase. In “shuo zhi,” “shuo” is pronounced “yue” and means to please someone. “Piao feng” means a fierce wind. In “yi ru,” “ru” is pronounced “chi.” The phrase “xiu zu tu yu Tai Shan zhi yang” appears in an old Jiangnan manuscript; this sentence is missing from the old editions. “Kuai” is finely sliced meat; “bu” means to eat and can also refer to the lees left over from wine. “Zhi mu zhi guan” means a hat lavishly adorned like the branches of a tree. “Dai si niu zhi xie” means a broad grass belt made from ox hide. “Jiao xing” means hoping for good fortune or some gain. According to Sima’s commentary, “yuan wang lü mu xia” means that he dared not look up at Robber Zhi’s face, but only at his footprints, before turning back. “Fan zou” means to retreat a short distance while walking; “chen mu” means to glare; “ru” can mean to nurture. The phrase “the people of the world possess three virtues” has related wording in the Zhang Junfang edition, but is missing from the old editions. “Shao zhang” refers respectively to the young and the old; “yong han” means brave and fierce; “ji dan” means vivid or striking; “qi bei” means pearls, though some editions read “han bei.” The characters following “nan shi” are all pronounced alike. In “gong ji,” “gong” is pronounced “jing”; in “zhi xing,” “xing” has the falling tone. Some editions read “shun min” for “heng min.” “Hao mian” means caring about one’s face or reputation; “bei” is pronounced “pei”; “xiang” means elephant; “yang” means to roast or dry in the sun. “Ju ju” describes a quiet manner, while “yu yu” describes being at ease.

Chiyou lived in the time of the Yellow Emperor. According to legend, Chiyou was tyrannical. The Yellow Emperor fought him in the plains of Zhuolu, captured and killed him, and buried his body in separate places. Zhuolu is a place name; its old city lay southwest of Shanggu Commandery at that time. In “King Wu assassinated him,” “shi” is pronounced “shi.” “Feng yi” means a loose, ample garment; “qian dai” means a narrow belt; “jiao yan” means false or affected speech; in “qu qi,” “qu” is pronounced with the rising tone. “Wei guan” means a tall hat.

The Records of the Grand Historian says that Zhong You, whose courtesy name was Zilu, came from humble origins, was blunt in temperament, and liked to display his courage. He wore a loose garment, tied a narrow belt, wore a cock’s-comb hat, and carried an ornament shaped like a wild boar. He once bullied Confucius. Confucius gradually guided him through ritual, and later Zilu changed into a Confucian robe and came to study under him, bringing the customary gift for a teacher. Zilu later served as a senior official in the state of Wei. Kuai Kui, steward of Kong Kui’s fief in Wei, plotted a revolt and prepared to enter the state and take the throne as Duke Zhuang. When Zilu heard of this, he hurried there and entered the place where Kuai Kui was staying. Kuai Kui and Kong Kui climbed onto a high platform. Zilu wanted to set fire to it, but Kuai Kui was afraid and sent Shi Qi and Hu Yan to attack him, breaking the strap of Zilu’s hat. Zilu said, “When a gentleman is about to die, his hat must not fall off.” He tied the strap back in place and died. Another account says that Zilu was put to the cruel death of being chopped up and pickled. “Zu” is pronounced “cu”; “zu” means meat chopped up and pickled.

Confucius was once driven out of Lu, rejected in Wei, and later trapped in Qi and between Chen and Cai. The “Treatise on the Chan Kings” also records these events. When Confucius went to Qi, he became a retainer of Gao Zhaozhi, hoping through him to gain access to Duke Jing of Qi. He discussed music with the grand music master of Qi. After hearing the Shao music, he studied it for three months and could no longer taste the flavor of meat; the people of Qi praised him for this. Duke Jing once received Confucius respectfully and offered him a position between the senior minister Ji of Lu and the junior minister Meng. Later, ministers of Qi wanted to harm Confucius. Duke Jing said that he was old and could not employ him, so Confucius left Qi. This is what is meant by “being brought to hardship in Qi.” The “Treatise on the Chan Kings” also records Confucius’s confinement between Chen and Cai.

Yao did not treat his son Dan Zhu well and did not hand the realm over to him. Shun was said to be unfilial: some say he hid from his father, Gusou; others say he married without telling his parents. Yu’s body was partly paralyzed from the exhaustion of controlling the floods. Tang drove out Xia Jie and sent him to Mingtiao. King Wu attacked and killed Shang Zhou at Muye. King Wen of Zhou was once imprisoned at Youli. According to legend, Zhou killed the Marquis of Jiu and had him chopped into minced meat. When Xibo Chang (that is, King Wen of Zhou) heard about it, he sighed privately. Marquis Chong Hu reported this to Zhou, who then imprisoned him at Youli. Youli was the name of a prison in the area of Tangyin, in Henei Commandery.

According to Han Ying, Bao Jiao was a recluse of the Zhou dynasty. His clothes were ragged and his skin exposed; he carried a bamboo basket and gathered vegetables. On the road he met Zigong, who asked why he had fallen into such a state. Bao Jiao replied that many people in the world had abandoned moral instruction, so why was it strange that he had fallen into these circumstances? He added that to keep promoting one’s views when the age would not accept them was improper conduct; for a person in a high position to reject one’s views while one refused to stop was to damage one’s integrity. To act improperly and damage one’s integrity, yet still refuse to give up, was to be beguiled by profit. Zigong countered: “One who does not wish to live in this age should not enjoy its benefits. One who considers a ruler corrupt should not set foot on his land. Now you despise the ruler, yet gather vegetables on his land. To whom do these vegetables belong?” Bao Jiao sighed and said he had heard that the worthy value advancing and scorn retreat, while men of integrity would rather suffer disgrace than fear death. He then dropped the vegetables and stood by the Luo River until he died. When gentlemen heard of it, they praised his uprightness, but also thought his conduct excessively extreme. A peak that is too sharp is not high; a river that is too narrow is not deep. The virtue of someone who stands too far apart from others cannot be substantial. Bao Jiao’s standards of conduct were narrow and shallow, and he ended up this way. Another account says he stood holding onto a tree and eventually withered away.

According to Han Ying, Shen Tu Di lived in the Shang dynasty. He believed the age in which he lived was unfit for him and intended to throw himself into a river. Cui Jia tried to stop him, saying, “Sages and benevolent men are the parents of the people. How can they refuse to save someone who is drowning simply because they fear getting their feet wet?” Shen Tu Di replied that Xia Jie had killed Guan Longfeng, Shang Zhou had killed Bi Gan, Wu had killed Wu Zixu, and Chen had killed Xie Zhi; all these states later perished. States and families did not fall because they lacked sages and wise people, but because their rulers would not employ them. After saying this, he tied a stone to himself and sank into the river. When gentlemen heard of it, they said that he was indeed a man of integrity, but it was unclear whether he also possessed benevolence and wisdom.

Jie Zitui was from the state of Jin. After Duke Wen of Jin returned to his state, he rewarded those who had followed him, but did not reward Jie Zitui, who had withdrawn from public life. Jie Zitui said: “The sons of the Duke of Jin numbered nine, but now only the ruler remains. Duke Hui and Duke Huai lost the people’s support, and were abandoned by those within and outside the state. Heaven did not let Jin perish, so it was bound to establish another ruler. Who besides the ruler could preside over Jin’s sacrifices? This was a turn of events set in motion by Heaven, yet those who followed him claim the credit for themselves. Is that not deceitful? Stealing another’s property is called theft; how much worse is it to claim as one’s own the work of Heaven! When those below falsely claim credit and those above reward deceit, people above and below deceive one another. It is truly difficult to live among them.” Jie Zitui’s mother asked why he did not go and ask the ruler for a reward. He replied: “Since I see the wrong and imitate it, my offense will only be greater. I have already spoken my grievance and do not wish to take a stipend.” His mother asked why he did not let the ruler know his thinking. He answered: “Speech is a way to make oneself known. Since I wish to withdraw, why make myself known again? To make oneself known is to seek advancement.” His mother then said: “If you can do this, I will withdraw with you, and we will never return, even until death.” One of Jie Zitui’s followers pitied him and hung a letter at the palace gate. It read, in effect: “The dragon ascends to Heaven, aided by five snakes. The dragon has ridden the clouds and gone; four snakes have each returned home, while one snake alone is resentful and has nowhere to rest.” Only after Duke Wen of Jin saw the letter did he remember Jie Zitui. He sent people to look for him, but learned that he had gone into the mountains of Mianshang. Duke Wen then granted Mianshang Mountain to him as an estate, called it Jieshan, and did so to remember his own fault and commend a good man. Another account says that Duke Wen and his party could not find Jie Zitui, so they set fire to the mountain, thinking he would come out. He did not, and was burned to death. In “yi shi,” “shi” is pronounced “si”; “fan si” means to be burned to death.

Wei Sheng was from Lu, though some write his name as Wei Sheng. He arranged to meet a woman beneath a bridge. She did not come, and when the river rose, he continued clinging to the bridge post and refused to leave, eventually drowning. Later, someone pulled out his body; this was called “zhe,” meaning to stretch out the body. An ancient book also records that when Duke De of Qin first established the Fu sacrifice, he had a dog killed at the city gate to prevent insect disasters. “Liu shi” means a butcher slaughtering a pig; “cao” means to hold, and “piao” is a vessel for scooping water. “The six men above did not meet a natural death” means that the six people listed earlier all died unnatural deaths, like pigs, dogs, and beggars washed into a ditch. Some editions read “zou” for “qi.” “Li ming” appears in the Zhang Junfang edition; the old editions read “li.”

Wu Zixu admonished the king of Wu, but the king would not listen. Wu Zixu knelt on the ground and wept, saying: “The loyal minister is silenced, while flatterers stand beside the king. Government and instruction have fallen into ruin, and flattery is endless; false doctrines and lies turn right and wrong upside down. The king casts aside loyal counsel and strikes down loyal ministers. Wu is about to perish, its ancestral sacrifices will come to an end, its city walls will become ruins, and thorns will grow through its palaces.” The king of Wu flew into a rage, gave him a sword called Shulou, and ordered him to take his own life. Wu Zixu fell on his sword and died. The king then put his body into a chiyi, a kind of leather sack, and threw it into the river.

Shang Zhou was licentious and tyrannical. Mi Zi repeatedly admonished him, but was ignored, so he discussed the matter with the Grand Tutor and Junior Tutor and then left. Bi Gan said: “A minister cannot fail to contend with all his might. Otherwise, what wrong have the people done?” He then spoke frankly to admonish the king. Zhou flew into a rage and said that he had heard the heart of a sage had seven openings, and wanted to see whether this was true. He killed Bi Gan and opened his chest to examine his heart.

“Bu guo” is pronounced “wo” and means to exceed. “Bing shou” means sickly and thin. “Qi ji” refers to a qilin and a fine steed. “Guo xi” means that time passes as swiftly as a white horse flashing past a gap. “Ji” means quickly or suddenly; some editions read “ji” instead. “Wu fu” means there will be no more. “Kuang kuang” describes a restless mind, while “ji ji” describes a sense of insufficiency and urgency. “Mang ran” means bewildered and at a loss. “Shi” is the crossbar at the front of a carriage, which a person can lean on. “De wei” means “not have.” “Zi jiu” means to burn oneself. “Zou liao” means to collide. “Tou bian” means to braid the hair. “Ji bu” means nearly or almost.

Zizhang was a disciple of Confucius. His surname was Zhuansun, his personal name was Shi, and his courtesy name was Zizhang. He was steadfast and trustworthy. Here, Zizhang is used to pose a question: if someone cares only about pursuing immediate gains and becomes excessively acquisitive, why not put that energy into cultivating Virtue? If trustworthiness is valued only in terms of profit and loss, even thieves will keep their word to amass wealth. Such “trustworthiness” is not genuine Virtue; it merely makes a person appear shamefaced.

Arguments that focus only on practical benefit can also produce contradictions between conduct and moral principle. One person became prime minister and then married his elder brother’s wife; another claimed he would punish the man who had murdered his ruler, but later accepted that man’s appointment and gifts. Similar examples include Yao killing his eldest son, Shun banishing his younger brother, King Ji inheriting the throne, and the Duke of Zhou executing his elder brother. The commentators invoke these cases to show that explaining conduct through only one principle can make events seem to contradict one another, leaving the account difficult to reconcile.

Stories passed down by Confucians are also often used to illustrate such contradictions. When Confucius was in danger at Pu, his disciple Gongliang Ru said he would rather die defending him. The people of Pu then agreed to release Confucius, on the condition that he not go to Wei. After escaping, Confucius nevertheless went to Wei. Zigong asked whether he could break the pact. Confucius replied that it had been made under duress, and the spirits would not accept it. “Zizheng” here is a fictional figure introduced to frame the question.

Other stories include Wu Zixu’s request, before his death, that his eyes be gouged out and hung above the eastern gate of Wu so he could watch Yue destroy the state; “Straight Body” reporting his father for stealing a sheep; and Weisheng keeping a promise. These, too, are used to discuss the conflict between keeping faith and acting righteously. The Jin crown prince Shensheng was framed by Li Ji. Although others urged him to reveal the truth or flee to another state, he killed himself because he did not want to make his aged father look bad or bear a dishonorable name.

The commentators also mention claims that Confucius refused to see his mother and that Kuang Zhang never saw his father throughout his life. The passage lists historical and legendary examples to show that if “trustworthiness” and “righteousness” are treated mechanically as fixed rules, actual conduct can become trapped in conflicts where the rules contradict one another.

"Anchu" (Dwelling in Peace) is the heading or cue for this passage, meaning to live at ease in the world and be content with one's situation.

The notes on pronunciation and variant readings say that "wuzu" (lacking feet) appears in some editions as "wuzhi" (lacking knowledge), and that the "le" in "leyi" (joyful intention) should be read as "luo." As long as rulers and ministers pursue the right Way without forgetting it, they need not rely on wealth and rank. Acting in crooked ways comes from insufficient wisdom and strength, so deviant paths should not be adopted. "Men who transcend the common world and surpass their age" refers to those who consider themselves above ordinary people. Human minds are easily shaken. Some people merely live in the same era as worthy men and then declare themselves beyond the world. How much more so, then, for those who personally chase wealth and rank?

In "qiongmei," qiong means to exhaust. In "jiushi," jiu means to reach the end. The "e" in "yuke" (desire and aversion) is read as "wu lu qie." The commentator explains "zheng sichu" (contending in four places) as referring to the deeds of Shang Tang and King Wu of Zhou, citing the Book of Documents. When Ge Bo neglected sacrifices, Shang Tang attacked him. Afterward, when Tang campaigned eastward, the peoples of the west lamented, and when he campaigned southward, the peoples of the north also lamented, all saying, "We hope our lord will come soon, so that we may be revived." The commentator uses this to show that their campaigns extended to all four directions.

The remaining notes mostly concern sounds, variants, and meanings. The "yao" in "yaoming" (seeking fame) is read as "yao." The "e" in "chang'e" is read as "e." The "yue" in "guanyue" (locks and keys) is read as "yao." "Kou qian" means that the mouth is obstructed, as when choking on food. "Laoli" means wine, and food that gets stuck in the throat is called "xian." "Fenqi" refers to stagnant, blocked qi. The "she" in "ru bu she" (the disgrace that does not leave) is read as "she." Lines such as "neizhou xishu" are explained by the commentator as arranging dwellings inside and outside and setting up defensive equipment. The "dan" in "caidan" is read as "dan," and there is a variant reading. "Liao" describes something winding around.

The colophon marks the end of volume seven of the Nanhua Zhenjing Zhangju Yinyi, followed by volume eight. The ending repeats the gloss that "liao" means winding around, along with the note that marks the close of volume seven.

Nanhua Zhenjing Zhangju Yinyi (Annotations and Pronunciations of the Nanhua Zhenjing), Volume Eight

Composed by Bixuzi

Miscellaneous Chapters, Chapter Seventeen: Zai You (Letting Be)

"Chu wuwei zhi shi" (dwelling in the affairs of non-action, wuwei): "zai" is glossed in the Shuowen Jiezi as "cun," meaning to preserve or to remain. "You" is read as "you," meaning to be lenient or forgiving. "Yin qi xing" means to indulge one's nature and lose it; "yin" also carries the sense of becoming immersed and stagnant. "Qian qi de" means to alter or lose one's De (virtue). The "le" in "ren le" (people's delight) is read as "luo." "Tian" is read as "tu qian qie" and means tranquil. "Cui" is read as "zai ji qie" and means sickness or sorrow. "Yu" is read as "yu" and means joy. "Pi," according to Sima Biao, means to assist or to join together.

"Qiao" is read as "qin xiao qie," and Guo Xiang reads it as "jiao." "Jie" is read as "gong ji qie." Cui Shan says that "qiao jie" describes an uneven state of mind. "Zhuo" is read as "chi jue qie," and "zhi" is read as "chi er qie." Cui Shan says that "zhuo zhi" describes conduct that is unjust. "Xing" is read as "xia meng qie." "Ji" means to be mutually sufficient, each satisfying the other. "Xiong xiong" is read as "xiong" and describes a noisy, competitive commotion. "Bei" is read as "bi nei qie" and means to go against. "Xiang" is read as "xi liang qie" and means to assist; the same applies below. "Ji" is read as "qi yi qie" and means skill or talent. "Sheng" is read as "shi zheng qie." The Shuowen Jiezi defines it as penetrating insight, while Cheng Xuanying says that here it refers to the deeds of the sages. "Yi" is read as "ni ji qie" and means technical skill. "Ci" is read as "ji si qie." "Luan" is read as "li zhuan qie," and "juan" is read as "juan mian qie." Sima Biao says that "luan juan" describes a body curled up and unable to stretch.

"Cang" is read as "cang," and Cui Shan's edition writes it as "qiang." Another edition originally had "cang nang," meaning unbearable. Cui Shan says that "qiang nang" is close to "qiang rang" and describes disorder; the commentary also says that "cang nang" describes hurried haste. "Gui" is read as "qi gui qie." "Li" is read as "li," meaning to personally attend.

The passage "suo yi gui zhong zi shen, shi wei zhi tianxia zhi zhong; neng tuo tianxia" can be rendered as: "To value and honor the self is to make the self the weighty charge of governing the world, and so one can entrust the world to it. To cherish the self is to make the self the standard for governing the world, and so one can rest the world upon it." These two sentences differ slightly from the Daodejing editions in circulation today, but they agree with the Wang Bi edition. Perhaps during the Kaiyuan era, when scriptures were collated, the wording was altered according to another version. Here the Qiyuan edition is adopted as the standard text.

"Shi ju long xian": "shi," the corpse-impersonator of ritual, signifies a spirit that inspires solemn awe without speaking; "long xian" (the dragon appearing) draws on the image of the dragon's transformation and rising. "Yuan mo" (deep silence) is as still as water at rest, while "lei sheng" (thunderous sound) is heard throughout the world. "Cong rong," read as "qi rong qie," describes a state of ease. "Chui" is read as "chang shui qie." "Lei" is read as "lie wei qie." Guo Xiang says that this describes dust seeming to drift of its own accord.

The sages of antiquity were able to quiet their minds and empty them. Cui Qu asked, “The worthy Lao Dan of antiquity said, ‘You must never disturb people’s original nature.’ What did he mean?”

The Lüshi Chunqiu says: “Human life is bestowed by Heaven, while growth depends on human care. One who protects the life bestowed by Heaven without disturbing it is called the Son of Heaven. The Son of Heaven’s chief concern in acting is to preserve people’s nature.” Gao You’s commentary says: “‘Ying’ means to go against; ‘gu’ means affairs.”

“Pai” is pronounced pi; “nao,” changlüe. “Lianhui” means to injure or to be sharp. “Zhuo” is pronounced dingjiao. “Xian” means high and distant; “fen” is pronounced fen and means to collapse rigidly. “Jiaofen” describes arrogant, unchecked flightiness, and also acting recklessly without regard for ritual or law, like an unbridled horse.

Some say that the Yellow Emperor was the first to disturb people’s original nature through benevolence and righteousness. In high antiquity, people lived in trees or caves. They had no fire with which to cook, so they ate raw food to survive and often suffered from illness. Later, the Yellow Emperor taught people to make clothes and build houses, to use pestles and mortars, and to cultivate and weed fields, so that the people would have clothing, food, and secure homes. These were ways in which the Yellow Emperor governed the world through sage-like wisdom. The people benefited from them and called them “benevolence.” Chi You disrupted government and harmed the people, so the Yellow Emperor sent troops to defeat and execute him. This, too, was enlightened rule. The people thought the punishment appropriate and called it “righteousness.” In truth, benevolence and righteousness had always existed naturally and had deep roots. Later generations saw only the outward deeds and mistakenly believed that benevolence and righteousness began with the Yellow Emperor.

Yao and Shun continued the Yellow Emperor’s methods of rule, laboring in body and mind until their thighs had grown so thin that no flesh remained, and their shins were rubbed bare of fine hairs. Huandou was the son of the Hongdi clan, that is, Hundun. Chong Mountain lies in the far south. Tradition says that in the sixtieth year of Yao’s reign, he exiled Huandou to Chong Mountain. Sanmiao was the son of the Jinyun clan, that is, Taotie. Sanwei, pronounced “wei,” is a mountain in the far west, in what is now Tianshui. Tradition says that in the sixty-sixth year of Yao’s reign, he banished Sanmiao to Sanwei. Gonggong was the son of Shaohao, that is, Qiongqi. Youdu was in the remote northern part of Youzhou. Tradition says that in the sixty-fourth year of Yao’s reign, he exiled Gonggong to Youdu.

“Shiji” means to continue and put into effect; “dajing” means to be greatly alarmed. In “shan fou,” “fou” is pronounced “bi” and means evil. “Jinju zhi” means to inflict corporal punishment with saws, axes, and similar tools. As Cui’s version understands it, “shengmo sha” means to mark someone out with a snapped chalk line and then execute them. Another explanation says that condemned criminals were bound with black cord, while those whose cases had not yet been decided were bound with red cord, to distinguish the severity of their cases. “Zhui zao jue” means to bore holes with an awl and chisel to make stocks and handcuffs. “Jiji” means to trample one another; some versions instead read “yao,” meaning disorder.

“Shusi” means to execute by dismemberment. Han law states that barbarian chiefs who commit grave crimes should be put to death by decapitation. “Hengyang” is a restraint fitted around the neck or legs. “Li” can mean to be scattered; “qi” means to lift the foot. “Rangbi” means to roll up one’s sleeves and raise one’s arms. “Zhigu” refers respectively to leg irons and handcuffs. “Jiexie” is a wedge or crosspiece in a restraint. The Huainanzi: Honglie Jie says that the large pieces were called “pillars and beams,” and the small ones “jiexie.” A “ru” is a tenon at the end of a post; wooden pegs of this shape were used when boring holes.

The version used by Cui has an additional twenty-four characters here: “Where there is being and nonbeing, there is also the rise of extremes. Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu lived in the same age as Jie and Robber Zhi. How can one say there was no connection between them?”

The Way of Quietude brings the people to peace and order.

The Yellow Emperor had already explained “The Equality of Things.” Guang Chengzi was an ancient sage who had attained the Dao. He lived on Kongtong Mountain, a legendary mountain of immortals said to lie either in the north or thirty li east of Yucheng County in the state of Liang. He told the Yellow Emperor that the principle by which existence and nonexistence give rise to one another among the myriad things is profound. Zeng Shen, Shi Qiu, Jie, and Dao Zhi all passed from life to death in the same way. How, then, can life and death be said to be separate and wholly unrelated?

“Substance” refers to the coarse, superficial aspect of bodily form. If rain falls before clouds have gathered, Sima Biao explains, “cluster” means to gather; rain falling before the clouds have gathered shows that the rainfall is light. If plants wither before their leaves turn yellow, Sima Biao says that “fall” means to die, indicating that the killing force of autumn is too strong.

“Jianjian” describes skill in argument, and can also suggest flattery, shallow understanding, or narrow-mindedness. “Abandon” means to let go; “encounter” means to meet. “Head facing south” means to turn one’s head southward, toward the light; “start” means to rise in alarm. “Yaoyao” describes a deep, dim place; “having something stored within” means that something is held in reserve.

Guang Chengzi said that he was already 1,200 years old. Li Chunfeng explains that a period of 1,200 years is called “ten great cycles”; some also call it a minor cycle in the movement of Yin and Yang. Commentators account for the number by adding four figures: 360, 320, 280, and 240, which together make 1,200. “The hundred prosperities” refers to the flourishing of the myriad things. Both “minhu” and “hunhu” describe a state of mind without distinctions or attachments.

Yun Jiang (the legendary master of clouds), with “jiang” pronounced as in “zi jiang qie.” Li says, “Yun Jiang means master of clouds.” Hongmeng refers to the primordial Qi (vital energy that forms Heaven, Earth, and all things). The text uses wind, clouds, and primordial Qi as allegories, drawing on their quality of nourishing all things without intention.

Fubi, pronounced as in “bi,” means slapping one’s thigh. Queyue means leaping like a sparrow. Tangran, according to Sima, describes someone seeming about to stop. Ziran, according to Li, describes being still and motionless. Sou, pronounced as in “su kou qie,” is a form of address for an elder. Buzhui, pronounced as in “ding lie qie,” means without stopping. Yue xu, pronounced as in “kuang yu qie.”

The Six Qi refer to Yin-Yang, wind and rain, and darkness and brightness. Other interpretations take them to mean wind, cold, summer heat, dampness, dryness, and fire; or wind-Wood, cold-Water, summer heat-Fire, dampness-Earth, dryness-Metal, and ministerial Fire. Diao, pronounced as in “tu diao qie.” Song is the name of a state. Yangzhang, pronounced as in “yu zhang qie,” describes having a great many affairs to attend to. Fang, pronounced as in “fang wang qie,” means to emulate. Yi, pronounced as in “yi”; the same pronunciation applies below. Xianxian, pronounced as in “xian,” describes a light, buoyant manner. Hui, pronounced as in “xu gui qie,” means to ruin. Tu is read according to its ordinary pronunciation; the Shuowen explains it as writing. Xing, pronounced as in “hu ding qie”; ming, as in “wang ding qie.” Ziming describes a state in which everything is merged into one. Sima says this means the Qi of nature. Hunhun, pronounced as in “hu ben qie”; dundun, as in “tu ben qie.” Buli, pronounced as in “li li qie”; the same pronunciation applies below.

Maintaining Supremacy and Fulfilling the Dao

E, pronounced as in “wu lu qie.” “Relying on the many to find peace” means depending on the knowledge and experience of others and entrusting tasks to them, so that one can remain at ease. If, instead, one uses one’s own ingenuity to handle every skill and ability possessed by others, their abilities being greater in number than one’s own, how could one avoid exhaustion and distress? In “ci lan,” lan is pronounced as in “lan” and is equivalent to lan. An ancient edition of the Jiangnan Ancient Canon has a lacuna at “ci yi yin ren zhi guo.”

Jiao, pronounced as in “gu yao qie”; xing is read according to its ordinary pronunciation and describes an unceasing pursuit of gain. Jiao can also mean to seek or obtain: one takes advantage of the benefits of an emperor’s state to pursue undue rewards, treating this as a momentary stroke of luck. Jihe, pronounced as in “ju qi qie,” means “how much.” Sang, pronounced as in “xi lang qie”; the same pronunciation applies below.

Maintaining a Rear Position and Taking the Lead

“Xie” is pronounced as in ku jie qie and describes an unceasing pursuit of profit. “Yao” means to hope for or seek something. To rely on the benefits of a ruler’s realm while seeking what one has no rightful claim to is to gamble on one’s own good fortune. “Ji he” is pronounced as in ju qi qie. “Bu sang” is pronounced as in xi lang qie, as it is later in the text.

Taking the Rear and Holding the Fore

“Xie” means to hold or carry. “Nao nao” is pronounced as in er xiao qie. The sage follows nature and carries all things along, allowing each to accord with its own nature and act spontaneously. “E hu” is pronounced wu.

The Dao Leaves Nothing Undone

“Ni” is pronounced as in nu li qie and means to conceal. “Bu yi” is read with its ordinary pronunciation. “Bo” is pronounced as in bai ge qie and means to press or compel.

Miscellaneous Chapters: “Supreme Happiness,” Chapter Twenty-Two

Supreme Happiness Is Wuwei

In the title, “le” is pronounced luo. “Zhi” means ultimate, and “le” means joy. Unless otherwise marked, “le” later in this chapter has the same pronunciation. “Xi e” is pronounced as in wu lu qie. “Hun hun” is pronounced hun. “Dun xun” describes yielding and following without contention. “Keng keng” is pronounced as in hu geng qie; Li explains it as a manner of hastening toward death.

“I do not know what happiness is, nor what unhappiness is. Is there happiness at all? I believe that Wuwei, together with authenticity, is happiness.” This passage appears in the ancient Jiangnan manuscript. Older editions read: “I have not felt happy, nor have I felt unhappy. Is there happiness at all? I believe that Wuwei is true happiness.”

“Hua sheng” appears in the ancient Jiangnan manuscript; these two characters are absent from older editions. “Mang hu” is pronounced huang, as it is later in the text; “wu hu” is pronounced hu, likewise in later occurrences. “Mang ran” describes the arising of the myriad things; “hu ran” describes their appearance. They arise suddenly from nonbeing; the boundless expanse takes shape in being. “Zhi zhi” describes profuse proliferation. According to the Erya, “zhi” can mean to govern or oversee; here it indicates that each thing has its own place and is distinct from the others.

Leaving Behind Emotional Burdens

“Cross-legged sitting” means sitting with both legs stretched out, the body shaped like a winnowing basket. A basin is an earthenware basin. The sentence “living with others” ends here. “Eldest son” is pronounced dingzhangqie. The line “now undergoes change and dies” reads “now there is change, and through it comes death” in the Jiangnan Ancient Collection edition; an older edition reads, “now there is another change, and then death.” “Without distress” is pronounced gudaqie. Sima Biao explains it as “feeling,” while Cheng Xuanying explains it as “astonishment.” “At ease” describes resting peacefully. Here, “the great chamber” refers to the space between Heaven and Earth. “Wailing” is pronounced gudiaoqie and refers to the sound of crying.

Transformation into Emptiness

“Zhi Li Shu” and “Hua Jie Shu” are the names of two people. “Hua” is pronounced like gu, and “jie” like jie. There are different interpretations of these names. One view holds that “Zhi Li” means branches and trunks scattered apart, expressing the idea that fragmentation and deformity are good. Another view takes “huaji” and “jiedu” to mean that smoothness and aloofness are good. “Shu” can also mean “good.”

“Mingbo’s Hill” is pronounced Kunlun limenqie, and “zhi xu” is pronounced xu. The dark and desolate great hill is an extremely lofty place. “Where one rests” means a place of repose. “Left elbow” is pronounced zhuj iuqie; another version has “instep,” pronounced fu, meaning the top of the foot. “Twitching” is pronounced guweiqie. Cheng Xuanying explains it as a state of agitation; the Jiyun explains it as stiffening, and it can also mean leaping. “G” is the same as “lingjue.” “Dislike” is pronounced wuluqie, as below. “Dust and grime” is pronounced gou.

Two Errors

“Skull” is pronounced “dúlóu.” “Xiāorán” describes bones exposed after the flesh has withered away. “Qiào” means to strike from the side; a “horse switch” is a riding crop. “Kuì” is pronounced “yí,” “dòng” as “dīnggòng,” and “něi” as “núzuì”; here, these words describe a shriveled appearance. “Yuán” is pronounced “yuán.”

The pronunciation notes after “lying with one’s head on a pillow” are damaged; the surviving text reads “zhēnrě.” The sentence “Those who spoke to you” appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition but is missing from the old edition. “Cóngrán” is pronounced “qīróng” and means calm and at ease; Zhang Junfang’s edition has “fànrán.” “Fùshēng” is pronounced “fú.” “Shēnpín” is pronounced “pín,” and “cù” as “zǐliù”; “píncù” describes a sorrowful expression. “Lè” is pronounced “luò,” and “érfù” as “fúyòu.” The sentence “Would you again toil for the living?” appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition; the old edition reads, “Would you again toil for the human world?”

Names and Reality

“Chǔ” is pronounced “zhù” and refers to a pouch; “huái” means to contain. “Gěng” is pronounced “gé měng” and refers to a rope used for drawing water. “Jí” is pronounced “jū jí,” and “zhòng” as “zhí yòng.” The Haiwu edition has “fù,” pronounced “fúyòu.” The sentence “Would you again toil for the living?” appears in Zhang Junfang’s edition; the old edition reads, “Would you again toil for the human world?”

Names and Reality

“Chu” is pronounced “zhu” and refers to a bag; “nang” also means a bag. “Huai” means to contain or enclose. “Geng” is pronounced “ge meng” and refers to a rope used for drawing water. “Ji” is pronounced “ju ji” and means to draw water. “Zhong” is pronounced “zhi yong” and means heavy in weight.

According to Sima Biao’s commentary, the “sea bird” was called Yuanju. It once stayed for three days outside the eastern gate of the state of Lu. Zang Wenzhong then ordered the people of Lu to sacrifice to it; the Marquis of Lu did not perform the sacrifice himself. Since the sacrifice took place in the ancestral temple of Lu, the commentary refers to the “Marquis of Lu.” “Setting out a banquet for Yuanju” means placing a mat and hosting Yuanju during the sacrifice. Yuanju was also called Zaxian. When it raised its head, it stood about eight feet tall, and its shape resembled a phoenix.

“Shang” is pronounced “shang” and means a wine cup. Sima Biao’s commentary says that here it refers to drinking wine in the ancestral temple. “Jiushao” is pronounced “chang yao” and is the name of a musical composition of Shun. “Xuan” is pronounced “xian” and means that the eyes shift about and cannot focus. “Yi luan” is pronounced “li zhuan” and means a small piece of meat.

“Tan” is pronounced “da dan.” Sima’s edition has “Chan,” pronounced “dan,” which the commentary explains as a place where one crosses water—in other words, a sandbar. “Shi” is pronounced “si” and is used here as a verb meaning to feed. “Qiu” is pronounced “qiu tiao” and means loach. “Suixing” is pronounced “hu gang” and means to move along with a procession. “Wei” is pronounced “wei” and refers to a sinuous movement; “she” is pronounced “yi zhi” and describes a leisurely, relaxed manner. “Niaoniao” is pronounced “nai jiao” and refers to noisy clamor.

The terms “Xianchi” and “Dongting” were explained earlier in the chapter “Tianyun.” In “renzu,” “zu” is pronounced “zi hu” and refers to the people; it can also be pronounced “cun hu.” “Huan” is pronounced “huan” and means to circle around. The original passage, “They must differ from one another in their likes and dislikes,” means that people are bound to have different preferences and aversions; when these differ, clamor arises. An old Jiangnan manuscript reads, “They must differ from one another in their likes and dislikes; therefore they are different,” meaning that because people’s likes and dislikes differ, they naturally differ from one another.

“Huaji” refers to the pivot or inner mechanism through which things change.

Here, “Dao” is a person’s name. Dao heard the following from Ke: “…coming from beside Dao.” The character “cong” was originally written “tu.” “Qian” is pronounced “ju nian qie” and means to pull up. “Peng” is pronounced “bu dong qie.” “Ru guo” is written “ru guo” in the Yuanjia edition. In the Sima edition, “yang” is written “mu”; the commentary says it means death. “Yu guo” is written “yu guo” in the Yuanjia edition. In the Sima edition, “huan” is written “huan”; the commentary says it is a sound of calling and refers to the birth of life. “Zhong” is pronounced “zhang yong qie.” “You ji” is pronounced “ju qi qie.”

On the transformations of kinds of things, Liu De’s edition has “as though an ao became a quail”; this sentence is absent from the old editions. When the myriad things receive nourishment from water, they continue to grow. “Ji” is pronounced “ji.” The Sima edition also writes it as “ji” and explains: although the myriad things already show signs of budding, they still need to receive the Qi of water and earth in order to continue growing. The Shuowen says that “ji” means to continue; another interpretation holds that its reverse is “to sever.” The current edition writes the word as “zhi,” which means “to turn back and dry out.”

Receiving an environment where water and earth meet, something becomes “the garment of the pin.” “Pin” is pronounced “bu tian qie.” Master Sima explains that this thing grows where water and earth meet and spreads across the water. It cannot be seen from the surface, but can be gathered by reaching into the water, like cotton spread beneath it. People in Chu call it “the garment of the frog and pin.” Cheng Xuanying says it is green moss spread in the water, shaped like cotton and commonly called “frog garment.”

Growing on a hill, it becomes “lingxi” (plantain). Master Sima says that a certain thing grows by the water and later grows on land, becoming plantain; it is therefore renamed lingxi. It is also called zexi and changes with the wetness or dryness of its surroundings. The transformations of the myriad things have no fixed form, so we cannot know what they were at the beginning. After death, people may also turn into plants and trees, while the vital essence of plants and trees may turn into people.

When lingxi receives “yuqi,” it becomes “wuzu.” Li says that “yuqi” means dung and soil: grass transforms into wuzu grass in dung. Master Sima, however, says that yuqi is an insect, while wuzu is a plant that grows by the water; yuqi changes within lingxi and becomes wuzu. The roots of wuzu become “qicao” (the larva of a scarab beetle), and its leaves become “hudie” (butterflies). Grass becomes an insect, and insects become grass; transformation has no end. Butterflies and other things depend on one another and give rise to one another through transformation.

One thing changes into an insect that lives beneath the stove. Master Sima says it is generated by heat. It looks like an insect that has just shed its outer shell. “Tuo” is also pronounced “yue,” referring to the tender, fresh appearance of an insect just after molting. This insect is called “quduo.” “Qu” is pronounced “qi ju qie,” and “duo” is pronounced “ding huo qie.” After a thousand days, quduo transforms into a crow, called “ganyugu.” “The foam of ganyugu” is the liquid in its mouth, according to Li’s explanation; this liquid then transforms into an insect called “simi.”

When simi eats vinegar, it produces “mimi” (small flying insects). Master Sima says this refers to the tiny insects that grow on a vinegar jar. The thing that eats vinegar produces “yilu”; yilu then produces “huangkuang,” and huangkuang in turn produces “jiuyou.” Li says that “jiu” may instead be written “jiu,” meaning old age; you is an insect. Jiuyou produces “maorui,” a small insect—or possibly the name of a plant—that likes to fly about in a disorderly fashion. Maorui produces “fuguan.” Fuguan is an insect called the guawatchman in the Erya. Another interpretation identifies it as a yellow beetle in gourds, a firefly, or a mole.

Fuguan produces “yangxi,” a kind of grass. Yangxi and “jiuzhu” join and interact, forming something new. “Qingning,” a kind of insect, arises from this. Qingning then produces “cheng.” Shi Jiao says that cheng is called a leopard in the Central Plain and a mo in Yue; it is another name for the leopard. Cheng produces a horse, and the horse produces a human being. The Historical Records’ chronological tables record that in the twenty-first year of Duke Xiao of Qin, there was an extraordinary event in which a horse gave birth to a human. This example is used here to show that the myriad things all arise from a single Qi and that transformation has no fixed bounds.

The ninth fascicle of Nanhua zhenjing zhangju yinyi contains the chapter “Understanding Life” from the “Miscellaneous Chapters.”

“Understanding Life” means comprehending life and following nature. “Life” refers to living beings.

The section “Focusing the Vital Energy” quotes Guan Yin, a minister of the Zhou dynasty whose courtesy name was Gongdu, and provides notes on pronunciation and meaning. “Blocked” means obstructed; “treading into fire” means stepping into flames; and “one who grasps and attains this” refers to understanding and attaining the Dao that neither takes form nor undergoes transformation—that is, the principle untouched by changes in bodily form. “To clash with” can mean to oppose or offend; “unafraid” means having nothing to fear; and “unbreakable” means impossible to shatter. Ganjiang and Moye were sharp swords of antiquity. A “competitive heart” is a desire to harm others or prevail over them; “a drifting roof tile” means a tile falling from a height. The commentary also records several textual variants. For example, one version reads “does not open the Heaven within people” where another reads “does not open the human within people.”

“Undivided Intention” is the title of the next section of the chapter.

“Deep Cup Abyss” is the name of a deep pool in the state of Song. The pool is shaped like a wine cup, which is how it got its name. “Handling a boat” means steering one. Cheng Xuanying explains that “handling” here means “holding and controlling.” In “skillful ability,” the character “skill” is read shuò; the same pronunciation applies below. In “its overturning,” “overturning” is read fù.

In “where would [he] go,” the character “where” is read wū and means “where.” In “earthen vessel,” the character “vessel” is read wù; some old editions write it as “weep.” Li Yi explains that the character means to throw or hurl. The Lüshi Chunqiu quotes Zhuangzi as saying: when people throw earthenware, they are relaxed and at ease; when they throw an object with a hook, they become tense and guarded; when they throw gold, they grow fearful and anxious. Their throwing skill has not changed, but their performance differs because they value what they are throwing differently. When the mind is attached to something, the spirit is affected. The Fuzi also records a similar story: the king of Xia asked Yi to shoot at a target one inch square, and at first Yi hit it every time. The king then said that if Yi hit the target, he would reward him with ten thousand pieces of gold, but if he missed, he would strip him of his ten fiefs. Yi’s expression changed; he became tense, and thereafter missed every shot. The king said this was because joy and fear had become burdens.

“Dread” is read dān and can mean to avoid, dislike, find difficult, or fear. Another written form is read hūn; it can also be read mén or miǎn. The usual explanation is that it means “self-important”: regarding oneself as right and maintaining a proud, self-assured manner.

Tian Kaizhi said to Li, “‘Kaizhi’ is a personal name. As for Duke Wei of Zhou, Cui says the name was ‘Duke Wei of Zhou Zao.’ Cheng Xuanying says he was a descendant of the Duke of Zhou; his personal name is not recorded prominently. His fief was in Zhou, and he received the posthumous title ‘Wei.’ ‘Zhu’ is pronounced like ‘da’; ‘shen’ is read with the fanqie ‘shi zhen.’ ‘Xian’ is an alternate written form. As for ‘students,’ Sima explains that this means people who study the art of nourishing life. ‘Cao’ is pronounced like ‘qi’; ‘ba’ is read with the fanqie ‘pu mo.’ Li says ‘ba’ means a rake. ‘Hui’ is read with the fanqie ‘yi sui’ and means a broom.

“‘Bian’ is read according to its usual pronunciation. Cui’s version has ‘ni,’ meaning to conceal: when someone saw a weak animal lagging behind, they would hide it in the pen and care for it. ‘Sou’ is pronounced as in the word for ‘search.’ Zhao’s version has ‘sou,’ meaning to walk without making progress. ‘Dan Bao’ is pronounced ‘Shan.’ Li says he was a recluse from Lu; Zhang Yi and Cheng Xuanying say he was a wealthy man from Lu. In ‘seeing a high gate with a hanging, thin curtain,’ ‘xian’ means ‘to hang.’ The word ‘jian’ appears in Liu De’s edition but is absent from the old edition. In ‘there was no one who did not go,’ Li explains ‘go’ as ‘to head toward’; Sima explains it as ‘to arrive.’ The meaning is that everyone went to the door to attach themselves to the wealthy and powerful.

Guarding Against Subtlety

“‘Fearsome road’ means a dangerous and frightening path. ‘Zu’ is read with the fanqie ‘zi hu’ and means ‘the multitude.’ In the phrase ‘most feared,’ the ancient Jiangnan manuscript collection has ‘seen as fearsome,’ while the old edition has ‘taken.’ ‘Renxi’ is read with the fanqie ‘er shen’ and means the mat used for lying down. The character ‘ren’ is written with the bamboo radical and may also be written ‘ren.’

Pursuing Differences

“Cheng Xuanying says that the ‘ritual master’ was an official in charge of sacrifices. ‘Laoce’ is read with the fanqie ‘chu ge.’ Li says ‘lao’ means a pigsty and ‘ce’ means a wooden fence.”

“Zhu Zongren” refers to an official responsible for sacrifices. The “Grand Master of Ceremonies” (Taichang) oversaw sacrificial rites. “Lao” means pigsty, and “ce” means wooden railing. “Zhi” means pig. “Xi e” means “why loathe it?” “Huan” means to raise animals. The Zhang Junfang edition has “huan”; an older edition writes “H,” a character not found in the Pianyun that may be a copying error. Some editions also read “xi.”

“Qi” is pronounced “ce jie qie”; the same applies below. “Ji” means to place something beneath or set something down. “Kao” means buttocks, also called “shui.” “Diao zu” refers to a decorated vessel for sacrificial meat: “zu” is a vessel for holding meat, and “diao” means decorated with painted designs. In “wei zhi,” “wei” is pronounced “yu wei qie”; the same applies to “zi wei.” In “ru shi,” “shi” is pronounced “si.” “Kang” and “zao” are the pronunciations of “kang” and “zao” in “kangzao.” “Cuo” means to place. “Duan” is close in form to “zhuan,” and “dun” is close to a low table. “Julou” refers to a coffin and its outer casing. The line “What distinguishes it from a pig?” appears in the Zhang Qianfu edition but is missing from the older edition.

“Zhongfu” is pronounced “fu.” “Ai” is pronounced “yu dai qie”; the Shuowen Jiezi explains it as an expression of disgust. “Yi” is pronounced “tu dai qie.” The phrase “What is it?” appears in the Zhang Qianfu edition but is missing from the older edition.

In Zhongfu, “fu” is pronounced “fu.” “Ai” is pronounced “yu-dai-qie.” The Shuowen Jiezi says it is an interjection expressing disgust. “Yi” is pronounced “tu-dai-qie.” Sima Biao considers it a state of slackness and fatigue; Li Yi considers “ai-yi” a state of being dazed and disoriented. In “several days,” “several” is pronounced “suo-zhu-qie.”

As for the prince Gao’ao, Sima Biao says that Huang is the surname and Gao’ao the courtesy name, and that he was a worthy man of the state of Qi. In “ghostly evil,” “evil” is pronounced “wu.” In “agitated and obstructed,” “obstructed” is pronounced “fen-qie,” and “chu” is pronounced “chi-liu-qie.”

When the breath disperses and cannot return, this causes depletion. Li Yi explains that “agitated” means the Qi is full, while “concentrated” means the Qi has gathered into a knot. When the spirit is thrown into disorder, Yang Qi gathers inside the body while the hun and po souls scatter outside; hence the condition is called “depletion.” If the breath rises but does not descend, a person becomes prone to anger; if it descends but does not rise, a person becomes prone to forgetfulness. Li Yi says that when Yang Qi is scattered, Yin Qi congeals, making one prone to anger; when Yin Qi stirs and Yang Qi lies hidden, one becomes prone to forgetfulness. In “neither rising nor descending,” “middle” is pronounced “ding-zhong-qie.” When the breath stagnates at the center of the body, directly opposite the heart, it causes illness. Li Yi says that when the Qi above and below is out of balance, Yin and Yang struggle and strike at the heart. The heart governs the spirit, so this brings on illness.

In “Shen has Lü,” Sima Biao’s version reads “Shen has Lou.” Sima Biao says that “Shen” is the filthy mud at the bottom of water, while “Lou” is the name of a spirit. In “the stove has Ji,” “Ji” is pronounced “jie.” Sima Biao says that Ji is the name of the stove spirit, who wears red and looks like a beautiful woman.

In “the filthy earth inside the household, where thunder resides,” Liu Deyi’s version reads “tomb earth.” He says that Thunder is the name of a ghost spirit in the burial mounds. “Bei” is pronounced “pei,” “A-gui” is pronounced “hu-gua-qie,” and “long” is pronounced “long.” Sima Biao says that “Bei A-gui Long” is the name of a spirit. It looks like a child, is one chi and four cun tall, wears black, and carries a sword and a halberd while wearing a tall hat.

“Yi-yang” is pronounced “yi-yang.” Sima Biao says that Yi-yang has a leopard’s head and a horse’s tail; another version says it has a dog’s head, while another view holds that it is the name of a spirit. In Sima Biao’s version, “Wangxiang” is written “Wushang.” It looks like a child, is reddish black, and has red claws, large ears, and long arms. Another view holds that it is a water spirit.

“Shen” is pronounced “suo-jin-qie.” Sima Biao says it looks like a dog, has horns, and bears five-colored markings. “Kui” is pronounced “qiu-gui-qie”; it looks like a drum and has only one leg. “Fang” is pronounced “bang,” and “huang” is pronounced “huang.” Sima Biao says that the Fanghuang looks like a snake, has two heads, and bears five-colored markings.

“Wei” is pronounced “yu-wei-qie,” and “she” is read in its ordinary pronunciation. “Gu” is pronounced “gu-lu-qie.” The Shuowen Jiezi says that the gu is the part of a wheel where the spokes converge. “Yuan” is pronounced “yu-yuan-qie.” The Shuowen Jiezi says that yuan means the shaft of a carriage. In Sima Biao’s version, “red cap” is written “Yu cap.” He says this is the hat of the state of Yu, shaped like a snail shell. In “dislikes hearing,” “dislikes” is pronounced “wu-lu-qie”; “hold up” is pronounced “fang-yong-qie”; and “zhen” is pronounced “chi-yin-qie.” Li Yi says that “zhen” describes hearty laughter.

Not Competing

Jisheng (a person’s name, with Ji as the surname and Sheng as the given name) is pronounced “Jixing”; this is a fanqie spelling for “Jing.” In the text, “the king” is taken by Sima’s commentary to mean the King of Qi, though the main text has King Xuan of Zhou.

“Xujiao” is pronounced “juqiao.” Li’s commentary says it means holding one’s head high; Cheng’s commentary explains it as feeling inwardly timid yet outwardly arrogant, imagining oneself to be full of force. “Xiang” is pronounced “xuwen,” and “jing” is pronounced “yuling.” Li’s commentary says that this person turns to look whenever he hears a sound and quickly runs away whenever he sees a shadow.

Habit Becomes Nature

Sima’s commentary says that Luliang is a place in a river where a rocky shoal blocks the water, making it plunge sharply downward. West of Lishi County in the Xihe region there is such a dangerous shoal, which people call Huangliang. The Huainanzi says that in ancient times, before Longmen was opened, the Yellow River emerged from above Mengmen. Cheng’s commentary says that Luliang lies in Pengcheng Commandery in the state of Song, where the water pours down as it passes through; this is probably the place being referred to.

“Xuanshui” means a waterfall plunging through the air. “Thirty ren” is pronounced “thirty ren”; seven chi make one ren. “Mo” is pronounced “mo,” “yuan” is pronounced “yuan,” “tuo” is pronounced “tuoduo,” and “bie” is pronounced “biemie.” “You ku” means to be ill; “zheng” means to rescue or help. “Bei fa” is pronounced “piji” and means to let one’s hair hang loose.

“Xingge” appears in Sima’s text as “xingdao,” which Sima explains as an ordinary road for walking. “Chang” is pronounced “dingwen,” as it is below. “Yu qi” is explained by Sima as the water turning in a circle, level like a millstone. Guo’s commentary says that when water circles around a boat and draws it in, this is called “qi.” People east of the passes call a mill “mofang.” “Yu gu” is pronounced “guhu”; Sima explains it as surging waves, while Guo’s commentary says that when water circles, sinks beneath the surface, and then surges back up, this is called “gu.”

Choosing One’s Abilities

According to Li, in the name “Zi Qing’s ju,” “Zi” is an official title and “Qing” a personal name. Ju, an ancient musical instrument, is pronounced “ju” or “ju” (with different tones). Sima says it was an instrument shaped like a jiazhong bell and made of wood, and that it was the same as a yu. The yu is said to be a divine beast from heaven, with a deer’s head and a dragon’s body. Others say it was the wooden stand beneath a bell or drum, often carved in the shape of a fierce beast.

Hao is pronounced “hu bao qie” and means to wear down. Qiwen says that when Qi is depleted, the mind and spirit become unsettled; once unsettled, they cannot remain focused. Qi is pronounced “ce jie qie,” as below. Zheran is pronounced “ding xie qie” and describes a motionless state. Gongchao is pronounced “zhi yao qie.” Hua is pronounced “xiao gu qie” and means to disturb. Chengjian is pronounced “xian bian qie.” In “What could be the reason for this?” yu is pronounced “yu.” The character you appears in an old Jiangnan manuscript; earlier editions read, “What is the reason for this?”

Overreaching Skill

Dongye Ji: Li says Dongye is the surname and Ji the personal name. Sima says the Xunzi gives the name as “Dongye Bi,” a charioteer. The old glosses identify Duke Zhuang as Duke Zhuang of Wei. Zhongsheng is pronounced “ding zhong qie,” as below. Sima explains “the pattern was never exceeded” to mean that the horses and carriage never strayed beyond limits as precise as the lines in a woven fabric. Dongye Ji drove his chariot through a hundred turns and then returned. Sima says he relied on his great skill to map out a route and drive along it, making the tracks bend back and forth like hooks. He repeated this a hundred times and still did not know when to stop. Yan He is pronounced “hu la qie” and was a worthy man of Lu. The Yuanjia edition reads “Lu,” as does the Cui edition.

Forgetting One’s Place

Gong Chui, pronounced “chui,” was a master craftsperson in the time of Yao. “He spun around, yet stayed within the compass and square” means that his movements were swift while still conforming to the rules of the compass and carpenter’s square. “His fingers changed with things, without the mind holding them to account” means that his fingers’ movements changed in response to things, while his mind neither clung to nor judged them. As Gong Chui practiced his craft, his movements were swift yet always within the rules. His fingers moved in accord with changes in things, while his mind and spirit met no obstruction. He thus followed the natural character of things, allowing his spirit to settle into single-minded focus, free from constraint.

Zuju is pronounced “jiu zhu qie,” and wangyao is pronounced “yi yao qie.” For the phrase “forgetting right and wrong,” the Zhang Junfang edition reads “forgetting right and wrong,” while earlier editions read “knowing how to forget right and wrong.”

What is manifest and what remains hidden are both arranged by the Dao (the Way).

The name “mountain” (shan) is explained in the Shiming as meaning “to produce”: mountains nurture and bring forth the myriad things. The Shuowen says that “mountain” also carries the sense of spreading out: mountains disperse breath and give rise to all things. The name “great tree” (damu) is explained in the Shiming as meaning that “tree” provides cover, as trees emerge from the ground and grow. Li Yi says that “tree” is a general term for many trees—in other words, a forest. The Baihu Tong says that “tree” conveys the sense of growing upward and rising tall and straight.

“Master” (fuzi) is how the disciples address Zhuangzi. “Stayed at” (she yu) means to remain or rest. “Boil” (peng) is pronounced “peng” and means to cook in liquid. “Without censure” (wu zi) is pronounced “zi” and means not to revile or criticize. “As a measure” (wei liang) is pronounced “liang.” “What can be handed down among human affairs” (renlun zhi chuan) is pronounced “zhi zhuan”; Sima Biao explains it as principles that can be transmitted and put into practice. “Frustrate” (cuo) is pronounced “wo.”

“Patterned fur brings disaster” means that the spotted leopard’s coat brings misfortune upon it.

“Shinan Yiliao” is pronounced “liao xiao.” Sima Biao says that his surname was Xiong and his given name was Yiliao; he was from Chu and lived south of the city, which is why he was known as “Shinan.” “The Marquis of Lu” refers to Duke Ai of Lu. Cheng Xuanying says that “the former king” refers to King Ji, “King Wen” to the previous lord, and “the Duke of Zhou” to Bo Qin. “Never separated for even an instant” (wu xuyu li) is pronounced “li zhi.” Cheng Xuanying takes “separated” here to mean scattered apart, and “dwelling” to mean residing in peace. Sima Biao says that “great fox” (fenghu) means a large fox, and “spaced apart” (xushu) means facing one another at a distance, with wide gaps between. “Traps and snares” (jibi) is pronounced “bi yi” and refers to devices and nets for catching animals. “Carve away the body” (ku xing) is pronounced “ku”; Cheng Xuanying explains it as forgetting oneself. “Cast off the hide” (qu pi) is pronounced “qi lü”; here it means discarding the fur, and the text uses it to mean leaving the state of Lu. The later occurrence of “leave” (qu) also means to depart. “Wash the heart” (sa xin) is pronounced “xian dian” and refers to cleansing one’s thoughts. Cheng Xuanying says that “roam freely” (changkuang) means acting without intention, while “act heedlessly” (wangxing) means acting as one pleases. In “enjoyable” (kele), “enjoy” (le) is pronounced “luo.” In “without bodily arrogance” (wuxing ju), “arrogance” (ju) is pronounced “ju”; Sima Biao explains this as not allowing the body to display an arrogant bearing. “Not clinging to a dwelling” (wu liuju) means not becoming attached to a settled life. In “great Nothingness” (damo), “Nothingness” (mo) is pronounced “mo” and means “nothing.”

“Empty oneself to avoid harm” means keeping oneself humble and clear, without clinging to the self, and thereby avoiding misfortune.

“Fangzhou” appears in the Shuowen and means two boats joined side by side; the written character also resembles two boats. “Narrow-hearted” describes someone with a constricted outlook and an impatient temperament. In “then call out,” the character for “then” is pronounced like “fire.” “Call” means to shout. “Opening and closing” refers to spreading open and drawing in.

“Following the natural course to bring about transformation” means responding to the changes that things undergo of themselves and thereby accomplishing moral instruction.

Bei Gong She, according to Li Yi, was a minister of the State of Wei who lived in the northern palace, and so took “Bei Gong” as his title; “She” was his personal name. The character for “make” is pronounced like “false.” “Tax levies” refers to collecting taxes. A zhong is a kind of musical instrument. Some say that when casting twelve bells, one first had to set up an altar and make an offering, which is why it was called “setting up an altar.” Sima Biao says that “instruments suspended above and below” means that all eight kinds of musical instruments were provided, hung up, and played, producing sounds at different pitches. Others think it refers to instrument racks arranged in two tiers.

Wangzi Qingji was a member of the royal clan; Qingji was his personal name, and he was also a minister of the Zhou dynasty. He found someone’s approach surprisingly simple and swift, and asked about it. “As though ignorant” describes a state of unknowing; “as though dazed” describes a hazy, unsettled state; “as though gathered together” describes a state of convergence; and “as though lost in a haze” describes being bewildered and unclear. “The unyielding” refers to people who are strong and difficult to subdue. Cheng Xuanying says that one should follow the circumstances and put such people to use. “Those who bend themselves to attach to you” refers to people who ingratiate themselves with you; one should respond to them in accordance with the circumstances. “Do not injure” means neither to harm nor to suppress. “The great Way” means the Dao.

“Unable to keep far from calamity” means lacking the ability to avoid misfortune.

Confucius was once trapped between the states of Chen and Cai. He was eventually freed from danger. The passages quoted below come from the “Hui Wang” chapter.

Taigong Ren: Li Yi explains that “Taigong” is a form of address for an elderly man, while “Ren” is his name. Zi Ji: “Ji” is pronounced like “ji” in “machine.” Zi E: “E” is pronounced “wu-lu,” and the same pronunciation applies below.

Fenfen and zhizhi: pronounced “fen” and “zhi” respectively. Sima Biao explains that these words describe slow, hesitant movement; some say they describe flying low. “Pressed together and roosting”: Li Yi explains that they dare not roost alone, but crowd together and spend the night wherever the crows can just manage to fit, in order to avoid danger. “What remains”: “Remains” originally means the loose end of a thread; here it refers to the scraps left over. “Ranks”: “Rank” is pronounced “hu-gang,” as is “disordered ranks” below. “Do not reject”: Cheng Xuanying explains that the crows gather in ranks and do not single anyone out for exclusion. “People’s end”: “End” is pronounced “zi-xu” and means a conclusion. “Bright stain”: “Stain” is pronounced “wu.” “Lift”: pronounced “qi-lie.”

A person of great completion: Cheng Xuanying explains that the sage’s De is vast and can bring all things into being, which is why he is called “a person of great completion.” Laozi was such a person. “Self-praise”: Cheng Xuanying says that “praise” means boasting about oneself. “The one who falls”: “Falls” is pronounced “xu-gui”; Cheng Xuanying explains that it means to be ruined. “Abandon achievement”: pronounced “qi-lü.” “What is practiced”: “Practiced” is pronounced according to its ordinary reading. The text says that everyone under Heaven can attain the Dao practiced by the Perfected Person, while the Perfected Person claims no fame. “Clothing”: pronounced “yu-ji.” “Fur and coarse cloth”: pronounced “hu-ge.” “Shuttle”: pronounced “shi-ru,” and may also be pronounced “xu.”

Heaven-born kin take one another in

Zi Sang Hu: “Hu” is pronounced “hu”; another version writes “Ning,” pronounced “yu.” Li Yi says that Sang is the surname and Ning the personal name, and that this person was a recluse. The text also says that he was expelled from Lu twice, felled trees in Song, had his traces erased in Wei, fell into hardship around Shang and Zhou, and was later trapped between Chen and Cai. These events are recorded in the “Hui Wang” chapter.

“Why?”: “Why” is pronounced “yu,” as it is below. “Jia”: pronounced “gu-ya.” Li Yi says this was the name of a state; Cheng Xuanying says it was a subordinate town of Jin, which Jin later destroyed. Lin Hui: Sima Biao says this was the name of a fugitive from the Shang dynasty; Cheng Xuanying says he was a worthy man. “Cloth” refers to wealth and possessions. Because he distributed his wealth among the people, he was called “Cloth.”

“Ye” is the final character of the preceding passage. Lin Hui lived through the fall of the Jin state. Sima Biao says he was a commoner who fled the Shang state, and Lin Hui was his name; Cheng Xuanying, by contrast, says Lin Hui was a worthy man. “Bu” means property or goods; because property was distributed among the people, the text uses “bu” to refer to it. “Wuyi” is read as “wuji.” Li Yi says it means there is nothing one can take hold of. Some editions write “zhen” as “zhiling,” pronounced “ling.” Sima Biao says “ling” means to understand clearly, referring to using the true Dao to help Yu understand and awaken. In some editions, “ling” is written as “ming” or “ling”; here, “mingling” means to teach.

“Virtue Concealed”

“Yi” is pronounced “ji.” Sima Biao says “dabu” means coarse cloth; “zhengmi” is pronounced “xianjie,” which Sima Biao says means a belt. Li Yi says “tying the shoe” refers to securing a broken shoe with a strap. In “er guo,” “guo” is pronounced “he.” Sima Biao says “King Wei” refers to King Hui of Wei. “Bei” is pronounced “bai”; Sima Biao says it means to be ill. “Nan” is pronounced “nan”; catalpa and yuzhang are both fine woods, straight and upright. In some editions, “lan” is written as “na” and pronounced “gan”; “man” is pronounced “wan.” Cheng Xuanying says “lanman” means to grasp or seize. “Wang” is pronounced “wang,” and “chang” is pronounced “liang”; Cheng Xuanying says this describes a state of self-contentment. “Sizheng” is pronounced “zhiliang” and refers to two branches set far apart. “Yi” is pronounced “yi”; “Peng Meng” is pronounced “Fugong,” and is also read as “Peng.”