《道德真经取善集(李霖)》Vol. 5

Frugality is the common embodiment of all the virtues. Da Yu cultivated himself and placed great weight on thrift, and King Wen of Zhou governed the realm and taught the people through frugality. In their conduct and their dealings with others, they were unhurried and did not waste, taking simplicity as their guiding principle. Is this not precisely frugality?

The virtue (De) of frugality is exceedingly weighty. The Book of Documents (Shangshu) says: "Reverence and frugality are virtue."

The third point is: not daring to go ahead of all under heaven.

Gu Huan says: To act with humility and be content to stand behind others, not rushing ahead of the myriad things.

Lü Jifu says: Never rushing ahead of others, always following behind them. When everyone competes to advance and one is willing to remain at the rear, is this not what it means to not dare to lead the people of the world?

Wang Yuanze says: In the Classic of Changes (Yijing), this is the principle of the Hexagram of Modesty (Qian). Heaven, earth, humanity, and the spirits all value humility, and therefore the sage treasures it.

Confucius took benevolence as the root, regarded frugality and deference as virtues, and likewise treasured these three qualities.

Having compassion, one is therefore able to be courageous.

Wang Bi says: One who holds compassion will prevail in attack and remain secure in defense, and therefore is able to be courageous.

Lü Jifu says: Compassion appears gentle and weak, yet it overcomes what is hard and strong. This is courage.

Mencius said: "The benevolent have no enemies." Shun was magnanimous, yet he was able to punish the four great criminals. Tang of Shang was virtuous and able to defeat the tyrant Jie of Xia. King Wen loved the people as though he feared they might be harmed, and when he rose up once in anger, the people of the realm were brought to peace. Is this not courage?

Being frugal, one is therefore able to be generous.

Gu Huan says: When cultivating oneself, one cherishes essence and qi (jing and qi), so that life naturally lengthens. When governing the state, one cherishes the people, so that virtue naturally spreads widely.

To cultivate oneself with frugality is to avoid wasting one's spirit (shen). To govern the state with frugality is to make goods and wealth abundant. The Book of Documents says: "Carefully maintain the virtue of frugality, and only then will far-reaching plans be held in the heart."

Not daring to go ahead of all under heaven, therefore one is able to become the leader of the myriad things.

The Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) says: Not contending with others, yet still achieving victory, is the regularity of the Dao (the Way) of Heaven. The Dao is honored, and therefore it can become the chief of all things.

Heshang Gong says: One who does not put himself ahead of all under heaven can become the chief of all instruments. This speaks of one who has attained the Dao. I am able to become the chief of those who have attained the Dao.

Prince Shu says: One who does not dare to put himself ahead of all under heaven is such that nothing in the world can get ahead of him, and therefore he can become the chief of all instruments. This speaks of one who has attained the Dao. I am able to become the chief of those who have attained the Dao.

Prince Shu also says: One who does not dare to put himself ahead of all under heaven is such that nothing in the world can get ahead of him, and therefore he can become the chief of all instruments.

People today abandon compassion and seek only courage. They abandon frugality and seek only expansiveness. They abandon humility and yielding to be last, and seek only to be first. To act in this way is to walk toward death.

The Imperial Commentary says: People of the world know only that courage is enough to surpass others, but do not know that compassion is what truly makes a person brave. They know only that lavish expansiveness is enough to boast before the crowd, but do not know that frugality is what truly achieves breadth. They know only that becoming the chief of instruments is worth pursuing, but do not know that willingly remaining behind others is the key. Such people are nothing more than hard and violent men who bully others, and they walk a dead end.

Gu Huan says: To abandon compassion and act with reckless courage means to act on impulse, to despise death, and to take fearlessness for bravery. To not cherish one's primordial qi (yuan qi) and to scatter one's essence (jing) and qi at will is to not cherish oneself. To not cherish the people and to consume their strength carelessly is to not cherish others. To abandon the attitude of yielding and remaining behind, and to seek only to be ahead of others, is to act in this way. When one acts like this, one's actions will fall into a deadly place.

One who is compassionate, when using troops in battle, will be victorious, and when using them for defense, will be secure.

The Imperial Commentary says: One who is benevolent has no true enemy under heaven, and therefore in using troops in battle he is victorious. When the common people love their ruler, they are like hands and feet protecting the head and eyes, or like children and younger brothers guarding their fathers and elder brothers. They are willing to serve to the death without abandoning him, and therefore his defense is secure.

Emperor Ming of Tang says: Using troops with a compassionate heart benefits by preserving the multitude. Defending with a compassionate heart benefits by bringing the people peace. When all parties are able to preserve their safety, one is therefore victorious in battle and secure in defense.

Heaven, when it wishes to save someone, protects him with compassion.

The Imperial Commentary says: One who resolves to practice benevolence is guided inwardly by the Dao of Heaven. One who resolves to practice non-benevolence...

Emperor Ming of Tang says: Using troops with a compassionate heart benefits by preserving the multitude. Defending with a compassionate heart benefits by bringing the people peace. When all parties are able to preserve their safety, one is therefore victorious in battle and secure in defense. Heaven, when it wishes to save someone, protects him with compassion.

Chapter Sixty-Eight: The Skilled Commander (Shan Wei Shi)

The Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) says: One who sets his will on benevolence is guided inwardly by Heaven, while one who sets his will on non-benevolence has his power to discern right and wrong taken away by Heaven. Therefore, what Heaven uses to rescue and protect people is only compassion (ci). This is why compassion is placed first among the Three Treasures (sanbao).

Heshang Gong says: When Heaven wishes to save the good, it endows them with a compassionate and benevolent nature, so that they can cultivate themselves and help themselves.

Wang Yuanze says: All three treasures take compassion as their root. To say that Heaven rescues and protects people is to say that Heaven's compassion does so.

This chapter says that the Dao is vast and precious, and that it has three treasures, of which compassion is the root. Hence the closing lines state that when Heaven wishes to save people, it protects them with compassion.

The skilled commander does not display martial prowess.

Lu Yu says: Here "commander" (shi) refers to a general. "Not martial" means not bullying others through force.

Lü Jifu says: The "shi" is one who serves the Dao and takes leading the multitude as his duty. Serving the Dao means not contending for supremacy; leading the multitude means relying on the strength of the many, so there is no need to display force. Consider Shinan Yiliao (a man of the state of Chu in the Spring and Autumn period), who juggled pellets and resolved a dispute between two households without ever resorting to force.

Lü Jifu further gives an example: Shinan Yiliao, playing with pellets, ended the calamity between two households, and Sun Shuao'ao (chief minister of Chu) rested at ease, holding a feather fan, and the people of Chu laid down their weapons.

The skilled fighter is not quick to anger.

The Imperial Commentary says: The highest strategy in warfare is to defeat the enemy's plans; anger overwhelms careful thought.

Heshang Gong says: One who fights skillfully according to the Dao restrains evil thoughts in his heart and cuts them off before calamity has begun to sprout, so there is no need for angry punishment.

Prince Shu says: Only when one is not quick to anger can one be called skilled at war.

Lü Jifu says: When a commander does not rely on force, then the skilled fighter is not quick to anger, the one who skillfully overcomes enemies does not contend, and the one who skillfully employs others takes a lower place. These follow naturally from one another.

War is dangerous. The skilled warrior only mourns the suffering people and punishes the guilty ruler. How would he launch a dangerous war out of personal anger and harm the people? Tang of the Shang overthrowing the tyrant Jie of the Xia, and King Wu of the Zhou attacking the tyrant Zhou of the Shang, are such examples.

The skilled victor does not contend with others.

The one who excels at winning against the enemy does not contest with them.

The Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) says: Contention runs counter to De (Virtue). To fight over land and open war, killing until corpses cover the fields; to fight over cities and open war, killing until corpses fill the city, and yet victory and defeat remain uncertain. Not asserting strength instead achieves true martial courage; not indulging anger instead calms wrath; not contending instead dissolves disputes. All three arise from De, and therefore they are called shan (goodness).

Heshang Gong says: One who excels at defeating enemies through the Dao (the Way) wins over those nearby through benevolence and transforms those far away through virtuous conduct. By not contending with the enemy, the enemy naturally submits. Liu Renhui says: Transforming the myriad things through De so that they come to submit is why it is called "defeating the enemy," and not employing weapons is why it is called "non-contention."

Contention runs counter to De. Winning without contention is what qualifies as shan. Employing troops lies in thwarting the opponent's plans, not in the clash of blades. To win a hundred battles out of a hundred is not regarded as skill in warfare; the one skilled in warfare wins without engaging in battle. This is the highest goodness.

The one who excels at employing people takes a lower position.

The Imperial Commentary says: Even when one's wisdom is sufficient to calculate the affairs of heaven and earth, one does not devise plans oneself, and so has the wise devise for oneself. Even when one's ability suffices to meet all under heaven, one does not personally show off, and so has the capable carry out affairs. Even when one's eloquence suffices to describe the myriad things, one does not personally argue, and so has the skilled in speech undertake embassies.

Heshang Gong says: One who excels at employing those who assist oneself should humbly place oneself beneath them.

The Zuanwei says: Excelling at employing people relies on humility, not compulsion. Therefore, in appointing assisting ministers, one regards them as one's limbs and heart-and-belly. In appointing generals, one respectfully bestows weapons, personally pushes the chariot and carriage, and sends them off to campaign. Tui gu (pushing the axle-hub) is the ancient ritual of pushing the wheels to send off a general on campaign.

This is called the virtue of "non-contention."

Chapter Sixty-Eight: On Non-Contention

Lü Jifu said: One who embodies the Dao (dào) does not contend with others. Because he does not contend, no one under heaven can contend with him. Therefore, one who excels as a general does not display martial fierceness; one who excels in battle does not easily give way to anger; and one who excels in defeating the enemy does not rely on struggle to win. This is the virtue (dé) of non-contention.

This is called making use of the strength of others.

The Imperial Commentary (Yùzhù) says: The clever person fully exercises his powers of observation and discernment, and the person of talent does his utmost to deploy strategy and skill. But one who occupies the position of command need not personally apply cunning in every matter.

Lü Jifu said: One who embodies the Dao is able to humble himself before others. When he can humble himself, people are willing to serve him, and he does not act alone. One who excels at employing others always places himself in a lower position. This is called making use of the strength of others.

This is called according with Heaven (tiān), the highest standard since antiquity.

The Imperial Commentary says: To act naturally, without deliberate contrivance, is what is called "Heaven." Because he does not contend and is able to employ others, he can accord with Heaven and reach the highest realm, beyond which nothing can go further. Hence the phrase "the ultimate of antiquity." "Ultimate" means the highest point, like the topmost timber of a structure, which is called the ridgepole.

This chapter speaks of one who excels as a general and does not display martial fierceness. Not becoming angry, not contending, and skillfully making use of others' strength is what it means not to display martial fierceness. Virtue lies in non-contention, and strength comes from employing others. Therefore one can accord with Heaven, act naturally, and have nothing left to add.

Chapter Sixty-Nine: On Warfare

Regarding the employment of troops, an ancient saying goes: "I do not dare to make the first move as the aggressor, but would rather take the defensive."

The Imperial Commentary says: The party that first provokes an incident is the initiator, and the party that responds is the responder. To act only after being pressed, and to dispatch troops only when forced to, is called "responsive warfare." The one who responds stands in the defensive position.

Gu Huan says: In a state, the side that launches action first and strikes first in battle is called the "host" (zhu). The side that responds with harmony, does not take the lead, and acts only when forced is called the "guest" (ke). Striking first and launching first tends to breed arrogance, and so one falls into peril. If one now wishes to accord with Heaven's will, answer the hearts of the people, and preserve oneself, one should not be first to attack. Only when compelled to use arms does one take the position of the guest.

"Not daring to advance an inch, but preferring to retreat a foot."

The Imperial Commentary says: Because one does not love killing, one finds it difficult to attack and readily yields.

Lü Jifu says: The host is in a position of adverse momentum, while the guest moves with the current. The host is weary, while the guest is at ease. In attack one tends toward arrogance, but in defense one assumes a humble bearing. Attack tends toward impatience, but defense allows for stillness. To meet opposition with compliance, to meet fatigue with ease, to meet arrogance with humility, and to meet impatience with stillness: none of these can be easily resisted by the enemy.

Wang Yuanze says: One does not take pride in courage or delight in warfare and slaughter.

This is what is called "acting without acting" (xing wu xing): one moves, yet it is as though there were no marching or fighting.

The Imperial Commentary says: One who excels at war does not rely on force. Though there is action, it leaves no trace of contention.

Tang Minghuang says: To take the position of the guest is to yield and not contend with external things. Even when acting to meet the enemy, it is as though one did not act.

Zhang Junxiang says: The war is initiated by the other side. We have not actually made the first move. We respond only as events unfold, so although there is action, it is as though there were none.

Wang Yuanze says: The most benevolent army marches out without engaging in battle, as though it had not acted at all.

"Rolling up sleeves without arms" means to brandish the arm in show, yet to act as though one had no arm.

Tang Minghuang says: Brandishing the arm expresses anger. One who excels at war does not become angry, just as one has no arm to wave.

"Still no enemy" means to draw the opponent in, yet to have no enemy to engage.

The Imperial Commentary says: One who excels at winning does not contend with others.

Gu Huan says: "Still" (reng) means to draw in. Others have already been transformed by virtue and submitted, so one withdraws the troops and returns to camp. Even if one wished to draw in an enemy, there would be no enemy to draw.

"Holding no weapon" means to grasp a weapon, yet to act as though one had none.

The Imperial Commentary says: By relying on the strength of the multitude, one need not personally take up arms.

Tang Minghuang says: Holding a weapon displays an intent to kill. Now that compassion and harmony are taken as the foundation, even one who holds a weapon is as though he held none.

Wang Yuanze says: Although there is nominally a war, no enemy stands before us, so it is as though there were no engagement.

No calamity is greater than underestimating the enemy.

Chapter 70: "My Words Are Very Easy to Know"

Cheng Xuanying said: "Making light of the enemy" means that inwardly one regards the circumstances before oneself as an enemy, and so readily becomes stained by all the defilements of worldly desire. This brings on the calamity of falling into the santu (the three evil paths), which in Buddhist teaching are the hells, the realm of hungry ghosts, and the realm of animals.

To make light of the enemy is to fall into a situation where there is no enemy left to face, and so it is the same as not fighting.

There is no greater calamity than making light of the enemy.

Cheng Xuanying said: "Making light of the enemy" means that inwardly one regards the circumstances before oneself as an enemy, and so readily becomes stained by all the defilements of worldly desire, which brings on the calamity of falling into the santu.

To make light of the enemy almost causes me to lose my treasures.

Cheng Xuanying said: "Ji" means "about to." Making light of the enemy causes a person to show off courage and recklessness and so lose compassion (ci); to seek too much and so lose frugality (jian); and to press forward blindly without knowing how to yield. In this way, all three treasures mentioned earlier, namely compassion, frugality, and not daring to be first under Heaven (bu gan wei tianxia xian), are lost.

Lü Jifu said: If one cannot practice non-action (wuwei), and knows how to act as the host but not how to respond as the guest, and knows only how to advance but not how to retreat, this is called making light of the enemy. Making light of the enemy leads to the loss of compassion, and also to the loss of the mind that cherishes the people and treasures all things.

Therefore, when two armies meet and their blades clash, the side that holds compassion in its heart will win.

Tang Mingdi (Emperor Minghuang of the Tang) said: "Kang" means to raise up. When two states raise armies and fight, the side that can pity others will win.

Wang Yuanze said: The mind that pities others is compassion. Because of compassion one is courageous, and therefore one wins. Another edition reads "xiangruo" (mutually), which also makes sense; "ruo" refers to blades pressing against one another.

Ci Ze said: The mind that pities others is compassion. Because of compassion one is courageous, and therefore one wins. Another edition reads "xiangruo" (mutually), which also makes sense; "ruo" refers to blades pressing against one another.

This chapter says that the use of soldiers arises only from necessity, and so one should adopt the posture of the guest and yield a step. Not daring to make light of the enemy is a matter of fearing the loss of one's treasures. Therefore, when two armies meet, the side that holds compassion and pity in its heart prevails.

Chapter 70: "My Words Are Very Easy to Know"

My words are very easy to understand and very easy to put into practice. Yet no one under Heaven can understand them, and no one can put them into practice.

The Imperial Annotation (Yuzhu) says: The Dao is manifest and easy to see, so when it is expressed in words it is easy to understand; its essentials are simple and easy to hold, so when it is carried into action it is easy to practice. Mengzi (Mencius) said, "The Dao is like a great road; how could it be hard to know?" The Dao itself is not difficult. That people under Heaven find it hard and cannot do it is because they do not know to turn back and seek within themselves.

Su Zhe said: The vastness of the Dao (the Way) is fully realized simply by restoring one's original nature. The subtle workings of that nature appear in daily life, in dwelling and in eating and drinking. When the sage points this out to teach the world, is it not easy to understand? If people can perceive it and use it to respond to all things, is it not easy to practice? Yet the world is often trapped in using the Dao every day without knowing it. If they cannot even recognize it, how much less can they walk in accordance with it?

The principle is inherently simple and close at hand, present in the course of everyday dwelling and eating and drinking. When the sage points this out, is it not easy to understand? If people can perceive it and respond to affairs accordingly, is it not easy to practice? Yet the world uses it daily without knowing it. If they cannot even recognize it, how much less can they practice it?

The Dao is easy to know and easy to practice because it is utterly plain. It cannot be grasped through reflection, conjecture, or deduction. This is what is meant by "knowing without deliberation" (bu lü er zhi), that is, understanding arises naturally without deliberate thought. The Dao is also very close to us. It is not reached by hurrying along step by step or by weighing speed and slowness. This is what is meant by "arriving without going" (bu xing er zhi), that is, one naturally accords with it without striving after it. If one tries to know it through cleverness, one's understanding remains shallow, so the people of the world cannot truly know it. If one forces oneself to practice it, one cannot attain it, so the people of the world cannot truly carry it out.

Words have a root, and affairs have a master.

The Imperial Commentary (yuzhu), the annotation written by the emperor on the scripture, says: Words are endless, but the principle of the Dao is their root. Affairs cannot all be answered, but the Dao is the master of conduct. Follow the principle in seeking, act in accordance with the Great Dao, and nothing in the world will be difficult.

Words take non-speech as their root, and conduct takes Wuwei (non-action) as its master. Wuwei means not acting recklessly out of selfish intention, but following what is natural. Grasping the root of words makes them easy to understand, and recognizing the master of conduct makes them easy to practice. The reason people in the world cannot know or practice the Dao is only that they do not understand its root and master. Once these are understood, nothing in the world will be difficult.

Words take non-speech as their root, and conduct takes non-action as its master. Grasping the root makes understanding easy, and recognizing the master makes practice easy. The people of the world cannot know or practice the Dao only because they do not understand its root and master.

Precisely because the sage does not consider himself omniscient, the world instead fails to truly understand him.

Su Ziyou said: Words are merely the tools for grasping the Dao (the Way), and things are merely the paths for approaching it. If the Dao could be fully exhausted by words, then understanding words would suffice; if the Dao could be made directly manifest through affairs, then examining affairs would suffice. But words cannot exhaust the Dao, and affairs cannot make the Dao fully manifest. Therefore one must combine words in seeking the root, set aside particular affairs in seeking the governing Dao, and only then can one come to understanding. The sages of antiquity did not deliberately scheme, nor did they act recklessly, yet they possessed a profound and tranquil state that not even they themselves were aware of. This is something thought cannot reach, and so in the end no one has truly understood me.

Few understand me, and fewer still are able to emulate me.

He Shanggong said: "Xi" means few. Only those who have penetrated the great Dao can understand me, and therefore such people are precious.

The Jizhuan (Commentary Compiled and Elucidated) says: The words of the great Dao have a root and a governing principle, and only the perceptive can comprehend them, so those who understand are few.

That those who understand are few is precisely why they are precious. If people of shallow insight could understand the sage, what would be precious about it?

Therefore the sage wears coarse cloth on the outside and carries jade within.

He Shanggong said: Wearing coarse cloth outwardly means not displaying external splendor; carrying jade within means that inner cultivation is deep. The sage conceals his precious virtue and does not display it for others to see.

Wang Bi said: Wearing coarse cloth outwardly means dwelling among worldly people without standing out; carrying jade within means cherishing and guarding one's own genuine nature. The sage is hard to understand precisely because he blends in with the common world without appearing distinctive, and because he holds a treasure-like authenticity yet does not reveal it, he is difficult for others to recognize, and for this reason he is precious.

Chapter 71: Knowing and Not Knowing

To know that one does not know is the highest understanding; to not know and yet believe one knows is a flaw.

Lü Jifu says: The nature of the Dao is that, while one does not cling to "knowing the Way," one can truly comprehend it. One who recognizes what he does not know, and who approaches it with a mind unattached to knowledge, is a person of penetrating insight. Therefore it is said, "To know that one does not know is the highest understanding." Yet even if one recognizes what one does not know, if one still clings to "knowing" as the measure of all things, how can the mind find peace? Therefore it is said, "To not know and yet believe one knows is a flaw."

Sima Guang says: To know clearly and yet appear not to know is a way to stay free of resentment. To not know in truth, yet insist on appearing to know, is to invite calamity.

Only by recognizing the flaw of "believing one knows" as a flaw can one avoid being troubled by it.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang says: Only one who recognizes the harm of feigning knowledge will not be troubled by this flaw.

The sage is free of this flaw because he regards it as a flaw, and therefore he is not troubled by it.

Lü Jifu says: Only by understanding that clinging to "knowing" is a flaw, and by remaining watchful against it, can one return to a state free of attachment to knowledge. In this way, knowledge does not become a burden. Therefore it is said that recognizing and guarding against this flaw keeps one from being troubled by it. The sage is free of this flaw, and the reason lies here. Hence it is said that the sage regards the flaw as a flaw and therefore is not harmed by it.

In the Zhuangzi, Nan Bozi Qi sighs: "I pity those who have lost themselves; I also pity those who pity others; and I pity those who pity the pitiers. If it goes on like this, they will drift ever further from the true Dao." Can someone like Zicha be said to be one who regards a flaw as a flaw?

Chapter 72, "The People Do Not Fear Authority"

When the people do not fear the power that inspires awe, then great dread will come.

Heshang Gong says: "Awe" (wei) means calamity. When people do not fear small calamities, great calamity arrives, here meaning death. Those who know how to fear should cherish their Jing (essence) and nourish their Shen (spirit), and accord with the seasons and the principles of the earth.

Cheng Xuanying says: This passage speaks of punishment by awe-inspiring law. The so-called "scriptural precepts, regulations, and codes" are the precepts and norms of Daoism, and "great awe" refers to the three evil paths (the places of suffering to which evil deeds lead) and to the penalties of Luofeng, the Northern Capital, a place in Daoist tradition that governs punishments in the netherworld. Sentient beings who have not awakened to the truth, who cling to worldly life and act recklessly, will ultimately face the severe punishments of the underworld.

Liu Zhongping says: The Book of Odes says: "Revere the majesty of Heaven, and you will preserve yourself." The multitude do not know to revere the majesty of Heaven, and so great awe will come. Only that which inspires fear counts as true authority. If the multitude do not revere the majesty of Heaven, they will do whatever they please; then Heaven sends down severe punishment, and calamity and penalties follow. Therefore it is said, "great awe is about to come." The Book of Documents says: "No one is without fear; if one does not know to fear, one falls into a dreadful state."

Do not regard the place where you dwell as narrow.

The Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) says: "Dwelling" (ju) is the place where one's original nature resides. Human nature is vast beyond measure and cannot be confined or distorted. A scholar who cannot speak of the Dao (the Way) has merely confined his heart-mind and nature. Expand it, and it can fill heaven and earth, embrace the six directions, and reach everywhere. The Mencius says: "Dwell in the broadest mansion under heaven."

Emperor Ming of Tang said: The place where spirit-illumination (shenming) dwells is the heart-mind. When there is no narrowness or constriction within the heart, that is, when one removes the entanglements of emotion and desire so that the heart becomes empty and still, then clear Qi will arise. Do not despise the life one has received.

The Imperial Commentary says: Life is formed by the gathering of Qi. Human life accords with the principle by which all things come into being and transform. If one despises one's own life, then the words and deeds of the day will deplete and bind one's inborn nature. When this depletion recurs, the breath that nourishes body and mind at night is no longer sufficient to preserve them. Those who can preserve and harmonize the Great Harmonious Qi and do not die prematurely are precisely those who do not despise their own lives.

Heshang Gong says: People are able to live because they possess shen (spirit). Shen rests in emptiness and delights in stillness. If one's eating and drinking lack restraint, if one neglects thoughts of the Dao and indulges in sounds and colors, then evil thoughts will fill the heart and belly, injuring life and dissipating shen.

Liu Zhongping says: That the heart is not narrow is the foundation established by De, and that one does not despise one's own life is the root of De. The foundation of De lies in fully realizing one's natural disposition, and its root lies in accord with Heaven's mandate. Therefore the sage does not use artificial action to harm natural disposition, nor artificial convention to harm life.

Wang Yuanze says: The nature of the common people is originally vast and far-reaching. But as the age declines and moral teaching weakens, the people cannot be returned to simplicity. Instead, their inner spaciousness is compressed and made narrow, and the openness inherent in life is despised and blocked. Thus, when the heart is confined, the people no longer tend toward simplicity but toward pretense; when life is harmed, they no longer tend toward sincerity but toward superficiality.

The sage does not act in this way. He allows the people to live freely within the wide expanse of Heaven and Earth, so that each person can fully realize an open nature. Then who would go against the Way of Heaven or harm the natural order? The Zhuangzi says that the gardens of the Xiwei clan, the parks of the Yellow Emperor, the palaces of Yao and Shun, and the dwellings of Tang and Wu were all the times of enlightened rulers. This shows that when the age declines, the dwellings of the human heart gradually shrink as well. Yet the sages themselves have no difference in worth. Only the times they faced were different, and so the conditions of society gradually narrowed.

Because one does not despise life, people will not despise him in return.

Heshang Gong said: "Only one who does not despise his own spirit (Shen) can wash away the turbidity within his heart and remain serene and free of desire. In this way, his spirit will settle in him and will not depart."

Gu Huan said: "When a person does not despise life, life will not despise the person; when a person does not turn away from the Way (Dao), the Way will not turn away from the person. Therefore it is said that life and the person hold fast to one another, and the person and the Way come into accord."

The Xisheng Jing says: "The spirit (Shen) constantly cherishes the person, yet the person does not cherish the spirit. If a person does not despise his own spirit, the spirit will settle in him and will not depart."

Therefore, the sage knows himself yet does not deliberately display himself; he cherishes himself yet does not elevate himself.

Heshang Gong said: The sage knows his own gains and losses, yet does not flaunt or reveal them; he holds his inner Virtue (De) in his heart and does not display it outwardly. He cherishes his body in order to preserve his essence (Jing) and vital energy (Qi), yet does not regard himself as noble or pursue worldly fame and honor.

Lü Jifu said: The sage understands the constant Way, yet does not boast of himself outwardly; he observes the constant Way, yet does not regard his own self as too important, and therefore does not confine his heart and mind. He cherishes life, yet does not regard life as higher than everything else; he knows how to conserve and treasure life, and is also able to let go of attachment to life at the right time, and therefore does not despise life.

Liu Jinxi said: To preserve one's true nature and not readily be stained by desire is to cherish oneself. To be humble, quiet, and yielding, placing others first and oneself afterward, is not to regard oneself as noble.

The sage knows himself through wisdom yet does not boast of his talents; therefore his nature is broad and is not obscured by external things. This is what is meant by not confining one's heart. He cherishes himself with a benevolent heart, yet does not elevate himself or belittle others; therefore his life is preserved, and external things find it hard to harm him. This is what is meant by not despising life. In doing so, how could he ever invite the punishment of Heaven?

Therefore, one should abandon the practice of self-boasting and self-elevation, and choose instead to know oneself, cherish one's body, and not regard oneself as noble.

Gu Huan says: When one gives up external honor and rank and instead cherishes and ccares for life, the punishments and displays of power that come from outside will dissipate, and the vital energy within will be abundant.

This chapter concerns how, when those above have lost the teaching of the Dao (the Way), the common people also lose the original state of their lives. Therefore, even when frightening authority is imposed, the people no longer fear it. If the people are not oppressed, so that they can dwell in peace and fully realize their nature, and are not coerced, so that they can preserve their lives and reach their natural span of years, then who would defy that authority? Thus, to give up external honor and rank, and to cherish life and know how to care for it, means letting the people dwell in peace without being coerced, preserving their lives, and not despising their existence. What the sage should discard and what the sage should treasure is very clear.

Chapter Seventy-Three: On Daring Boldly

Those who are bold in rashly pressing forward easily bring about their own death.

Gu Huan says: "Bold" (yong) means not being afraid, and "daring" (gan) means being resolute. To face power without fear, and then to persist willfully and refuse to turn back, acting recklessly and on impulse, is the way that brings about a violent death.

Cheng Xuanying says: "Bold" means courageously advancing, and "daring" means decisive and unhesitating; "death" (sha) means dying and perishing. The meaning is that if one always acts decisively and rushes ahead in everything, greedily seeking worldly affairs, one will head toward ruin.

Kumārajīva (Luoshi) says: When the mind fixes on a course of action and obstinately pursues its result, and so strays from the proper path and enters a crooked way, calamity will ultimately arrive. This is why it says "death."

Those who are bold in not daring, however, are able to preserve their lives.

Kumārajīva says: When one acts gently and chooses only what accords with the good path, one will gain benefit. The "living" mentioned here means preserving life and extending one's years. When the mind is pure, calm, and detached, and one does not dare to crave or cling to things, one can attain longevity.

Gu Huan says: This refers to standing alone without fear, not acting presumptuously, holding to softness, and drawing near only to the good path, and so gaining benefit. When the mind is pure, calm, and detached, and does not crave or cling, one can attain longevity.

Gu Huan also says: Standing alone without fear, not acting presumptuously, and yielding in accord with softness, this alone is the way to preserve oneself.

Prince Shu says: The Zhuangzi says that the sage regards what need not be done as something not to be done, and therefore there is no warfare; whereas the common people regard what need not be done as something that must be done, and therefore warfare is constant. To be bold in rashly pressing forward is to treat what is not necessarily required as something one must insist on doing, and so one easily provokes strife and invites death. To be bold in not acting rashly, on the other hand, is to regard what need not be done as something that need not be done, and therefore there is no warfare, and one can preserve one's life.

Lü Jifu said: To rely on rigid strength and forcibly control external things in all matters is the way of one who dares to assert himself, and it belongs to the kind that heads toward death. Therefore it is said that one who is fond of contention and combat invites the calamity of losing his life. To hold fast to softness and not insist on forcing things is the way of one who dares not to assert himself, and it belongs to the kind that can preserve life. Therefore it is said that one who dares not to assert himself will survive.

Of these two courses, one brings benefit and the other brings harm.

Heshang Gong said: "The two" refers to daring to assert oneself and not daring to assert oneself. Preserving life is beneficial; losing life is harmful.

Wang Bi said: Both may be called "courage," but they differ in how they are employed, and their outcomes are likewise beneficial or harmful. Therefore it is said that some bring benefit and some bring harm.

Lü Jifu said: The assertive person is seen by the world as beneficial, yet harm may lie hidden within it. The one who dares not to assert himself is seen by the world as harmful, yet benefit may lie hidden within it.

What Heaven dislikes, who can know the reason for it?

The Imperial Commentary said: Those who differ from the customs of the world instead accord with the Way of Heaven (Tiandao). What the world considers beneficial, Heaven may dislike. Who can clearly see whether the outcome is misfortune or good fortune?

What Heaven dislikes, who can know the reason for it?

The Imperial Commentary further said: Those who differ from the customs of the world instead accord with the Way of Heaven. What the world considers beneficial, Heaven may in fact dislike. If one acts by following the world's judgments, who can know where it will end?

Therefore, the sage (shengren) remains cautious in such matters and does not dare to act rashly.

The Imperial Commentary said: Those who accord with the Way of Heaven endure, and those who go against it come to ruin. Even the sage does not dare to lightly alter this principle.

The Way of Heaven does not contend with the myriad things, yet it excels at winning.

The Imperial Commentary said: As the myriad things arise, the Way of Heaven accompanies their arising without refusing. As they return to their source, the Way of Heaven follows them back without seeking to go first. This is non-contention. The myriad things wax and wane, fill and empty, and the Way of Heaven moves together with them. Though the myriad things are many, all are arranged by the Way of Heaven. This is what it means to not contend and yet excel at winning.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Tang Minghuang) said: The passage that follows speaks of the Way of Heaven as humble, empty, and still, and uses this to warn people against asserting themselves and competing for advantage. Heaven does not compete with the myriad things. The four seasons turn and the myriad things wax and wane, yet none can violate their regularity. Therefore the Way of Heaven excels at winning.

The Way of Heaven issues no commands, yet it excels at responding to the myriad things.

Wang Yuanze said: What has Heaven ever said? The four seasons continue their course, and the hundred things continue to grow. Good deeds receive their reward, and evil brings calamity. The changes of the myriad things answer one another, and none arises apart from this.

When words are spoken, a fitting response follows.

Wang Yuanze said: "What has Heaven ever said? The four seasons keep their course and the myriad things grow of their own accord. It bestows blessings on the good and sends misfortune to those who indulge in wrongdoing, responding to the countless changes of the world, and nothing happens outside its reach."

Liu Renhui said: "Heaven is still and silent, so it is said not to speak. When the myriad things stir, Heaven responds, so it is said to be skilled at answering."

Nothing needs to be summoned, and things arrive of their own accord.

The Imperial Commentary said: "If one is to receive a mandate, someone must issue a command to call for it. The myriad things are many and varied, yet Heaven can arrange their fates. Who could summon Heaven? Heaven moves vigorously and never ceases, simply letting a single stream of yuanqi (primordial qi) turn of its own accord."

Heaven appears calm and open, yet it is skilled at planning.

Cai Zihuang said: "Although Heaven's Dao (tiandao, the Way of Heaven) is open and even, it arranges things with care. Even when the difference between good and evil is extremely slight, it never makes a mistake."

Wang Yuanze said: "The constant Dao of Heaven is plain and easy, and so it appears open. It knows that the affairs of the world hold peril, and so it is skilled at planning."

Heaven's net is vast and boundless. Though it seems sparse, nothing escapes it.

The Imperial Commentary said: "To arrange something tightly yet leave gaps is the way of people. Heaven's net seems sparse, yet it has no gaps. When good and evil accumulate to a certain degree, fortune and misfortune each arrive according to their kind, so the Dao of Heaven in the end allows nothing to be missed. People must struggle before they win and must speak before they receive a reply. Heaven, by contrast, prevails without contending and responds without speaking. What people summon arrives as things that are hard to foresee, while the Dao of Heaven comes without being summoned, moves openly, and is skilled at planning. Only the sage can follow the Dao of Heaven. Therefore the sage does not chase after gain, nor does he defy the harms that Heaven shows, and so he often profits without being harmed. This is because the sage's virtue (de) accords with the Dao of Heaven, unlike those who simply force their way forward and dare to rush ahead."

Cao Daochong said: "The net of Heaven prevents the myriad things from finding any place to escape. It is vast and boundless, and though it seems coarse, nothing slips through."

The net of Heaven encompasses heaven and earth in all four directions, and none of the myriad things can escape from within it. "Huihui" means vast and boundless. Though Heaven's net appears loose, it rewards the good and punishes the wicked without the slightest error. This chapter concerns the difference between daring to act recklessly by force and not daring to act recklessly. Forcing ahead is what the Dao of Heaven detests, and even the sage cannot escape the net of Heaven by doing so.

The Dao of Heaven (Tiandao) is like a net spread over all of heaven and earth, and nothing in the myriad things can escape its range. The net is vast and boundless. It may look loose and sparse, yet it rewards the good and punishes the wicked, and not even the finest detail escapes it. This chapter concerns daring to act and not daring to act recklessly. Boldness that relies on force is what the Dao of Heaven dislikes, and even a sage (shengren) finds it hard to display courage without scruple. The passage that follows says that the Dao of Heaven is humble and gentle, and that one should take it as the standard to emulate.

If the common people are constantly unafraid of death, how can one use death to frighten them?

Gu Huan says: "How (naihe)" means "in what way (ruhe)." When the Great Dao (dadao) declines and punishments become harsh, the people feel that there is nothing worth clinging to in life and nothing to fear in death. The people's lack of fear of death usually stems from harsh decrees. If the ruler does not guide the people to live well through abundant De (virtue), but instead adds severe punishments to terrify them, the people will offend against the prohibitions, and in the end they still will not correct themselves or cultivate their conduct. Extravagance and indulgence drain one's jing (essence) and cause shen (spirit) to decline. If one indulges desire and acts recklessly, one moves toward danger and may even endanger one's life.

When a ruler loses the proper Way, the people find it hard to remain settled and steady, and so they offend against the prohibitions. Since they are already unafraid of death, what use is it for the ruler to threaten them with execution? Even if one employs cruel punishments such as sawing a person in two, or tightens control through strict laws, disorder still cannot be quelled. The situation after the Qin dynasty was exactly like this.

Suppose the people all cherished their lives and feared death, and yet someone still did strange and lawless things. If I seized that person and put him to death, who would dare to act this way anymore?

The Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) says: Only after the people of the realm all cherish their lives and take the consequences of breaking the law seriously may one punish strange speech and forbid deviant conduct. Xunqing's statement that "the offense of violating good governance is indeed grave" means that a crime against the standards of governance is, by its nature, a serious one.

Heshang Gong says: If one teaches the people with the Dao and they do not obey, but instead deliberately act in bizarre ways, then one should arrest and execute them according to royal law, so that no one would dare to violate the prohibitions. Laozi is lamenting that the rulers of his time did not first teach the people with De, but instead resorted to punishments first.

Wang Bi says: "Strange (qi)" refers to deviant conduct that departs from the norm and disturbs the true Way.

Ordinarily, there are those who are specially appointed to carry out killing as executioners.

Tang Mingdi said: Crafty people like this are bound by the net of Heaven; in the end they will not escape it. This is what is commonly called being dealt with by the deity in charge of killing.

Du Guangting said: "Si" (Sī) means "to be in charge." Heaven favors and cherishes the people of the world, and so it established the Southern Palace Register of Dantan (Dāntán Dān Lù), which records good deeds and rewards the virtuous, and by which it governs life. It also established the Northern Palace Black Ledger (Hēi Bù), which records faults and transgressions, and by which it governs death. The gods throughout heaven and earth oversee good and evil, applying correction or encouragement so that people may amend their ways and turn toward goodness. Thus those with merit may have their lives extended, while those with transgressions have their lives shortened, with not the slightest error, just as the examining officials in the celestial court review their records. Above, there are also the Four Stars of the Sīmìng Sì Sī (Four Directors of Fate), situated between the Xū and Wēi lunar lodges, beside the star of humankind, and charged with watching over human conduct. The "heavenly control of killing" (tiān zhī sī shā) spoken of in the Sānyuán Jīng (Scripture of the Three Primes) refers to these four stars.

To take the place of the one in charge of killing and put someone to death on one's own authority is called "wielding the axe in place of the Great Carpenter" (dài dàjiàng kǎn mù).

Hé Shànggōng said: For a ruler to wish to take the place of the Way of Heaven in killing people is like a clumsy man trying to fell wood in place of a skilled carpenter: it is laborious and achieves nothing.

Those who wield the axe in place of the Great Carpenter seldom fail to injure their own hands.

Hé Shànggōng said: When a ruler administers punishments, it is like a clumsy man felling wood in place of a carpenter. The timber cannot be shaped to the square and the round in accordance with the measure, and the one who swings the axe ends up wounding his own hand. To kill on one's own authority in place of the Way of Heaven is to break the law of the Way of Heaven; and whoever does not follow the law of the Way of Heaven will in the end meet with disaster.

Lü Jifu said: When the sage uses the Way (Dao) to govern the world, what should be done? One should let the force that has always governed killing and punishment carry out its punishments on its own, and not substitute oneself in killing. What does it mean to "let the one who governs killing and punishment act on its own"? The net of the Dao is wide and sparse, yet it never lets a transgression slip through. When Heaven punishes the guilty, the five punishments each have their proper application. What is meant here by the one who governs killing and punishment is the Dao itself.

If punishment and killing arise from the ruler's personal likes and dislikes, rather than from punishing the guilty in accordance with the Dao, then the ruler is substituting for the one who governs killing and punishment. To substitute for it is like substituting for a master craftsman (a highly skilled artisan) in hewing wood: very few fail to cut their own hands. Therefore, to take life in place of the one who governs killing and punishment plainly invites harm.

This chapter says that the minds of the common people change unpredictably, and some of them even fear no death. The ruler should first transform them through the Dao and should not intimidate them with punishments. If the people feared death, so that anyone who acted contrary to the norm was executed, who would dare to err? Yet the ruler should not kill according to his own will, for there is the Dao, which governs killing and punishment. If one substitutes for the Dao in carrying out punishment, it is like substituting for the master craftsman in hewing wood: there is no one who does not cut their hand.

This concludes the eleventh fascicle of the Collected Good Selections from the Daode Zhenjing (Daode Zhenjing Qushan Ji).

Collected Good Selections from the Daode Zhenjing, Fascicle Twelve

Compiled by Li Lin, Layman of Raoyang, of the Song Dynasty

Chapter 75: "The People Are Hungry"

The people suffer hunger because those above collect too much in taxes; this is why the people go hungry.

The Imperial Commentary says: When taxes are heavy, many fields lie fallow, and the people lack grain.

Lü Jifu said: A single farmer's harvest should be enough to feed several mouths. How, then, could the people come to starvation? Is it not precisely because the rulers levy too heavy a tax?

Wang Yuanze said: The establishment of offices, the granting of salaries, the making of ritual regulations, and the arrangement of expenditures were all originally meant to enrich the people. Yet once expenses grow excessive, taxes rise. If the "branch" pursuits of commerce and crafts flourish while the "root" of agriculture weakens, the result is only that the people go hungry.

He also said: In the time of King You of Zhou, taxes were heavy, and so the people went hungry.

Wang Yuanze said: The establishment of offices, the granting of salaries, the making of ritual regulations, and the arrangement of expenditures were all originally meant to enrich the people. Yet once expenses grow excessive, taxes rise. If the "branch" pursuits of commerce and crafts flourish while the "root" of agriculture weakens, the result is only that the people go hungry.

King You of Zhou levied heavy taxes and exacted harshly, and the "Chuci" (Thistles) ode in the Xiaoya section of the Classic of Poetry (Shijing) satirizes this. The Classic of Poetry also criticizes the rulers of the state of Wei for excessive taxation, which gave rise to the poem "Rat" (Shuo Shu).

The reason the people are hard to govern is that their rulers meddle and act recklessly, and that is why they become difficult to govern.

Imperial annotator (Yuzhu) says: When government decrees are many and tangled, deceit and falsehood increase, and the people lose their simple, unadorned nature.

Liu Jinxi says: When rulers take action, affairs become tangled; when they govern through non-action (wuwei), affairs become simple. When affairs are clear and simple, the people readily comply; when decrees are numerous and complicated, governing becomes difficult. People's desires are hard to restrain, and the root of this lies in a mind that acts recklessly.

Lü Jifu says: When people weave cloth and make clothing, plough the fields and eat, they are each content with their station and share the same virtue (de) as the Dao. What difficulty is there in governing them? That they have become hard to govern is surely because their rulers act recklessly.

Wang Yuanze says: When rulers handle affairs through minute and exacting inspection, intending thereby to govern the people, the result is that the people are distressed and customs decline. Cunning and falsehood only multiply, and governance becomes all the more difficult. By observing both antiquity and later ages, this principle can be seen.

Governing through non-action was the means by which Shun became emperor, and ruling the world with folded hands, letting things take their natural course, was the way King Wu of Zhou became king. The flourishing achievements of sovereigns all have this as their root. The Daodejing says: "When one acts through non-action, nothing remains ungoverned."

The reason people do not take death very seriously is that they excessively pursue the provision of their livelihood, and so they make light of death.

The Zuanwei says: When taxes are heavy and decrees are complicated, the people lose their livelihoods and compete to chase wealth. Some even violate laws and prohibitions and lightly walk the road to death. This is because they pursue the necessities of nourishing life to excess, so that some fear neither water nor fire and remain unalarmed when facing blades. Hence the saying "therefore they make light of death."

Lü Jifu says: If the people eat well, dress decently, live in security, and take pleasure in their local customs, how would they make light of death? That they make light of death is surely because they excessively pursue the enjoyments of life.

Sima Guang says: People seek profit in order to sustain their lives, yet the common people often lose their lives instead through greed for gain.

Those who cherish their lives too much and eagerly chase after profit often take risks and break the law, and so they make light of death.

Only those who do not pursue nourishing life as a deliberate aim surpass those who single-mindedly prize life itself.

The Zhuangzi says that one who has penetrated the nature of life does not force oneself to do what is of no benefit to life. By setting aside affairs and forgetting attachment to the self, the body is spared exhaustion and the spirit (shen) is spared depletion. When the form is preserved and the spirit restored, one accords with nature, and this is why it surpasses deliberately prizing the nourishment of life. To prize life tends to make one fear death, whereas not making nourishment a deliberate pursuit is the more worthy course.

If the way of treating one's own life well were extended to the common people, taxes should be lightened and punishments simplified, so that every household is prosperous and everyone has more than enough. Even if distinctions of rank in clothing were established, the people would not violate the laws on that account, and this would be the highest achievement of a ruler's governance. This chapter says that heavy taxes and complicated decrees cause the people to lose the foundation of their livelihood, and so they come to make light of death. Such measures abandon the root in pursuit of the branches and damage the root itself. Prizing life is not the same as making light of death, and not deliberately pursuing nourishment is superior to prizing it.

Chapter 76: On Being Alive

A living person is soft and yielding; at death, one becomes stiff and hard.

Heshang Gong (Heshang Gong) comments: While a person is alive, the body contains harmonious qi (qi, vital energy) and holds spirit (shen), and so it is soft. After death, the harmonious qi is exhausted and the spirit disperses, and so the body stiffens.

Grasses and trees are tender and brittle while they live.

Heshang Gong comments: This is because the harmonious qi still remains.

When they die, they wither and dry out.

Heshang Gong comments: This is because the harmonious qi has dispersed.

Yan Zun (Yan Zun) comments: Where yang qi (the qi that drives growth and activity in all things) remains, trees can be bent and grass can be knotted. Once yang qi departs, water freezes into ice, and ice breaks easily.

Therefore, the hard and strong belong to the category of death, and the soft and weak belong to the category of life.

Heshang Gong says: From the two matters mentioned above, it can be seen that what is hard and strong tends to die, while what is soft and weak tends to survive.

Emperor Ming of Tang says: This is meant to show that one who holds to softness and weakness can preserve life and prolong years, while one who relies on force and domination loses both life and his original nature.

Lü Jifu says: The Dao (the Way) is formless and non-contending, the most yielding thing under heaven, yet few people understand this. Therefore, things with form are used to illustrate it. While a person is alive, the body is supple; after death, it stiffens. Grasses and trees are tender while growing and become dry and hard when they wither. Thus even among things with form, what is hard and strong often moves toward death, while what is soft and weak shows vitality. How much more must one who wishes to realize the formless Dao make oneself tend toward gentleness and humility?

Therefore, when troops rely on force, they will not prevail.

Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) says: When two armies clash, the side that harbors compassion will win.

Wang Zhen says: The descendants of the Xia and Shang once conquered the four quarters with millions of troops, yet later lost the realm. Qin Shi Huang unified the world, yet the Qin dynasty fell soon after. Xiang Yu dominated for a time but was quickly defeated; Wang Mang, after usurping the throne, was immediately destroyed; Fu Jian was routed in the Battle of the Huai River; and during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, the Sui dynasty collapsed in the palace of Chu. The armies of these powers numbered several million at most and at least several hundred thousand, yet all relied on their strength and ultimately brought about their own defeat. These are all examples of "when troops rely on force, they cannot prevail."

Relying on military strength readily breeds arrogance, and arrogance is precisely the road to defeat and ruin. Qin Shi Huang's power was extremely great, yet the Qin dynasty perished before two generations had passed. Xiang Yu was once overbearing, yet he was swiftly overthrown.

When a tree is too hard and strong, it will be felled.

Imperial Commentary (Yuzhu) says: Paulownia and catalpa trees as thick as an arm are known to be cherished by people. Once they grow stout, they are cut down and made into timber.

When a forest grows lush, axes will come; when trees grow sturdy, they will be cut down and made into lumber.

Thick forests invite the axe, and trees that are too hard get felled and made into timber for implements.

The strong dwell in lower positions, while the weak and yielding come to rest above.

The Imperial Annotation (Yuzhu) says: The soft can overcome the hard, and the weak can overcome the strong. This is precisely the core of Laozi's Dao (the Way). Zhuangzi likewise takes softness and humility as the model for how one should conduct oneself in the world.

Looking up at the heavens, we see that heaven is formed from qi (vital energy) and lies above, while the earth is formed from physical bodies and lies below. Turning to things close at hand, the branches of a tree are soft and grow upward, while the trunk is hard and stands below. From this we may infer that what is hard and strong lies low, and what is soft and weak lies high, and the principle becomes quite clear.

This chapter broadly discusses people and things, pointing out that the soft and yielding survive, while the strong and rigid tend toward decline. Those who wish to preserve their lives and follow the way of survival, how could they not take this as a mirror?

Chapter 77: The Way of Heaven

Is the Way of Heaven not like the drawing of a bowstring? What is too high is pressed down, what is too low is raised up, what is in excess is reduced, and what is deficient is supplied.

The Imperial Annotation says: The Way of Heaven takes the mean as its highest standard, so what is high is pressed down and does not become excessive, and what is low is raised and does not become deficient. Things about to rise are advanced, and things already accomplished yield ground. The four seasons turn and advance, and each arrives at its proper measure.

Yan Zun says: The bow-maker neither arbitrarily adds nor removes, nor arbitrarily loosens or tightens, but corrects the bow according to the compass and the plumb line. If the string is strung too high and too taut, it is eased and slackened; if it is slack and sits too low, it is tightened and raised. What is in excess is cut away, and what is lacking is made up. The string and the bow body accord with one another, adjusting each other above and below, taking evenness as the standard and harmony as the norm. Only then can the bow be drawn and the arrow loosed.

To press down the high and raise the low, to reduce the excessive and supplement the deficient: this is the principle by which heaven and earth operate.

Zhang Junxiang said: When shooting an arrow, if the bow is drawn too high, one fears the arrow will fly over the target, so one lowers the bow. If it is drawn too low, the arrow will fall short, so one raises it. Only when the bow is neither too high nor too low can the arrow hit the mark. In managing oneself and dealing with others, one should likewise strive for balance and moderation. If one is excessively proud, the crowd will find it hard to accept him, and if one injures those in lowly positions, one invites criticism. Restraining those who are too high and supporting those who are low accords with the fundamental principle of the Dao of Heaven (Tiandao).

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Tang Minghuang) said: Only by adjusting the bowstring in this way can one hit the target. This is like the Dao of Heaven diminishing what is full and enriching what is humble. The scripture uses this image to urge the ruler to take the Dao as his model and to treat the people with benevolence. It thereby reveals the principle of lowering the high and raising the low.

The way the Dao of Heaven operates is to reduce what is in excess and supplement what is lacking.

The Imperial Annotation says: "Fullness invites loss, and humility receives benefit. This is precisely the Dao of Heaven."

The ways of the human world, however, are not like this. People often take from those who lack, in order to nourish those who already have abundance.

The Imperial Annotation says: The human heart tends to reject the lowly and exalt the high. It bullies the isolated and the weak, yet fears those who are noble and powerful.

Wang Yuanze said: The human world follows private inclinations in its actions, and therefore cannot achieve fairness.

Heshang Gong said: The way of humanity runs counter to the Dao of Heaven. Common people harm the poor to increase the profit of the rich, and seize from the weak to supply the strong.

Who can take their own surplus to nourish those under heaven who lack? Only one who possesses the Dao.

The Imperial Annotation says: One who does not bully the isolated and weak, but gives wealth to the destitute, and who does not fear the noble and powerful, but diminishes his own excess to supplement what is lacking, can do so only if he possesses the Dao.

Heshang Gong said: Who, dwelling in wealth and high rank, would examine his own titles and stipends and bring forth what is surplus to supply the lack of those under heaven? Only a ruler who possesses the Dao can do so.

Wang Yuanze said: One who possesses the Dao is able to accord with the Dao of Heaven.

Therefore, the sage acts without claiming credit for his deeds, and when his work is accomplished, he does not dwell upon it. He does not wish to let others see that he is more worthy than they.

Kumārajīva (Luoshi) says: When a person reaches a state of emptiness and stillness, of clear penetration and freedom from thought and worry, how could they still harbor scheming intentions or seek to elevate their own talents? Without relying on doing to accomplish something, one does not boast. Without claiming merit, one has no sense of self-satisfaction. If one relies on doing and claims merit, one displays one's worthiness, and once worthiness is displayed, one is using surplus to nourish oneself, which invites loss.

This chapter says that the Dao of Heaven (tiandao) takes the balanced middle as its highest principle. It therefore restrains what is high, supports what is low, reduces excess, and fills what is lacking. The sage (shengren) emulates the Dao of Heaven. He does not rely on merit, nor does he use merit to display his worthiness, and so he gains benefit without suffering harm. Those who do not understand the Dao of Heaven cannot achieve this.

Chapter 78: The Softness of Things Under Heaven

Nothing under heaven is softer than water, yet in attacking what is hard and strong, nothing surpasses it, and nothing can take its place.

Lü Jifu says: Among all things under heaven, only water can change its shape to fit the curves and angles of whatever it encounters, so nothing is softer than water. Yet only water can surge against great objects, move boulders, cut through mountain ridges and valleys, and bear up heaven, earth, and all things. Therefore, in overcoming what is firm and strong, nothing exceeds water. Water is like this because, although it changes endlessly with its surroundings, it never loses its essential watery nature, and nothing else can take its place in this.

Water changes in countless ways according to external things yet does not change itself, because it is soft and yielding. If a person can grasp this, then even while responding to all kinds of change, the heart remains unified, and one can overcome external things without being harmed.

Therefore, softness overcomes hardness, and weakness overcomes strength. No one under heaven is ignorant of this principle, yet no one can truly put it into practice.

Heshanggong says: The tongue is soft, while the teeth are hard, yet the teeth fall out first and the tongue remains. Water can extinguish fire, and yin softness can dissolve yang hardness. People know that the soft and weak endure long while the hard and strong easily break, yet they are ashamed to be humble and prefer to force their strength.

Therefore the sage says:

This refers to the Jing (scripture) that follows.

He who takes upon himself the filth of the state is called the lord of the altars of soil and grain (the ruler of the nation). He who takes upon himself the misfortunes of the state is called the king of all under Heaven.

Wang Yuanze said: The reason the sage can be soft and yielding is that he takes the nature of water as his De (Virtue/Power). To take upon oneself the misfortunes of the state is precisely the meaning of receiving filth and bearing humiliation.

The sage takes the faults of all people upon himself. This is what it means to take on the filth of the state.

Wang Yuanze said: The reason the sage can be soft and yielding is that he takes the nature of water as his De (Virtue/Power). To take upon oneself the misfortunes of the state is precisely the meaning of receiving filth and bearing humiliation.

To take upon oneself the faults of all people is to bear the filth of the state. Thus, when a ruler of a state calls himself gū (orphan), guǎ (lacking in virtue), and bù gǔ (not good), as ancient rulers did in humble self-reference, with literal senses of loneliness, little virtue, and incompetence, he is taking on the misfortunes of the state. In this way, all under Heaven will turn to him.

Words that accord with the Dao (the Way) often sound like paradox.

Wang Yuanze said: Such words run contrary to people's shallow judgments and ordinary reasoning, yet they accord with the most fundamental principle of the Great Dao.

Su Zhe (Su Ziyou) said: Words of the Way accord with the Dao, yet they run against worldly opinion. The world regards bearing filth as disgrace and bearing misfortune as calamity, so these words seem like paradox.

This chapter explains that softness can overcome hardness. It begins with water as a metaphor and then cites the words of the sage to confirm it.

Chapter 79: Reconciling Great Resentment

Even when deep resentment has been reconciled, some residual resentment is bound to remain. How can this be considered proper?

Lü Jifu said: If one who seeks revenge does not snap the Mogan sword (an ancient famous sword), then even though he harbors resentment, he will not vent his anger on a falling roof tile. In this way, all under Heaven can be peaceful and secure. If one does not follow this way, resentment will keep arising, and even if people try to reconcile, it will never end. Therefore it is said that when deep resentment is reconciled, some residual resentment is bound to remain. Treating with goodwill those who do not treat us well is the goodness of De. If resentment is reconciled yet residual resentment still remains, how can this be called goodness?

If the ruler cannot practice stillness and non-action (Wuwei (non-action)), govern with a light hand, and remain humble and yielding, the people will easily grow greedy and quarrel with one another, and resentment and hatred will grow alongside them. The ruler then makes laws to restrain the people: those who kill are put to death, those who injure are punished, and corresponding penalties are meted out in response to grievances. Yet deceit only increases and resentment deepens with each passing day. How, then, could this be called good governance?

Therefore, the sage holds the left half of the tally. In antiquity, a piece of wood was split into two halves, each party kept one, and the two were joined together as proof of good faith.

Heshang Gong says: The ancient sage held the left tally and matched it with the other half as a token of trust. At that time there were no written contracts or statutes, so tallies were carved and seals were matched in order to earn the people's trust.

Lu Xisheng says: The ancients made agreements by tying knots in cords, and so the people did not deceive. They split wood into tallies, and so the people did not break their word. The sage has no fixed private intentions and takes the people's minds as his own. The mind of the sage and the minds of the people are like the two halves of a tally: when the other half arrives, they fit together naturally. The sage does not blame the people, so high and low are close to one another, and resentment does not arise.

Li Rong says: The ancients carved wood into tallies, with the ruler holding the left half and the subordinate the right. The two halves were matched as proof of trust, so there was no need to repeatedly bind the people with laws or to punish them arbitrarily. Hence the saying "does not blame others." If there is no punishment and no censure, what resentment is there that needs to be reconciled?

Wang Bi says: The left tally is the proof that prevents resentment from arising.

"Does not blame others" means that the sage does not demand of the people, nor hold them responsible.

Lü Jifu said: Therefore, the sage holds the left tally (the contract was split into two halves, and the left half was kept by the party receiving the goods) but does not press others for payment. In this way, even if someone seeks revenge, there is no need to draw a weapon, and even if resentment is harbored, one does not vent anger at a tile that happens to fall. This is the principle by which the world is brought to order and evenness. In ancient times, when one presented oxen and horses, one held the right tally: the right tally was used to take, and the left tally was used to give. The left tally was generally handed to others, and the holder did not regard themselves as the owner of the goods. The sage acts without self-reliance, does not claim merit after success is achieved, and often offers the surplus to the world. As for killing, it falls to the officials in charge of punishments and executions. Though the sage may wield punishment and war, the sage does not place oneself in the position of master. This is like holding the left tally and handing it to others without regarding oneself as the owner of things, and so one incurs no resentment and makes no demands on others. Is this merely because the sage delights in valuing harmony above all?

Wang Yuanze said: The left tally was used when taking things from others, and the right tally was used when demanding a token from others. The left tally does not take the initiative in exercising power, while the right tally holds the initiative, and so the ancients distinguished contracts in this way. The sage holds the left tally and does not actively govern external things. External things naturally come into accord with the sage, and the sage merely follows this accord. This is what is meant by "responding to stimulus and thereby penetrating the affairs of the world" (being moved by response and thus able to understand the principles of all things under heaven). Therefore, the sage always places the responsibility for the world upon oneself and harbors no mind that blames others, and so in the end there is no resentment. Zhuangzi said: "When one obtains something, one considers it another's merit; when one loses something, one considers it one's own fault." Shang Tang also said: "If there is any wrongdoing anywhere under heaven, the responsibility lies with me alone." This is what the principle means. The Book of Rites says that one who presents oxen and horses holds the right tally, and one who presents gifts brings the tally along with the gift, from which we know that the left tally is the token held by the party who accepts responsibility. The Records of the Grand Historian says: "He holds the right tally to pursue the matter."

Therefore, one who possesses virtue manages the contract.

Wang Yuanze said: One does not actively govern external things, and merely follows the accord between external things and oneself.

Yan Xian said: In all matters, seek the cause within oneself.

Chapter 80: Small State, Few People (Xiao Guo Gua Min)

The ruler of virtue (De) holds to the contract tallies (qìquàn), is clear-sighted but not harsh, does not let resentment arise, and only then holds people to account. The ruler without virtue scrutinizes and blames without end.

Heshang Gong said: The ruler without virtue breaks covenants and trust, and seeks out only the places where others have erred. Yan Xian said: This is what it means to demand accountability from others in all things.

Prince Shu said: "Che" (penetrating, thorough) means to grasp matters fully. If one insists on examining everything to the bottom, one inevitably blames others, and once one blames others, people inevitably develop resentment. This is precisely the sign of a lack of virtue.

"Che" means "tong," to penetrate. The person without virtue wants to trace every matter to its end, while privately harboring the intention to settle grievances and decide right and wrong. "Ci" (compassion) here also carries the sense of "che," but such close scrutiny only becomes a shadow that obscures. Therefore it is said that delighting in intervening in everything and seeking complete transparency is not the way of the sage.

The Way of Heaven (Tiandao) shows no partiality; it always helps the good person (shanren).

The Imperial Annotation said: Helping the good is simply what is done. Within this, where is there any distinction of kin or favor?

Lü Jifu said: The Way of Heaven has no private kin; it helps only the good. This is also the principle of holding to the left tally (the half of the contract that symbolizes good faith) and not blaming others.

Wang Yuanze said: Heaven has no private intentions. When people do good, it grants them aid and brings their goodness to light. The Way of Heaven and the principle of the sage are the same.

This chapter teaches that it is better to be without deliberate intent in holding to trust and refraining from blame than to contrive to settle resentments. Deliberately mediating resentment only leaves more resentment behind; keeping faith and honoring one's agreements means one need not blame others. That Heaven shows no partiality and helps only the good likewise embodies the principle of holding to the left tally and not pursuing others.

Zang Xuanjing said: Land that is not extensive is called a "small state." Soldiers and common people that are not many are called "few people."

Wang Yuanze (Wang Yuanze) said: When a state is small and its population is sparse, the people will be simple and sincere. When a state is vast and its population large, conflicting interests arise among them, and cleverness and deceit gradually take root. Observing people in the capital and in rural villages, one sees that their customs of simplicity or cunning differ, and this is the proof.

When a state is small, its governance is simple. When the population is small, the people are unpretentious. When governance is simple and the people are unpretentious, one can restore the sincere rule of high antiquity.

"Even if there are vessels that ten or a hundred people would share, they are not used."

Prince Shu (Shuwang) said: When the people are few, the manpower the state needs to mobilize is also limited. Therefore, in a small state with few people, even vessels shared by ten or a hundred people have no use.

Wang Yuanze said: A vessel shared by ten people is called shiqi, and one shared by a hundred is called boqi. Governance by qingjing wuwei (quiescence and non-action) emphasizes letting each person settle into their own life, without arbitrarily undertaking affairs. In this way, large crowds never gather to carry out tasks, so even vessels for ten or a hundred people have no use.

"Let the people value their lives and not lightly risk death; do not let them move far from their homeland."

Heshang Gong (Heshang Gong) said: If the ruler undertakes beneficial works for the people and removes calamities, so that each person dwells in a fitting place, the people will cherish their lives and devote themselves to their livelihood. When orders are not burdensome, the people are content with their occupations, so they will not migrate far from the places where they habitually live.

Wang Yuanze said: When the people enjoy their lives and follow their natural dispositions, they cherish their lives. When they are content with their homeland and have no excessive desires, they do not travel far to migrate.

"Valuing life" means not recklessly risking death, unlike those who lightly give up their lives in pursuit of great profit. "Not migrating far" means dwelling securely in one's own home, unlike the condition of a people scattered and wandering, unable to find peace.

"Even if there are boats and carriages, there is no occasion to ride them; even if there are armor and weapons, there is no occasion to display or deploy them."

The Imperial Annotation (Yuzhu) said: Since there are no distant journeys that require crossing dangerous passes, boats and carriages have no need to be ridden. Since there are no campaigns or battles, armor and weapons have nowhere to be deployed.

Zuanwei says: Hollowing out a log to make a boat allows one to cross water, and shaping wood into wheels to build a cart allows one to travel over land. Both serve long-distance journeys. Without boats and carriages, people would have no vehicles to ride. Without warfare, armor and weapons would have no formation in which to be deployed.

Zuanwei further says: In the age of Wuwei (non-action), there are no footpaths or tunnels through the mountains, and no boats or bridges across the lakes and marshes. People have no reason to travel far, so what would they need to ride?

Zhang Junxiang (Zhang Junxiang) says: The army exists to punish rebels, and force exists to quell disorder. When those above follow the Dao (the Way), the common people come to love De (Virtue), and they are transformed by its influence. What need is there for troops to be drawn up in battle formation? Viewed from the perspective of inner cultivation, boats and carriages are a metaphor for the Lesser Vehicle (xiaocheng), and armor and weapons are a metaphor for petty wisdom. When the mind is at peace, the true aspect (shixiang), that is, the real and unfalse substance, is no longer grasped or put to use.

Wang Yuanze (Wang Yuanze) says: When the people are content with their own station, they will have no worries about roaming far or fighting wars.

Cao Daochong (Cao Daochong) says: When a large state does not invade and a small state keeps its own territory, then helmets, armor, and spears have no use in war.

"Let the people return to knotted cords and use them" means letting the people go back to the life of recording events with knotted cords.

Wang Yuanze says: When affairs are simple and the people are unpretentious, there is no need for written documents or contracts.

Tang Minghuang (Emperor Tang Minghuang) says: Boats and carriages make migration easier, while armor and weapons are used in attack and defense. When the people have no desire to travel far or to contend with one another, these things are naturally of no use. In this way they return to simplicity and purity, restoring the life of knotted-cord record keeping.

The Shu (Commentary) says: In ancient times there were no written contracts, and people recorded matters with knotted cords. Thus the Xici (Great Appendix) says: "In high antiquity, people knotted cords to keep records and used this to govern the realm; later sages replaced them with written documents and contracts." This shows that in the age of knotted-cord record keeping, people were all simple and unpretentious. Once writing arose, deceit and falsehood gradually increased. Now, to make people forget private attachments and rid themselves of desire, so that they return to the simplicity of antiquity, the text says "let the people return to knotted cords and use them."

"Find their food sweet, their clothing beautiful, their dwellings secure, and their customs delightful" means letting the common people feel that their food is savory and their clothing pleasing, that their homes are peaceful, and that they take joy in their own customs.

Imperial Annotation: The common people cultivate the fields to sustain themselves and weave cloth for their clothing. Once they have eaten their fill, they play, and once their bellies are full, they stroll at leisure. If the common people can do this, that is enough. Because they keep to their proper bounds, their food is sweet. Because they set aside ornate decoration, their clothing is fine. Because they do not disturb one another, their lives are settled. Because they preserve their lives in accordance with nature, their hearts are content.

Tang Emperor Ming Huang (Xuanzong) said: Without craving flavors, what one eats always seems naturally sweet. Without seeking elaborate embroidered garments, what one wears always seems naturally fine. Without embellishing their dwellings, the people dwell in peace. Without harming the simplicity of folk custom, the people's lives are joyful.

Neighboring states can see one another, and the crowing of roosters and barking of dogs can be heard across the border, yet the people, until they die of old age, never visit one another.

Wang Yuanze said: This is governance that allows each person to fully realize their natural endowment, so that the common people can follow their own inborn nature without restraint. I have examined the final chapters of the Analects and the Mencius, and both speak of the achievements of sage rulers such as Yao, Shun, Yu, and Tang. Their general sense is that applying the principles of these books to governing the state will produce such results. Laozi was a great sage. The age in which he lived was one of turmoil, precisely a time suited to returning to the root and following one's nature. Therefore he set forth the essential teachings of Dao (the Way) and De (Virtue/Power), gathered the scattered and tangled things of the world, and returned them to simplicity and sincerity. Applying the principles of this book to affairs of government can transform the people and form good customs, and the outcome described in this chapter is exactly this. Thus the meaning of the Daodejing (Dao De Jing) concludes here.

Lü Jifu said: From the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties onward, when the Zhou was in decline, the abuses of ritual forms and institutions had grown very severe, and the common people therefore...

Lü Jifu said: From the Three Dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou onward, by the decline of the Zhou, the defects of ritual forms and institutions had become severe. The common people had lost the ordinary sense of following their nature and preserving their lives. For this reason Laozi used the simplicity of the Dao (the Way) to correct the age, seeking to return the governance of the people to the methods of high antiquity.

Why did the Shijing (Classic of Odes) and the Shangshu (Classic of Documents) speak only of Yao, Shun, and the Three Dynasties, while Laozi sought to restore the governance of high antiquity? Because the Dao and the customs of the world had long been at odds. Only the Great Dao can return people to the ordinary condition of their nature and life. To speak of the Dao without relating it to the changes of the world is not enough to show how the Great Dao was once practiced. Therefore Laozi necessarily spoke of restoring the Dao of high antiquity.

Yet the world had moved far from antiquity. Could everything of that age be fully restored? No. Then why did Laozi still speak this way? By then, ritual had grown to combine the practices of Xia, Shang, and Zhou, music had grown to include the dance-music of six dynastic traditions, and ornamentation had reached its height. Even so, in ritual the xuanshui (pure water used in sacrifice) and the dageng (unseasoned meat broth) were still placed before the sweet wine and the seasoned broths. In music, the clear, simple sounds of the huiguan (small pipes) and the qingqing (clear chimes) were still placed above the sounds of the vermilion strings and the shuyue (sparse, resonant tones). This was to make people understand the true intent of ritual and music. In reality, elaborate forms were adopted out of necessity, but what the heart seeks is still a return to origins and a renewal of beginnings.

In that very age, Confucius strove to seek out the ritual and musical traditions left by King Wen, King Wu, and the Duke of Zhou, and to continue them. Laozi, by contrast, discussed the relationship between the Dao and the world. Their intentions were in fact close. It is like the fourth month of the Xia calendar, when fire qi begins to flourish and metal qi already stirs within it. The qi of the Five Phases (wuxing: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) thus move in succession without cease.

Accordingly, we have heard that in the ancient governance of the realm, even when there were implements ten or a hundred times more than ordinary, they were not used. Though there were boats and carriages, they were not ridden. Though there were armor and weapons, they were not arrayed for battle. When great affairs had to be undertaken or large numbers of people mobilized, these were done only out of necessity. We have also heard that in that time the common people kept records by knotting cords, that neighboring states could see one another and hear one another's dogs and chickens, and yet people grew old and died without ever visiting one another. The later proliferation of tedious documents and decrees, the supervision and urging of officials, and the frequent exchanges between the feudal lords with carriages and horses traveling a thousand li were likewise formed out of necessity.

The realities born of necessity always lie on one side, while the fundamental state that people long to restore lies on the other. Would Laozi be willing to add complicated affairs, to probe deeply into and correct the faults of the people? If one could act in this way, the realm would naturally be settled and at peace. Even without stating it outright, if the pure water were withdrawn and the clear, sparse sounds such as the shuyue were set aside, how could people come to understand that ritual should prefer simplicity, that music should value restraint, and that the intent is to return to origins and begin anew? Could the words of the sage be merely small additions?

Chapter 81 (Zhang 81): Trustworthy Words Are Not Beautiful

Trustworthy words are not beautiful.

Shu Wang (Prince of Shu) said: "Trustworthiness" (xin) means according with one's innate nature. The closer words come to that nature, the more fully they reach the state of following what is natural, so trustworthy words are not beautiful. If a ruler governs the realm so that the people find their food sweet, their clothing comfortable, their homes secure, and their customs delightful, and so that they never visit one another until they die, then governance has reached its highest point. The next step is to further gather the people's hearts and return them to the Dao (the Way), which is why this chapter opens with "trustworthy words are not beautiful."

Wang Yuanze said: Trustworthy words take the Dao as their essence. When the Dao is spoken aloud, it is plain and without flavor. How could there be anything beautiful about it?

The Laozi says: "Trustworthy words are not beautiful; beautiful words are not trustworthy." Words that steal principles to please others are very sweet, and sweetness is a beauty of taste. Words decorated to look attractive are very showy, and showiness is a beauty of color. Clever, eloquent speech that sounds like the reed-organ (sheng) is pleasing to the ear, and pleasantness is a beauty of sound. Trustworthy words speak in accordance with the Dao. They are plain and flavorless and do not pursue ornament. They have no dazzling rhetoric and no deliberate embellishment, and they do not rely on clever argument or smooth speech to win. This is why they do not appear beautiful.

Beautiful and moving words are not necessarily trustworthy.

Heshang Gong said: "Beautiful words" are words with brilliant, flashy diction. That they are "not trustworthy" is because they contain much pretense and many empty phrases.

Ji Wang said: The more beautiful the words, the harder it is for them to approach human nature, so beautiful words are not necessarily trustworthy.

Wang Yuanze said: To discuss things apart from the principles of the Dao may please shallow-minded listeners, but it is not the most penetrating discourse, and so it cannot be called trustworthy.

One who is good at practicing the Dao does not argue.

One who is good at cultivating the great Dao does not rely on debate to prove himself. Those who are skilled at debate are not necessarily truly skilled at practicing the Dao.

The one who knows is not necessarily broadly learned.

The Imperial Annotation says: Those who truly understand the subtleties of the Dao (Dao, the Way) need only grasp the essentials. The Daodejing says: "Taking less brings back gain."

The Zuanwei (Compendium) says: The "knower" here means one who understands the Dao. Such a person grasps principles and knows the root, and grasping the essentials is enough. Why range widely over everything? This is what is meant by "taking less brings back gain."

The broadly learned are not necessarily truly knowing.

The Imperial Annotation says: Hearing and seeing much is not as good as holding fast to the simple essentials. Zhuangzi says: "Do not strive only for breadth, and do not take skill in argument for wisdom."

Heshang Gong says: The broadly learned may have many things heard and seen, yet fail to grasp the essentials, and so lose the true Dao.

Su Zishi (Su Zhe) says: One who can connect all affairs through a single fundamental principle need not range widely over everything. Seeking only to add to one's knowledge day by day does not necessarily lead to understanding the Dao.

The sage does not hoard.

Wang Bi says: Without private desire, one naturally possesses; one simply gives goodness to others and acts in accordance with the myriad things.

The more one gives to others, the more one's own store grows; the more one gives to others, the more one's own abundance increases.

Wang Yuanze says: "For others" means putting the Dao into practice and governing the world. Following the tendencies of things and helping them develop does not diminish the Dao, and one's undertaking becomes all the greater. "Giving to others" means transmitting the Dao to people. Transmitting the Dao is like Heaven giving life to the myriad things: Heaven itself is not diminished by this, yet the myriad things multiply day by day. The earlier statement that the sage does not hoard, and this later statement that the sage can nourish the myriad things, explain each other: precisely because the sage does not hoard, the myriad things are more fully supplied.

Cao Daochong says: To give widely is to receive a blessing that cannot be exhausted. Not hoarding means that the responses one receives are also without end. The marvelous functioning of the Dao (the Way) arises anew each day, so what one draws upon never runs dry. To give widely is to gain something every day, and in taking one's fill, one finds it all the more abundant.

To accumulate is always to feel insufficient; to refrain from hoarding private stores is to always have a surplus. The sage does not accumulate, which means keeping oneself empty. It is precisely because of this emptiness that one can respond fully to all things. If the inner mind is filled and clings, one is instead easily obstructed. Therefore, the more one gives to others, the richer one becomes oneself, and having given to others, one in turn obtains more.

The Heavenly Dao (the way of natural operation) benefits the myriad things but does not harm them.

The Imperial Commentary says: The Dao of Qian (the vigorous virtue of Heaven's operation) initiates the myriad things and extends its fine benefits to all under Heaven. It does not proclaim what benefit it has bestowed, yet the myriad things truly receive its benefit. It has never harmed them.

Lu Yu says: What people do often benefits one side while harming the other. The Heavenly Dao is fair and free of private partiality, and so it can benefit the myriad things without harming them.

Gu Huan says: The good person follows the Dao and thereby achieves completion. The wicked person, too, is transformed by the Dao and in the end returns to unity. Therefore the Heavenly Dao benefits the myriad things and does not harm them.

Heaven takes the Dao as its model. In spring and summer it causes the myriad things to grow and flourish; in autumn and winter it causes them to ripen and be gathered in. This is what it means to benefit the myriad things without harming them.

The sage's way of acting is to act purposefully yet not to contend with others.

Lü Jifu said: The Dao (the Way) that Laozi speaks of can be apprehended from within the heart, observed in the myriad things outside, and examined by looking up at the heavens and down at the earth. It accords with all of these everywhere, and this is what is meant by "trustworthiness" (xin). Yet shallow people laugh when they hear it, and the people of the world find it seemingly contrary to common sense. This is what is meant by "not regarded as beautiful." Laozi's words appear simple and close at hand, but their intent is profoundly far-reaching, and this is "goodness" (shan). Yet he does not win people over with words, nor does he argue, and this is why he does not take eloquence as his ability. His wisdom reaches a state of non-attachment, as if ignorant, and this is true knowledge. His essential point never departs from our original mind, and this is why he does not pursue broad learning and wide-ranging observation.

Students who seek the Dao of Laozi through ornate words, clever argument, and extensive knowledge will only move further away from it. Laozi holds that accumulating tangible knowledge and things is not sufficient. Even sages and wise persons must sever and abandon such attachments, and this is what is called "non-accumulation" (wuji). Only by reaching the state of emptiness can one supply the needs of all things. Thus, the less one stores up, the more one is able to bring about abundance. Students who cannot cleave open their hearts and remove distracting thoughts will be unable to attain this state.

Every thing has both advantageous and disadvantageous aspects, and where there is disadvantage, harm is inevitably caused. Only the Dao of Heaven seeks benefit without partiality, so nothing is beyond its power to complete, and it confers benefit without causing harm. Actions performed with deliberate intention always carry a self-centered mind, and where there is a self, contention arises. Only the sage acts without clinging to deliberate doing, and this is what is called wuwei (non-action). Through non-action one forgets the self, and forgetting the self, one does not contend. This is the Dao of Heaven.

The Sage follows the Way of Heaven. Though they act, their action springs from non-action (Wuwei). They bring about change and accomplish affairs without contending with the myriad things, and for this reason the Sage is able to preserve their achievements. This chapter gives an overview of the central purpose of the Daodejing, arguing from the standpoint of attending to the Great Dao.

The Great Dao is bland and tasteless, so it does not lure people with flavors. Words serve to clarify the Dao, so they do not seek ornate embellishment or eloquent display. The essentials of the Dao are simple and uncomplicated, so they do not seek broad exposition. The Sage emulates the Dao, so they do not accumulate or hoard. With a mind utterly free of self-interest, they supply the myriad things with what they need, and therefore the more they give, the more they receive. Heaven emulates the Dao: it benefits the myriad things without harming them. The Sage emulates Heaven: they act without contending. Those who sincerely wish to grasp the teaching of Dao and De should above all benefit the myriad things without contention, and this is why the chapter ends on this point.

On the Unity of Dao and De

Before the myriad things take on physical form, Dao and De are both profound and hard to discern. Once the myriad things have come into being, Dao and De become manifest. What is the Dao? It is that from which all things come, and this is the Dao. What is De? It is the Dao as realized within each thing itself, and this is De.

From the perspective of distinction, Dao and De have two names. From the perspective of sameness, the two are always one. The Dao is realized as De, yet De has never departed from the Dao; De arises from the Dao, yet the Dao has never departed from De. The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: "When the One first appeared, there was a root not yet formed; things obtained it and grew, and this is called De." Speaking of "a root not yet formed," it is called Dao; speaking of "things obtaining it and growing," it is called De.

The Nanhua Jing further says that De is gathered within the root unified by the Dao. When Dao and De are joined, they form a single whole; when viewed separately, they become two names. The Daodejing spoken of here is precisely about the joining of Dao and De into one.

The names "Daojing" (Scripture of the Way) and "Dejing" (Scripture of Virtue) were given by later generations and were not the original titles of Laozi's text. Later readers saw that the opening of the first part contains "Dao ke dao" (the Dao that can be spoken of is not the constant Dao), so they called the first part the Dao Jing. They saw that the opening of the second part contains "shang de bu de" (the highest De does not seek to be De), so they called the second part the De Jing. In this way, Dao and De seem to have been split into two separate parts.

Yet the first part also speaks of De, as in "kong de zhi rong, wei dao shi cong" (the appearance of great De follows only the Dao), and the second part also speaks of Dao, as in "dao sheng zhi, de xu zhi" (the Dao gives birth to all things, and De nourishes them). This shows that Dao and De depend on each other, and neither can be discussed alone.

The Dao has no visible form and does not act deliberately, so it exists before the myriad things change and come into being. De appears as the power that nourishes and completes all things, so it becomes manifest during the process of transformation. The Dao comes first, so it is called "shang" (above). De comes after, so it is called "xia" (below). Yet Dao and De together form a single whole and cannot be cut into two unrelated parts.

The Xisheng Jing (Scripture of the Western Ascension) says: "When Dao and De become one, one communicates with the Dao." The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: "Without the Dao, bodily form cannot arise; once life arises, without De it cannot be made clear. To preserve the form and exhaust the principle of life is to establish De and make the Dao manifest." From this we can see that Dao and De depend on each other and cannot be separated.

In his Shuyao (Summary of Essentials), Sima Wengong (Sima Guang) records that the Grand Historian (Sima Qian) wrote that Laozi composed two parts that set out the principles of Dao and De. Later readers, relying on the opening words of the two parts, named the first part "Dao" and the second part "De." In truth, Dao and De are joined as one and cannot be emphasized one over the other. For this reason, this edition keeps the original title, Daode Zhenjing (True Scripture of the Way and Its Power).