《道德真经四子古道集解(寇材质)》Vol. 1

Collected Commentaries on the Ancient Way in the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue by Four Masters was compiled by Kou Caizhi in the Jin dynasty and comprises ten volumes. It is included in the Zhengtong Daozang, in the Yujue category of the Dongshen section. The surviving base text comes from the Zhengtong Daozang, with a facsimile edition of the Daozang Jiyao, printed by Jiang Yuanting in the Qing dynasty, used for comparison.

I was originally an obscure person from the countryside, and ordinarily gave little thought to seeking fame or official distinction. After reaching adulthood, I came to value a quiet, unassuming life, and also studied alchemical scriptures—texts on Daoist cultivation—and the arts of divination. In my later years, I read the works of the ancients and surveyed the writings of the many schools. I explored the profound principles of Laozi’s Dao De Jing and found that every chapter carried meaning, deep and subtle.

I examined the commentaries of various schools and found many of their claims extravagant and absurd. They advanced one position after another, mixing right and wrong, truth and falsehood, and straying far from the original aims of those schools. They had lost the true character of the ancient Dao—a cause for real regret. Only the works of Zhuangzi, Liezi, Wenzi, and Gengsangzi—the four sages named in Daoist texts—were interpretations written after Laozi’s disciples personally transmitted the teachings of the Dao De Jing. Their ideas accorded with one another. The other commentaries, by contrast, argued back and forth, treating words on the page as a skill and empty talk of nothingness as their guiding principle, without any substantial foundation. How could they be compared with the works of the Four Masters?

In the past, while serving in an official post, I traveled to the capital and had the chance to visit eminent Daoists. The lecturer touched briefly on the subtle workings of the mysterious, but spoke only of emptiness and could not explain even a small part of the Dao. I examined myself and found my conscience clear. I knew that my understanding of the Dao came from careful inquiry and personal realization. I hoped to help people free themselves from the many obscurations caused by desire, and I grieved that the sacred Dao had not been transmitted. I also feared that those bound by doubts and rigid views would argue without end, buzzing like a swarm of bees. So I selected passages from the Four Masters, cited authentic scriptures, and compiled a book in ten volumes to clarify the claims that merely echoed one another. I therefore named it The Meaning of the Ancient Dao in the Four Masters. I also wrote ten volumes of Explanations of the Scriptures and Histories, which complements the first work.

Now, at last, this treatise is complete. I do not presume to rely on my own conjectures as evidence. I hope it will not only renew the understanding of people today, but also serve as a lasting standard for later generations. I respectfully ask gentlemen who love Daoist learning not to laugh at it. During a period of leisure and repose, I took up my brush and wrote these words as they truly are.

The Nanhua Jing says that Heaven and Earth teach through Wuwei (non-action) and silence. The ancients held this in the highest regard, and it was the principle praised in common by the Three Sovereigns. What, exactly, did the ancient kings do to govern the world? They merely followed Heaven and Earth in Wuwei. In ancient times, the Great Dao was not spoken of, and true debate needed no words. Once the Great Dao is made manifest as a particular principle, it is no longer the Great Dao; once words become disputation, they no longer reach the truth. Who, in later generations, understands the teaching of silence and the Dao that cannot be spoken? Whoever does understand them has grasped the Great Dao in Heaven’s treasury: acting through Wuwei is the great teaching of Heaven and Earth in silence. The Way of Heaven is constant and free of desire, and all things transform and come into being naturally, without needing instruction in words.

“Dao that can be spoken”:

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Origin of the Dao,” says that principles for handling worldly affairs, such as benevolence and righteousness, call for actions suited to changing circumstances. Since changes arise with the times, these practices have no constant, unchanging standard. Thus, the “Dao” that can be explained and defined as a particular principle is not the eternal, unchanging Dao.

The Dongling Jing says that later generations took minor achievements in human affairs, such as benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and music, to be the Dao. They embellished them with words and commands, but this only brought government to ruin. They are not the eternal Dao.

“Name that can be named”:

The Tongxuan Jing says that books and learning arise from human speech. Speech stems from cleverness, which may involve deception and cannot bring people to a true understanding of the Dao.

Words written on bamboo and silk or engraved on metal and stone convey specific content that can be passed on to others. They are not the profound knowledge held within, which cannot be fully transmitted. Therefore, names that can be spoken and fixed are not the eternal, unchanging names.

“An extraordinary name” means that the truly constant Way cannot be summed up in the ordinary names and words of the world.

The True Scripture of the Numinous Cavern says: Most people in later generations recite books on arts and techniques or study various skills. What people usually call “words” is mostly what can be expressed in speech. Words that deliberately seek cleverness and are ornate and elaborate are not constant words.

“Nameless, it is the beginning of Heaven and Earth” means that before the Dao appears in a concrete form, it is called “nameless”; it is the beginning of Heaven and Earth.

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says: Where there is no name, there is no form. The Great Dao has no form, and so is still and inactive. The constant Dao is the Dao that cannot be explained in words. It is vast and boundless: this is what is meant by the Great Dao in Heaven’s treasury, which operates without relying on commands.

“Named, it is the mother of the myriad things” means that when the Dao appears with a name and form, it becomes the source from which the myriad things arise.

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says: Where there is a name, there is form. Heaven and Earth have form, yet still follow the unspeakable Great Dao, remaining still and silent. Constant words are words that are not expressed in speech. They are vast and boundless: this is what is meant by Heaven and Earth being wordless.

“Constantly without desire, one observes its subtlety” means that by keeping the mind free of desire, one can observe the Dao’s hidden and profound subtleties.

The Southern Flower Scripture (that is, the Zhuangzi) says: There is the Way of Heaven, which honors Wuwei (non-action). Heaven and Earth possess great wisdom, yet rest in stillness and non-action. The Great Dao acts without acting, embodying the mysteries of nature.

“Constantly with desire, one observes its boundaries” means that by observing from the perspective of having desires, one can see the limits and first signs that things reveal.

The Southern Flower Scripture says: There is also the human way, characterized by purposeful action, but it is inferior to the Way of Heaven. People learn only limited wisdom and are often busy pursuing action. The human way acts, and is prone to chasing after good fortune. The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says: Acting with purpose can bring harm and lead one to care only for the details.

“These two” refers to the two ways of observing: observing subtlety without desire and observing boundaries with desire.

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says: Those who accord with the Way of Heaven walk with the Dao; those who follow human desires become mired in worldly learning. The Southern Flower Scripture says: The Way of Heaven and the human way are far apart, and must be carefully distinguished.

“Arise from the same source” means that both arise from the Dao.

The Southern Flower Scripture says: If different things are viewed together, they can be regarded as the same. The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says: A sage can teach people to be of one mind and move toward a common destination.

“Yet have different names” means that although both arise from the Dao, they appear with different names and forms.

The Southern Flower Scripture says: If things that seem the same are viewed separately, their differences become apparent. The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says: The deeds of the Five Emperors and Three Kings in later generations differed, as did their ways of governing. The Five Emperors each followed a different path of governance, yet all were able to govern the world. A sage’s teaching can bring people to one mind and one destination.

“Different names” means that although the Dao is one, it is called by different names. The Nanhua Jing says that when things that are alike are divided, they become different. The Tongxuan Jing says that the deeds of the Five Emperors and Three Kings in later ages differed, as did their ways of governing the world. The Five Emperors used different ways to govern, while the Three Kings changed their methods in response to the times; their accounts therefore differed as well.

“To call them the same is to call them mysterious” means that this shared, fundamental principle is called “mystery”—the profound and subtle Dao. The Tongxuan Jing says that the sages of antiquity accorded with the heart of Heaven and became one with the Dao. This is the Wuwei (non-action) and profound Great Dao.

“Mystery upon mystery” means that the Dao is profound and more profound still. The Nanhua Jing says that the Dao reaches the utmost depths yet can bring forth the myriad things; it is supremely wondrous and can generate the finest substances.

“The gate of all wonders” means that the Dao is the source and gateway of every kind of wonder. The Tongxuan Jing says that the Dao establishes itself as One, from which all things are born; thus the foundation of every matter issues from the Dao as its source. The Nanhua Jing says that although the myriad things are alive, we cannot see their root; although they come into being, we cannot see the way by which they arise. They arrive without a trace and depart without end. The Dao has no fixed gate or dwelling, yet it extends in every direction.

Chapter Two: All Under Heaven Knows

The Tongxuan Jing says that the sage understands the depths of the mind, accords with the transformations of Heaven and Earth, and holds mysterious De (Virtue/Power) within. The sage’s teaching works like a wondrous transformation: without speaking, it brings all under Heaven under its influence. This is teaching in accord with the heart of Heaven. Thus, teaching without words is boundless; understanding the principle requires no verbal dispute; and without deliberate instruction, one can reach the Great Dao. This is the Wuwei of the Great Dao stored naturally in Heaven’s treasury, and the way Heaven and Earth teach and transform the myriad things without speaking. The myriad things change naturally, without the need to pursue minor achievements. If people seek goodness and beauty through contrived words and actions, the people will instead come to dislike what is not good.

The Tongxuan Jing says that in later ages, governing the world without the Dao brings calamity upon all under Heaven. If one forces action in every matter, one becomes entangled in the affairs of the world and is then unable to govern it well. When those above take action, those below follow suit.

The “Subtle Illumination” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: People in later generations think they know how to learn, but in fact their understanding of the Dao is shallow. The ancients seemed not to know how to learn, yet they understood the Dao deeply. Learning today pursues desires outwardly; the ancients seemed not to study, yet they examined their nature inwardly. Who among later generations can understand that thinking one knows how to learn may mean one does not understand the Dao, while seeming not to study may mean one truly understands it? Thus, when everyone under Heaven knows what is beautiful and treats it as beautiful, the distinction between beauty and ugliness arises.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao cannot be heard through keen ears. Hearing much is merely learning; it does not mean one has attained the Dao. The Dao cannot be seen through sharp eyes. Seeing clearly is merely learning; it does not mean one has attained the Dao. Nor can the Dao be explained through words. Skill in argument is merely learning; it does not mean one has attained the Dao. These practices instead lead people away from the Dao.

When everyone under Heaven knows what is good and treats it as good, the distinction between good and not good arises.

The “No Beginning” chapter of the Nanhua Jing says: The ancients seemed not to know how to learn, yet they understood the Dao deeply. People today make learning an object of pursuit, but their understanding of the Dao is shallow. They do not examine their nature inwardly; they pursue desires only outwardly. So Taiching sighed: The ancients seemed not to study, yet they understood the Dao. Who among later generations can understand that the wisdom of seeming “not to know” is true understanding of the Dao? Thus, when everyone under Heaven knows what is good and treats it as good, not good arises from this.

The Nanhua Jing says: The Dao cannot be heard through keen ears; hearing much is merely learning and does not mean one has attained the Dao. The Dao cannot be seen through sharp eyes; seeing clearly is merely learning and does not mean one has attained the Dao. Nor can the Dao be explained through words; skill in argument is merely learning and does not mean one has attained the Dao. Therefore, when everyone under Heaven knows what is good and treats it as good, not good may arise.

Thus, being and nonbeing depend on one another and give rise to one another.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao by which a ruler governs the realm is expressed in the mutual generation of being and nonbeing.

Hard and easy, too, complete one another.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The ancients taught the people by upright means, using methods that were simple and sure to succeed. Later generations taught them by improper means, making matters difficult and ultimately failing. To abandon the right path, which succeeds easily, and insist on doing what is difficult is bound to end in failure. Thus, difficulty and ease are revealed in relation to each other.

“Long” and “short” show their difference only through comparison.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, the people were simple and unknowing, and there was no marked comparison between long and short. In later generations, human contrivance increased, and the difference between long and short became apparent.

“High” and “low” show their difference only through comparison.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, the people were simple and unknowing, and neither height nor depth pressed against the other. When lightness and heaviness were balanced, the scale did not tip. With no partiality or covering over, there was no high and low pressing against each other. In later generations, human contrivance increased, and differences in height and the resulting pressure appeared.

Sounds answer one another.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: The teaching of a great person is like sound and echo. The Tongxuan Jing says: An echo answers a sound, just as one sings above and another responds below.

What comes before and after follow one another.

The Nanhua Jing says: The teaching of a great person is like a body and its shadow. The Tongxuan Jing says: The shadow reflects the body, and what comes before and after follow one another.

Therefore, the sage…

The Tongxuan Jing says: The foundation of the Great Dao lies in modeling oneself on the Way of Heaven, and the most sage-like person models himself on the Way of Heaven. To model oneself on the Way of Heaven is to follow the patterns by which Heaven and Earth move. Emptiness, stillness, and non-action are the state of Heaven and Earth.

He handles affairs through Wuwei (non-action).

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, those who followed the kingly way handled affairs through Wuwei.

He carries out a teaching that relies on no words.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, those who followed the kingly way practiced the Way that does not speak. Emptiness, stillness, and non-action are the state of Heaven and Earth.

He handles affairs through Wuwei.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, those who followed the kingly way handled affairs through Wuwei.

He carries out a teaching that relies on no words.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, those who followed the kingly way carried out a teaching that did not speak.

All things…

The Nanhua Jing (Classic of the Southern Florescence) says: The number of things in the world far exceeds ten thousand. But because the largest number is used to name and count them, they are collectively called “the myriad things.”

“It brings forth the myriad things without shirking the labor.”

The Nanhua Jing says: Heaven does not deliberately produce the myriad things, yet they grow through it; Earth does not deliberately transform the myriad things, yet they change through it.

“It gives life to and nurtures the myriad things without claiming them as its own.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao gives life to and nurtures the myriad things. People cannot see how it sustains them, yet they continue to grow. This is the Wuwei (non-action) of the divine and numinous—the subtle workings of nature.

“It brings the myriad things to completion without relying on them.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao brings the myriad things to completion. People cannot see how it acts, yet the things are brought to completion. This is the Wuwei of the divine and numinous. The Dao gives life to and nurtures the myriad things. People cannot see how it sustains them, yet they continue to grow. This, too, is the Wuwei of the divine and numinous.

“Once its work is done, it does not claim credit.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Not claiming credit” means Wuwei. Because it is Wuwei, it neither claims credit nor seeks fame, and it does not speak at length. The Great Dao acts through Wuwei. People do not know exactly what it has done, yet its accomplishments come about naturally.

“Precisely because it does not claim credit, its accomplishments do not disappear.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Not claiming credit” means remaining in a state of Wuwei, without acting rashly or speaking at length.

The Nanhua Jing says: The Dao acts through Wuwei, and the inherent nature of the myriad things emerges naturally. As for the Perfected Person, whose virtue has reached the highest state, they do not deliberately cultivate De, yet the myriad things do not leave them.

Chapter Three: Not Esteeming the Worthy

This chapter quotes the “Way of Heaven” chapter of the Nanhua Jing: The ancient emperors took Heaven and Earth as their foundation, Dao and De as their guiding principles, and Wuwei as their constant way. Governing the world through Wuwei leaves more than enough strength to go around. Thus the sages of high antiquity governed the world by keeping people’s minds empty and calm and their lives abundant. This was Wuwei. They regularly kept the people from becoming too clever or too desirous, and prevented them from daring to act recklessly. They did not promote those with reputations for worthiness, nor place high value on wealth. By practicing Wuwei in this way, they brought peace to the world.

“Do not promote those with reputations for worthiness.”

The Nanhua Jing says: In the age of high antiquity, when the Great Dao prevailed and De was profound, worthy people were not especially promoted, nor capable people deliberately appointed. The ruler was as simple as a tree branch, and the people were as free as wild deer.

The principle by which sages govern the world is not to incite the people with the pursuit of fame and profit. “Wuwei” (non-action) means not deliberately driving or interfering with things, but following nature. Then the world can be at peace.

Do not exalt those deemed worthy, so people will not compete for fame.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, when the Great Dao prevailed and De was pure and abundant, no special distinction was made for the worthy, nor were the capable deliberately appointed. The ruler rested as peacefully as a branch, while the people lived as freely as wild deer.

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Chapter on Lower De,” says: People in later ages often want to be worthier than others and resent anyone who surpasses them. When they strive to be counted among the worthy, a spirit of contention arises; when they resent being less capable than others, this gives rise to bitterness and conflict. Once resentment and contention begin, people’s hearts grow confused and their vital energy becomes unsettled. The sage kings of antiquity caused contention and resentment to subside. When neither arose, people’s hearts were at peace and their vital energy flowed smoothly. Thus it is said: Do not exalt the worthy, and the people will not compete for fame.

Do not inflate the value of rare and hard-to-obtain goods.

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Higher Meaning,” says: The way of governing in ancient times was to guide the people without inflating the value of scarce goods or placing importance on useless things.

Then the people will not steal.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, gold was hidden in the mountains and pearls in the depths of the waters; wealth was not used to pursue profit.

Do not display things that could stir people’s greed.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity did not display things that might tempt people to covet them. Their minds and spirits could therefore remain tranquil, free of desire.

Keep people’s hearts from being disturbed.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Rulers in later ages indulged in sensual pleasures and failed to maintain proper bearing, and their states fell into disorder. When this reached its extreme, it brought the calamity of licentiousness and ruin. Therefore, those who govern the people must be careful about the influence they convey. The Chongxu Jing also says: When rulers in later ages were licentious, the people followed suit; when the sages of antiquity were restrained and free of desire, the people naturally remained simple and pure.

Therefore, when sages govern the world…

The Tongxuan Jing says: The foundation of governance is Wuwei. Therefore, when sages govern the world, their minds are empty, still, and serene; they follow the Way of nature and remain detached and free of deliberate action. Then the world can be at peace.

Keep people’s hearts empty and still.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In governing affairs of state, only a calm and empty mind can perceive the Great Dao. The sage empties the mind because he sees what he lacks; seeing what he lacks enables him to cultivate virtue. Those who live extravagantly cannot endure.

Fill the belly.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity held fast to what was fundamental within and did not lose their ability to respond to the world outside. Thus they were fulfilled in body and mind, and had few desires.

Soften ambition.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In governing affairs of state, only a modest and yielding will can perceive the Great Dao. By yielding in intention while acting with strength, one keeps the heart quiet and can understand without deliberate thought.

Strengthen the sinews and bones.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The perfected people of antiquity governed the world by casting aside reliance on their own cleverness and dispelling ornate affectation. In this way, they accorded with the spirit-like Dao of Wuwei (non-action). When the spirit-like Dao dwells within, the five organs are at peace, thoughts are balanced, the sinews and bones are strong, the ears and eyes keen, and body and mind firm without exhaustion. One can also meet whatever one undertakes with ease.

Always keep the people’s inner spirit settled, and the five organs will be at peace, thoughts balanced, sinews and bones strong, and ears and eyes keen. Body and mind will be firm without exhaustion, and they will meet whatever they undertake with ease.

Always keep the people…

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: The people of antiquity practiced Wuwei, yet still had more than enough to govern the world. When those in high positions practice Wuwei, those below them will do so as well.

Do not flaunt knowledge or indulge desires.

The Nanhua Jing says: When people follow a state of unknowing, their virtue does not scatter; when they follow a state of desirelessness, the people can remain simple and unspoiled.

Make those who think themselves knowledgeable afraid to act recklessly.

The Nanhua Jing says: Those in high positions must practice Wuwei in order to make use of the people of the world; those in low positions must act in order to be of use to the world. This is an unchanging principle.

Act through Wuwei.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Act through Wuwei, handle affairs with an attitude of doing nothing, and seek knowledge without assuming that you already know. The Nanhua Jing says: The essential task of an emperor in governing the world lies in Wuwei.

Then nothing in the world will be left unguided.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity were tranquil and practiced Wuwei, yet there was nothing they could not accomplish. They did not govern by deliberate effort, yet nothing was left unguided.

Chapter Four: The Dao Is Empty

The “emptiness of the Dao” in this chapter refers to the Great Dao’s empty, tranquil breath, which harmonizes and nourishes all things. The Great Dao is everywhere; wherever things exist, the Dao is present.

The Dao is a clear, calm, and harmonious vital energy that harmonizes and nourishes all things. It is everywhere: wherever things exist, the Dao is present. Even tiny creatures such as ants are nourished by it; there, the Dao tempers their sharpness so they do not become fierce. Tiles, bricks, stones, and soil are also brought to completion by the Dao, which harmonizes things in their diversity. Weeds such as barnyard grass, along with trees and plants, grow through the Dao; it softens its radiance and blends with all things. Even foul things such as dung and sludge are not rejected by the Dao, which abides with them in the dusty world. The Dao is deep and still, seeming to exist yet difficult to grasp. I do not know who gave rise to this vast image; it seems to have existed before the Celestial Sovereign. What it expresses is the Qi of the Dao.

“Empty is the Dao”: The Tongxuan Jing says that the Great Dao is the clear, calm Qi that harmonizes Yin and Yang.

“Yet in use, it is never exhausted”: The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Subtle Illumination” chapter, says that although the Dao is empty and open, it can function without ever being used up. The Dao is harmonious Qi: abundant, yet never self-satisfied.

“Deep—it seems the source of all things”: The Nanhua Jing says that the Way of Heaven brings all things into being through harmonious Qi. It is everywhere, present wherever things exist.

“Temper its sharpness”: According to the Tongxuan Jing, the Dao tempers sharpness so that it does not become fierce or harmful.

“Untangle its knots”: The Dao can resolve disputes, keeping things from falling into conflict and disorder.

“Soften its radiance”: The Dao softens radiance so that it does not provoke resentment or resistance.

“Blend with its dust”: The Dao harmonizes with the ways of the world and does not reject things that are filthy or lowly.

“Still—it seems to exist”: The Tongxuan Jing says that Heaven is clear and bright through the Dao, taking on a state of stillness and depth.

“I do not know whose child it is; it seems to precede the Celestial Sovereign”: The Nanhua Jing says, “I do not know where the Dao ultimately comes from; it seems to have existed before the Celestial Sovereign.”

In the Nanhua Jing (also known as the Zhuangzi), Ran Qiu asked Confucius: “Before the Dao took on concrete form, its descendants had already acquired concrete forms. Can we say this of Heaven, Earth, and the myriad things?” Confucius replied: “Yes. Were all that existed before Heaven and Earth concrete things? The root of concrete things is the Dao, and the Dao itself is not a concrete thing.”

Chapter Five: Heaven and Earth

The Nanhua Jing, in “Knowledge Wanders North,” says: “Heaven and Earth possess great beauty, yet do not speak of it; the four seasons follow clear patterns, yet do not discuss them; the myriad things come into being according to their own principles, yet nothing explains them.” The sages of antiquity investigated the beauty of Heaven and Earth’s Wuwei (non-action) and understood the principles by which the myriad things arise naturally. Thus, the sages followed nature, refrained from rash action, and made no deliberate artifice. They did not rely on minor doctrines such as benevolence and righteousness, nor did they govern the people with human-made commands and elaborate words. The people, like straw dogs used in sacrifice—straw offerings used in ritual—changed naturally in response to the sages’ teaching, and the realm could thereby be at peace.

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Natural,” says that Heaven and Earth operate with De (Virtue/Power) as their foundation: the Dao gives life to the myriad things, and they grow upright according to their own natures. The Dao is supremely subtle. It does not display its majesty through concrete affairs, nor does it need ritual adornment to possess dignity in itself. Thus, the Dao establishes order without imposing instruction; it illuminates the myriad things without scrutinizing every detail. The Dao does not impose instruction because it does not deprive the myriad things of their own abilities. It illuminates without scrutinizing because it does not hinder their individual growth. Governing by human-made commands goes against their nature and harms the myriad things. Though Yin-Yang, the four seasons, and the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) each differ, they all follow the Dao; the natures of the myriad things are connected, though their forms vary. The wise do not force others to accept instruction, and the capable need not teach one another the same skills. Hence it is said: “Heaven and Earth do not favor any of the myriad things; they regard them all as straw dogs used in sacrifice.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: Heaven and Earth do not act with intention. They simply keep the Way in proper order, and all things grow naturally. The alternation of Yin and Yang and the turning of the seasons are not deliberate acts to create all things. Nor does rain and dew fall at the proper times with the intention of nourishing plants and trees. When Yin and Yang interact and harmonize, all things come forth.

The sage is not benevolent:

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sage establishes laws and guides the people’s minds so that each person can follow their own nature. Thus, those who live do not think the sage has done them a favor, and those who die do not resent the sage. Practices such as compassion and benevolence are narrow and limited paths. Entering a vast realm while clinging to narrow views leads one astray; seeking to travel far while attending only to what is near leaves one confused.

Not benevolent:

The sage enters a vast realm without going astray and sets out on a long journey without becoming confused. By constantly remaining empty and still, and holding fast to their nature, they may be said to have reached the utmost. This is called the De of Heaven. Therefore, the sage does not favor the people with human notions of benevolence, but lets them follow their nature without partiality, as one treats the straw dogs used in sacrifice—temporary offerings made of straw.

Treating the people as straw dogs:

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people follow those above them as grass bends before the wind. Governing the people is also like wind moving grass and trees.

Between Heaven and Earth,

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: The “earthly pipes” are the sounds made by the many openings in the earth. “Pipes” refers to the breath exhaled by nature—that is, the wind. As the wind passes over things, it produces sounds of every kind, allowing each to emerge naturally in its own way. Each sound arises from the form and conditions of the thing itself. All things give voice in a rushing howl, but who is directing them from behind?

Is it like a hollow flute?

The Nanhua Jing says: The “human pipes” are instruments such as the panpipes. When the wind is still, there is no sound; once it begins to blow, all things sound in response. When the wind moves, sounds arise. It is like wind passing through panpipes, tubes, and other instruments, making them sound.

Empty, yet never exhausted,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The highest sage models the empty stillness and Wuwei of Heaven and Earth in governing the Way of Heaven and Earth. Only by understanding the Way of emptiness and stillness can one grasp the beginning and end of things. This is the Way of Heaven and Earth.

In motion, it gives forth ever more.

The Classic of Master Chongxu records that when Emperor Yao of Tang ruled the realm, he once walked leisurely along the great Dao and heard children singing: “No one surpasses you in nourishing our people. The people need not make a point of knowing or acting; they need only follow the laws of the Celestial Emperor.” Pleased, Emperor Yao asked, “Who taught you this song?” A child replied, “It is an old poem.”

Too many words lead to frequent impasse,

The Classic of Penetrating the Mysterious says: In later ages, when the people learned writing, the world declined; when they learned calculation, their Virtue declined. Acting solely through calculation brings toil without achievement. Writing and calculation both arise from human speech and cleverness. Speech comes from cleverness, and the clever are prone to deceit, so they do not understand the great Dao. The more one speaks, the more easily one falls into difficulty. It is better to preserve inner emptiness and stillness. The Classic of Master Chongxu records that the lands of Qi and Lu were full of ingenious people, some of whom excelled at writing and calculation.

It is better to preserve the center.

The Classic of Penetrating the Mysterious says: The basis of teaching lies in removing accomplishments that are shallow and self-satisfied. Those who understand the great Dao are at ease and do not fall into distress. They follow marvelous transformations through Wuwei (non-action), and all things under Heaven respond to one another subtly. This is the teaching of Heaven and Earth without words: vast and profound. In later ages, anyone who understands this may be said to have grasped the Wuwei of the “great Dao of the Heavenly Storehouse”—that is, the wordless teaching of Heaven and Earth. The Classic of Master Chongxu records that the lands of Qi and Lu were full of ingenious people, some of whom excelled at writing and calculation.

It is better to preserve the center.

The Classic of Penetrating the Mysterious says: The basis of teaching lies in removing accomplishments that are shallow and self-satisfied. Those who understand the great Dao are at ease and do not fall into distress. They follow marvelous transformations through Wuwei.

Chapter Six: The Valley Spirit

This chapter draws on the Classic of the Southern Florescence to explain that the great Dao has no form, yet truly contains a wondrous power capable of bringing forth Heaven and Earth. Heaven receives the “One Qi”—the primordial Qi on which the generation and movement of Heaven and Earth depend—and becomes clear and still, guiding their movement. Earth receives the One Qi and becomes peaceful and stable. Thus the wondrous power between Heaven and Earth, empty like a valley yet able to nourish all things, never perishes. This is called the “Mysterious Female,” the mother through which Yin-Yang brings forth the myriad things. The Mysterious Female is the gateway through which Yin-Yang unite and transform to produce all things, and the place where the fundamental power of Heaven and Earth operates. Heaven’s movement continues without end, seeming to exist yet remaining elusive; Earth performs its function without appearing to labor. The Dao is the foundation of Heaven and Earth.

The Valley Spirit never dies;

The Classic of Master Chongxu says: Heaven and Earth ceaselessly generate and transform. There is not a moment when generation or transformation stops. The changing of the seasons is the same. This is what is meant by “the Valley Spirit never dies.”

This is called the Mysterious Female.

The Chongxu Jing says that the Great Dao is forever generating and transforming. Nothing exists that it has not generated, and nothing changes without following its transformations. This is the action of Yin-Yang, also called the “Mysterious Female” (a symbol of the source that brings all things forth between Heaven and Earth).

The “Gate of the Mysterious Female” refers to this source that brings all things forth. The changes of Yin-Yang between Heaven and Earth are inexhaustible, so this source is called the “Root of Heaven and Earth.” The Chongxu Jing also says that the cycles of the four seasons in Heaven and Earth have no end, and therefore the root of Heaven and Earth continues without interruption.

“Continuous, as though it were present” means that the Great Dao seems subtle and formless, yet appears always to exist. The Tongxuan Jing says that the Dao is wondrous and continuous, and so can set the celestial bodies in motion. The Nanhua Jing also says that Heaven is in motion.

“To use it without effort” means that the Dao’s action continues without end, yet shows no sign of strain. The Nanhua Jing says that Earth is in the midst of its activity. The Tongxuan Jing says that the Dao’s action shows no strain, and so Earth can remain stable and bear all things.

The Chapter on Heaven’s Long Duration and Earth’s Endurance, Chapter Seven

The Nanhua Jing, in the “Zeyang” chapter, says that the Dao is the greatest of all that is Qi, and Heaven and Earth are the greatest of all that have form. The Dao is impartial, and Heaven and Earth are likewise impartial; this is why they can endure.

When the ancient sages prepared to abdicate the imperial throne to another, the successor was expected to follow the Way of Heaven and act impartially, like Heaven covering all things and Earth bearing all things. Only then could the realm endure. By putting oneself last, one earns respect; by not dwelling on oneself, one preserves oneself. This is because setting aside private interests ultimately brings success to oneself.

“Heaven endures and Earth lasts” means that Heaven and Earth can exist for a long time. The Nanhua Jing says that Heaven has no private interests, yet there is nothing it does not cover; Earth has no private interests, yet there is nothing it does not bear.

The reason Heaven and Earth can endure for a long time…

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The Great Dao is the greatest among Qi; Heaven and Earth are the greatest among forms. The Dao enables the myriad things to each find their place. Heaven and Earth show no partiality, and so they endure.”

Because they do not live for themselves,

The Nanhua Jing says, “Heaven is naturally high and vast, Earth naturally deep and broad, and the sun and moon naturally bright. Why would they need deliberate cultivation to endure? Precisely because they do not exist solely for themselves, they endure.”

And so they endure.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Heaven and Earth show no partiality in letting the myriad things depart, nor in letting them return, and so they endure.”

Therefore, the sage…

The Chongxu Jing says, “Yao ceded the realm to Shun, but Shun could not endure…”

And so they endure.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Heaven and Earth show no partiality in letting the myriad things depart, nor in letting them return, and so they endure.”

Therefore, the sage…

The Chongxu Jing says, “Yao ceded the realm to Shun, and Shun accepted without refusing.” The Nanhua Jing says, “The ways emperors abdicated differed, as did the succession practices of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. To go against the times and customs was called usurpation; to accord with them was considered righteous.”

Place yourself behind everyone else,

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The way of Heaven and Earth puts yielding first. The sage models Dao’s humility and yielding, so places himself last and thereby remains secure.”

And you can come to the fore,

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Knowing how to yield enables one to take the lead. This is how Heaven and Earth bring the myriad things to fruition: they gain precedence by yielding.”

Hold yourself apart,

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The way of Heaven and Earth takes what is small as its root. The sage models Dao’s humility and lowliness, so places himself below and thereby preserves himself.”

And you can preserve yourself.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “By dwelling below and keeping to what is small, one can accomplish what is great. This is how the Way of Heaven operates: what seems like loss instead allows one to be preserved.”

Is it not precisely because there is no partiality?

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The sages of antiquity preserved one another along with Heaven and Earth, acting justly and without partiality.”

Thus they accomplished themselves.

The Nanhua Jing… Is it not precisely because there is no partiality?

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Dao of water is seen in how it becomes rain and dew in the sky and nourishes all things on earth. Because of it, all things can grow and all undertakings can be accomplished. It lets everything under heaven draw upon it, sustains all things, and moves in transformation together with Heaven and Earth. This is the highest De. Water is yielding and humble, so it comes close to the Dao.” The sages of antiquity took Heaven’s way as their model and embodied the highest goodness, like water.

The highest goodness is like water.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Nothing under heaven is softer and weaker than water.”

Water is skilled at nourishing all things,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Dao of water is seen in how it becomes rain and dew in the sky; because of it, all things can grow.”

yet it does not contend with them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “As water flows, it does not race to be first; it moves swiftly onward without stopping.”

It settles in low places that people everywhere dislike,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Water moistens even tiny creatures such as mosquitoes, yet asks for nothing in return.”

and so water comes closest to the Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Water shares in the vastness of Heaven and Earth; this is the highest De. Water is yielding, and so it comes close to the Dao.”

In choosing where to dwell, it is skilled at taking low ground,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Dao of water is seen in how it nourishes all things beneath the earth; because of it, all things can grow.”

In keeping the heart, it is skilled at remaining deep and broad,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Water is so vast that it has no end, and so deep that it cannot be measured.”

In treating others, it is skilled at giving generously and kindly,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Water abundantly sustains everything under heaven, yet does not claim the merit for itself.”

In speaking, it is skilled at keeping its word,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Water replenishes what is lacking and lets everything under heaven draw upon it.”

In handling affairs of state, it is skilled at governing.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Water changes through ebbing, vanishing, and increasing, in ways so vast they are difficult to measure.

Skillful action makes the most of what can be done, like water passing through metal and stone, with a force greater than anything under heaven.

Skillful movement takes advantage of the right moment, like water nourishing all things without favoring one over another.

Precisely because it does not contend, water makes no mistakes. It achieves the highest De (Virtue/Power) between heaven and earth because it is gentle, nourishing, and open in its passage.

The way water flows enables all kinds of things to come to completion. It continues without end, running toward distant places with no limit. It embraces all things and benefits the people without seeking repayment.

The chapter “Holding and Filling” draws on the Tongxuan Jing and the Nanhua Jing to discuss emperors and feudal lords in the age of decline: arrogant and self-important, they craved extravagance and let their desires grow excessive. Thus they could not endure and ultimately brought their states to ruin through arrogance and luxury. The Nanhua Jing says that the sages of antiquity would remove the extreme and reckless impulses from their intentions. Wealth and status, along with arrogance and luxury, can all disturb one’s intentions. Only by keeping the heart free of reckless impulses can one remain upright; once upright, one can be empty, still, and practice Wuwei (non-action), and so nothing remains unaccomplished.

“To hold something and keep trying to fill it to the brim is not as good as knowing when to stop.” The Nanhua Jing says that what is full will overflow, and one should not assume oneself to be satisfied. The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Subtle Illumination” chapter, also says that by being upright, empty, and still, one can accomplish everything through non-action; to hold something and keep trying to fill it is not as good as stopping in time.

“To sharpen something to a keen point…”

The Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) says: “Those who display their sharpness too openly are easily rebuffed; therefore, people should not be complacent or arrogant.”

A blade sharpened too keenly cannot keep its edge for long.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “An object ground too sharp cannot keep its edge for long.” The Chongxu Jing (the Liezi) says: “Rather than weigh gain and loss over and over, it is better to know when enough is enough.”

When gold and jade fill the hall,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The sage kings of antiquity lived amid abundance without letting it overflow, and so endured for a long time. In times of decline and disorder, those whose wealth overflowed met their end.”

No one can keep it safe.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Those who hold high office without becoming complacent, and enjoy abundance without depleting it, can preserve their wealth for a long time. In times of decline and disorder, those unable to preserve their wealth lose the realm.”

After becoming wealthy and honored, they grow proud and arrogant,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Those born to high rank are prone to pride; those born into wealth are prone to extravagance. In times of decline and disorder, the wealthy and honored who are also proud and extravagant meet their end.”

This is calamity brought upon oneself.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Among the wealthy and honored, few who fail to examine themselves clearly and maintain Wuwei (non-action) can escape destruction after committing a fault.”

When achievements are complete and one’s name is widely known,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When Heaven and Earth reach their utmost, they turn back; when things are full, they suffer loss. The sun and moon are like this: at noon the sun begins to move westward, and after the moon is full, it gradually wanes. How could people be any different?”

To withdraw from office after completing one’s achievements accords with the Dao (the Way).

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When a ruler becomes proud, he grows reckless; recklessness drives things to extremes, and there has never been anyone who reached such extremes without perishing. Thus, withdrawing after one’s achievements are complete follows the movement of the Dao: when things reach their utmost, they change; when they are full, they suffer loss. The sun and moon are like this. How could people be any different?”

To withdraw from office after completing one’s achievements accords with the Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When a ruler becomes proud, he grows reckless; recklessness drives things to extremes, and since ancient times no one who did so escaped destruction. Therefore, withdrawing once one’s achievements are complete is the natural course of the Dao.”

“Carrying the Corporeal Soul” is the title of Chapter Ten. “Corporeal soul” refers to a person’s physical body and soul.

Zhuangzi said that emptiness and stillness, gentleness and weakness, ease and simplicity, Wuwei (non-action), purity, and plainness are six expressions of the Dao (the Way). The world is level and peaceful when the Dao and De (Virtue/Power) have reached their highest expression. For this reason, sage rulers can set aside their concerns and still their bodies and minds. When the mind is calm, one can govern the world through emptiness, stillness, and Wuwei. Though one appears to do nothing, nothing is left undone.

The ancient divine beings, perfected beings, supreme beings, sages, people of the Dao, and people of De embodied emptiness and stillness, gentleness and weakness, ease and simplicity, Wuwei, purity, and plainness in body and mind. They did not become entangled with external things. Their De accorded with the Dao of Heaven and Earth, and so they were called divine sages. Those who truly attain the Dao act without forcing things and safeguard the world; therefore, they can endure.

“To carry the soul and embrace the One” means keeping the body and soul together as one, without letting them part. The Tongxuan Jing says that the ancient divine beings followed the Dao of Heaven and Earth and possessed the highest De, which is why they were called divine sages. Those who truly attain the Dao act without forcing things and safeguard the world, and so they endure.

The Tongxuan Jing also says that the ancient divine beings understood the Great Dao with minds that were empty and still. “Emptiness” is the dwelling place of the Dao; to be “empty” means to let no distracting thoughts or desires take hold in the heart. When desires are absent from the heart, emptiness and stillness reach their utmost. When clever schemes and calculations are also kept from the heart, one becomes attuned to the One, and all things can be handled well. The Nanhua Jing says that divine beings can ride the wondrous light and let their bodies dissolve into the Great Dao; this is what is meant by a divine being.

“Can you keep them from separating?” means: can the body and soul be kept together at all times? The Nanhua Jing says that people of ancient times were upright at heart, skilled in embodying the Dao, and followed their own nature. Those who unite with the Dao keep company with Heaven. People today outwardly ingratiate themselves, prize formal respect, and act in many ways. Those who cannot hold fast to the One keep company with other people.

“To concentrate the Qi and attain softness” means gathering the vital energy with undivided focus until body and mind become gentle.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of high antiquity followed the Great Dao and held fast to softness. Softness is the Dao’s strength; weakness is the Dao’s power. Softness and weakness are how the Dao functions. Only when softness accumulates can it become strength; only when weakness accumulates can it become power. Nothing has ever taken shape without such accumulation.

The Nanhua Jing says: When sages govern the world, they assign official duties according to proper principles and select people for office according to their abilities. They understand the actual circumstances and then act accordingly. Sages act according to their own principles without deliberately doing anything, and the world is naturally transformed. They need only raise a hand to beckon or turn their heads to signal, and people from all directions will come. This is called the governance of sages.

Can you be like an infant?

The Nanhua Jing says: The people of old adapted to changes in the world around them, yet their inner selves did not change with them. They guarded the inner self through Wuwei (non-action), without letting external things lead them astray. People today let their inner selves change with the world around them, while their outward conduct does not adapt. They are busy reacting to what is outside, yet cannot guard what is within.

Wash away the distractions in your heart; let your mind become clear and deep.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The perfected people of high antiquity followed the Great Dao and held fast to simplicity. To be simple means to have no burdens in the heart. To have no preferences or aversions is to attain the utmost simplicity. Simplicity is the Dao’s natural state. Simplicity and tranquility are precisely the state of harmony between Heaven and Earth. The Nanhua Jing says: The perfected person’s mind is like a bell. When someone strikes it, it responds; it neither pursues things nor refuses what comes. It responds to things without storing them in the heart, and so can meet all things without being harmed. This is called the perfected person.

Can you be free of flaws?

The Nanhua Jing says: The people of old governed the mind through Wuwei, without deliberately using action to govern the world outside. People today are busy governing the world outside through deliberate action, yet cannot guard the mind.

Can you be free of flaws?

The Nanhua Jing says: The people of old governed the mind through Wuwei, without deliberately using action to govern the world outside. People today are busy governing the world outside through deliberate action, yet cannot govern the mind through the Dao of Wuwei.

Cherish the people and govern the state,

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who attained the Dao in high antiquity took the Dao as their foundation and upheld Wuwei (non-action). What is called “Wuwei” means abiding in stillness; by abiding in stillness, one can become ruler of all under Heaven. Stillness and clarity are the Dao’s mirror. To remain single-minded and unchanged is the utmost stillness.

Wuwei does not mean that one fails to come when guided or refuses to leave when pushed; that one does not respond when pressured or remains unmoved when touched; that one is rigid and stagnant, unable to flow; or that one grips something and will not let go. Wuwei means not allowing personal preferences to damage what is fair, or desires to harm what is virtuous and right. Thus one keeps the heart-mind clear and open, without acting rashly; one reveals one’s unadorned nature and is not held in thrall by external things. This is called Wuwei.

Can you practice Wuwei?

The Tongxuan Jing says: The ancients savored the Great Dao and did not abandon it. People today abandon the Great Dao and no longer experience it. To set aside the Great Dao and act only on the basis of learning is dangerous; to abandon De (Virtue/Power) and act only on the basis of cleverness leads to trouble.

The Gate of Heaven—the gateway through which Yin-Yang opens and closes and the Qi of Heaven and Earth moves—opens and closes…

The Tongxuan Jing says: The perfected people of high antiquity took the Dao as their foundation and upheld purity. Purity is the root of the Dao; to remain unmixed with external things is purity in its highest form. In stillness, they close and store themselves away with Yin Qi; in motion, they unfold with Yang Qi. If one can avoid being absorbed in pleasure, there is nothing one cannot take pleasure in. To be able to take pleasure in everything is the highest joy. This is how perfected people roam within the pure Dao.

The Nanhua Jing—another name for the Zhuangzi—says: The perfected people of old did not dream when they slept and had no anxieties when they awoke. Their spirits were pure and undivided, and their souls were never weary. Their hearts were empty, still, and calm, and so they accorded with the De of Heaven. Purity without admixture is the way to nourish the spirit. The pure Dao is upheld through the spirit alone. Thus “plainness” means remaining unmixed with extraneous things, while “purity” means that the spirit is not depleted. Those who can embody and uphold purity and simplicity are called perfected people.

Can you be soft, humble, and yielding like the female?

The Tongxuan Jing says: If we now look upward to examine the conduct of perfected people and probe deeply into the meaning of the Dao and De, then look downward at the behavior of worldly people, we will find it enough to make us feel ashamed. The ways of the age have grown shallow, lacking sincerity and depth.

Understand the four directions and move freely without obstruction…

The Tongxuan Jing says: When we look upward at the conduct of true people—those who embody the Dao in their lives—and investigate the original meaning of De, and then look downward at worldly conduct, we cannot help but feel ashamed. The ways of the age are shallow and lacking in sincerity.

Clear-sighted and perceptive in every direction, can one be free of cleverness?

The Tongxuan Jing says: The virtuous people of ancient times embodied the Great Dao and held fast to their unadorned nature. They knew neither sorrow nor joy: this was the highest state of De. Confucius asked Laozi about the Dao. Laozi said, “Set your body upright and focus your gaze, and the Qi of Heaven will come to you. Restrain your cleverness and set your measure aright, and the spirits will come to dwell with you. De will become your bearing, and the Dao your home. Let your eyes be like a newborn calf’s, free of any wish to obtain; let your body be like withered wood, and your mind like dead ashes. True wisdom lies in understanding things without distorting them. Then you can abide in peace, with no schemes in your heart, and see clearly in every direction—yet remain free of attachment to cleverness?”

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: A person of De has no thoughts while at rest and makes no plans while acting. Right and wrong, beauty and ugliness, do not lodge in their heart. When all under Heaven share in the benefits, they feel joy; when all under Heaven are provided for, they feel at peace. They are forlorn, like an infant who has lost its mother, and bewildered, like a traveler who has lost the way. Their possessions are plentiful, yet they do not know where they came from; they have enough food and drink, yet do not know how they obtained it. This is what a person of De is like.

Can one be free of cleverness?

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people of high antiquity were clear-sighted and perceptive, yet returned to simplicity. Through Wuwei they restored what was unadorned; they were upright and free of deviation, so the people could readily follow the right path. They were utterly sincere and returned to what was plain, so the people had no need for deceit or concealment. Later generations governed by cleverness and intelligence, wearing themselves out in mind and spirit without making things clear; they governed through schemes and stratagems, exhausting their efforts to no effect.

They give life and nurture,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The former kings relied on these six principles and governed all under Heaven through Wuwei; thus they were able to bring things to completion. The Great Dao gives life to and nurtures the myriad things. When a ruler follows the Dao of Wuwei, this is called “Mysterious De”—profound and natural virtue.

They give life, yet do not possess,

The Nanhua Jing says: They allow the myriad things to grow, yet do not claim them as their own.

They act, yet do not rely on their actions,

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says, “Act without relying on your own achievements; nurture the myriad things without ruling over them.”

The Nanhua Jing also says, “Let the myriad things grow without presiding over them.” This is called “profound De” (deep and subtle virtue).

The Tongxuan Jing (also known as the Wenzi) says: The sages of ancient times held profound De in their hearts, and their teaching unfolded naturally, like wondrous transformations. They issued no commands, yet changed customs and brought society back to simplicity and honesty. Their teaching spread naturally through the cultivation of their inner selves alone. This is transformation through Wuwei. Who can understand “teaching without words” and the Dao that is “left unspoken,” whose vastness and depth are beyond measure? If someone in later generations can comprehend them, this is the “Way of Wuwei as a heavenly storehouse,” a Way of Wuwei like a natural treasure.

“The Chapter on Thirty Spokes, Chapter Eleven”: the thirtieth chapter, titled “Thirty Spokes.”

This chapter draws on the meaning of the “Horses’ Hooves” section of the Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) to explain that those skilled at governing the world in ancient times did not rely on regulations or ingenious techniques to change the people. In those days, people preserved their natural nature: they wove cloth and made clothes, farmed and ate, shared the same De without forming factions, and lived in accordance with their nature, simple and largely free of artifice.

Later, potters claimed they could shape clay so that it was round enough to fit the compass and square enough to fit the set square. Carpenters claimed they could shape wood so that its curves matched the hook and its straight edges followed the ink line. But did clay and wood, by their nature, really wish to conform to the standards of these tools? In later ages, people kept praising potters and carpenters for their skill in working materials, and so cleverness and artificiality gradually took root. The author argues that rulers in later ages also encouraged this trend by teaching people to pursue such crafts.

In ancient times, white jade was whole and unblemished. Who would have carved it into a gui or zhang, ceremonial jade objects used in ancient rites? When people’s simplicity was unharmed, who would have carved wood into a zhu zun, a wine vessel for ritual offerings? The crafting of uncarved materials into objects was the result of later artisans’ pursuit of skill.

The Dongling Jing says that when ancient times were well governed, carts, horses, and clothing were plain. People did not envy others for having finer things to wear or use. Their desires were modest; the people willingly fulfilled their duties and took pleasure in their own work. This was the foundation of good government. In times of decline, carts, horses, and clothing became increasingly elaborate, and ordinary people competed to admire them. People were no longer loyal and pure; instead, they were ashamed of plainness and prized splendor. Disdaining simplicity and esteeming ornament made customs shallow and marked the beginning of disorder in the state. The later invention of carriages, carriage enclosures, and implements by the Five Emperors was therefore also seen as encouraging this trend.

“A wheel has thirty spokes joined at the hub, the round piece of wood at its center.” The Tongxuan Jing says that in ancient times, under good rule, artisans did not pursue excessive ornamentation: carts were plain and undecorated. The hub is hollow in the middle; it is precisely because of this empty space that the wheel can be fitted together and function.

“They knead clay to make vessels.” The Tongxuan Jing says that in ancient times, under good rule, artisans did not add excessive embellishment: vessels were plain and unadorned. Their interiors were left empty; it is precisely because they are hollow that they can hold things.

Vessels are made from pottery and clay. On luxury and elaborate ornamentation, the Tongxuan Jing says: “When the ancients governed the state, craftsmen did not pursue excessive refinement. Their vessels were plain and undecorated.”

Only when a vessel is hollow can it serve as a container. The Tongxuan Jing says: “Craftsmen in later ages pursued novelty and cleverness. They carved and sculpted their vessels, spending years on work that yielded no practical use and only increased expenses.”

Doors and windows are cut into walls to complete a house. The Nanhua Jing says: “The ancients lived in trees or caves and were called the Youchao clan. By day they ate acorns and chestnuts; at night they slept in trees.”

Only when there is open space inside a house can it serve as a dwelling. The Tongxuan Jing says: “Later rulers used their power to exhaust the people’s strength, indulging their eyes and ears while devoting themselves to building palaces, terraces, pavilions, ponds, and gardens.” The Dongling Jing says: “To force people to surrender land and undertake construction when the times are unsettled is a grave omen.” The Chongxu Jing says: “There are many ingenious people in the regions of Qi and Lu, some of whom are skilled in construction.”

Thus, things with form can provide convenience. The Tongxuan Jing says: “The things with form we have today are made for specific tasks. Making them for those tasks gives rise to vessels.” Though things with form have practical uses, relying too heavily on tools causes people to lose the Dao.

It is the formless space that makes things useful. The Tongxuan Jing says: “The ancient Dao is formless, the source from which all things begin; that source lies in simplicity.” Thus, what has neither name nor form can serve a purpose. By following the Dao of simplicity, one is not bound by particular vessels.

Chapter Twelve: The Five Colors

This chapter is titled “Chapter Twelve: The Five Colors.”

In ancient times, people believed that the best way to live was to preserve one’s life, and that this could be achieved only through Wuwei (non-action). In the age of decline, who can truly practice Wuwei?

People value wealth and status, long life, and ease. They enjoy bodily comfort, fine food, splendid clothes, beautiful looks, and pleasing music, while looking down on poverty, low status, and ugliness. When they cannot obtain these pleasures, they become anxious, fearing that their bodies will suffer. To damage the body and deplete one’s nature for their sake is truly foolish.

There are five things that harm one’s nature. First, the five colors—the vivid hues of every kind—disturb the eyes and blur vision. Second, the five tones—the sounds of every kind—disturb the ears and dull hearing. Third, the five odors assail the nose and cause discomfort in the chest. Fourth, the five flavors mingle on the palate and damage the sense of taste. Fifth, all manner of desires and judgments disturb the mind, leaving one’s nature restless and unsettled.

The splendor of banners adorned with feathers is the lowest form of visual pleasure; music played on bells and drums is the lowest form of musical pleasure; and pursuing delicacies for the mouth and belly is the lowest form of pleasure in taste. These five kinds of sensory pleasure are all great harms that damage the lives of the people. This is a warning to rulers of the age of decline: do not become absorbed in sights and sounds or indulge in hunting, and thereby lose the realm.

The Five Colors Blind the Eyes

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Nine Observances,” says: “First, the five colors disturb the eyes and blur vision.” The Nanhua Jing says that when the eyes greedily take in brocade and brilliant colors, the mind is bewitched and forgets its duties. This is called “disorder.”

The Five Tones Deafen the Ears

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Second, the five tones disturb the ears and dull hearing.” The Nanhua Jing says that when the ears greedily listen to the sounds of bells, drums, and wind instruments, the mind is bewitched and forgets its duties.

The Tongxuan Jing (Wenzi) says: Second, the five sounds disturb the ears and make hearing less acute. The Nanhua Jing (Zhuangzi) says: When the ears become engrossed in the sounds of bells, drums, pipes, and flutes, the mind and spirit are confused and forget their proper duties. This is called disturbance.

The five flavors throw the palate out of balance.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Third, the five flavors disturb the mouth and tongue, causing sores to form in the mouth. The Nanhua Jing says: Various odors assail the nose and make the chest feel stifled; mixed flavors can also harm the mouth and tongue, throwing the sense of taste out of balance. When people pursue only the taste of meat such as beef and mutton, and of wine and sweet liquor, their mind and spirit are confused and they forget their proper duties. This is called disturbance.

Riding hard and hunting make the mind and spirit run wild.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Fourth, excessive concern with choosing and rejecting disturbs the inner being, making one’s nature restless and unsettled. Riding hard and hunting take time away from the people’s labor and exhaust their strength. Rulers in declining times even cut open pregnant animals, burn nests, overturn birds’ nests, and destroy their eggs; they set forests ablaze to hunt and drain ponds to catch fish. As a result, phoenixes no longer fly in, and qilin no longer appear.

The Chongxu Jing (Liezi) records that on the first day of the first lunar month, the people of Handan presented doves to Zhao Jianzi. He was delighted and rewarded them generously. Someone asked why, and Zhao Jianzi said that releasing animals on the first day of the year was a way to show compassion. The person replied: “Knowing that you intend to release them, the people compete to catch birds to present to you, and many birds die as a result. If you truly want them to live, it would be better to forbid the people from catching them. The kindness of releasing birds you have had caught cannot outweigh the harm caused by catching them.”

Rare and precious goods hinder people’s conduct.

The Tongxuan Jing says: People in the final age compete to seek out rare things in pursuit of wealth. Once pearls and fine jade become valuable, people throughout the land contend to possess them. Rulers in declining times quarry stone from mountains, dig for gold and jade, collect shellfish, and smelt copper and iron, preventing the myriad things from reproducing and flourishing.

Therefore, the sage…

The Chongxu Jing says: People in the world today are all captivated by sights, sounds, scents, and flavors. When it comes to judging right and wrong, who among them can truly be impartial? The Tongxuan Jing says: The root of upright conduct lies in removing one’s cravings for sights and sounds. The noble person acts with upright energy; the petty person acts with deviant energy. When the heart-mind accords with one’s nature, outward conduct follows what is right, actions proceed according to circumstances, and one is not controlled by external things—this is upright energy. Craving flavors and indulging in sights and sounds without regard for future troubles—this is deviant energy.

“To nourish the belly” means satisfying the body’s basic needs.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The eyes delight in beautiful sights, the ears in sounds, the nose in fragrances, and the mouth in delicious flavors. These senses gratify one another and bring pleasure, yet they ultimately remain bound to gain and loss, and to cravings and desires. The ears, eyes, mouth, and nose cannot determine for themselves what they want; they are all governed by the heart-mind. If each is allowed its proper place, it becomes clear that desire can be restrained.

“Not acting for the eyes” means not being governed by the eyes’ desires.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The eyes crave the five colors, the mouth desires delicious flavors, the ears become absorbed in the five tones, and the nose covets every kind of scent. The seven apertures—the sensory openings of the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth—compete with one another, harming human nature, continually stirring up deviant desires, and exhausting the natural state of peace. If one cannot even govern oneself, how could one govern the world?

Therefore, one should abandon the cravings for sights, sounds, and sensations described above, and choose clarity, stillness, and fidelity to the Dao. According to the Tongxuan Jing, when this is achieved, calamities sent down from Heaven will not occur. Devote yourself to this and forget that, and misfortune will depart while good fortune arrives.

Chapter Thirteen: Favor and Humiliation

This chapter says that the sages of antiquity were able to cast aside what agitated the will. Fame, profit, honor, and advancement all disturb the will. When the heart-mind is not shaken by them, one can remain upright; when the heart-mind is upright, one can be empty, still, and practice Wuwei (non-action). Tang Yao once offered the world to Xu You. According to the teaching here, doing so can make misfortune depart and good fortune arrive.

The Nanhua Jing (Zhuangzi) says that the sages of antiquity dispelled the strong desires in their hearts and would not let fame, profit, or wealth and high status disturb their minds. When their hearts were untouched by these things, they could remain upright; with upright hearts, they could be empty, still, and practice Wuwei (non-action).

Tang Yao wished to hand the realm over to Xu You, but Xu You would not accept it. Yao then offered it to Zizhou Zhifu. Zizhou Zhifu said, “I could, in fact, become the Son of Heaven. But I am suffering from a deep melancholy and am recovering from it; I have no time to govern the realm.” The realm is an immensely weighty responsibility, yet he was unwilling to damage his life for its sake—how much less would he do so for other things? Only someone who does not make the realm an object of pursuit can be entrusted with it.

Shun offered the realm to Shanjuan. Shanjuan said, “I live between Heaven and Earth. In winter I wear furs, and in summer I wear garments of hemp. I till the fields in spring, exercising my body; when autumn comes, I harvest grain and have food with which to rest and nourish myself. I work at sunrise and rest at sunset, living freely between Heaven and Earth, content and joyful in my heart. Why would I want the realm? How sad that you do not understand me.” He did not accept it, and then left for the mountains. From that time on, no one knew where he lived.

How much more so for the rulers of the warring states, who competed for fame and pursued profit, sometimes losing their lives and bringing ruin to their states in the process. Wealth and high status can instead become calamities that damage one’s life. Those able to yield the realm and accept its trust understand the importance of respecting life and cherishing themselves, and so they are able to endure.

“Favor and disgrace are alike causes for alarm” (to receive favor or suffer disgrace is like being frightened):

The Chongxu Jing (that is, the Liezi) says: “Fame is merely an external thing; the body is what is real. Fame is an appendage of the body, yet people in the world are always chasing after it. With fame come respect and honor; without it, one’s status falls and one suffers disgrace. To be honored brings ease and joy, which accord with one’s nature; to suffer disgrace brings anxiety and pain, which go against one’s nature.”

“Value the great calamity as you value your own body” (regard the greatest calamity as being as important as your own body):

The Chongxu Jing says: “To toil the body in order to hold on to fame, while also worrying about danger and death—how is this merely a difference between ease and joy on the one hand, and anxiety and pain on the other?”

What does “favor and disgrace are alike causes for alarm” mean?

The Nanhua Jing says: Only after honor and disgrace have been established can people see their own faults. How could they fail to be cautious?

Favor is the higher, honored side. The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Origin of the Dao,” says: Wealth and rank bring reputation; those with reputation are respected and favored, and worthy, accomplished people are held in esteem.

Disgrace is the lower side. The Tongxuan Jing says: Poverty and low status bring no reputation. The “illness” spoken of here refers to a situation that calls for vigilance. How could one fail to be cautious?

Favor is the higher, honored side. The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Origin of the Dao,” says: Wealth and rank bring reputation; those with reputation are respected and favored, and worthy, accomplished people are held in esteem.

Disgrace is the lower side. The Tongxuan Jing says: Poverty and low status bring no reputation. Those without reputation are looked down upon and occupy a lowly position.

When receiving favor, remain alert as though startled. The Tongxuan Jing says: Gain may be the beginning of good fortune, but gain and calamity often come from the same source.

When losing favor, remain alert as though startled as well. The Tongxuan Jing says: Good fortune may be a harbinger of misfortune, and misfortune and good fortune often arrive together.

This is what it means to say that both favor and disgrace should make one vigilant. The Nanhua Jing says: Recognize the distinction between inner and outer, and discern the boundary between honor and disgrace.

What does it mean to regard great calamity as important as oneself?

The Tongxuan Jing says: What people today have the greatest cause to worry about is gain and loss, misfortune and good fortune. These must be examined carefully.

The reason I have great calamity is that I have desires. The Tongxuan Jing says: When the mind craves something, it forgets the calamity it fears.

I have great calamity because I have this body. The Tongxuan Jing says: Fools are dazzled by small gains before them and so forget the greater calamity.

When I no longer cling to myself, the Tongxuan Jing says: If you do not pursue reputation, you will have no troubles brought by reputation; if you do not pursue profit, you will have no harm brought by profit.

Then what worries could I still have? The Tongxuan Jing says: Preserving oneself is fundamental; wealth and rank are merely things that lodge outside the self.

Therefore, regard yourself as more important than the world. The Tongxuan Jing, in “Supreme Benevolence,” says: If you do not pursue reputation, you will have no troubles brought by reputation; if you do not pursue profit, you will have no harm brought by profit. What worries could remain? Preserving oneself is fundamental; wealth and rank are merely things that lodge outside the self. Therefore, one should regard oneself as more important than the world.

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Chapter on Supreme Benevolence,” says: “In ancient times, those who understood how to honor life did not let fame harm their bodies, even when wealthy and honored; nor did they let profit burden body and mind, even when poor and lowly. Today, some inherit titles left by their ancestors. Such honor has a long history and ought to make them cherish life, yet they throw their lives away so readily. Are they not deluded by fame and profit? If someone values their own person more than governing the world, the world can be entrusted to them. If they cherish their own person and use that as the basis for governing the world, the world can also be placed in their care.”

If the world can be entrusted…

The Nanhua Jing says: “In ancient times, the Great King Tai of Zhou, Danfu, lived in Bin. The Di people came to attack. He offered them leather, silk, dogs, horses, pearls, and jade, but they accepted none of it, for what they wanted was the land. Danfu said, ‘If I stay here for the sake of this land, I will be killing other people’s brothers, fathers, and sons. I cannot bear to do that. You may settle here in peace. What difference is there between being my subjects and being someone else’s? Besides, I have heard that one must not harm the life one seeks to nourish for the sake of the things that nourish it.’ Then he took his staff and left Bin. The people followed him one after another, and later they established a state at the foot of Mount Qi. Great King Tai of Zhou, Danfu, may be said to have understood how to honor life.”

Cherish your own person and use that as the basis for governing the world…

The Nanhua Jing says: “In ancient times, those who understood how to honor life did not let the comforts and pleasures of their station harm their bodies, even when wealthy and honored; nor did they let profit burden body and mind, even when poor and lowly. Today, most people who hold high office and occupy exalted positions fear losing their status. At the sight of profit, they lightly wager their lives. Are they not confused? Therefore, if someone values their own person more than governing the world, the world can be entrusted to them. If they cherish their own person and use that as the basis for governing the world, the world can be placed in their care.”

Only someone like this can be entrusted with the world.

The Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) records: In the state of Yue, three successive rulers were killed. The prince Sou feared that he too would meet with misfortune, so he fled into a cinnabar mine. With no ruler in Yue and unable to find Prince Sou, the people pursued him to the mine and asked him to come out. He refused, so they smoked him out with mugwort and came to welcome him in a jade-adorned carriage. Prince Sou seized the carriage’s reins and climbed aboard. Looking up at the sky, he sighed, “To be a ruler, to be a ruler—can’t it leave me alone?” Prince Sou did not dislike being a ruler; he disliked the troubles that came with the position. A person like Prince Sou may be said to have refused to endanger his life for the sake of political status. That was precisely why the people of Yue wanted him to be their ruler.

Chapter Fourteen: “Look at It, but You Cannot See It”

The Chongxu Jing (the Liezi), in its “Tianrui” chapter, says: The sages of antiquity relied on the Dao of Yin-Yang and emptiness to govern all the tangible things between Heaven and Earth. The tangible Heaven and Earth arose from the Dao, which is formless and precedes the division of Yin and Yang. Before Heaven and Earth took shape, there were several stages: Great Change, Great Beginning, Great Origin, and Great Substance. Great Change was the beginning of spirit; Great Beginning, the beginning of Qi; Great Origin, the beginning of form; and Great Substance, the beginning of matter. When the Qi, form, and substance between Heaven and Earth were all present and began to differentiate, this state was called “chaos.” Here, “chaos” means that all things in Heaven and Earth were at first fused together, then gradually separated.

The Great Dao cannot be seen, heard, or touched, and so it is called the “Great Dao.” The Dao has no fixed form and is called “naturalness.” If one traces things back to the ancient transformation, to the time when Heaven and Earth first came into being, the state in which Yin and Yang were fused together is called the “Supreme Ultimate” (Taiji). The outline of the Great Dao consists of eighty-one chapters, and this is its opening chapter.

Look at it, but you cannot see it; it is called “yi.”

The Chongxu Jing says: “The Great Beginning” is the stage when Qi first comes into being, yet when one looks for it, it cannot be seen. The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Great Beginning” has a name, but its color cannot be seen. This is called the Qi of emptiness and nonbeing. The myriad things that truly exist arise from nonbeing; nonbeing itself has no color, yet it allows everything between Heaven and Earth to appear in color.

When one listens for it, it cannot be heard. This state is called “the rarefied.”

The Chongxu Jing says: “The Great Ultimate” is the stage when Shen first comes into being. It is also called the Supreme Ultimate (Taiji); when one listens for it, it cannot be heard. The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Supreme Ultimate” has a name, but its sound cannot be heard. This is the supremely wondrous power at work in the movement of Yin-Yang. Life arises from the formless; the soundless state itself has no sound, yet it allows everything between Heaven and Earth to make a sound.

When one touches for it, nothing can be felt. This state is called “the subtle.”

The Chongxu Jing says: “The Great Inception” is the stage when Jing first comes into being; even by touching, one cannot grasp it. The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Great Inception” has a name, but its form cannot be touched. This is a state so subtle that it is difficult to perceive. Form arises from what is minute; the formless state itself has no shape, yet it allows everything between Heaven and Earth to take form.

These three states cannot be pursued to their ultimate source. The Tongxuan Jing says that the Great Dao and Yin-Yang are still, formless, colorless, and soundless. Thus, when speaking of the Great Dao, language cannot fully express it. The Nanhua Jing also says: “The Dao cannot be made clear through questions and answers. Ask, and there is no reply; it cannot be explained in words.” The human mind is therefore confounded and unable to understand, while the tongue has no grounds for discussion.

Thus, they are blended into one.

The Chongxu Jing says: “The Great Simplicity” is the stage when substance first comes into being. The Qi, forms, and substances between Heaven and Earth are all present, but have not yet separated from one another. This state is called “Chaos.” The Tongxuan Jing says: “Before Heaven and Earth had taken shape, everything was blended into one.”

Above, it is not bright; below, it is not dark.

The Nanhua Jing says: The Dao has no form and existed before the Taiji (Supreme Ultimate). Yet this does not make it lofty and remote. Though it lies beneath the four quarters of Heaven and Earth, this does not make it deep and unfathomable.

The Dao stretches on without end and cannot be named.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The greatest Dao has no shape, and the most primal source has no measure by which it can be gauged.

Returning to a state in which nothing exists is called “the shape of what has no shape.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao is the Qi of Yin-Yang in harmony; this is what is called “the shape of what has no shape.”

To see no image of any particular thing is called “mystery and obscurity.”

The Nanhua Jing says: The Dao, formless and nonexistent, appears to have no features; it is remote, empty, and still. Look at it all day and you will see no color; listen to it and you will hear no sound; touch it and you will feel no body. This is the Dao of mystery, obscurity, and emptiness. The Tongxuan Jing says: The Way of Heaven is indistinct and obscure, without bounds. Seek it in the distance and you will find no end; search for it nearby and you cannot exhaust it. This is the constant principle of the Great Dao.

Look toward the Dao and you cannot see its beginning; follow it onward and you cannot see its end.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Way of Heaven is indistinct and obscure, without bounds. Seek it in the distance and you will find no end; search for it nearby and you cannot exhaust it. This is the constant principle of the Great Dao.

Look toward the Dao and you cannot see its beginning; follow it onward and you cannot see its end.

The Nanhua Jing says: The Dao of supreme clarity had no beginning at its start and no end at its close, because in its nature it has neither beginning nor end.

Grasp the Dao that has existed since ancient times, and use it to govern the things that exist in the world today.

The Nanhua Jing says: Ran Qiu asked Confucius, “Before Heaven and Earth took shape, could one know the Dao of the earliest antiquity?” Confucius replied, “Yes. The Dao of ancient times is the same as the Dao between Heaven and Earth today; it has no distinction between past and present, or between beginning and end.”

One can know the Dao of the earliest antiquity.

The Chongxu Jing says: In the past, sages followed the Dao of Yin-Yang and emptiness, bringing under their sway the formed things between Heaven and Earth. Heaven and Earth themselves arose from the Dao of Yin-Yang and emptiness.

This is called the guiding principle of the Dao: the fundamental law by which the Dao moves and governs all things.

The Chongxu Jing says: Formed things such as Heaven and Earth all began with the Dao and the transformations of Yin-Yang.

The Chongxu Jing says: In the past, sages followed the Dao of Yin-Yang and emptiness, bringing under their sway the formed things between Heaven and Earth. Heaven and Earth themselves arose from the Dao of Yin-Yang and emptiness.

This is called the guiding principle of the Dao: the fundamental law by which the Dao moves and governs all things.

The Chongxu Jing says: Heaven and Earth have form and are generated by the Dao. Yin and Yang, though formless, are also born from the Dao. Thus there are the stages of Great Change, Supreme Ultimate (Taiji), Great Beginning, Great Origin, and Great Purity. These are the order and guiding principles by which the Dao generates the myriad things.

Chapter Fifteen: The Ancient Masters of the Way

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Chapter on Preserving Weakness,” says: The Three Sovereigns of antiquity had a cautionary vessel called the “youzhi,” a wine vessel meant to remind people not to become complacent. When empty, it stood upright; when filled, it tipped over. When things reach their height, they begin to decline. At noon, the sun starts moving west; after the moon is full, it gradually wanes; and when joy ends, it often turns to sorrow.

Therefore, those who are clever and wise should restrain themselves with simplicity and unpolishedness. Those whose learning is broad and whose speech is eloquent should remain modest and reserved. Those who bestow favors throughout the world should understand the value of yielding. Those who are brave and resolute should exercise caution. Those who are wealthy, honored, and prominent should remain frugal. These seven practices were how the former kings governed and preserved the world through the Dao of Wuwei (non-action), and so they were able to endure. Those who follow this Dao do not seek self-satisfaction. Because they are not self-satisfied, even when they suffer loss they do not deliberately seek novelty or set up a different system.

The sages of high antiquity were skilled at governing the world through the Dao of Wuwei. There were seven ways of remaining modest.

“Those who in ancient times were skilled in the Way”: The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Chapter on Supreme Goodness,” says this refers to those in antiquity who were skilled at governing the world.

“Subtle, mysterious, and penetrating”: The Tongxuan Jing says that the sage grasps the Dao and, through emptiness, stillness, and subtlety, brings De (Virtue/Power) to completion within himself, acting through Wuwei. The sage is also mysteriously penetrating, governing the world so that all things find their proper place.

“Profound beyond recognition”: The Tongxuan Jing says that the sage acts through Wuwei yet leaves nothing undone, and is therefore able to embrace the whole world.

“Precisely because they cannot be recognized”: The Tongxuan Jing says that attaining this capacity to embrace all things makes it possible to accomplish through Wuwei. Without that capacity, reckless action may bring danger.

“Thus I can only try to describe them”: Therefore, one can only make a tentative attempt to portray and describe this state.

The Tongxuan Jing says that a person who has attained the Dao can become a vessel for all under Heaven, embracing the myriad things. Such a person seems cautious, like someone crossing a great river on foot in winter; alert, like someone wary of neighbors on every side; solemn, like a guest; yielding, like ice about to melt; simple and honest, like uncarved wood; blended and indistinct, like muddied water; and open, like a valley. This is what it means to become a “vessel of Heaven”—to become one who embraces all under Heaven.

“To be cautious, like someone crossing a great river on foot in winter” means not daring to press forward rashly: not trying to be first, but knowing how to yield.

“To be alert, like someone wary of neighbors on every side” means fearing harm and therefore holding to softness, without boasting of oneself.

“To be solemn, like a guest” means being humble and respectful: lowering oneself and honoring others.

“To be yielding, like ice about to melt” means not daring to accumulate or possess; preferring to give something up rather than remain stubbornly rigid.

“To be simple and honest, like uncarved wood” means not daring to become complacent and comfortable; preferring to seem somewhat lacking rather than seeking perfection in everything.

“To be open, like a valley” means not daring to think oneself full and complete; always feeling there is more to learn, and not daring to boast of one’s worthiness or ability.

“To be blended and indistinct, like muddied water” means not trying to appear pure and unblemished; even in muddied and humiliating circumstances, one does not rush to proclaim oneself innocent and exceptional.

“Who can still muddied water and let it slowly clear?” This uses water as a metaphor: when the water becomes still, impurities gradually settle, and clarity slowly emerges.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Let muddied things settle, and they will gradually become clear.”

Who can find stillness and, after a long period of upheaval, gradually recover their vitality?

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Make what is empty even more still and empty, and it will gradually become full.”

Those who uphold this principle understand how to yield, and so can take the lead; they hold to softness, and so can become strong; they remain in a low position, and so can rise; they are willing to diminish themselves, and so their foundations become firm; they acknowledge what they lack, and so can grow gradually and ultimately come to fulfillment; they recognize their own shortcomings, and so can receive help; amid turbidity and disgrace, they can renew their freshness.

Those who follow this principle do not seek abundance or strive to be full.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, the Three Sovereigns had a vessel for self admonition called the “you zhi,” a wine vessel meant to remind people to keep to the middle and not become complacent. When empty, it could stand upright and steady; when full, it tipped over.

Precisely because they do not seek fullness, they can endure loss without needing constant renewal to achieve completion.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Precisely because they do not seek fullness, they can endure loss without needing constant renewal to achieve completion. The Dao follows its own nature and acts without force, yet there is nothing it cannot accomplish.”

“Chapter Sixteen: Reaching the Utmost Emptiness”

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: People of cultivation in ancient times did not rely on daoyin—health practices involving regulated breathing and bodily movement—to prolong their lives. Instead, they were always able to forget distracting thoughts, nourish their spirit, embody the Dao, and maintain stillness. This is the law by which Heaven and Earth move, and the Wuwei (non-action) virtue of the sages.

Therefore, calmness, quietude, an empty mind, purity, and Wuwei are the balanced and upright Way that accords with Heaven and Earth, and the foundation of virtue. Sages put an end to anxious thought and settle the heart. Their temperate detachment and peace leave worries unable to trouble them and harmful influences unable to invade them. In this way, their virtue remains intact, their spirit is not depleted, and their lives naturally endure.

To keep one’s nature pure and unmixed, remain quiet and single-minded without change, and live in detachment and Wuwei: this is the way to nourish the spirit. The Dao is characterized by Wuwei. It can be taught, but cannot be handed over like ordinary knowledge; it can be realized and attained, but cannot be seen with the eyes. Pengzu attained the Dao and lived a long life. He is said to have lived for eight hundred years, from the time of Emperor Shun to the era of the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period. After attaining the Dao, the Most High Lord Lao lived for more than five hundred years; no one knows where he finally went. The sages of antiquity maintained stillness and nurtured life, extending their lifespans to a thousand years.

Attain the utmost emptiness,

The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Origin of the Dao” chapter, says: The sages of ancient times placed importance on cultivating themselves and did not consider governing others important. This brings one close to the Dao. Hence the saying: make the mind utterly empty and still.

And hold fast to stillness.

The Tongxuan Jing says that firmly maintaining purity and stillness and practicing Wuwei is what it means to hold fast to stillness. The Chongxu Jing (another name for the Liezi) says that nothing is better than emptiness and stillness. Emptiness and stillness mean abiding in the proper state.

The myriad things arise together,

The Tongxuan Jing says that the myriad things grow and change together, like sprouting in spring and flourishing in summer.

I observe their return.

The Tongxuan Jing says that observing the myriad things as they cycle and return is like harvesting in autumn and storing away in winter.

The myriad things flourish in profusion,

The Nanhua Jing (that is, the Zhuangzi) says: “When spring’s vital energy stirs, the grasses grow and all things set in motion. By autumn, the fruits have ripened; each returns to its root and settles into stillness.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Plants and trees have roots. If a tree bears fruit again, its roots must be harmed.” The Nanhua Jing also says: “When plants and trees are planted upside down, most are harmed by it without knowing.” Stillness, however, can help restore what has been damaged; relaxing body and mind can delay aging, and tranquility can quell restlessness.

Stillness means returning to one’s original nature and restoring life to its original state.

The Nanhua Jing says: “Once a person has become one of the myriad things in the world, returning to the root is probably not easy. If it can be called easy, perhaps only a person of great De can do it.” The Tongxuan Jing says: “The True Persons of antiquity—those whose being accorded with nature and whose cultivation was deep—breathed in harmony with the Yin-Yang energies. All living beings admired their De and were brought into harmony. In those days, governance and teaching were subtle and natural; people kept their simplicity, and the ways of simplicity had not yet faded. All things lived in ease and contentment.”

Restoring life to its original state is the constant Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “By the time of Fuxi, Shennong, and Xuanyuan—the legendary rulers of high antiquity—people had gradually departed from their original, innocent minds and begun to understand the principles of Heaven and Earth. Their De still followed nature, but was no longer undivided.”

Understanding the constant Dao is wisdom.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “In the era of the Five Emperors, and of Tang Yao and Yu Shun, people understood the principles of Heaven and Earth, established the order of the four seasons, and harmonized Yin-Yang. Thus the people thought carefully and listened and observed attentively, while society was governed in an orderly way, without confusion. By the era of the Three Kings of Xia and Shang, people’s desires had become entangled with external things, and their intelligence was drawn out by what lay beyond them. Their nature and life, too, lost their original simplicity.”

Not understanding the constant Dao, …

The Tongxuan Jing says: By the Zhou dynasty, the age of simplicity and sincerity had gradually faded, and the Way of plainness had departed with it. People treated the Dao as elegant writing, embellishing it with hypocrisy and deceit; they treated De as ritual and music, reducing it to outward forms. Cunning and calculation began to take root. Scholarly disputes made people doubt the sages, while extravagant and deceptive words were used to intimidate the people. As a result, the ways of the world grew increasingly shallow.

Reckless conduct brings calamity.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the age when the Five Hegemons contended for supremacy and the Warring States fought among themselves, the feudal lords betrayed one another, and the people made warfare their livelihood. Thus disaster arose, and upheaval followed one after another. Waging war brought calamity: cities were besieged, innocents slaughtered, and tens of thousands of bodies fell on battlefields. Countless elderly and young people died of hunger and cold. From then on, people across the realm were never again able to preserve their lives in peace.

Understanding the constant Way enables one to embrace all things.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When the mind is still, it can accord with all things; when the mind is empty, it can move freely without obstruction. When De reaches its highest state, one follows things as they are and forces nothing. In this way, all things can be embraced.

Only by embracing all things can one be just and impartial.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who covet fame and seek to claim it for themselves are bound to provoke trouble. Once trouble arises, people abandon the public good for private gain, turn away from the Dao, and give free rein to their desires. Therefore, only when the Way of impartial justice is allowed to prevail can private desire be restrained.

Only the just and impartial can become a ruler.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: In stillness one can be a sage; in action, a ruler. By following the Way of Wuwei (non-action), one earns reverence.

A ruler follows the Way of Heaven.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Clarity and stillness are Heaven’s luminous De.

The Way of Heaven has its source in the Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Stillness and purity are the Dao’s clear mirror. The Dongling Jing says: Emptiness is the Dao’s substance; stillness is its foundation.

Conforming to the Dao brings longevity.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Way of emptiness and stillness enables Heaven and Earth to endure.

One who follows this throughout life will encounter no danger.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The foundation of nurturing life lies in emptiness and stillness. The Nanhua Jing says: Great Wuwei can govern the realm; small Wuwei can nurture one’s own life.

This chapter discusses the foundation of “embodying the Dao and abiding in Nonbeing”: realizing and maintaining the Dao’s principle of emptiness and stillness. The Classic of the Southern Florescence says, “Great Wuwei governs the realm; lesser Wuwei nurtures body and mind.”

Collected Explanations of the Four Masters on the Ancient Dao in the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue, Volume Two, complete.

Chapter Seventeen: The Supreme One

The Writings on Penetrating the Mystery says: The sages of antiquity addressed abuses and reformed institutions, then adopted new methods once their work was done. The benefit of this approach was social harmony; its drawback was that institutions could become temporary expedients.

Later thinkers on governance said that without laws and standards, the realm could not be governed. Yet they did not understand that without knowledge of ritual and righteousness, it is impossible to establish appropriate laws. The law can punish the unfilial, but it cannot make people truly filial; it can punish thieves, but it cannot make people honest.

When a sage king held power, he made clear what was worthy of approval and what deserved disapproval, thereby teaching the people. He praised good reputations and censured bad ones, guiding people toward goodness. He drew close to and promoted the worthy, while those lacking virtue were left aside and allowed to withdraw. In this way, punishments could be set aside. The rulers of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties made people throughout the realm fear punishment, so they dared not steal. How could that compare with the simplicity of the ancient Dao, when no one harbored thoughts of stealing?

Instruction should not be harsh. Remove harshness, and society can settle of its own accord. If one does not know that Wuwei is the foundation, but tries to remedy matters at the surface with punishments and decrees, it is like digging a channel to stop the flow of water, or carrying firewood to put out a fire. Thinking that the more measures one adds, the greater the benefit, one ends up like trying to stop boiling water by tossing it with a winnowing basket: the water only boils more fiercely. Understand the foundation of governing through Wuwei, and it is enough to remove the sources of disorder. Thus it is said: “When I practice Wuwei, the people transform of themselves; when I cherish stillness, the people become upright of themselves.”

The Tongxuan Jing, “On the Natural,” says: In high antiquity, the Three Sovereigns transformed the people through De (Virtue/Power), and the people followed naturally, without needing commands. A wise and enlightened ruler occupied the highest position and made clear to the people what was pleasing and what was detestable. Punishments were established but did not need to be used; this was the foundation of good government. The court was tranquil, free of disputes, and the fields were cultivated, with no signs of war. The people knew there was a ruler, yet felt no interference from his decrees.

The next level of ruler was one whom the people cherished and praised.

The Tongxuan Jing says: A level below that, the Five Emperors established laws that kept people from daring to do wrong, yet governed without relying on rewards and punishments.

A level below that, the people feared and slighted their ruler.

The Tongxuan Jing says: A level below that, the rulers of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties governed the realm through punishments and rewards. Punishments were fair, used to suppress violence; rewards were fitting, used to encourage good conduct. Fear of punishment kept the people from breaking the law. Laws were enforced from above, and the people obeyed below: this was the lowest form of governance.

“When trust is insufficient…”

The Tongxuan Jing says: For words to be believed, trustworthiness must come before eloquence. For commands to be carried out, sincerity must extend beyond the commands themselves. The rulers of the Xia did not go back on their word; the people of Yin swore oaths; the people of Zhou made covenants.

“Then mistrust arises.”

The Dongling Jing says: From this we can understand that people throughout the realm mistrust one another because the ruler has not been diligent in discerning matters clearly.

“Therefore, a ruler must be careful in speech.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: Ministers act on the ruler’s words, and the ruler puts ministers’ words into practice. A ruler’s words should generally be kept; a minister’s words may be weighed according to the circumstances. The sages of antiquity understood how to weigh matters and adapt, so their words were always trustworthy and fitted the facts.

“When affairs are completed and achievements accomplished…”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity cultivated themselves inwardly and governed the people outwardly. Once their achievements were accomplished and affairs brought to completion, they drew near to the Dao (the Way) of Heaven and followed nature; nothing remained beyond their ability to accomplish.

“The people all said: ‘This is simply how we are.’”

The Tongxuan Jing says: Trustworthiness is the speech of the noble person; loyalty is the noble person’s intent. When loyalty and trustworthiness emerge from within, they move the world beyond and receive a response. This is the transformative teaching of the worthy and the sages.

Chapter 18: When the Great Dao Is Abandoned

The Nanhua Jing says: In the age of antiquity, when the Great Dao and De were at their purest, the people did not know what they ought to do, nor did they deliberately pursue anything. They lived at ease, their inner honesty and trustworthiness appearing naturally and finding expression in their outward conduct. This was the way of life shaped by the teachings of worthy and sage rulers.

“When the Great Dao Is Abandoned,” Chapter Eighteen

The Nanhua Jing says: In the age of antiquity, when the Great Dao and De were at their purest—that is, during the reign of the legendary ancient ruler Hexu—the people did not know what they were meant to do or where they were meant to go. Once full, they played carefree, enjoying themselves with their bellies protruding. From their simple, natural disposition, the people possessed honesty and filial devotion without effort.

Later, the Three Kings—the founders of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties—proclaimed benevolence and righteousness in an effort to soothe the hearts of all under Heaven, and the Great Dao began to decline. Even close family ties were no longer harmonious. Later still, the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period used ritual and music to regulate punishments and government throughout the realm. Clever schemes arose, and deceit grew along with them, bringing disorder to the states. From then on, people began deliberately pursuing cleverness and competing to secure profit, and this was difficult to stop.

The Three Kings did achieve some results by promoting benevolence and righteousness, but by using cleverness to instruct the people, they also gave rise to deceit. Their punishments and government acted in the name of benevolence and righteousness, treating them as a temporary lodging. Benevolence and righteousness were merely a place where the Three Kings could stay for a night; they could not remain there for long, because it was not the enduring Way.

When the Great Dao Is Abandoned

The Nanhua Jing says: In the age of antiquity, when the Great Dao and De were at their purest, people acted rightly without knowing that this was called benevolence. They loved one another without knowing that this was called righteousness. Acting in accord with one’s nature is called the Dao; preserving one’s nature is called De. Thus, by the time of the Five Emperors, the Dao had begun to dissipate, taking the form of human virtue.

Benevolence and Righteousness Arise

The Tongxuan Jing says: When the virtue of the Three Kings reached its height, it appeared as benevolence and righteousness. Once benevolence and righteousness were established, the Dao and De declined. The Nanhua Jing says: When the Three Kings governed the realm, they spoke in the name of benevolence and righteousness and ruled through deliberate action; as a result, disorder throughout the realm became more severe than ever. When worthy people are promoted through benevolence and righteousness, people may harm one another. This does not make the people’s ways more sincere; it may even lead to sons killing their fathers.

Wisdom Emerges

The Tongxuan Jing says: The way practiced by the Five Hegemons was limited in scope, and later rulers came to rely even more on ritual codes. When worthy people are promoted through benevolence and righteousness, people may harm one another. This does not make the people’s ways more sincere; it may even lead to sons killing their fathers.

When wisdom is deliberately put on display, hypocrisy appears in society.

The Tongxuan Jing says: By the time of the Five Hegemons, the Way and righteousness had grown narrow and declined, so people turned instead to ritual laws and schemes. Those who rely on schemes are prone to inner turmoil; those who think themselves clever are prone to deceit. When deceit spreads, it is a sign that the state is heading toward ruin.

Hypocrisy then appears.

The Nanhua Jing says: After the Five Hegemons promoted ritual and music, the Seven Warring States contended for supremacy. Warfare became frequent, and the world fell into disorder. Governing only through ritual, music, and schemes led people to deceive and rob one another. It could not make the people honest and sincere; even ministers came to murder their rulers.

The relationships among the six kinds of close kin grow disharmonious.

The Nanhua Jing says: Discord among relatives such as fathers and sons, and elder and younger brothers, along with the loss of order between elders and juniors, is a source of anxiety for ordinary people.

Only then do filial devotion and kindness arise.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, when the Great Way prevailed and De was abundant, filial children did not curry favor with their parents to prove their devotion. True virtue showed itself naturally in the kindness and respect with which they served their parents.

The state’s government falls into darkness and disorder.

The Nanhua Jing says: A court without loyal ministers, and a state in chaos, are causes of concern for the feudal lords.

Only then do loyal ministers arise.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, when the Great Way prevailed and De was abundant, loyal ministers did not flatter their rulers to prove their allegiance. True virtue showed itself naturally in the steadfast loyalty with which they served their rulers.

After the line “Cut off sageliness,” the text adds: A court without loyal ministers, and a state in chaos, are causes of concern for the feudal lords; only then do loyal ministers arise. The Nanhua Jing holds that when the Great Way prevailed, loyal ministers did not flatter their rulers but served them with natural devotion.

Chapter Nineteen: “Cut Off Sageliness and Abandon Wisdom”

This chapter draws on the Tongxuan Jing and the Nanhua Jing to explain that when the sages of antiquity taught and governed, they examined the causes and consequences of events and saw how benefits arose. Later, when the people learned to use writing, the age declined; when they learned calculation, their Virtue declined; when contracts—documents used to establish and prove trust—came into use, trust declined; and when ingenious devices were invented, the simplicity of their work declined. Small cleverness harms the right way, lesser intelligence obstructs the Great Dao, clever argument disrupts good government, and harsh cruelty damages Virtue.

In ancient times, governance was upright and free of deceit, so the people were easy to teach. At its best, governance was generous and composed, so the people did not harm one another. When loyalty reached its utmost, it returned to simplicity, so the people neither feigned nor concealed things. Documents were originally made to organize affairs of every kind: those with poor memories could use them to avoid forgetting, and the intelligent could use them to record events. But when the age declined, documents came to be used for deceit—acquitting the guilty while sentencing the innocent.

Those who consult only documents and judicial records do not understand that Wuwei (non-action)—governing without excessive interference—is the root of bringing order to a troubled world. Once cunning and deceit arise, thieves multiply. The more desires those in high positions have, the more the people below them resort to deception. Handling problems through writing and clever schemes only invites disaster. Using written rules to guard against deceit is like stirring the surface of water in the hope of making it clear: it is hard to succeed. Pouring hot soup onto boiling water only makes it boil more fiercely. Those who understand that Wuwei is the root of good governance need only remove the source of the heat. Thus it is said: “When I do not impose my will through interference, the people govern themselves naturally.”

“Cut off what is taken to be sage wisdom; cast aside cleverness and schemes,”

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: “Must one still prize sage wisdom? That merely encourages the people’s clever techniques. Must one still prize cleverness? That only helps the people breed corruption.” Hence the saying: cut off sage wisdom and cast aside cleverness, and all under Heaven will be well governed.

“The people’s benefits increase a hundredfold,”

The Tongxuan Jing says: Book learning arises from speech; speech arises from cleverness, and those who make a habit of cleverness are often deceitful and unable to understand the Dao. As a result, the people resort to pretense and society falls into disorder. Cut off sage wisdom and cast aside cleverness, and the benefits enjoyed by the people increase a hundredfold.

“Cut off benevolence; cast aside righteousness,”

The Nanhua Jing says: “Must one still prize benevolence? That disrupts the people’s Virtue. Must one still prize righteousness? That goes against the people’s natural order.”

Once the people esteem cleverness but do not understand the Dao, pretense spreads and society falls into disorder. Cut off sage wisdom and cast aside cleverness, and the benefits enjoyed by the people increase a hundredfold. Cut off benevolence; cast aside righteousness…

The Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) says: When benevolence is exalted, the people’s nature is disturbed; when righteousness is exalted, the ordinary patterns of their lives are overturned.

Then the people will recover their natural affection for their parents and their care for their children.

The Nanhua Jing says: Abandon deliberate promotion of benevolence and righteousness, and the people will return to filial devotion and parental care; the De of all under Heaven will begin to return to an undivided wholeness. If everyone clings to a separate code of virtue, all under Heaven will instead fall into imbalance.

Put an end to cunning and deceit; give up the pursuit of profit.

The Nanhua Jing says: When ritual is exalted, it encourages the people’s cleverness; when music is exalted, it encourages excessive desire. When sharp hearing is prized, people become absorbed in music; when keen sight is prized, they become absorbed in beauty.

Then thieves and robbers will no longer appear.

The Nanhua Jing says: Benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and music, along with selecting the worthy and employing the wise, are all insufficient to make the people’s lives prosperous. The people pursue profit so eagerly that they steal in broad daylight and break through walls at noon to rob. Thus, put an end to cunning and deceit, give up the pursuit of profit, and great thieves will cease.

These three…

The Nanhua Jing says: When the people’s intelligence is exhausted, they make up for it with deception; as deceit grows day by day, how could ordinary scholars and common people avoid being influenced and becoming deceitful themselves? When strength is lacking, people resort to fraud; when intelligence is lacking, they resort to deception. Who, then, should be blamed for these deceitful and fraudulent acts? The blame lies with those in power who exalt cleverness and strategic intelligence.

…make up for it with deception; as deceit grows day by day, how could ordinary scholars and common people avoid being influenced and becoming deceitful themselves? When strength is lacking, people resort to fraud; when intelligence is lacking, they resort to deception. Who, then, should be blamed for these deceitful and fraudulent acts? The blame lies with those in power who exalt cleverness and strategic intelligence.

Taking these things as ornament is not enough…

The Nanhua Jing says: Exalting elaborate ornament damages the unadorned nature. Extensive learning may instead lead people to become absorbed in clever schemes of the mind, and the people are then misled by empty ostentation and thrown into disorder. In this way, they cannot return to their nature, nor can their lives be made secure.

Thus, today there is something to turn to.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Gold forms in mountains and jade in stones, yet they wear one another away. A person who single-mindedly pursues learning and schemes may likewise end up harming himself. People each pursue what they desire, and in the end they are harmed by those very cravings. When those above are agitated and unsettled, those below cannot be at peace; when those above seek too much, those below compete with one another. Using learning and affairs to manage affairs is like fanning a flame while trying to keep it from burning: it is exceedingly difficult. So trying to stop boiling water with hot water only makes it boil more fiercely. Those who know how to govern at the root need only remove the source of the fire. Thus, set aside clever schemes, discard the deliberate exaltation of benevolence and righteousness, stop pursuing the worthy, clear away the multitude of affairs, and prohibit deceit and fraud: then the worthy and the unworthy alike can dwell at peace in the Dao (the Way).

Revealing the Uncarved Simplicity

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity governed the world through clarity, stillness, and Wuwei (non-action), allowing the people to remain simple, genuine, empty, and still, without contrivance. They revealed their unadorned nature and held fast to the uncarved Dao, remaining unmixed with external things.

Embracing the Uncarved Block

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: The sages of old were clear-sighted and penetrating, returning to purity and simplicity. They did not act recklessly, but restored the uncarved simplicity. This realm of pure, unadorned simplicity is so beautiful that none can rival it.

Having Few Selfish Desires

The Nanhua Jing says: In the south, in Yue, there was a place called the Land of Jiande. Its people were simple and knew little; they had few selfish thoughts and few desires. They knew how to work, but not how to hoard. They gave to others without seeking repayment. They knew nothing of deliberately pursuing what was called righteousness, nor of being bound by ritual. They simply followed their nature and thereby naturally accorded with the Great Dao.

Having Few Desires

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity were detached and acted through Wuwei; the people were naturally transformed. They kept their minds clear and their desires few; the people naturally returned to simplicity.

“Cutting Off Learning, Finding No Worry,” Chapter Twenty

This chapter cites the Tongxuan Jing to point out that, in the final age, establishing a Grand Academy to educate the people is merely one way of governing society. Learning has meaning only when it follows the Great Dao; once it departs from the Great Dao, it loses its foundation. Nothing can expand without ever contracting, or flourish without ever declining. When decline sets in, prevailing customs disperse beyond recovery. People indulge their desires and become immersed in sensual pleasures, disregarding the laws of the right Way. These corrupt customs are then passed down to later generations, ultimately bringing the state to ruin.

There is danger in leaving the Great Dao and relying solely on learning; abandoning virtue and acting only through cleverness leads to difficulty. Governing the world through cleverness and talent often exhausts the mind without bringing clarity about what is true. Governing through schemes and cunning likewise consumes every effort while losing genuine flexibility. The more the people above learn, the more complicated their orders and affairs become; the more troubled those above are, the greater the disorder below. To use learning to create trouble, then hope to settle it by taking on still more affairs, is like fanning a fire while hoping nothing will burn: it is difficult to achieve.

“Give up learning, and there will be no worries” means abandoning the complex doctrines that depart from the Great Dao, thereby escaping distress. The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Origin of the Dao” chapter, says that books and learning arise from human speech, and speech from cleverness. Cleverness often carries deception and cannot bring people to understand the Great Dao. Thus one must cast off this kind of learning to be free of worry. The Nanhua Jing (that is, the Zhuangzi) also says that abandoning learning and setting books aside leaves one without worries.

“Wei” and “a” are both words of response: one expresses a respectful reply, the other a more casual one. Here the text cites an exchange from the Nanhua Jing: Laozi asks Nan Rongchu whether he has come from the state of Chu; elsewhere, it records that Kuangqu, on hearing the words in question, answered with an “Ah.” How great, in the end, is the difference between these two replies?

The Tongxuan Jing says that the various schools of learning in the final age clutch their books and cling to rules and institutions, hoping to govern the world by means of them. This is like trying to fit a square handle into a round hole and make it sit tightly: it is difficult to make it fit.

As for “good” and “evil,” the Tongxuan Jing says that the ancients cultivated the Great Dao. Those who cultivated it deeply were called “Dao and De”; those who cultivated it less deeply were called “benevolence and righteousness”; and those whose cultivation was shallower still were called “ritual and wisdom.” How great, in the end, is the difference between them?

The Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) says: In ancient times, people took Dao and De as their foundation. They did not govern the world through clever schemes, but followed the natural course of things and allowed people to return to their original nature. To govern through Wuwei (non-action) was the ideal state of rule in an age of great peace.

“What people fear…”

The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Chapter on Benevolence,” says that Wenzi asked, “How should one act so that the people will feel close to their ruler?” Laozi replied, “Arrange the people’s work according to the seasons, and treat them with reverent care, as though standing at the edge of an abyss or treading on thin ice. Between Heaven and Earth, I protect those who are good; those who are not good are my enemies. Thus, what people fear must be treated with reverence.”

“Must be treated with reverence.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: In former times, the people of the Xia and Shang abandoned Jie and Zhou and turned to serve Kings Tang and Wu. During the floods, the people themselves attacked their rulers and pledged allegiance to Shennong. Thus, one must respect the people’s support or rejection.

“Vast and boundless.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: Rulers in the latter age who fail to govern the world through Dao become a calamity to the world. A person who makes an enemy of the people can never, in the end, prevail over them. The harm such a ruler brings is vast and without end.

“The people bustle about…”

The Dongling Jing says: Rulers in the latter age choose their officials solely for their keen hearing, sharp eyesight, and eloquent speech. This makes people throughout the world compete to win a reputation and vie for advancement, seeking distinction through polished words; government then falls into decline.

“As though feasting on a grand sacrificial offering…”

The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Chapter on Accumulating Sincerity,” says: To cultivate the Great Dao, one must work diligently and endure hardship. Even after ten days without food, one can feel as satisfied as if enjoying a grand sacrificial offering of cattle, sheep, and pigs. To study without weariness is the way to cultivate oneself.

“As though ascending a spring terrace.”

The Jing of the Cavern Spirit says: When rulers in the declining age appoint officials, they prize those with keen ears who gather the most news. Then people throughout the land rush about carrying goods, chasing profit, and seeking fame. They prize those with sharp eyes and outstanding skills. Then people throughout the land deliberately seek novelty and compete for advancement. They prize those who speak well and know how to make fine speeches. Then people throughout the land practice rhetoric and embellish their words to win approval.

Yet I alone am apprehensive and uneasy.

The Jing of the Cavern Spirit says: The sage-kings of antiquity did not appoint officials by their keen hearing, sharp sight, or skill in argument. Thus the people were not driven by contrivance, but naturally lived in peace and managed their own affairs.

Before things have shown any sign,

The Jing of the Southern Florescence says: To study what is not usually considered learning is to come close to the Dao.

Like an infant who has not yet learned to laugh.

The Jing of the Mystery of the Way says: An infant of three months does not yet understand benefit and harm, nor can it speak. The state of acting without relying on words—how vast its transformations are!

I drift on, at ease, as though I had no fixed destination.

The Jing of the Mystery of the Way says: To dwell without knowing what one intends to do, to walk without knowing where one is going, to act without knowing what one relies on, and to move without knowing when to stop—this is called the Dao.

Everyone else seems to have more than enough,

The Jing of the Mystery of the Way says: When people study, they bustle about, yet what they hear does not make them discerning, and what they see does not become clear. The knowledge of their senses cannot be trusted; their actions cannot bring order to affairs, and their efforts do not achieve anything.

Only I seem to have lost everything.

The Jing of the Mystery of the Way says: The Dao of the sage appears foolish and slow, yet without deliberately listening, the sage discerns; without deliberately looking, sees through things; without speaking much, wins trust; without acting rashly, brings order; and without deliberate effort, accomplishes things.

My heart is that of a fool—simple and unadorned.

The Jing of the Mystery of the Way says: The learning of the shallow and the worldly is what the sages of antiquity did not pursue.

Worldly people seem perceptive and capable.

The Scripture of the Numinous Cavern says: In the declining age, people are chosen for office only because they are sharp-eyed, sharp-eared, and skilled at making themselves noticed. As a result, officials are numerous, but government is in disorder. Everyone rushes to show off, seeking fame through self-promotion.

“Alone, I seem dull and dim.”

The Scripture of the Numinous Cavern says: In ancient times, people were chosen for their deep reflection and their ability to follow the Dao of Wuwei (non-action). Thus officials were few and government was clear; people were quiet and upright, and their actions accorded with De (Virtue).

“People in the world are sharp-eyed and shrewd, calculating at every turn.”

The Scripture of the Numinous Cavern says: In the declining age, customs became shallow and corrupt. People devoted themselves to selecting those whose talents were easy to see, hear, and talk about.

The Scripture of the Numinous Cavern says: In ancient times, people were chosen for their deep reflection and their ability to follow the Dao of Wuwei (non-action). Thus officials were few and government was clear; people were quiet and upright, and their actions accorded with De (Virtue).

“People in the world are sharp-eyed and shrewd, calculating at every turn.”

The Scripture of the Numinous Cavern says: In the declining age, customs became shallow and corrupt, and people selected only those whose talents could be seen, heard, and discussed. Officials competed to show off and seek fame through self-promotion; even punishment did not frighten them. Alas, how could the ruler understand the reason for this?

“Alone, I am gloomy and disheartened.”

The Scripture of the Numinous Cavern says: In ancient times, when people followed the natural course of things, they sought those who did not display themselves, draw attention, or excel at speaking. Officials were quiet and upright, diligent in cultivating De, and the people were naturally transformed without waiting for commands. Alas, how could the ruler understand the reason for this?

“Alone, I am dim and obscure.”

The Southern Flower Scripture, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: The heart of an ancient sage was still as ashes that have burned out, silent and unassuming, free of private designs and deliberate plans. This is Wuwei.

“Quiet, as though with no fixed home.”

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says: Heaven has light; there is no need to worry that the people are in darkness. Earth has resources; there is no need to worry that the people are poor. Only by following the natural patterns of Heaven and Earth can one understand how things work.

“Everyone has something to rely on.”

In the Southern Flower Scripture, Lao Dan says: Everyone competes to be first, but excessive force brings harm; everyone seeks good fortune, but too much sharpness invites setbacks. Only by following the nature of Heaven and Earth can one understand how things work.

“Everyone has something to rely on.”

In the Southern Flower Scripture, Lao Dan says: Everyone competes to be first, but excessive force brings harm; everyone seeks good fortune, but too much sharpness invites setbacks.

“Alone, I seem foolish and uncouth.”

In the Southern Flower Scripture, Lao Dan says: I alone am content to come last, bearing the world’s filth; I alone yield and bend, so as to avoid bringing trouble upon myself.

“Alone, I am unlike everyone else.”

In the Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi), Lao Dan says: “Everyone pursues what is substantial; I alone embrace emptiness. I take what is deep and far-reaching as my root, and simplicity as my rule. I do not act deliberately, yet I can regard clever contrivances lightly. Like a child, I cherish the nourishment received from the mother.”

The Nanhua Jing says: “To remain tolerant toward all things and cause harm to no one may be called the highest attainment.” Lao Dan was truly a person of great breadth and depth in ancient times.

Chapter 21: The Bearing of Great De

This chapter quotes the “Zhile” (“Perfect Joy”) chapter of the Nanhua Jing to explain that the Dao has no form, yet gives rise to the formed world of Heaven and Earth. The Dao is indistinct and elusive, deep and subtle, and difficult to describe as either “being” or “nonbeing.” Tracing back to its beginning, the Dao had no birth, no Qi (vital energy), and no form. The Dao blended into a realm of subtle emptiness. Emptiness changed and revealed the wondrous; the wondrous changed and produced Qi; Qi changed and formed shapes. Only after shapes had formed did life emerge. From this, all things interacted, and the four seasons—spring, summer, autumn, and winter—began to turn. Thus the Dao is deep, obscure, and formless, yet it contains a subtle essence. This essence is real and not illusory; within it are the patterns governing the turning of the four seasons. These are the true patterns embodied in the Dao’s genuine Jing (essence).

“The bearing of the highest De is complete accordance with the Dao.”

The Tongxuan Jing, a Daoist classic, says: “The Great Dao is vast and open; in its operation, nothing is false or without cause. It expands and contracts with hardness and softness, and bends and shifts with Yin-Yang.”

The Dao as a presence is indistinct and elusive.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Before Heaven and Earth took shape, all was deep, dark, and indistinct.”

Within the indistinct, there are images;

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Amid the indistinct, it cannot be fixed as any particular image.”

Within the indistinct, there are things;

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Though indistinct and hard to fathom, its workings never run out.”

Within the deep obscurity, there is subtle essence;

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Deep and obscure, it responds to change and is not confined to a fixed form.”

This subtle essence is real and not illusory,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The essence of Yin-Yang in harmony is what makes it possible for all things between Heaven and Earth to come into being.

Within it is trust.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Dao has no form, yet within it is an inner foundation that is real and trustworthy.” The Nanhua Jing says: “The Dao has feeling and intention, and it has signs by which it can be verified; it is what sets spring, summer, autumn, and winter in motion.”

From antiquity to the present, its name has never vanished,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The cycle of the four seasons forms the guiding order of nature. From antiquity to the present, it has never changed. This is called the principle of Heaven.”

By which we may observe the beginnings of all things.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Dao stands before all things, giving rise to and nurturing them. Thus, the common source of all things can be seen from one aspect of the Dao, and the roots of all affairs emerge from its gateway.”

How do I know that the beginnings of all things are so? Through this.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The changes of Yin-Yang and the four seasons give rise to all things.”

Chapter 22: Bent, Yet Whole

The meaning of this chapter draws on the “Heaven and Earth” chapter of the Nanhua Jing: in ancient times, those skilled at governing the world knew that when a ruler had no selfish desires, the world could prosper; when a ruler governed through Wuwei (non-action), the world could be transformed naturally; and when a ruler was calm and composed, the people would be at peace. Grasp the fundamental principles, and every task can be accomplished.

For this reason, the ancient sages did not flaunt their personal abilities. They held to the principle that a ruler governs the world through Wuwei, allowing all things to change of their own accord. They did not boast of being able to do many things; instead, they used little to preserve what was essential. In this way, governance could be completed, the people could be at peace, and all affairs could proceed smoothly.

Bent, yet whole;

The Tongxuan Jing says: “One bends first in order to stretch out later. Bend an inch, and you can extend a foot; a noble person acts this way too.”

Wronged, yet upright;

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Accept temporary hardship in order to uphold the right way in the end. Yield in small matters to attain integrity in greater ones; a noble person acts this way too.”

Low-lying, yet filled;

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, rulers who governed well modeled themselves on rivers and seas, which lie in low places. Thus they could gather the waters of countless streams and become vast. Those who follow this Way do not seek to be filled to overflowing.

By diminishing, one can renew.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Precisely because one does not seek to be filled to overflowing, old ills can be remedied and new things can take shape.

By taking little, one can gain.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, people handled affairs by seeking to keep them simple. To keep affairs simple is to grasp the essentials when responding to many matters, and to hold to the key points when governing a vast realm. Affairs are simple because the principles one upholds are simple. Therefore, when there is a method of governance in accord with the Great Way, even a few methods are enough to govern well.

By grasping at much, one becomes confused.

The Tongxuan Jing says: People today often seek to attend to everything at once. Broad capability means having measures for both civil and military affairs, acting and resting in accordance with proper standards, and carrying out or abandoning various measures as circumstances warrant. Such capability may seem able to govern anything. But when one simply pursues more, one gains less, without realizing what has been lost. Therefore, without a method of governance in accord with the Great Way, even many methods are enough to create disorder.

Thus, the sage always handles affairs appropriately. Broad capability may seem able to govern anything. But when one simply pursues more, one gains less, without realizing what has been lost. Therefore, without a method of governance in accord with the Great Way, even many methods are enough to create disorder.

Thus, the sage…

The Tongxuan Jing says: Ancient rulers understood the One—the fundamental principle—and so could set all things in order. The ancients understood the One, and nothing under Heaven was unclear to them. Later generations did not understand the One, and so nothing under Heaven was truly clear to them.

Hold fast to the One as the standard for all under Heaven.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of ancient times held fast to the One, followed their natural course, and did not act recklessly. When a ruler holds fast to the One, the state is at peace; when the One is lost, the state falls into disorder. The One is the Great Way, free of partial preferences, and the root of all things. When a ruler loses this root, the resulting disorder is even greater than if there were no ruler at all. A ruler must hold fast to the One to govern the people well, while remaining cautious and vigilant, growing more careful with each passing day. To hold fast to the root through Wuwei (non-action) in this way is to fulfill the Dao. The principle one upholds is very simple, yet the realm one governs is vast.

By not calling attention to oneself, one can see clearly.

The “Naturalness” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: By not calling attention to oneself, one can see clearly.

By not insisting that one is right, one can become clear to others.

The Tongxuan Jing says: By not insisting that one is right, one can become clear to others.

By not boasting of oneself, one can accomplish great things.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When you do not boast of your achievements, they can instead be accomplished; when you do not consider yourself wise, your Virtue can instead endure.”