《道德真经四子古道集解(寇材质)》Vol. 2

They do not insist on being right, and so their worth becomes clear; they do not boast, and so their achievements are recognized; they do not exalt themselves, and so they endure. Because they do not contend with others, no one under Heaven can contend with them.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: “Keep to simplicity, and no one under Heaven can rival you in beauty.” Could the ancients’ saying, “Yield, and you will remain whole,” have been empty words? The Tongxuan Jing says that those who followed the Way of the ruler in ancient times did not seek to make things happen, but took Wuwei (non-action) as their guiding principle. The wise do not make gain their aim, and the benevolent do not use noble rank as a means of bestowing favors. This may be called Wuwei. Those who truly preserve themselves ultimately return to the Dao (the Way). The Nanhua Jing also says that the ancients valued Wuwei: when those in high positions act without striving, those below them do so as well.

Chapter Twenty-Three: “Few Words Accord with Nature”

The Tongxuan Jing says that rulers in the declining age treated the realm and their states as their own households, and all things as their own possessions. With the realm in their grasp and all things at their command, they grew overbearing and self-satisfied. They were like fierce winds and violent storms, which cannot last. The ancient sages, by contrast, held to gentleness and weakness. They were not forceful and impatient like storms, and so they endured. They modeled themselves on the Way of Heaven, did not give way to anger, and acted in accordance with nature. Thus the realm could endure.

Few words accord with nature.

The Tongxuan Jing says that those who are easily angered will inevitably invite much resentment. Only by following the natural patterns of Heaven and Earth can one govern well.

A gale does not last all morning. The Tongxuan Jing says that even when rivers and seas swell greatly, their waters do not overflow for more than three days; and even when fierce winds and rain continue until noon, they soon subside.

A violent downpour does not last all day.

The Chongxu Jing says: Even when rivers and seas overflow disastrously, it lasts no more than three days. Violent winds and rain do not continue until noon; they soon die down. A sudden downpour cannot go on for an entire day.

The Tongxuan Jing also says that a great rise in rivers and seas lasts no more than three days, and violent winds and rain do not continue for a whole day but quickly subside. What makes them stop? Heaven and Earth. Violent winds and rain are eruptions of fierce Qi (vital energy). Even Heaven and Earth cannot make them last long, so how much less can people?

The Chongxu Jing says that in one’s conduct, one must not be governed by likes and anger, nor show favoritism in rewards and punishments. The Nanhua Jing says that the sages of antiquity were not burdened by a reputation for De (Virtue/Power), and their inner nature was not disturbed by joy or anger. With the heart-mind properly ordered, one can be empty, still, and practice Wuwei (non-action), yet nothing remains beyond one’s ability.

Thus, of those who act in accordance with the Dao (the Way), the Tongxuan Jing says that sages take Heaven and Earth’s goodness as their model. They do not fulfill their De through violence or anger, and so they are able to endure.

The Nanhua Jing says that those who accord with the Dao uphold one Way above and below. When those above and below share the same Way, neither dominates the other. Those who accord with De share the same De above and below, and neither makes the other serve. Those who accord with the loss of the Way, in turn, respond to that loss.

The Dongling Jing says that when faulting others for their mistakes, first consider whether you are truly better than they are. The Tongxuan Jing says that when joy and anger are kept within bounds, resentment will not assail you. To remain inwardly free of anger when angry, and to show no anger on your face, is called being skilled at weighing gains and losses.

Those who accord with the Dao are also welcomed by the Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says that the relationship between the Dao (the Way) and De (Virtue/Power) is like that between cured hide and fresh hide: they are joined together. They may seem far apart, yet in fact they are close; they may seem close, yet at times they are distant. Try to examine them, and they are hard to grasp; look closely, and you find that they are indeed present. Thus the sage is like a mirror: neither courting things nor deliberately rejecting them, but responding truthfully as things arrive, without storing them in the heart. The sage can respond to the myriad things without harming them.

One who is in accord with De will have De come to belong to them.

The Tongxuan Jing says that one should not worry that De will be lost once it has been accumulated. But if one does not accumulate De and still feels no concern, one is not far from calamity. Thus those skilled in handling affairs can turn weakness into strength and calamity into good fortune. When stones accumulate, they become a mountain; when water gathers, it forms a river. Only by steadily accumulating virtue can one establish royal rule. There has never been a case of achieving something without accumulating anything.

One who is in accord with loss will have loss come to belong to them.

The Chongxu Jing says: Do joy and anger arise without cause? Joy is often followed by anger, and anger in turn by joy; neither emotion ever comes at exactly the right time. Now my heart is no longer stirred by favorable or adverse circumstances.

When trustworthiness is lacking,

The Dongling Jing says that when trustworthiness is complete, the world is at peace; when trustworthiness is absent, the world is in danger.

people will not trust one another.

The Dongling Jing says that people distrust one another because government is unfair and the ruler does not diligently attend to the affairs of state.

Chapter 24, “Those Who Rise on Tiptoe Do Not Stand Firm”: Those who stand on tiptoe cannot keep their balance.

This chapter cites the meaning of the Nanhua Jing: once the Great Dao branches into too many paths, people become lost, like someone who chases after a fork in the road and loses the flock. Those who study can also lose the Great Dao when they have too many methods and approaches. Yang Zhu, Mo Di, Shi Kuang, Li Zhu, Gong Chui, Zeng Shen, and Shi Qiu each excelled in debate, music, distinguishing colors, craftsmanship, or virtue. Though their pursuits differed, from the perspective of the Great Dao they were all like people who took a wrong turn and lost their sheep.

The chapter Zhuoluan says that if the six pitch standards of ancient music are thrown into disorder, the yu and se zithers destroyed, and Shi Kuang’s ears blocked, then people everywhere can preserve their natural hearing. If ornament is eliminated, the five colors scattered, and Li Zhu’s eyes covered, then people everywhere can preserve their natural sight. If the compass and straightedge are destroyed, the rules of measurement cast aside, and Gong Chui’s fingers maimed, then people everywhere can reveal their natural skill. If the codes of conduct upheld by Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu are cut away, the arguments of Yang Zhu and Mo Di silenced, and benevolence and righteousness discarded, then people’s De can return to a profound and undivided state.

If one devotes oneself to pursuing benevolence and righteousness, even with the insight of Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu; the five tones, even with the mastery of Shi Kuang; the five colors, even with Li Zhu’s discernment; or the five flavors, even with Yu’er’s skill in tasting, one still cannot be said to truly understand the Dao or to be skilled at preserving De. The “skill” spoken of here consists simply in following the Great Dao and practicing Wuwei (non-action).

When people lose their original nature, they are drawn along by desires for sounds, colors, flavors, and other pleasures. Continually judging and choosing among these five kinds of things becomes a great danger to life. Yet Yang Zhu and Mo Di pursued sounds, colors, and all kinds of preferences, believing they had gained something. This is not what it means to attain the Dao. Zeng Shen, Shi Qiu, Yang Zhu, Mo Di, Shi Kuang, Gong Chui, and Li Zhu established reputations through clever argument and skill in sounds, colors, and other arts, thereby confusing and disrupting the world. Such things are of no use in governing by the Great Dao.

Those who chase after branching paths can never find a firm place to stand.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: toes joined together and an extra finger growing on the hand are useless excesses of the body. Though present from birth, they go beyond what one’s nature requires. Adding too many rules and practices of benevolence and righteousness likewise does not meet the original needs of the five viscera; it departs from the proper path of the Dao and De.

Taking long strides with the heels lifted off the ground makes one less steady.

The Nanhua Jing says: fleshy growths attached to the body, hanging tumors, and extra flesh on the feet are useless excesses of the body. Though they grow on the physical form, they go beyond what one’s nature requires. If all sorts of rules of benevolence and righteousness are imposed on the genuine feelings held within the five viscera, benevolent and righteous conduct will be led astray, and the use of intelligence and skill will become excessive.

Those who constantly show themselves off end up unable to see things clearly.

The Nanhua Jing says: pursuing visual acuity to excess disrupts the ability to distinguish the five colors and makes ornamentation overly elaborate. Promoting benevolence and righteousness to excess leads conduct astray; using intelligence and skill to excess also becomes cumbersome.

Those who constantly show themselves off end up unable to see things clearly.

The Nanhua Jing says: pursuing visual acuity to excess disrupts the ability to distinguish the five colors and makes ornamentation elaborate. Is this not just what happens when colors such as blue-green and yellow are woven into splendid patterns? Li Zhu, famed in legend for his keen eyesight, is an example.

Those who assume they are right end up unable to make themselves known.

The Nanhua Jing says: pursuing hearing to excess disrupts the ability to distinguish the five tones and makes the six pitch standards overly elaborate. Is this not just what happens when instruments of metal, stone, silk, and bamboo perform pitches such as Huangzhong and Dalu? Shi Kuang, the musician of the Spring and Autumn period renowned for discerning pitches, is an example.

Those who boast of themselves end up accomplishing nothing.

The Nanhua Jing says: clinging to benevolence and righteousness to excess harms De and blocks one’s nature, all for the sake of winning a reputation, while urging the whole world to follow standards beyond its capacity. Is this not just what happens? Zeng Shen and Shi Qiu are examples.

Those who consider themselves exceptionally clever end up unable to endure.

The Nanhua Jing says: becoming excessively absorbed in argument is like piling tiles and tying knots, entangling oneself in words and phrases. One exhausts the mind over disputations such as “hard and white” and “same and different,” growing weary in pursuit of the empty reputation that comes from useless talk. Is this not just what happens? Yang Zhu and Mo Di are examples.

From the standpoint of the Dao, all these practices are merely branches that stray from the proper path.

The Nanhua Jing says: Yang Zhu, Mo Di, Zeng Shen, Shi Qiu, Shi Kuang, Li Zhu, and Gong Chui, the legendary master craftsman, all favored partial accomplishments, intelligence and skill, pleasures of sound and color, and clever argument. These branch-like abilities are not the most proper Dao under Heaven.

Surplus food.

The Nanhua Jing says: Those who follow the ancient, unadorned Way and keep their nature upright do not lose the natural expression of their nature and life. Therefore, what accords with the Great Dao is not harmed by having extra branches, and what accords with De is not injured by a limb being longer than the rest. Long legs are not superfluous, and short legs are not deficient: this is the natural state as it originally is. Today, people pursue minor achievements such as sights and sounds, and in doing so they sever and damage human nature. A wild duck’s legs are short, but if they are lengthened, the duck will grieve; a crane’s legs are long, but if they are shortened, the crane will sorrow. What is naturally long should not be cut short, and what is naturally short should not be lengthened. In this way, one will not suffer grief and sorrow from pursuing sights and sounds.

Superfluous Conduct

The Nanhua Jing says: To regard life as a growth attached to the body, and death as a festering sore, are both one-sided views. In ancient times, people kept their intelligence inward and did not display their talents, so the world was not scorched by them. They restrained their keen hearing and clear sight, so the world was not burdened by these abilities. They kept their wisdom concealed, so the world was not led astray; they nurtured De in secret, so the world did not fall into perversity.

Some May Disapprove of These Practices

The Nanhua Jing says: The intelligence and talent promoted by Zeng Shen, Shi Qiu, Yang Zhu, Mo Di, and others could not spare the world from being scorched, burdened, led astray, or drawn into perversity.

Some May Disapprove of These Practices

The Nanhua Jing says: Zeng Shen, Shi Qiu, Yang Zhu, Mo Di, Shi Kuang, Gong Chui, Li Zhu, and others each displayed a particular talent or virtue, thereby disturbing the world. What they advocated was not what was truly needed to govern the world.

Therefore, the One Who Has the Way Does Not Dwell There

In the Nanhua Jing, Lao Dan says: “I feel ashamed that the Way and De cannot be put into practice, and so I do not accept the deviant teachings of Yang Zhu and Mo Di, who pursue minor achievements.” Therefore, Zhuangzi did not dare to treat benevolence and righteousness as disciplines for pursuing minor achievements, nor did he dare to engage in the excessive, deviant conduct of Yang Zhu and Mo Di.

The third fascicle of the Collected Explanations of the Four Masters on the Ancient Way of the Daode Zhenjing concludes here.

The Collected Explanations of the Four Masters on the Ancient Way of the Daode Zhenjing is a Daoist text compiled by Kou Caizhi in the Jin dynasty. It comprises ten fascicles and is included in the Orthodox Canon of the Dao (Zhengtong Daozang), in the Jade Instructions category of the Cavern of Spirit section. The base text is from the Orthodox Canon of the Dao; it has also been collated against a photographic reproduction of the Essentials of the Daoist Canon, printed by Jiang Yuanting in the Qing dynasty.

The Dao is an undivided source that existed before Heaven and Earth. According to the “Tianrui” chapter of the Chongxu Jing, the Dao originally had no physical form or boundaries. Through transformation, it gave rise to a single Qi (vital energy). After changing many times, this Qi formed chaos, the beginning of the transformation of Heaven and Earth into their distinct forms. Yin-Yang (yin and yang) then separated: the clear, light part rose to become Heaven, while the heavy, turbid part sank to become Earth. Thus, the Dao generated Heaven and Earth.

Something formed from chaos

The “Daoyuan” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says, “Something formed from chaos.” This refers to an undivided existence that came into being before Heaven and Earth.

Born before Heaven and Earth

The Nanhua Jing says that the Dao has no physical form, yet gives rise to Heaven and Earth; it existed long before them.

Silent and vast

The Tongxuan Jing says that only the Dao is formless: deep and dark, silent and spacious, calm and unassuming, with no sound to be heard.

It stands alone and does not change

The Tongxuan Jing says that the Dao of Yin-Yang exists on its own and thereby gives rise to the myriad things. From ancient times to the present, it has never changed.

It moves everywhere without faltering

The Tongxuan Jing says that Heaven moves without ceasing, while Earth remains still and bears all things. In this way, the four seasons establish their order. The firm and the yielding work together, allowing the myriad things to grow.

It can be the mother of all under Heaven

The Nanhua Jing says that the Dao is everywhere. The Tongxuan Jing says that Heaven is the father and Earth the mother, and that Heaven and Earth are the parents of the myriad things. Calling the Dao “mother” here is a metaphor: the Dao is like the source of all things, giving them life and sustaining them.

I do not know its name

The Tongxuan Jing says, “I have forced myself to give it a name and call it ‘Dao.’”

“Dao” is the name given to it. The Scripture of the Numinous Cavern says: “Dao is the marvelous working of what occurs naturally; filial piety is the highest virtue a person should embody.” Dao moves through Heaven and Earth and nurtures all things, enabling each to take its own form and determining its innate nature and lifespan. Its workings are real, yet it neither possesses the myriad things nor governs particular affairs; it claims no merit. Even if one seeks it by touching, searching, looking, or listening, one cannot grasp it as any specific thing. That is why it is called “Dao.”

Dao is originally without sound or form, so the sages reluctantly call it “Great.” “Great” means vast and boundless.

“Great” is also called “Passing Away.” The Classic of the Southern Florescence says: “Dao existed long before Heaven and Earth took shape, and has been so from time immemorial.”

“Passing Away” is also called “Far”; “Far” is also called “Returning.” The Classic of Emptiness and Nonbeing says: “Dao has continued from the most ancient times to the present, its age too distant to count. It endures as long as Heaven and Earth and can never be exhausted.”

Thus, Dao is great. The Scripture of Pervading Mystery says: “The Great Dao encompasses Yin-Yang and is the vastest of all Qi. It lies beyond Heaven, higher than anything else and deeper than anything else. It embraces Heaven and Earth without boundaries between inside and outside. Empty and formless, it can cover and bear the myriad things, reaching everywhere without obstruction.”

Heaven is also great. The Scripture of Pervading Mystery says: “Heaven has an appearance and is the greatest of formed things.”

Earth is also great. The Scripture of Pervading Mystery says: “Earth has a physical form and is the greatest of formed things.”

The ruler is also great. The Classic of the Southern Florescence says: “Nothing is more eminent than the emperor; the emperor’s De is matched with Heaven and Earth.”

Between Heaven and Earth, there are four great presences: Dao, Heaven, Earth, and the ruler.

The Nanhua Jing says, “How can we know whether Heaven and Earth are enough to exhaust the vast, boundless reaches of the four directions?”

A ruler governs one of these regions.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The light of Heaven and the light of the sun illuminate the four directions. A country can be at peace within its borders only when the ruler is wise and the ministers are wise.

The ruler models himself on Earth.

The Nanhua Jing says: Nothing is more bountiful than Earth. When the qi of spring stirs, the plants grow; when autumn comes, the grains and fruits ripen.

Earth models itself on Heaven.

The Nanhua Jing says: Nothing is more wondrous than Heaven. The Tongxuan Jing says: Earth receives Heaven’s workings, and through them the myriad things take form.

Heaven models itself on the Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao is supremely wondrous; it sets the celestial bodies in motion and keeps them turning. The Nanhua Jing says: The Dao has no form. It covers and supports Heaven and Earth, yet shows no deliberate action.

The Dao models itself on what is natural.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao is the wonder of what is natural. The Nanhua Jing says: The Dao has no form; it takes itself as its root and is the source of what is natural.

The Heavy Is the Root of the Light, Chapter Twenty-Six

The Tongxuan Jing says: Later emperors and lords became arrogant and self-important, pursuing honor single-mindedly. Even possessing a realm with ten thousand chariots did not satisfy them; even possessing all the wealth in the world could not make them happy. They acted recklessly, were impatient by temperament, and had excessive desires. Recklessness and impatience made them lose their root, and in the end they lost the world.

The heavy is the root of the light.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity governed the world through Wuwei (non-action). They were able to remain composed and avoid rash action. By using steadiness to restrain recklessness, they brought peace to the world.

Stillness is the ruler of agitation.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity possessed the virtue of clarity and stillness. They were calm and unhurried, without impatience. By using stillness to govern agitation, they brought stability to the world. Here, “ruler” means the root and governing principle.

Therefore, the gentleman travels all day long…

The Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) says: “The sages of antiquity possessed the virtue of clarity and stillness. They were calm and composed, never impatient. When stillness restrains agitation, the world can be brought to peace.” The ruler is the foundation of the state.

Therefore, the noble person walks all day,

The Nanhua Jing says: “One who takes ritual as a guide for conduct and music as a means of harmonizing body and mind, and whose nature is gentle, compassionate, and kind, is called a noble person. When a noble person governs a state, worthy people do not wait until events have occurred before asking about hardship and ease.”

without leaving behind the baggage train—the vehicles that carry provisions and military supplies on a campaign, here a metaphor for acting with due care and valuing the foundations.

The Nanhua Jing says: “When a noble person issues commands, how could he dare to act carelessly?”

Even when surrounded by splendid palaces and temples,

The Tongxuan Jing, a Daoist classic, says: “The Way of the noble person lies in maintaining stillness and cultivating oneself.”

one can dwell there peacefully, free and at ease.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Way of the noble person lies in stillness. When the ruler is still, those below are not disturbed; when those below are undisturbed, the people will not be thrown into disorder.”

As the ruler of a state commanding ten thousand chariots,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The ruler of a state commanding ten thousand chariots holds power whose reputation and achievements depend on governing all things. The authority and responsibility he bears are immense, and he must not take himself lightly.”

he regards himself as lighter than the world.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “If the ruler of a state commanding ten thousand chariots acts carelessly, he cannot achieve merit or renown.”

Carelessness causes him to lose the support of his ministers.

In the Tongxuan Jing, Wenzi asked about the foundations of governing a state. Laozi replied: “The foundation lies in cultivating and putting oneself in order. I have never heard of a state falling into disorder when its ruler governs himself well, nor of a state being well governed when its ruler is in disorder. If he acts carelessly, he will lose the standing of a ruler and be unable to accomplish anything.”

Carelessness causes him to lose the support of his ministers.

In the Tongxuan Jing, Wenzi asked about the foundations of governing a state. Laozi replied: “The foundation lies in cultivating and putting oneself in order… If he acts carelessly, he will lose the foundation of rulership.”

Impatience causes him to lose the standards proper to a ruler.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Even the power of a state commanding ten thousand chariots is not enough to bring true happiness; even all the wealth of the world is not enough to bring true satisfaction. When one is impatient and desires too much, indulging those desires means losing the foundation.”

Chapter Twenty-Seven: Good Conduct

This chapter draws on the Nanhua Jing to explain that an emperor’s virtue should accord with Heaven and Earth’s Wuwei (non-action): follow the patterns of their workings, let all things grow naturally and find their proper place, and govern the people through the way of Wuwei. The root of Dao and De (Virtue/Power) lies in those in high positions grasping the essentials. If one person can practice Wuwei, the whole world can be governed. The text also presents the “Five Good Practices” as the essentials for helping the people and guiding the world toward goodness. This is its profound teaching.

“One skilled at acting leaves no wheel tracks.” The Tongxuan Jing says that the ancient sages governed through Wuwei. Their teaching spread in all directions without their having to leave the court, and affairs were put in order without their personally rushing about. They acted, yet left no trace of deliberate action.

“One skilled at speaking leaves no fault or blame.” The Tongxuan Jing says that in later times, everything had to await orders and be set in motion by words, making governance difficult. The ancient sages did not rely on spoken commands, yet became teachers for all. They said little, yet the whole world was transformed. This was because they acted with a mind of Wuwei. Without issuing orders, they let people act of their own accord; when things were done, they did not need to proclaim it everywhere.

“One skilled at planning needs no counting rods or calculating devices.” The Tongxuan Jing says that when a ruler understands the fundamental principles, all affairs can be handled properly. The sages practiced Wuwei and did not rely on complicated deliberation. They did not plan deliberately, yet affairs were well managed; they did not labor over calculations, yet gained what they needed.

“One skilled at closing needs no bolt, yet no one can open the door.” The Tongxuan Jing says that when the ancient sage kings were in power, they made clear what was good and what was evil, so people understood the boundaries of proper conduct. Punishments could therefore be set aside, and people restrained themselves without strict prohibitions.

“One skilled at tying needs no rope, yet no one can undo the knot.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of high antiquity did not govern by issuing laws and decrees, yet customs changed through their teaching. This was because they devoted themselves to practicing the Great Dao. Without deliberate action, society naturally fell into order. The Nanhua Jing says: People in ancient times restrained things without using ropes; later generations, by contrast, had to bind them tightly with ropes. This shows that De was steadily declining.

Therefore, the sage:

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of high antiquity followed the Dao of Wuwei (non-action), clearly observed the world, grasped the pivot of the Great Dao, and used it to help the people.

Is always skilled at helping people, and so abandons no one;

The Tongxuan Jing says: Affairs in the world must not be forced. Instead, guide things in accord with their natural state, and no one will be abandoned. The Dongling Jing says: In remedying shortcomings, what matters is reducing needless complexity.

Is always skilled at dealing with things, and so discards nothing.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The transformations of the myriad things cannot all be rescued one by one. Grasp their essentials and guide them back to the right path, and nothing will be discarded. The Dongling Jing says: In remedying shortcomings, what matters is keeping government orders unified.

This is called inheriting the wisdom of the bright Dao—the wisdom that follows the Dao’s subtle workings and sees them clearly.

Thus, the good are teachers of those who are not good;

The Tongxuan Jing says: One who occupies the position of ruler is the people’s teacher.

And those who are not good are the means by which the good can act.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of old were skilled at using the Great Dao. They drew on the capacities others already possessed to accomplish their work, entrusting to those who could do them the tasks they themselves could not. Though the affairs of government were many, they kept their essential foundation simple. When they saw good conduct, they felt they had yet to measure up; when they saw wrongdoing, it was as if they had encountered an ill omen.

To fail to honor one’s teacher,

The Tongxuan Jing says: Teaching the people without growing weary is a way to govern them. When people have worthy teachers and good friends, few will abandon them and turn to wrongdoing.

Is also to fail to value what one can rely on.

The Nanhua Jing says: Must one take only what is right as one’s teacher and reject what is wrong, take order as one’s teacher and reject disorder? This reveals the principles of Heaven and Earth and the nature of the myriad things.

Even believing oneself to understand is still a great delusion.

The Nanhua Jing says: If you take “right” as your teacher and “wrong” as its opposite, can you really put an end to disputes over right and wrong and bring order to chaos? This only explains the principles by which Heaven and Earth move and the conditions of the myriad things.

“Even with knowledge, one remains profoundly deluded.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The ancients did not study the minor details, and so they did not fall into great confusion; they did not covet small favors, and so they did not become greatly foolish. In the latter age, even those who understand many fine points of learning can still lose their way in the Great Dao.

“This is what is called subtle and profound insight.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The key to governing the people is to grasp one essential point; the key to bringing peace to the world is a single person who holds power.

Knowing the Masculine, Chapter Twenty-Eight

This chapter cites the Nanhua Jing to explain why the Great Dao of antiquity disappeared and why the world came to distinguish truth from falsehood. In the time of the Five Emperors of later ages—the legendary rulers of high antiquity—the Great Dao was obscured by limited achievements, and people replaced truth with falsehood.

In the distant past, when the Great Dao prevailed and De was abundant, people lived alongside birds and beasts and kept company with all things. How could they have understood distinctions such as benevolence and righteousness, ritual and music, or exemplary people and petty people? People shared a state without distinctions or cleverness, and De did not fragment. They all remained free of desire, and the people were simple and natural. With their simplicity and innate nature intact, they could be at peace of their own accord.

In the time of the Five Emperors of later ages, people forced themselves to practice benevolence and righteousness and deliberately elevated ritual and law. As a result, the world began to be confused by book learning and partial achievements. They indulged in complex sounds to create music and deliberately pursued obscure, contrived rituals. The world then began to divide, and devices such as systems for measuring pitch and reckoning the calendar, and instruments for sound and color, came into being. Thus the simplicity of the Great Dao in later ages was damaged. People devised writing and tools to record things and make daily life more convenient.

“Know the masculine strength…”

The Nanhua Jing says: The Five Emperors understood the way of masculine strength, and so they devised the five tones. The five tones are the five basic notes of the traditional Chinese musical system. The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Chapter on Lower De,” says: The sounds of thunder can be imitated with bells and drums, and changes in wind and rain can be discerned through musical pitch. Any sound that can be heard can be adjusted, thereby bringing the five tones into harmony.

“Hold fast to the feminine softness, and you can become the gathering place of the world’s streams.”

The Nanhua Jing says: The ancients imitated the five tones with bells and drums, and used musical pitch to discern changes in wind and rain. Any sound that can be heard can be adjusted, thereby bringing the five tones into harmony.

By holding to the soft and quiet, one can become like the valleys of the world: content to remain low and able to receive all things.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times the five tones were harmonious and free from discord. Who, then, prescribed the six pitches? Hold to the soft and quiet, and you can become the valley of the world.

As the valley of the world, constant De will never be lost; in the end, one returns to the pure, natural state of an infant.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The rulers who were skilled at governing the world in ancient times modeled themselves on rivers and seas, which practice Wuwei and dwell in low places. They became the valleys of the world, and so their De was never lost. Thus, the realized person is not led by desires; the heart and spirit dwell together in peace. In stillness, they cultivate De; in action, things naturally fall into place.

Know what is bright and manifest,

The Nanhua Jing says: The Five Emperors knew what was bright and manifest, and so they created the five colors. What appears bright to the eye can also be obscured; colors that can be discerned can also be distinguished from one another, and so distinctions among the five colors arose.

Yet hold to what is dark and hidden, and you can become the law of the world.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times the five colors were harmonious and free from discord. Who, then, established the patterns of ornament? Hold to what is dark and hidden, and you can become the law of the world.

As the law of the world, constant De will never go astray; in the end, one returns to the inexhaustible source.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The realized people of ancient times governed the world with hearts that were empty, quiet, and free of desire. They cultivated the natural Dao and practiced Wuwei with an untroubled calm; thus, the world was at peace.

Know what is noble and glorious,

The Nanhua Jing says: The Five Emperors knew what was noble and glorious, and so they established the pitches and the calendar. The Tongxuan Jing says: Nothing is so vast that Heaven and Earth can contain it; nothing is so minute that the spirits can perceive it. Matters that are plainly visible can be seen and measured, and from these came the calendar and numbers.

Know what is noble and glorious,

The Nanhua Jing says: The Five Emperors knew what was noble and glorious, and so they established the pitches and the calendar. The Tongxuan Jing says: Nothing is so vast that Heaven and Earth can contain it; nothing is so minute that the spirits can perceive it. Matters that are plainly visible can be measured, and from these came the calendar and numbers.

Yet hold to what is humbled and low, and you can become the valley of the world.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, unblemished jade had not yet been damaged. Who, then, made ritual jade objects such as the gui and zhang? Hold to what is humbled and low, and you can become the valley of the world.

As the valley of the world, constant De will become full and complete; in the end, one returns to the uncarved simplicity of the original substance.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The rulers of ancient times who were skilled at governing the state modeled themselves on the nature of rivers and seas. Rivers and seas follow nature and do not act deliberately. They are content to remain in low places where all waters converge, and so their virtue is abundant. When rulers do not compete with the people for profit, wealth can be abundant. When sages preserve simplicity and honesty and do not let the people’s customs fall into disarray, they remain detached and free of desire, and the people naturally become simple and honest as well.

Once the uncarved block is divided, it becomes all kinds of vessels.

The Tongxuan Jing says: By the age of the Five Emperors, the legendary sage rulers of antiquity, people had established calendars and laws, distinguished the five colors, and differentiated what was clear from what was turbid, and what was sweet from what was bitter. The simple nature that had once been whole was divided into specific implements. Later, people promoted benevolence and righteousness and cultivated ritual and music, and virtue gradually became artificial. The people adorned themselves with cleverness to impress the foolish, and devised deceitful schemes to attack those above them. Even if someone in the world managed to keep this state of affairs going, that would not necessarily bring stability to the state. The more cleverness there is, the more simple and honest virtue declines.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: In ancient times, simplicity was whole and complete. Why would anyone have needed to make ritual wine vessels carved in the shape of an ox? When the Dao and virtue had not been abandoned, why promote benevolence and righteousness? When people’s inborn nature had not strayed from its true course, why would ritual and music be needed? Later generations damaged simplicity to make implements; this was the work of artisans. They ruined virtue to exalt benevolence and righteousness; this was the fault of the Five Emperors.

When sages put the Great Dao into practice, they can become leaders of all officials.

The Nanhua Jing says: After attaining the Dao, Xīwéi governed Heaven and Earth through Wuwei (non-action); Fuxi followed the Dao of the primordial Qi that generates the myriad things; Shennong ruled the world by virtue of Fire; and Huangdi brought the world into an age of auspicious clouds, a legendary era of peace and good omens.

The Nanhua Jing also says: After attaining the Dao, Xīwéi governed Heaven and Earth through Wuwei; Fuxi followed the Dao of primordial Qi; Shennong became king through the virtue of Fire; and Huangdi brought the world into an age of auspicious clouds.

Thus, the highest form of governance does not divide what is whole. “The Great maker does not cut” means that truly skillful governance does not forcibly divide up or control the world. If one person makes decisions for the world, it is like seeing only one side of the age of Tang Yao and Yu Shun: one knows that the worthy can benefit the world, but not that relying on them too much can also harm it. Only by refraining from dividing up and controlling the world in the name of worthiness does one accord with this principle.

“On Setting Things in Motion,” Chapter Twenty-Nine

This chapter says that the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords in the age of decline treat the world and their states as their own households, and all things as their possessions. With vast lands and abundant property, their power swells and their ambitions grow arrogant. Powerful states send out armies to invade weaker ones, while weaker states, too, arrogantly oppress their subordinates. Such people cannot hold the world for long. To hold the world for a long time depends neither on contention nor on claiming authority through Daoist arts or the title of sage.

Earth gathers downward rather than striving to rise higher, and so remains stable and free from danger. Water flows toward low places rather than striving to flow faster, and so moves without obstruction. Therefore, the sage does not act recklessly and so avoids ruin; does not insist on possession and so has nothing to lose.

Those familiar with deploying troops and arranging formations do not understand wondrous change or the weighing of decisions made in the ancestral temple. Those who delight in warfare are never free from defeat; those who are eager to contend never escape loss. Even a skilled swimmer may drown, and a skilled rider may fall. What they excel at and take pleasure in may instead harm them. Thus, reckless action brings failure, and clinging to possession leads to loss. The seven contending states of the Warring States period fought one another and ultimately plunged the world into turmoil.

Those who wish to obtain the world—

The Tongxuan Jing says: In governing a state, one should not covet territory, nor can the world be gained through forceful seizure. The world is entrusted to those whom the people collectively acknowledge and follow. Only by relying on benevolence and righteousness can one hope to obtain it.

—yet seek to seize it through warfare—

The Tongxuan Jing says: If one contends for fame and profit, I believe this course will ultimately not bring the desired result.

I believe this course will ultimately not bring the desired result.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Even if one forcibly takes possession of the world, one cannot hold it for long. Fame cannot be gained by pursuing and seizing it by force; it must be bestowed by the people of the world. Whoever the people follow may be called virtuous. If one lacks virtue, then even if one forcibly seizes the world, the people will not follow. To maintain rule by force of arms when they do not follow is a dangerous path. I believe this course will ultimately not bring the desired result.

The world is a sacred vessel.

The Dongling Jing says: The world is a sacred thing, and the position of emperor is a weighty responsibility.

It must not be acted upon by force.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The world is a vast whole. It cannot be forcibly controlled, nor may one act as one pleases. Reckless action brings failure.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who love fame often suffer setbacks because of it; those skilled at swimming may also drown. People are often harmed by the very things they favor. Thus reckless action brings failure.

Those who insist on holding on to things will ultimately lose them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who compete for profit often fall into difficulty; those skilled at riding horses may also fall from them. People are often harmed by the very things they favor. Thus insisting on holding on leads to loss.

Among all things, calamity and good fortune often accompany one another, while benefit and harm can transform into each other. We must observe this carefully.

Some advance, while others follow; some are long, others short; some are warm, others cold; some are beautiful, others ugly; some are strong, others frail; some are gentle, others stern; some support, others destroy. The Chongxu Jing, a Daoist text, says that some things are right and others wrong.

Therefore, the sage acts as follows:

The Tongxuan Jing says: The key to accomplishing things lies in responding to the moment, not in striving to prevail. The key to governing lies in following the Dao, not in believing oneself wise. Earth gathers and settles low; it does not vie to be high, so it is stable and faces no danger. Water flows toward low places; it does not vie to be swift, so it flows on without obstruction. Thus the sage practices Wuwei (non-action) and avoids failure; the sage does not cling, and so loses nothing.

Remove excess.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The foundation of strength lies in keeping to gentleness. Thus the sage remains gentle and does not assert strength. In this way, the sage can establish royal rule and bring lasting peace to the world.

Remove extravagance.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The foundation of frugality lies in casting off extravagance. Thus the sage does not waste resources on excess and does not dare indulge in arrogance and luxury, enabling the sage to endure.

Remove excessiveness.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The foundation of casting off arrogance lies in emptiness, stillness, and Wuwei. Thus the sage casts off pride and complacency and does not dare indulge in excess, enabling the sage to endure.

Chapter Thirty: Assisting the Ruler with the Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the Warring States period, ministers in the seven states launched unjust wars, leaving bodies strewn across the battlefield and blood flowing everywhere. War is the root of great disorder under Heaven, and delighting in bravery and combat brings ruin. Weapons are inauspicious objects, and war is a dangerous undertaking: a ringing bronze bell breaks from the vibrations, while oil and candles are consumed by their own light. Those who flaunt their strength and bravery may die because of their aggression; those skilled in argument and clever schemes may also bring misfortune upon themselves through their talents. Some die violently before their time, not having reached a peaceful end to their lives, but because the few cannot withstand the many, the weak are oppressed by the strong, and they are killed in battle. In the Warring States period, rebellious ministers were eager for war and fought one another, and so the world fell into great disorder.

Assist the ruler through the Dao,

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, ministers governed the state and brought peace within its borders by promoting virtue and extending benevolence. This was the best course.

Do not rely on military force to dominate the world,

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, wicked deeds did not arise, the people lived in peace and ease, and all under Heaven was at peace. The wise had no need to display their cleverness to compete for merit, and the brave had no opportunity to flaunt their might. Thus, they did not rely on military force to subdue the world.

Such actions will eventually bring retribution.

The Tongxuan Jing says: During the Warring States period, the states raised armies in pursuit of self-preservation. Wicked men flattered rulers and plotted in secret. Rulers eager to show their strength followed their schemes, allowing disorder to take hold.

Where armies have been stationed, brambles grow.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When the seven states raised armies and plunged into rebellion, the roads became unsafe to travel, crops failed to grow in the fields, and brambles filled the wastelands.

After a large-scale war, there will surely be years of famine.

The Tongxuan Jing, in the “Subtle Illumination” chapter, says: Sending out an army of one hundred thousand costs a thousand gold coins each day; after the war, there will surely be years of famine.

Therefore, those skilled in the use of arms seek only to achieve what is necessary. They dare not use military force to flaunt their strength. The Tongxuan Jing says, “However sharp a weapon may be, it is not enough to rely on it to display one’s might.” The “Weiming” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says, “To deploy an army of one hundred thousand means spending a thousand gold pieces each day; after the fighting, famine is sure to follow.” The ancients also said that one who is brave enough not to act rashly or flaunt strength can preserve life.

Once their aim is achieved, they do not boast of themselves, claim credit, or grow arrogant. The Tongxuan Jing says that by holding to weakness and not daring to rely on strength, one can truly hold firm. A single kind of courage cannot suffice to meet the broad demands of governance. The courageous people of old did not use their strength to oppress others; this may be called single-minded devotion to the Dao.

Only when there is no alternative should one take up arms. The Tongxuan Jing says that when an enemy invades, one should fight only when compelled to do so. Once the aim of military action has been achieved, one should stop and not flaunt one’s strength. The Tongxuan Jing says that those in ancient times who used arms while holding to weakness belonged to the class of people who preserved life; in this way, the world was able to remain at peace.

When things reach their height, they turn toward decline. The Chongxu Jing, a Daoist classic, records Confucius saying to his disciple Zilu, “You can be courageous, but you cannot be timid.” The Tongxuan Jing says that those who flaunt their strength and love daring deeds die through their own violence, while those skilled in argument perish because they rely on their own cleverness. Holding to weakness is the way to preserve life, and thereby the world can remain at peace.

This is called being out of accord with the Dao. The Tongxuan Jing says that some people die violent deaths before their natural lifespan has run its course: those who pit the few against the many or the weak against the strong will ultimately be killed by weapons. To rely on military might in one’s conduct is to be out of accord with the Dao; being out of accord with the Dao leads to an early end. The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says that one who cannot live in peace and contentment is out of accord with the Dao and with De. Being out of accord with the Dao leads to an early end.

“Fine Weapons Are Inauspicious” — Chapter Thirty-One

The Nanhua Jing (that is, the Zhuangzi) records: In the past, King Wen of Zhao loved sword fighting. More than three thousand swordsmen gathered at his gate, fighting one another in his presence every day. Each year, more than a hundred people were killed or wounded, yet he never tired of this passion. Crown Prince Kui was troubled by this and asked Zhuangzi to persuade King Wen to change his mind.

When Zhuangzi met King Wen, he said, “I have three kinds of sword. You may choose whichever you wish to use.” The king asked, “Tell me about these three swords.” Zhuangzi replied, “There is the sword of the Son of Heaven, the sword of the feudal lords, and the sword of the common people. The sword of the Son of Heaven is used to set the feudal lords in order and bring all under Heaven to allegiance. The sword of the feudal lords brings everyone within their domains to allegiance. The sword of the common people does no more than pit life against life; it has no use in governing the state. The sword you use now can set the feudal lords in order and bring all under Heaven to allegiance: it is the sword of the Son of Heaven. The sword of the feudal lords, too, can bring those within their domains to allegiance. But when the sword of the common people is wielded to the point of death, it does nothing to benefit the state. You occupy the position of the Son of Heaven, yet delight in the sword of the common people. I privately think this is beneath your station.”

On hearing this, King Wen looked bewildered and at a loss. Supported by attendants, he climbed into the hall. The chief cook brought in food, but the king walked around it three times. Zhuangzi said, “Please sit quietly and compose yourself, Your Majesty. I have finished my report on the matter of swords.” From then on, King Wen did not leave the palace for three months, and the swordsmen all took their own lives with their swords in their lodgings.

There are six dangers associated with military affairs; in the end, they bring no good fortune and should not be used often.

“Sharp weapons”

The Tongxuan Jing (a Daoist text) says, “Weapons are instruments of ill omen; war is a dangerous undertaking.”

are inauspicious instruments.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “To delight in using weapons is the height of perversity.”

and everyone detests them.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Weapons ravage all under Heaven and throw the people into turmoil. Killing the innocent is what the people abhor, so all things detest weapons.”

Therefore, those who possess the Dao do not use weapons.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The noble person devotes himself to the Dao and De and does not prize the use of troops.”

In ordinary affairs, the noble person favors the left,

The Dongling Jing (a Daoist text) says, “Yang De occupies the left.”

but when using weapons, favors the right.

The Dongling Jing says, “Yin punishment—the killing force of Yin—lies on the right.”

Weapons are inauspicious instruments.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Weapons are inauspicious instruments. They are not instruments for a gentleman to use.”

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Weapons are not a gentleman’s instruments, nor are they treasures he cherishes.”

They should be used only when there is no other choice.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “There are five circumstances in which troops may be used. The second is called ‘responsive warfare’: using troops under pressure, when there is no other choice. If responsive warfare is victorious, that victory accords with the Way of Heaven.”

Maintaining calm and detachment is most important.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “A tranquil mind free of distracting thoughts, and action taken with detachment and without seeking anything—this is responsive warfare. If it is victorious, that victory accords with the Way of Heaven.”

Maintaining calm and detachment is most important.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Be tranquil and free of vain imaginings; be detached and free of worry. Use tranquility to cultivate wisdom, and remain peaceful and content without pride. In this way, you will attain equanimity.”

Even in victory, one should not regard it as something admirable.

The Tongxuan Jing, “On Benevolence” says, “War kills and injures people, so victory is not worth celebrating. No weapon is more poisonous than the impulse to harm others; even Moxie, the famed ancient sword, is not the most poisonous.”

To treat victory as something admirable is to take pleasure in killing.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The unjust wars of the Warring States left bodies strewn across the ground and blood flowing. This was taking pleasure in killing.”

Those who delight in killing—

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Those who wage war for private gain in the Spring and Autumn period are abandoned by the people. Once the people reject them, they are certain to perish, however powerful they may be.”

—cannot fulfill their ambitions under Heaven.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Those who fight on behalf of others cannot establish royal rule; those who seek only their own advantage cannot achieve great deeds.”

Auspicious and celebratory affairs favor the left.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says, “The Dao has a left aspect. The left belongs to Yang.”

Inauspicious affairs and mourning favor the right.

The Nanhua Jing says, “The Dao also has a right aspect. The right belongs to Yin.”

The Assistant General stands on the left because the left belongs to Yang and governs life. The Senior General stands on the right because the right belongs to Yin and governs death. This means that military ceremonies are arranged according to the rites of mourning.

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Chapter on Supreme Benevolence,” says that defeat in battle should be met with grief, and that when many people have been killed, one should mourn and weep for the dead. Even after victory, warfare should be treated according to the rites of mourning; killing must never be treated as a cause for celebration.

Chapter Thirty-Two: The Dao Is Everlasting and Nameless

The Tongxuan Jing says that people in antiquity followed Dao and De, and so received the protection of Heaven, Earth, and the spirits. Foreign peoples came from the four directions to submit to them. Auspicious signs appeared one after another: the Jing Star, symbol of good fortune; auspicious clouds; yellow dragons; sweet dew; sweet springs; abundant, fine grain; and the fungus of immortality. Branches from separate trees grew joined together, phoenixes gathered in courtyards, qilin roamed the countryside, and dragon-serpents dwelled in pools and marshes. The sea was calm, rivers did not overflow, the sun, moon, and stars moved in order, and winds and rains arrived in season. The five grains flourished. These were all auspicious responses to the way the ancients lived by the Dao.

The Dao exists eternally, yet has no fixed name. The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Origin of the Dao,” says that the ancient Dao had no name—that is, it was without words or speech. This wordlessness was the beginning of all things. “Beginning” here is like the remote past, when people kept records by tying knots in cords: it preserves a state of simplicity.

The simple Dao may seem small. The Tongxuan Jing says that those who cultivated the Dao in antiquity should be subtle and cautious in their thoughts, yet broad in their aspirations. Subtle thoughts prevent desires from taking root in their smallest beginnings; broad aspirations make it possible to govern all things. What they held to was small, but what they took on was great. Thus, governing in accordance with the Dao, even by simple means, is enough to bring peace to the world.

In this way, people throughout the world would not dare treat the simple Dao as a subject to be ruled. The Nanhua Jing says that in an age when the Great Dao prevailed and De was pure and abundant, all things helped one another without regarding that help as a favor. The people were simple in their ways, and so could govern themselves according to their own nature.

If lords and kings can hold to this simple Dao, the Nanhua Jing says, the rulers of antiquity took Wuwei as their constant way.

All things will naturally fall into alignment.

The Nanhua Jing says, “Follow nature and do not act deliberately, yet there is nothing that cannot be accomplished. Then all things transform of themselves.”

The Yin-Yang Qi of Heaven and Earth harmonize with one another, and timely sweet rain descends. The Tongxuan Jing says, “When Yin and Yang are in harmony, rain falls at its appointed time.”

The people need no one to command them; they naturally come into balance. The Tongxuan Jing says, “The ancient sages were worthy of serving as teachers because they issued no verbal commands. Though the sages said not a word, the people of the world were still transformed.”

Institutions are first established and names are devised. The Tongxuan Jing says, “Those in later ages who achieved modest success and created names did so because they had something to say. Once words are spoken, they set things in motion; when those things are completed, books and instruments of learning come into being.”

Once names have been established, the Tongxuan Jing says, “People today seek rounded wisdom, upright conduct, and broad abilities, yet hope to do little. With rounded wisdom, they imagine they know everything; with upright conduct, there are things they refuse to do; with broad abilities, they want to govern everything; and they do little because they seek only to hold on to a limited range of affairs. Those whose vision is vast may know little and may not realize what they have lost. Therefore, without the Dao to govern and regulate them, even great enterprises can bring disorder.”

Such people should also know when to stop. The Nanhua Jing says, “Do you know where to stop? To recognize the bounds of what you do not know is to know when to stop.”

Knowing when to stop allows one to avoid danger. The Nanhua Jing says, “People do not look at their reflections in flowing water, but prefer to look in still water. Only when still can things be brought to rest.”

The state of the Dao in the world is described in the Tongxuan Jing: “Thus the Dao moves through the world like rivers and seas.”

Knowing when to stop allows one to avoid danger. The Nanhua Jing says, “People do not look at their reflections in flowing water, but prefer to look in still water. Only when still can things be brought to rest.”

The state of the Dao in the world is described in the Tongxuan Jing: “The Dao in the world is like rivers and seas: it acts without deliberate effort.”

It is also like streams and valley waters that ultimately flow into rivers and seas.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The ocean need not strive, yet it can receive the waters of a hundred rivers. It seeks nothing deliberately, and for that very reason can gain something.

End of Volume Four of the Collected Explanations of the Ancient Dao by the Four Masters of the True Classic of the Dao and De.

Those who know others may be called wise; those who understand themselves are truly clear-sighted. Overcoming others shows strength; overcoming oneself is true power.

The Nanhua Jing says that the sages of antiquity knew how to dispel the mind’s turbulent desires. Wealth and rank, prominence, authority, fame, and profit—these six things can all unsettle a person’s mind. Only when the mind is undisturbed can it be made upright; only when the inner mind is upright can one be empty, still, and practice Wuwei (non-action), while remaining capable of everything.

Thus the sages of antiquity had the wisdom to understand others and the insight to know themselves; the strength to overcome others and the power to restrain themselves. They knew how to be content and thereby be rich, and they had the resolve to put their principles into practice. With these virtues, they could accomplish worthy deeds and remain secure in their place while alive, and their reputations could endure long after death. These virtues, then, brought lasting achievements and renown.

The Tongxuan Jing says that recognizing the worthy is wisdom; nothing in wisdom is more important than understanding people. When people are understood, governance will not fall into disorder.

The Tongxuan Jing also says that cherishing the worthy is benevolence, and honoring the worthy is propriety.

The Tongxuan Jing: Chapter on Lower De says that overcoming others is strength. One who can make good use of the strength of others is sure to win their hearts. Those who win people’s hearts can also achieve their own aims.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Those who can overcome themselves are truly strong.” To rely only on one’s own strength and show it off still means depending on the strength of others. No one can both cultivate themselves well and lose others; nor can anyone lose themselves and truly gain others.

Those who know contentment are rich.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The foundation of wealth lies in thrift and restraint. One can be called wealthy without relying on accumulating possessions.

Those who persevere are people of resolve.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The ancients did not feel endangered by low status, were not ashamed of poverty, and did not blame others.

Only by never abandoning one’s roots can one endure.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who understand the nature of life do not force themselves to obtain what life cannot provide; those who understand the nature of fate do not worry over what fate cannot change.

Only when one’s spirit or reputation does not perish after death can one be called long-lived.

The Tongxuan Jing also says: Those who understand the nature of life do not force themselves to obtain what life cannot provide; those who understand the nature of fate do not worry over what fate cannot change.

If one’s reputation continues to be passed down after death, one may be called long-lived.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Although the noble person dies, their reputation does not vanish. When their reputation is handed down to later generations, wherever it reaches, it may be said to endure forever.

The Vast and Pervasive Dao, Chapter Thirty-Four

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: Nothing is more wondrous than Heaven, nothing more abundant than Earth, and nothing more exalted than the position of an emperor. Therefore, an emperor’s De (Virtue/Power) should match Heaven and Earth in abundance and nobility. The ancient sages governed and nurtured all things through the gifts and resources bestowed by Heaven and Earth, and made caring for and nourishing the people their way of governing. The Dao does not consider itself great, yet all things turn to it. Thus it brings about the vastness of all under Heaven, and follows the Dao in nourishing the people.

The Dao is vast and pervasive.

The Nanhua Jing says: When viewed broadly from the perspective of the Dao, the responses and transformations of all things become clear. The Dao cares for all things broadly, regarding Heaven, Earth, and all things as one.

It is everywhere, and can be followed on either side.

The Tongxuan Jing says: There is nowhere the Dao cannot be put into practice. One’s actions should accord with what is fitting: seeing what is appropriate, do not rush to attach yourself to it; seeing what is inappropriate, you should leave it. What is permissible and what is not are opposites, yet each is also the other’s inner aspect.

All things depend on it…

All things depend on the Dao to live.

The Nanhua Jing says: “The Dao embraces all things without opposing them. Its kindness extends through all ages, yet it does not call itself benevolent.”

The Dao enables all things to grow, yet it makes no claim and takes no credit.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “All things depend on the Dao for their existence, yet no one knows the Dao’s De.”

When things are accomplished, the Dao does not claim the credit.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The eternal Great Dao gives life to all things without possessing them. No one knows its De.”

The Dao cherishes and nurtures all things, yet does not rule over them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The eternal Great Dao gathers and stores all things without adding to its wealth. It gives to and receives from all things without making itself richer or poorer. It cherishes and nurtures all things, yet does not rule over them.”

The Dao is always free of desire; therefore, it may be called small.

The Nanhua Jing says: “The Dao shapes the forms of all things, yet does not boast of its skill. It takes no action, yet all things arise naturally. All things return to the Dao, yet the Dao does not rule over them; therefore, it may be called great.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The eternal Great Dao transforms and nurtures all things without ruling them.” The Dongling Jing says: “The Dao makes no deliberate effort, yet all things come naturally to completion. All things return to the Dao, yet it does not rule over them; therefore, it may be called great.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The eternal Great Dao transforms and nurtures all things without ruling them.” The Dongling Jing says: “The Dao is neither a storehouse of plans nor an official who manages affairs. Its workings are profoundly mysterious, yet it takes no credit for them.”

Therefore, sages model themselves on the Great Dao and care for everyone widely. By placing themselves humbly beneath others, they are able to achieve greatness.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The rulers of old who governed well modeled themselves on rivers and seas. Rivers and seas occupy low places, so they do not consider themselves great. All streams flow toward them, and so in the end they achieve greatness.”

The Nanhua Jing says: “The Great Dao bestows kindness on all things, and in this we can see its vastness throughout the world.”

Chapter 35: Holding to the Great Image (“Holding to the Great Image”)

The Nanhua Jing (Classic of the Southern Florescence) says: In the age of the ancient Shennong clan, people rested at ease and rose with calm, unhurried movements. They knew their mothers but not their fathers. They lived alongside the elk, farmed for food, and spun thread to make clothing. They had no desire to harm or contend with one another. This was an age when the Great Dao prevailed and De reached its height. Hold fast to the Great Dao, and there will be stability and peace; all under Heaven will be at peace.

Hold fast to the Great Image,

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who hold fast to the Great Dao can perfect their De. Perfect De is the realm of the sage. The Three Sovereigns of antiquity, legendary rulers of the remote past, received the guiding principles of the Great Dao. They occupied the central position and governed through Wuwei (non-action), thus aligning themselves with the Dao. They did not speak deliberately, yet they understood De.

All under Heaven will come to it. They come, and none are harmed,

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, calamities did not occur and disorder did not arise. All under Heaven was peaceful and harmonious. This is the foundation of governing the world.

At peace, in balance, and at ease.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, people did not rely on schemes and clever contrivances. They naturally returned to their original nature. This is called peace, and it is also the foundation of governing the world.

Music and food,

The Nanhua Jing says: Let the people find their food delicious and take pleasure in their own customs and way of life.

Make travelers pause.

The Nanhua Jing says: Let the people live in peace. The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity governed the people so that each person could follow their own nature and live securely, without conflict arising from mutual interference.

When the Dao is spoken,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Great Dao cannot be expressed through argument. Once one clings to words, it is no longer the Great Dao. In ancient times, those who governed all under Heaven through the Dao did not rely on speech.

How bland it is, without any flavor.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Great Dao is dispassionate and free of desire, still and without action. It is so plain that it has no flavor, yet it can be attained naturally, without deliberation.

Look, and it is not enough to see;

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Great Dao cannot be clearly seen with the eyes. If one thinks one has seen it, what one has seen is not the Great Dao. Straining to observe with the eyes tires the mind and spirit without bringing true understanding. Governing the world by relying on what the eyes can see is difficult.

The original text then continues, “To see and know its brightness, yet call it flavorless; to gain it without deliberation.” This means that even if one thinks the Dao’s wondrous clarity can be known through sight, one will ultimately find that the Dao is plain and flavorless, yet can be naturally experienced without deliberation.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Dao cannot be clearly seen with the eyes. If you take what you see to be the Dao, you are mistaken. Carefully observing with the eyes alone exhausts the spirit, yet still fails to reveal the Dao. If the governance of state affairs depends on what the eyes can clearly see, it will be difficult to govern well. To take clear sight as knowledge of the Dao is to lose the Dao. The ancients did not deliberately use their eyes to inspect things, yet they understood.”

“Listening with the ears alone is not enough to hear the Dao.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The Dao cannot be heard by the ears alone. If you take the sounds you hear to be the Dao, you are mistaken. Governing state affairs by listening with the ears alone wears out the mind and achieves nothing. If governance depends on what the ears can clearly hear, it will be difficult to govern well. To take whatever you hear as knowledge of the Dao is to lose the Dao. The ancients did not deliberately listen, yet they attained understanding.”

“The workings of the Dao are inexhaustible.”

In the Tongxuan Jing, Wenzi asked: “How can a ruler win the people’s favor?” Laozi replied: “Be like the rivers and seas. They are plain and tasteless, yet their workings never cease. Begin with what is small, and in time you can accomplish what is vast.”

Chapter Thirty-Six: “If You Would Draw It In”

This chapter draws on the Qieqie (“Rifling Through the Trunks”) chapter of the Nanhua Zhenjing, another name for the Zhuangzi: without the way of the sage, the good cannot establish themselves; without the sage’s cunning, thieves cannot succeed. There are few good people in the world and many who are not good. Thus the benefits of sage wisdom to the world are few, while the harms it causes are many. Wine from Lu was weak, and Handan in Zhao was besieged; when sages appear, great thieves rise as well. For this reason, some argue that only when people break open the boxes, unbar the doors, and do away with other devices against theft, and discard the measuring vessels and scales, will the world begin to find peace.

That is why it is said: “Fish cannot be separated from deep water, and the sharp instruments of the state must not be brought out for all to see.” Measuring vessels and scales may themselves invite theft.

“If you would draw it in, you must first let it expand;”

The Nanhua Zhenjing says: Even if later generations prize sage wisdom to govern the world, they may only be encouraging theft. When people make measuring vessels to measure goods, thieves steal the vessels along with the goods.

“If you would weaken it, you must first let it grow strong;”

The Nanhua Zhenjing says: When sages of later generations bring forth their wisdom, great thieves rise as well. When people make scales to weigh goods, thieves steal the scales along with the goods.

To destroy something, one often first allows it to flourish.

The Southern Florescence Classic (the Zhuangzi) says: In ancient times, when the wisdom of the sages had faded, people no longer competed to display their cleverness, and great thieves did not arise. All under Heaven was therefore peaceful and undisturbed. Later, people made tallies and seals—tokens and stamps used to verify identity—and great thieves began stealing even the tallies and seals.

To take something away, one often first gives it.

The Southern Florescence Classic says: If the sages of later ages do not restrain their desire to display their wisdom, great thieves will never cease. They established benevolence and righteousness to correct the ways of the world, yet great thieves put even benevolence and righteousness to use and stole them.

This is what is meant by “stealing even the tallies and seals.”

To take something away, one often first gives it.

The Southern Florescence Classic says: If the sages of later ages do not restrain their desire to display their wisdom, great thieves will never cease. They established benevolence and righteousness to correct the ways of the world, yet great thieves put even benevolence and righteousness to use and stole them.

This is called subtle illumination: discernment that becomes evident through attention to the minute.

The Subtle Illumination chapter of the Tongxuan Classic says: The Dao may dwell in Yin or in Yang; it may be hidden or manifest. It can contract and expand, remain concealed or become visible. It gathers Yin Qi within and breathes out Yang Qi, causing the sun, moon, and stars—the Three Lights—to shine. Only by first attending carefully to what is subtle can great illumination emerge.

The soft and yielding can overcome the hard and strong.

The Tongxuan Classic says: The Dao can be soft and yielding, or hard and strong. The soft can turn into the hard, and the weak can become the strong; beginning with softness and weakness, one ultimately achieves strength. When softness accumulates to a certain point, it becomes strength; when weakness accumulates to a certain point, it becomes power.

Fish cannot leave deep waters.

The Southern Florescence Classic says: A fierce beast large enough to carry a cart, if clad in armor and taken from the forest, cannot escape the nets. A great fish capable of swallowing a boat, once it leaves the water, is vulnerable to ants. Thus, birds and beasts do not object to high mountains, and fish and turtles do not object to deep waters. When a spring dries up, fish stranded on land can only breathe upon one another and moisten one another with their saliva, but they cannot save the dried-up spring. Better to forget one another in rivers and lakes. Fish can live freely only in water; people dig ponds, raise fish, and provide what they need—another sign that fish cannot leave deep waters.

The state’s sharp instruments,

The Nanhua Jing says: Those later generations call sages are people who hold power and command the means of control in the world. When they promote sage wisdom, they may instead invite theft. If someone steals benevolence and righteousness, or uses measures, weights, tallies, seals, pearls, jade, and other objects for profit, neither high office and generous emoluments can dissuade them nor axes and execution can stop them. Making thieves value profit and become difficult to restrain is the fault of later sages, who use power to instruct the people. Sages do not reject simplicity. People are better off forgetting one another’s clever contrivances and following the art of the Dao. If people each return to the Great Dao, they can be free of interference and at peace in mind. Therefore, the power and methods of governing a state should not be shown lightly.

They should not be shown lightly.

The Nanhua Jing says: Abandon the sage wisdom people use to make a show of themselves, and great thieves will cease. Cast aside jade and destroy jewels, and petty thieves will not arise. Burn tally tokens and destroy seals, and the people can return to simplicity. Break measures and scales, and the people will no longer contend. These methods of governing should not be shown lightly.

Chapter Thirty-Seven: The Dao Constantly Acts Without Action

This chapter quotes the Nanhua Jing, which says: The Great Dao covers and sustains all things through Wuwei (non-action); it is vast and boundless. Therefore, a noble person should open their heart and practice Wuwei within the Dao. Accomplishing all things through Wuwei is called “greatness”; acting without deliberate speech through Wuwei is called “De,” and this is great De. In ancient times, people followed Wuwei and let all things change naturally, and so the world was well governed.

The Dao constantly acts without action,

The Tongxuan Jing says: Wuwei is the Dao’s constant state.

Yet nothing is left undone.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Great Dao appears to act without action, yet all things grow naturally; thus, there is nothing it does not bring to completion.

If lords and kings can abide by it,

The Nanhua Jing says: For a noble person governing the world, the best approach is Wuwei. Once Wuwei is practiced, the people can keep to their own nature and the original state of their lives.

All things will transform of themselves.

In the Nanhua Jing, Hongmeng says to Yunjiang: If you simply dwell in Wuwei, all things will transform of themselves. But if human desires arise within that transformation…

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people wish to take action because government orders keep changing. If those above do not sincerely follow the Great Dao and merely demand that those below obey diligently, the people will naturally not respond.

I will settle them through the nameless, uncarved Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of ancient times used the Great Dao to bring peace to the world. Those in high positions governed through Wuwei (non-action), and the people were transformed. When those above did not compel them with government orders, those below had no need to comply by force.

I will settle them through the nameless, uncarved Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of ancient times who were skilled at governing the world used the Great Dao to bring peace to the people. Those in high positions governed through Wuwei, and the people were transformed as if by a wondrous power.

The nameless, uncarved Dao also puts an end to people’s desires.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: The myriad things each have their own principles, but the Great Dao favors none and therefore has no fixed name. Because the Great Dao has no fixed name, it governs through Wuwei. When those above are nonacting, those below have no need to act recklessly.

When people have no desires, they can remain calm.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The rulers of ancient times who were skilled at governing the world did not act recklessly. Wuwei means keeping to stillness and purity; by keeping to stillness and purity, one can become ruler of the world.

The world will then naturally return to the right way.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When those in high positions return to stillness and purity, the myriad things naturally return to what is right.

Chapter 38: Those of Highest De Do Not Cling to De

This chapter draws on the meaning of the “Knowledge Roams North” chapter of the Nanhua Jing. The sages of high antiquity taught without words and brought peace to the world through Wuwei. Thus, the Dao of the Three Sovereigns was beyond reach, and the De of the Five Emperors was unattainable. By the time of the Three Kings, benevolence could be practiced; since the Shang and Zhou dynasties, righteousness may have grown deficient. The Five Hegemons used ritual to conceal their true intentions, while the Seven Warring States disturbed one another with weapons.

Thus it is said: only after the Dao was lost did people speak of De; only after De was lost did they speak of benevolence; only after benevolence was lost did they speak of righteousness; only after righteousness was lost did they speak of ritual; and only after ritual was lost did they resort to weapons. Ritual is the least of the Five Constant Virtues—benevolence, righteousness, ritual, wisdom, and trustworthiness—and merely the outward adornment of the Great Dao. It shows that loyalty and trust have grown weak, and marks the beginning of disorder.

Those of highest De do not regard themselves as possessing De; that is why they truly have De.

The “Chapter on Highest De” of the Tongxuan Jing says: Nothing is higher than Heaven. The Way of Heaven is nonacting and exalted; the sages model themselves on it, and the world can then be at peace. The Way of Heaven embodies the highest De. Those of highest De do not regard themselves as possessing De; that is why they truly have De.

Lower-level De (Virtue) deliberately clings to De and thus has no true De.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Nothing is lower than the earth. What the world calls the human way is to act deliberately while presenting oneself as humble and lowly. If a noble person follows this course, the world will fall into disorder. The human way belongs to a lower level of De. Lower-level De deliberately holds on to De and thus has no true De. Superior De does not deliberately display itself as virtuous, and for that reason it truly possesses De.

Lower-level De deliberately clings to De and thus has no true De.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Nothing is lower than the earth. What the world calls the human way is to act deliberately while presenting oneself as humble and lowly. If a noble person follows this course, the world will fall into disorder. The human way belongs to a lower level of De. Lower-level De deliberately holds on to De and thus has no true De.

Superior De follows its own nature, takes no deliberate action, and has no particular aim.

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Chapter on Superior Benevolence,” says: The Three Sovereigns of antiquity possessed superior De and governed through Wuwei (non-action), so everyone under Heaven submitted to them.

Lower-level De involves deliberate action and a particular aim.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Five Emperors of later ages acted through lower-level De, and so people throughout the four seas submitted to them.

Superior benevolence involves deliberate action, but has no particular aim.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Three Sovereigns possessed superior benevolence, and so people within the seas submitted to them.

Superior righteousness involves deliberate action and a particular aim.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the Shang and Zhou periods, rulers governed the world through a higher form of righteousness, and so the people of a single state submitted to them.

Superior ritual involves deliberate action, but no one responds.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Five Hegemons governed through ritual, and so the people of a single village submitted to them.

Then they roll up their sleeves and forcibly drag people into submission.

The Tongxuan Jing says: By the time of the Seven Warring States, Dao, De, benevolence, righteousness, and ritual had all vanished, and the people no longer submitted. Since the people’s hearts would not yield, military force was used to compel them, and the world fell into great disorder.

Thus, only after losing the Dao did people speak of De.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: After the Five Emperors lost the Dao, they governed through De, but De could no longer reach the level of the Dao.

Only after losing De did people speak of benevolence.

The Nanhua Jing says: After the Three Kings lost De, they governed through benevolence, which can be put into practice deliberately.

Only after losing benevolence did people speak of righteousness.

The Nanhua Jing says that when the Shang and Zhou lost humaneness, they began to emphasize righteousness; righteousness, too, can be diminished. Only after losing righteousness did they begin to emphasize ritual.

The Nanhua Jing also says that when the Five Hegemons lost righteousness, they began to emphasize ritual, which often becomes a matter of hypocrisy. Ritual is the outward embellishment of inner truth.

The Tongxuan Jing says that in the declining age, people make humaneness and righteousness shallow, and ritual and wisdom superficial. The good they do in this shallow way brings only limited blessings. The Nanhua Jing says that sages teach without words. The Dao cannot be attained through deliberate striving, and De cannot be reached by force. Humaneness can still be practiced, but righteousness can be diminished, while ritual easily becomes a matter of hypocrisy. Ritual is the outward splendor of the Dao.

When loyalty and trust also grow weak, the blessings gained are limited. The Tongxuan Jing says that in the declining age, cultivating humaneness and righteousness can still bring order to a state, while cultivating ritual and music can bring order only to a locality. When virtue is shallow, its influence extends only a little way.

Ritual is the beginning of disorder. The Tongxuan Jing says that when the Five Hegemons made ritual a tool of contention, rulers became the source of disorder. The Nanhua Jing likewise says that ritual is the beginning of disorder.

“Foreknowledge” refers to the outward splendor of the Dao. The Tongxuan Jing says that the ancients cultivated De through deep and thorough practice, and this was called Dao and De. Even those who practiced only superficially could gain many blessings and even bring the whole world into submission.

The Tongxuan Jing also says that the ancients cultivated De and thereby brought order to the world; the deeper their virtue, the wider its influence.

“The beginning of folly” means that displaying cleverness and talent may mark the beginning of a departure from simplicity. The Tongxuan Jing says that the Five Emperors placed the Dao and De first. Though the ancients seemed simple and slow to respond, their virtue was abundant. The Nanhua Jing says that in the age of supreme De in antiquity, people moved with ease and their spirits were calm and free.

Therefore, a person of great character should be tranquil and free of thought. In an age when De was abundant, people moved with ease and their spirits were calm and free.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Thus, the great person is calm at heart and free of excessive thought, tranquil and without worry. He walks without clinging to a fixed path and travels without weariness; he comes and goes without being confined by gates or rooms. He gathers his spirit, quiets clever knowledge and views, and cultivates the root within rather than adorning the branches on the outside. This is the Way of Wuwei (non-action): following Dao and De, and letting things take their natural course.

He abides in what is sincere and simple, and does not remain with what is shallow.

In the “Supreme Benevolence” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing, Wenzi asked: “Why do benevolence, righteousness, and ritual give rise to disorder? Is it because they are more superficial than Dao and De?” Laozi replied: “Those who practice benevolence must speak of it in terms of people’s sorrow and joy; those who speak of righteousness must discuss it in terms of giving and taking in human affairs. The joys and sorrows of people throughout the world differ, and it is impossible to attend to each one. Even if the wealth in the storehouses were exhausted, it would not be enough to satisfy the people’s endless desires. So it is better to cultivate Dao and practice De, follow the nature of Heaven and Earth, and let the myriad things each return to their proper state. Then the world will naturally have enough. Benevolence and righteousness arise from attachment to human feelings, and so they are superficial. Thus the great person chooses what is sincere and substantial, not what is shallow.”

He dwells in what is genuine and plain, and does not pursue outward splendor.

In the Tongxuan Jing, Wenzi asked his teacher: “Why did later generations resort to military force and punishment in the name of benevolence, righteousness, and ritual? Is it because these are more superficial than Dao and De?” Laozi replied: “The ancients acted in accordance with their nature; this was called Dao. They attained and preserved their inborn nature; this was called De. In those times, Dao and De were so pure and deep that military force and punishment were unnecessary. Later generations lost De and turned instead to benevolence and righteousness. As benevolence and righteousness grew increasingly shallow, they resorted to military force and punishment. Thus the great person stands by what is genuine and does not pursue outward adornment.”

Therefore, leave that side behind and choose this side.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Thus, abandon what is shallow and showy, and choose what is sincere and substantial; then disasters sent by Heaven will not occur. Having gained this side, one can forget the other; calamity will recede, and good fortune will arrive.

“Chapter on Those of Old Who Attained the One,” thirty-ninth.

This chapter quotes the Tongxuan Jing: The sages of ancient times cultivated their De, making themselves worthy of praise without seeking praise from others. They gained the realm under Heaven not by holding high office or possessing an exalted title, but by being adept at following the wishes of the people, thereby gaining their support. Rulers in later ages might bear the title of sovereign over all under Heaven, yet win no one’s loyalty, and in the end they lost the realm. That is why Jie of Xia and Zhou of Shang could not truly be kings, and why Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou did not banish their rulers without cause. The sages of old followed the people’s wishes and gained their support; later rulers held the throne in name alone, without the people’s loyalty, and so lost the realm.

Even when the sages of old received much praise, they did not become more self-satisfied. The highest praise is to seek no praise. This shows an understanding of the essence of the supreme Dao. The sages modeled themselves on the Way of Heaven and sought no fame, and thus were able to bring lasting peace to the realm.

In ancient times, those who attained the One:

The Chongxu Jing says: The Dao has no fixed shape or boundaries. Primordial Qi underwent nine transformations and then returned once more to the One. The One is the beginning of the transformations of Heaven and Earth, all things, and the human form.

When Heaven attains the One, it becomes clear and bright.

The Nanhua Jing says: Heaven is clear and bright because it follows Wuwei.

When Earth attains the One, it becomes stable and peaceful.

The Nanhua Jing says: Earth is stable and peaceful because it follows Wuwei.

When the spirits attain the One, they become wondrous and numinous.

The Nanhua Jing says: Calm detachment, stillness, an empty and quiet mind, and freedom from forced action are ways to nourish Shen. Then worry and distress cannot enter, harmful Qi cannot invade, and life can be prolonged. In ancient times, Guangchengzi gained this method of cultivation from the Dao and lived to the age of twelve hundred, his appearance still showing no signs of age.

When valleys attain the One, they become full.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The hundred rivers cannot form valleys unless they converge and do not flow into the sea. The sources of rivers and seas are deep and far-reaching, and their waters flow without end.

When all things attain the One, they can grow.

The Nanhua Jing says: Nothing among the myriad things fails to flourish through it. Could this not be the working of the Dao?

When lords and kings attain the One, they become the guiding principle for all under Heaven.

The Dongling Jing says: The lords and kings of ancient times did not prize their appearance or pursue fame. They may be called people of insight.

Bring the myriad things to this state and keep them there.

The Southern Florescence Classic (Nanhua Jing), another name for the Zhuangzi, says: “When governance is unified, divisions do not arise.”

If Heaven cannot remain clear, it may collapse. The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery (Tongxuan Jing) says: “When the Qi of Heaven and Earth falls out of balance, rainbows appear. Yang Qi cannot remain in its normal state, so winter and summer lose their order, and the moon and sun no longer distinguish day from night.”

If Earth cannot remain at peace, it may quake and cave in. The Tongxuan Jing says: “When Earth’s Qi falls out of balance, the hidden Qi beneath the ground leaks out; Yin Qi cannot remain in its normal state.”

If the spirits cannot remain efficacious, they may grow depleted. The Tongxuan Jing says: “When the Yin and Yang Qi in the human body fall out of balance, illness arises. If the body is wearied without rest, it becomes exhausted; if the spirit is overused without respite, it is depleted. Emotions and concerns such as joy, anger, and worry injure the spirit. When the spirit is exhausted, the body also declines.” The Nanhua Jing says: “If the body is wearied without rest, it becomes exhausted; if the spirit is overused, it is worn down. What is worn down becomes depleted, and what is depleted perishes.”

If valleys cannot remain full, they may dry up. The Tongxuan Jing says: “Ditches, canals, and ponds overflow in floods and dry up in drought. When rivers run dry, valleys become empty; when hills are leveled, abysses are filled in.”

If the myriad things cannot keep growing, they may perish. The Tongxuan Jing says: “When the myriad things flourish, plants and trees blossom abundantly; when they decline and perish, plants and trees wither.”

If lords and kings cannot retain their honored rank, they may fall into hardship. The Tongxuan Jing says: “Those who occupy high positions without arrogance are not endangered by their rank; those who are prosperous without complacency can preserve their wealth and honor for a long time. If one’s high position invites danger, or complacency leads to excess, one cannot endure for long.”

Therefore, honor must take lowliness as its root, and being high must take what is low as its foundation.

The “Treatise on Talismans and Words” in the Tongxuan Jing says: “People face three kinds of resentment. Do you not know them? Those of high rank are easily envied; those who hold great office are easily disliked by the ruler; and those with generous stipends easily incur resentment. The higher your rank, the humbler your bearing should be; the greater your office, the more cautious and restrained you should be inwardly; the more generous your stipend, the more widely you should give. If you do these three things, resentment will not arise. Thus, the noble must take the lowly as its root, and the high must take the low as its foundation.”

That is why rulers called themselves “the orphan,” “the lonely one,” and “the one who lacks virtue”—humble forms of self-address used by ancient rulers.

The “Origin of the Dao” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: “The sage calls himself the orphan, the lonely one, and the one who lacks virtue in order to return to the root.”

Does this not mean taking the lowly as one’s root? Is it not so?

The Tongxuan Jing says: “With a soft and yielding will, one can accomplish great undertakings; by relying on what is small, one can contain what is vast. The sage follows the Dao’s way of diminishing and therefore places himself below others. Knowing how to diminish, he can become vast. In this way, the world can endure; this is how Heaven’s Dao brings things to completion.”

Thus, striving intensely for praise means failing to attain genuine praise.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: “The sages of antiquity embraced Heaven and Earth and extended their beneficence throughout the world, yet did not know themselves to be great. They followed the Dao’s way of diminishing and therefore placed themselves below others. Knowing how to diminish, they could become vast, and the world endured because of them. This is how Heaven’s Dao brings things to completion.”

Thus, striving intensely for praise means failing to attain genuine praise.

The Nanhua Jing says: “The sages of antiquity embraced Heaven and Earth and extended their beneficence throughout the world, yet did not know which family or clan they belonged to. While alive, they held no rank; after death, they received no posthumous title, bestowed by the court. They accumulated no material gain and established no reputation. This is what is called a great person. Even if people throughout the world praise such a person again and again, that cannot add to his goodness or his evil. One must understand what is truly precious: the highest praise is to seek no praise.”

One should not wish to shine like jade, nor to appear rough and hard like stone.

The “Treatise on Talismans and Words” in the Tongxuan Jing says: “The ancients did not seek fame, make themselves a repository of schemes, take charge of affairs, or set themselves up as masters of wisdom. They concealed themselves from view and acted without tiring. They did not rush ahead to claim good fortune or become the source of calamity. They began their undertakings where there was no name and acted without insistently forcing an outcome. If you seek good fortune, do not fix your attention on good fortune alone; if you seek gain, first keep far from harm. Thus, one who lives in peace through Wuwei (non-action) will fall into danger if he loses the root of peace; one who governs through Wuwei will fall into disorder if he loses the root of good governance. Therefore, one should not wish to shine like jade, nor to appear rough and hard like stone.”

The movement of the Dao is reversal (chapter 40): the Dao’s pattern of movement is expressed through transformation toward the opposite.

The Nanhua Jing says: The Qi of extreme Yin is still and profound, while the Qi of extreme Yang is bright, abundant, and blazing. Still Yin Qi emerges from Heaven; bright Yang Qi rises from Earth. The two Qis respond to and harmonize with each other, and all things are born from this. The changes of Yin and Yang seem to follow a pattern, yet their traces cannot be seen. They wax and wane, sometimes full and sometimes empty, now dim and now bright. As the sun and moon alternate, all things change with them. All things continually act, but the effects of their action cannot be seen. Life begins in its budding, while death has a place of return. Beginning and ending transform into each other, with no fixed boundary; no one knows when change will be exhausted. The changes of cold and heat between Heaven and Earth are the workings of the Dao as it moves through Yin and Yang, and they also enable all things to grow and change between being and nonbeing.

“Reversal is the movement of the Dao.” The Tongxuan Jing says: When Yin Qi reaches its utmost fullness, it turns into Yang Qi. Transformation toward the opposite is how the Dao moves.

“Weakness is the use of the Dao.” The Tongxuan Jing says: When Yang Qi reaches its utmost fullness, it turns into Yin Qi. Gentleness and yielding are how the Dao works.

“All things under Heaven.” The Tongxuan Jing says: The pattern of Heaven and Earth is that being and nonbeing generate each other, and all things change through them. The Chongxu Jing says: The growth and transformation of all things unfold within the hinge of creation, in an unending process of generation and transformation.

“Are born from being.” The Tongxuan Jing says: When all things move, they accord with Yang Qi and thereby grow. The Chongxu Jing says: Once all things come to life, they enter the hinge of change and continue to grow and transform. Since all things come into being, they must proceed toward their arising; the end of life, too, is the inevitable outcome that growth and transformation eventually reach.

“Being is born from nonbeing.” The Tongxuan Jing says: When all things are still, they accord with Yin Qi and thereby undergo transformation. The Chongxu Jing says: All things that undergo transformation enter the hinge of creation and continue changing without cease. Since all things change, they must pass through change; the birth of life, too, must ultimately lead toward transformation and an end.

End of Volume Five of Collected Commentaries on the Ancient Way in the True Classic of the Dao and De.

Textual notes: At the first marked passage, “classic” may be a mistake for “end.” At the second, the two characters “and wisdom” may be an interpolation. At the third, the original text reads “the great thieves then came”; this has been emended to “the great thieves then stopped,” following an edition printed in the Qing dynasty. At the fourth, the original character is “Way”; this has been emended to “thief,” following the Qing edition.

Volume Six of Collected Commentaries on the Ancient Way in the True Classic of the Dao and De

Collected by Gu Xiangkou and Cai Zhi

“Upon Hearing the Dao, the Noble-minded…” (Chapter 41)

This chapter draws on the meaning of the Classic of the Southern Florescence (another name for the Zhuangzi) to ask: Why were the words spoken by the ancients so obscure and indirect that disputes over right and wrong arose? The reason is that, after learning flourished in the Zhou dynasty, people concealed their arguments beneath ornate and embellished language, giving rise to disputes between the Confucians and the Mohists. The more pronounced their disputes over right and wrong became, the more the Dao was damaged.

Collected by Zhou Shitian.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: Why did the ancients conceal the meaning behind their words and then argue over right and wrong? It was because the teachings of the Zhou dynasty arose, and words became obscured by ornament and rhetoric. This gave rise to disputes between the Confucians and the Mohists. As their arguments over right and wrong grew more pronounced, the Dao was harmed. In the Zhou dynasty, many people studied methods of governing the state. All advocated taking action, and their various methods and doctrines threw the world into disorder, until confusion reached its height.

The Dao arts spoken of by the ancients later did indeed become obscured within Confucian learning and the teachings of the various schools. Some deliberately honed their will and prized upright conduct, setting themselves apart from ordinary life. They considered lofty talk, resentment toward the world, and criticism of its customs to be noble. These were people who withdrew to mountain valleys and could not fit in with society. They lived in hardship and wasting away, and would rather throw themselves into the depths. Boyi, Shuqi, and Qu Yuan favored this way of life.

Some spoke of benevolence and righteousness, loyalty and trustworthiness, respectfulness, frugality, and modesty, making the cultivation of virtue their aim. These were scholars of a well-ordered age, who taught and guided others and traveled to study and lecture. Confucius and Meng Ke (Mencius) favored this way of life.

Some sought to establish great achievements and win great renown, to regulate relations between ruler and ministers and set the proper order between high and low, making the governance of the state their aim. These were scholars of the court, who honored the ruler, strengthened the state, and accomplished conquests. Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou favored this way of life.

Some went to places rich in water and vegetation, dwelling in quiet, open spaces, sitting at ease and fishing, and pursuing Wuwei (non-action). These were people who withdrew to rivers and lakes, avoided worldly affairs, and enjoyed a life of leisure. Chao Fu and Xu You favored this way of life.

As for those of ancient times who truly understood the Dao, they did not deliberately pursue nobility, yet were naturally noble; they did not deliberately seek benevolence and righteousness, yet were naturally cultivated. They did not chase fame and achievement, yet could bring affairs to order. They did not need to withdraw to rivers and lakes to live at ease. With nothing in their hearts that they could not let go of, they were tranquil; lacking nothing, because the Great Dao itself is Wuwei, they were calm and free of desire, and every kind of good naturally followed. This is the Wuwei of Heaven and Earth, the tranquil De (Virtue/Power) of the sage, and the foundation of great order throughout the world.

Those of the highest capacity hear of the Dao and diligently put it into practice.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people of high antiquity took Heaven as their model and practiced Wuwei. To take Heaven as one’s model is to govern in accordance with the patterns by which Heaven and Earth operate. Tranquility and Wuwei are what is meant by the Way of Heaven.

Those of middling capacity hear of the Dao with an attitude that wavers between belief and doubt; at times they remember it, and at times they forget it.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the middle antiquity, people esteemed the worthy and capable, and used external standards to teach the people. Esteeming a reputation for worthiness is precisely the root of confusion. People of that age held fast to virtue but did not understand the Great Dao. As the Great Dao declined, talk of virtue flourished.

When lesser people hear of the Great Dao, they laugh.

The Tongxuan Jing also says: In later ages, people made use of their ministers’ intelligence and learning. To rely entirely on one’s ministers is a path toward ruin. People of later ages busied themselves, afraid only that they had not learned enough.

When lesser people hear of the Great Dao, they laugh.

The Tongxuan Jing also says: In later ages, people made use of their ministers’ intelligence and learning. To rely entirely on one’s ministers is a path toward ruin. People of later ages busied themselves, afraid only that they had not learned enough.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says in the “Autumn Floods” chapter that the Lord of the North Sea, the sea’s divine ruler, said to the Earl of the River, the spirit of the Yellow River: Boyi gave up his rank to gain a reputation; Confucius spoke of learning to display his erudition. These people thought themselves learned and mocked the Wuwei (non-action) Way as shallow and meager. Is that not like you, Earl of the River, thinking you had abundant water and mocking the North Sea for having little?

You cannot speak of the sea to a frog in a well, because its world is confined to the bottom of the well. You cannot speak of ice to an insect of summer, because its life is confined to the season of summer. You cannot speak of the Dao to someone with narrow understanding, because learning and doctrines have bound them. Now you have left the banks of the Jing River and seen the sea, and so you know your own shallowness. How, then, can you discuss the Great Dao with me?

There is no body of water in the world larger than the sea. A thousand rivers flow into it, yet no one knows when it might overflow. Its waters also drain away through the Tail Gate, the legendary outlet of the sea, and no one knows when it might run dry. The sea does not change with the seasons, nor is it affected by drought or flood. The water it holds far exceeds that of rivers, beyond all measure. Yet I never boast of this, because I know that I stand alongside Heaven and Earth and receive the Qi (vital energy) of Yin-Yang. Between Heaven and Earth, I am like a small stone or a short piece of wood in a great mountain. Knowing that I am small, how could I dare to boast?

Consider this: Placed between Heaven and Earth, is the vastness of the Four Seas not like a tiny patch of open ground in a great marsh? How could it be called vast? Placed within the Four Seas, is the territory of China not like a grain of millet in a great granary? How could it be called extensive? Placed within the Nine Provinces, are the beings of the world not like a single hair on a horse? What is there to boast about?

The legacy passed down by the Five Emperors, the realm contested by the Three Kings, the concerns of benevolent people, and the affairs managed by those who take responsibility each have their own limits. To use an understanding of extreme narrowness to exhaust a realm of immense breadth leads only to confusion and unrest. In light of this, how can we know whether Heaven and Earth are already vast enough to contain every boundless realm? To view what is vast through a tiny perspective is, in the end, to see nothing fully. Does this not lead one, instead, to lose oneself?

Only what no one laughs at can be called the true Dao.

The Nanhua Jing records that the debater Gongsun Long asked Prince Mou of Wei, “When I was young, I studied the teachings of my teacher. As I grew older, I mastered the practice of benevolence and righteousness. I can compare things that are alike and different, distinguish the qualities of hardness and whiteness, and exhaust every kind of argument people make, using them to mock Zhuangzi’s words. Yet I find his sayings bewildering and hard to understand, unlike anything else.”

Leaning on a small table, Prince Mou sighed deeply, then looked up at the sky and laughed. “Have you never heard the story of the frog at the bottom of a well? It said to the turtle from the Eastern Sea, ‘I’m so happy here! Why don’t you come in and see for yourself?’ The sea turtle had not even put in its left foot before its right knee got stuck at the mouth of the well. So it backed away and told the frog about the sea: ‘A thousand miles is not enough to describe how vast it is; a thousand fathoms is not enough to plumb its depths.’ Hearing this, the frog was startled and frightened, and stood there bewildered.

“Look at Zhuangzi’s subtle, far-reaching words, yet you are satisfied with a moment’s triumph right before your eyes. Aren’t you like the frog at the bottom of a well? You confine yourself to close scrutiny and then use argument to hunt for answers. That is like peering at the sky through a tube and measuring the earth with an awl. Isn’t that far too narrow? Enough!”

Gongsun Long’s mouth fell open and would not close; his tongue rose and would not come down. In the end, he fled.

The ancients had this saying:

Robber Zhi said to Confucius, “I have heard that in ancient times people grew crops for food and wove cloth for clothing. They had no thoughts of harming one another or waging war. This was an age of flourishing virtue and peace throughout the realm. Yet even the Yellow Emperor could not govern through virtue: he fought Chiyou in the wilds of Zhuolu, a legendary ancient battlefield, and blood flowed for a hundred miles. When Tang Yao and Yu Shun rose to power, they established many official posts. King Tang drove out Xia Jie, and King Wu of Zhou killed Shang Zhou. From then on, people used strength to bully the weak and numbers to oppress the few. Those who lived from King Tang and King Wu onward have all been disturbers of the age. Why should they be revered? Today you study the ways of Kings Wen and Wu and command the art of debate, hoping to use it to instruct later generations. You wear wide robes and broad sashes, and your words and conduct are showy and lacking in sincerity. You have lost the simplicity of ancient times, and the world has grown more disorderly because of it.”

“The bright Dao seems dim” means that those who truly understand the great Dao appear not to understand it.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: “In ancient times, scholars were upright at heart and prized goodness and Wuwei, following things as they naturally unfold without forcing them. In this way, they accorded with the Dao of Heaven. Today’s scholars are preoccupied with outward forms of courtesy and act with deliberate effort; they merely conform to worldly customs and human sentiments.”

“Advancing on the Dao seems like retreating” means that making progress on the Dao appears to be moving backward.

The Nanhua Jing says: “In ancient times, scholars used Wuwei to cultivate their inner selves and did not impose deliberate action on the governance of external affairs. Today’s scholars busily manage external affairs but do not cultivate their inner selves through Wuwei.”

“The level Dao seems flawed” means that the even, level Dao appears to have imperfections. “Flaw” refers to a blemish or defect.

The Nanhua Jing says: “People of ancient times adapted to changes in the world without letting their inner selves change with them. They safeguarded their inner selves through Wuwei and did not deliberately manage what was outside them. People today let their inner selves change with external things, yet stubbornly cling to outward forms. They take deliberate action but do not safeguard their inner selves.”

“The highest De is like a valley” means that the highest De appears empty and low, like a valley.

The Tongxuan Jing, also known as the Wenzi, says: “In ancient times, scholars deeply understood the great Dao and would not abandon it. Today’s scholars abandon the Dao and do not seek to understand it. If you abandon the Dao and act by learning alone, you will fall into danger; if you cast aside De and act by talent and ability alone, you will fall into difficulty.”

“The purest white seems stained” means that what is most pure appears as though it has been sullied.

A surviving fragment of the Tongxuan Jing, “yet do not safeguard what is within,” means that one does not protect one’s inner nature.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The worthy people of ancient times had pure virtue, yet seemed to have suffered disgrace. They understood the simple essence of the Great Dao and returned to simplicity through Wuwei (non-action). In later ages, some governed the world by relying on cleverness and talent; they exhausted their minds and spirits but never truly understood the principles. Others governed through deliberation and schemes; they labored over their plans but achieved nothing.

Great Virtue Seems Inadequate

The Nanhua Jing says: The worthy people of ancient times had profound virtue, yet seemed to lack something. The Tongxuan Jing says: The highest kind of worthy person had expansive virtue, yet seemed not to have enough. Today, those who do not understand the true Dao may possess wisdom sufficient to encompass Heaven and Earth, insight as bright as the sun and moon, the ability to untangle complex problems, and speech so polished it could adorn metal and stone. Yet they still bring no benefit to the world. Those who can only examine the words and phrases of documents do not understand the foundation of governing affairs through Wuwei.

Building Virtue Seems Negligent

The Tongxuan Jing says: People in ancient times were able to practice Wuwei, and so were not burdened by affairs. When people are free of burdens, all things under Heaven naturally follow them like bodies and shadows. This is Wuwei. In later ages, some could see things as tiny as the finest autumn down, yet could not hear the sound of thunder. Others had ears keen enough to distinguish the sounds of bells, chimes, and other metal instruments, but could not see Mount Tai. Thus, if one devotes oneself only to shallow, limited learning, one forgets the Great Dao.

The Straightforward Seems to Change

The Tongxuan Jing says: If we now look up to the conduct of the Perfected and probe deeply into the meaning of Dao and De (Virtue), then examine the ways of the common world, those worldly practices will seem shameful. Once we feel ashamed, we will no longer let what is harmful run its course.

The Great Square Has No Corners

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Great Dao experienced by the worthy people of ancient times was boundless and was not confined by rules of square and circle. In later ages, people took benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and music as standards of conduct, believing that knowing how to apply these standards would enable them to govern others. But when those in positions of authority use rules, those below them develop clever schemes for exploiting them. This cannot truly be used to govern the world.

The Great Vessel Is Completed Late

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those in ancient times whose virtue had reached its highest point did not rely on particular objects or skills. The most upright Way held no perilous deviations, so the people could readily be guided. In later ages, petty arguments damaged the Great Dao, and minor talents undermined De. Mastery of one field of learning or skill in a single craft could serve only limited discussions; it could not be applied broadly to education and governance.

The greatest sound seems soundless.

The Tongxuan Jing says: For people of ancient times, when the Dao reached its utmost, there was no sound. All things returned to their original simplicity, and the people no longer deliberately concealed or pretended. In later ages, petty acts of goodness disrupted governance, and small techniques harmed simplicity. Mastery of one set of arguments or one craft could address only limited affairs; it could not be applied broadly to governance and education.

The greatest image has no form.

The Tongxuan Jing says: People of ancient times preserved their deep, simple nature, and the people did not deliberately conceal or pretend. In later ages, petty acts of goodness disrupted governance, and small techniques harmed simplicity. Mastery of one set of arguments or one craft could address only limited affairs; it could not be applied broadly to governance and education.

The greatest image has no form.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those whose simplicity had reached its utmost had no fixed appearance. They kept their eyes clear and still, without insisting on looking; kept their ears quiet, without insisting on listening; closed their mouths and spoke no words; and set aside their thoughts, making no plans. They abandoned cleverness and returned to their original simplicity, nurtured their spirit, and dispensed with contrived calculations. With no likes or dislikes arising, this is called “great penetration”: becoming one with the Great Dao.

The Great Dao is hidden and nameless.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: Esteeming antiquity and looking down on the present is a habit of ordinary scholars. If we judged the present by the age of Xiweshi, a legendary ruler of antiquity, who could avoid falling into narrow-minded learning? Only the truly wise and deeply virtuous perfected people of ancient times could practice the Dao in the world without becoming attached to learning. They responded to others and acted through Wuwei, while remaining true to their own nature. They did not take knowledge as the basis for teaching; instead, they received the intent of the Great Dao and were not bound by doctrines. The Tongxuan Jing says: To govern from a place of profound obscurity, stillness, and Wuwei, without deliberately undertaking anything, while results arise of themselves—this is the way of the sage.

Only the Dao,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The True Persons of antiquity were those whose nature was in harmony with the Dao. They cultivated what was within and did not deliberately govern what was without. They wandered at ease in the foundations of Heaven and Earth, as if strolling beyond the dust of the world, and roamed freely in the work of doing nothing. Their hearts held no cunning schemes or clever stratagems. Without learning, they understood; without looking, they perceived; without deliberate action, they accomplished things; without governing, they brought affairs and principles into clarity. They wandered freely in Wuwei (non-action), and all under Heaven was naturally transformed and nurtured. This was how the True Persons lived within the Dao of pure simplicity, quietude, and freedom from affairs.

“Give generously without claiming what you give as your own, and bring all things to completion.”

In the Nanhua Jing, Lao Dan said to Yang Ziju: The enlightened ruler governs all under Heaven, and his achievements extend throughout it, yet they seem not to have been accomplished by him. He transforms and assists all things, yet the people do not depend on him. He makes no show of an illustrious reputation, and all things each find contentment in themselves. He stands without bias, wanders at ease in the Dao, and harbors no thought of possession. The Perfect Persons of antiquity stood in the “garden that borrows nothing”—a state that takes nothing from outside and relies on no external things—and wandered freely in Wuwei. “Borrowing nothing” means seeking nothing from outside and imposing one’s will on no external thing.

Chapter Forty-Two: The Dao Gives Birth to One

The Tongxuan Jing explains: The Dao is the source of all things and where they begin. All things are initially soft and weak, and only later become hard and strong. To become strong, one must hold to softness and weakness; as these accumulate, strength can take shape. By observing how things accumulate, one can understand whether they will endure or perish. The sages of high antiquity brought stability to the world through the Dao. They diminished the impulses of the heart, held to softness without asserting strength, and allowed achievement and fame to arise naturally. In this way, they were able to establish their royal rule. The Nanhua Jing says: The sages of antiquity cast aside misguided ambitions and firmly maintained an unmoving heart, without asserting strength. When there was no restless movement in the breast, the mind became upright; once upright, it could become empty, still, and free of deliberate action. This chapter therefore admonishes rulers to receive and uphold the Great Dao, and to remain humble and even-tempered.

The Dao Gives Birth to One

The “Nine Preservations” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: Before Heaven and Earth took form, all was deep and obscure, a single undifferentiated whole. At that time there was stillness and quiet; the will did not stir restlessly. When there was no restless movement in the breast, the mind became upright; once upright, it could become empty, still, and free of deliberate action.

The Dao gives birth to One.

The “Nine Preservations” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: Before Heaven and Earth took shape, all things were deep in chaos, blended together as one. This silent, clear state was the Dao (the Way). The Dao gave rise to “One,” that is, Heaven. The clear, light, subtle Qi (vital energy) rose to become Heaven.

“One” gave rise to “Two,” that is, Earth. The Tongxuan Jing says that the heavy, turbid Qi gathered to become Earth.

“Two” gave rise to “Three,” that is, humanity. The Tongxuan Jing says that people were formed from condensed Jing (essence) and Qi.

“Three” gave rise to the myriad things. The Tongxuan Jing says that coarse, heavy Qi formed insects; when firmness and softness joined in harmony, the myriad things came into being.

The myriad things bear Yin and embrace Yang. The Tongxuan Jing says that all things contain both Yin and Yang Qi. The fruits of trees grow at the centers of their branches, while the fruits of grasses and plants grow on their flower spikes.

Yin and Yang Qi blend to form harmony. The Tongxuan Jing says that harmonious Qi dwells at the center, so both viviparous and oviparous life are nurtured by the Qi of the center. The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says that the myriad things reproduce according to their forms: animals with nine openings are born from the womb, while those with eight openings hatch from eggs. The Chongxu Jing (another name for the Liezi) says that humans are formed from balanced, harmonious Qi.

What people dislike…

The Tongxuan Jing says that petty people tend to favor strength and dislike weakness, and favor hardness and dislike softness, without understanding that this way of acting can bring loss.

Only “orphan,” “widower,” and “unworthy”…

The “Way’s Origin” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says that dukes and kings have fame and achievements, while the self-designations “orphan,” “widower,” and “unworthy” carry no such prestige. They use modesty and self-effacement to preserve the Dao.

Yet dukes and kings use these titles for themselves. The Tongxuan Jing says that the sages of ancient times diminished their inner, balanced Qi each day, never daring to become complacent; they also continually cultivated humility, and so their merit and Virtue did not decline. This is the pattern of Heaven’s Dao.

Thus, sometimes a thing is diminished and thereby gains. The “Signs” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says that little Virtue combined with much favor invites criticism; limited ability combined with high status brings danger; and great rewards without great accomplishments leave one’s position insecure. Thus, sometimes an increase brings loss, while a decrease brings gain.

Sometimes, what appears to bring gain can instead lead to loss.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The greatest blessing is to be free from calamity; the greatest benefit is to suffer no loss. So some things seem to increase, yet end up diminished; others seem to diminish, yet end up bringing gain.”

These are principles that people teach one another.

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: “The rites taught by the Confucians value reverence; the essence of reverence is humility and yielding.”

I, too, use these principles to teach people.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Being soft and yielding is a way of following life; softness and yielding are most precious.”

Those who strive to dominate and win often meet an unhappy end.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “People in the latter age strive only to dominate, and so cannot endure; those who strive to dominate and win will ultimately meet death.”

I will take these principles as the foundation of my teaching.

Chapter 43: The softest things in the world.

This chapter draws on the Nanhua Jing (“Classic of the Southern Florescence”), in the section “The Way of Heaven,” to explain that emptiness and stillness, tranquility and simplicity, quietude and Wuwei (non-action), and purity and plainness are the balanced state of Heaven and Earth, the highest realm of Dao and De, and the root of all things.

One who understands the Dao of Wuwei and occupies the position of ruler is like Tao Tang (Yao) as sovereign. One who understands the Dao of Wuwei and serves as a minister is like Yu Shun as minister. A wise and enlightened ruler governs the world through Wuwei, embodying the virtue of an emperor. Lao Dan (Laozi), in a subordinate position, acted through Wuwei, embodying the state of the Mysterious Sage and Uncrowned King: though he held no imperial title, he possessed the virtue of a sage. Recluses withdraw and dwell in emptiness and stillness, wandering freely among rivers, lakes, and mountains, and earning the respect of those who live in seclusion. Scholars, guided by a tranquil and simple heart, may enter public service and bring order to worldly affairs; they too can accomplish great things and win renown throughout the land. Each of these two paths in life has its proper place.

Through inner stillness one may become a sage; through action one may establish the work of a king. To be revered through Wuwei and to remain plain and simple—nothing in the world can surpass this in excellence. Thus Lao Dan said, “From this I know that Wuwei is beneficial. The teaching that needs no words and the benefits of Wuwei—few things in the world can match them.” Wuwei is indeed beneficial.

The softest thing in the world—

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The softest thing in the world can master the hardest thing in the world.”

Can master the hardest thing in the world.

The Nanhua Jing says, “Water flows through places without form, surging and spreading into a vast, clear expanse. The movement and transformation of water do not depend on forced action; they happen naturally.”

A force without form can enter a place with no gaps,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Only without form or substance can one enter a place with no gaps.” The Nanhua Jing (Zhuangzi) says: “The Gate of Heaven is nonbeing.” All things arise from “nonbeing.” Things that already exist cannot become “being” through themselves; all “being” must come from “nonbeing.” “Nonbeing” is singular: it has no fixed point of origin, no root, and no opening. All things are born from it and die through it; they appear and then enter into it. Their coming and going, their transformations, cannot be seen in form. This is called the “Gate of Heaven.”

Therefore, I know…

The Nanhua Jing says: Lao Dan held a minister’s position through the Dao of Wuwei (non-action). This exemplifies the way of the Profound Sage, who deeply understands the Great Dao, and the Plain King, who possesses a ruler’s virtue but holds no royal title.

Wuwei is beneficial.

The “Naturalness” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: The principle by which Heaven and Earth operate is to be complete without deliberate action and to attain without deliberate seeking. Therefore, I know that Wuwei is beneficial.

Teach without relying on words,

The Nanhua Jing says: The sages of antiquity taught without words; they did not instruct people through admonitions, and they sat without debate. They came with open minds and departed full. Thus there is teaching without words, and there are ways of bringing people’s hearts to fulfillment without deliberate action. The Great Dao cannot be put into words, and truly excellent debate does not depend on words.

The benefits of Wuwei…

The Nanhua Jing says: When the rulers of remote antiquity governed the world, they did nothing and simply followed the De of Heaven. To act without action is called “Heaven”; to speak without speaking is called “De.”

The benefits of Wuwei…

The Nanhua Jing says: The rulers of remote antiquity governed through Wuwei, and those below them likewise followed their nature and refrained from acting recklessly.

Few in the world can achieve this.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The root of what is beneficial lies in what seems useless. Therefore, matters that do nothing to aid good governance and instead encourage disorder are not undertaken by the Profound Sage.

Chapter Forty-Four: Name and Person

The Nanhua Jing (Classic of the Southern Florescence), also known as the Zhuangzi, says: Those who lack benevolence covet wealth, rank, fame, and profit, and end up harming themselves. When King Wei of Chu heard that Zhuang Zhou was a worthy man, he sent an envoy with rich gifts to invite him to serve as prime minister. Zhuang Zhou said to the envoy, “A thousand pieces of gold are a weighty fortune, and a minister’s rank is an exalted position. Have you never seen the ox used in the suburban sacrifice? It is raised for years, dressed in splendid embroidered robes, and fed fodder and beans. But when it is led into the Grand Ancestral Temple for sacrifice, even if it wishes to become a calf again, it cannot. Leave quickly, and do not defile me. I would rather be constrained like an ox kept by a ruler than serve in office for even a day. I want to follow the Way of Wuwei (non-action) freely throughout my life.”

When the ruler of Lu heard that Yan He was a man who had attained the Dao (the Way), he first sent someone to offer him gifts. Yan He did not accept them; he truly loathed wealth and rank. It is said, therefore, that the root of the Dao is for cultivating oneself; what remains can be used to govern a state, and only its slightest residue can be used to govern the world. From this, we can see that an emperor’s achievements are merely something a sage does along the way, not a means of preserving himself and nourishing his life.

These days, worldly gentlemen often harm their bodies and abandon their lives in pursuit of fame and profit. Is this not lamentable? If someone used the Pearl of Marquis Sui, a precious jewel, to shoot at a sparrow flying high in the sky, people would surely laugh at him, because he would be using something far too valuable to obtain something far too trivial. Is a human life only slightly more precious than the Pearl of Marquis Sui? Pursuing fame and profit can cost a person their life. Those who know contentment avoid disgrace; those who know when to stop avoid danger. In this way, they can endure. This is why this chapter was written.

Which is dearer: reputation or life?

The Nanhua Jing says: Bo Yi, Shu Qi, Bao Jiao, and Jie Zitui all valued reputation and scorned life.

Which matters more: life or possessions?

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, King Jie of Xia killed Guan Longfeng, and King Zhou of Shang killed Prince Bigan. Later, Guan Longfeng was beheaded, Bigan’s heart was cut out, Chang Hong was disemboweled, and Wu Zixu’s body was smashed to pieces. Though these men were worthy, their pursuit of reputation and achievement ultimately did not spare them a violent death.

Which brings greater distress: gain or loss?

The Nanhua Jing (Classic of the Southern Flower, or Zhuangzi) says: Boyi, Shuqi, Bigan, Chang Hong, and Wu Zixu were all worthy and capable men, yet they were killed because they pursued fame and profit. Which is the true misfortune: gain or loss?

The Nanhua Jing also says: The teachings of Boyi, Shuqi, Bigan, and Wu Zixu on long life, preserving the body, and putting the mind at ease were very far from the true Dao.

Thus, excessive attachment is bound to exact a heavy price.

The Tongxuan Jing (Classic of Penetrating the Mystery, or Wenzi) says: Tigers and leopards are hunted for the patterns on their coats, while nimble monkeys are captured for their agility. Bells and chimes bring about their own destruction by sounding; oil lamps burn down because they give light. Those who flaunt their strength and bravery may lose their lives through bullying, while eloquent speakers may invite disaster through their sharp arguments.

Hoarding too much is bound to bring heavy losses.

The Nanhua Jing says: Trees in the mountains are felled because they can be used as timber; the oil in lamps is consumed by burning. Cinnamon trees are stripped because their bark can be eaten; lacquer trees are tapped because their sap can be used. Everyone knows that cinnamon and lacquer trees are exploited because they are useful, but they do not know that the oak, precisely because it seems useless, can preserve its full span of life.

Knowing contentment keeps one from disgrace.

The Nanhua Jing says that Zengzi believed: A Son of Heaven cannot make those who truly cultivate their aspirations and practice the Dao his subjects, and a feudal lord cannot make them his friends. Those who cultivate their aspirations forget fame; those who nurture their bodies do not covet profit; those who attain the great Dao do not cling to their own minds.

Knowing when to stop keeps one from danger.

The Chongxu Jing (Classic of Emptiness and Fullness, or Liezi) says: If you do not covet wealth, you will not envy profit; if you do not covet rank, you will not envy fame. This is called following the natural order. The Nanhua Jing says that fame and profit both disturb the mind. If you do not let them stir what is within you, your mind will be set right. When the mind is set right, it can become empty and still, practicing Wuwei (non-action); then nothing will be beyond its reach.

Only then can one endure.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Fine jade depends on the work of polishing; a sharp sword depends on the whetstone. When the cunning hare is dead, the hunting dog is cooked; when the high-flying birds have all been caught, the fine bow is put away; when the enemy state is destroyed, its strategists may also be killed. After accomplishing one’s task, withdrawing from it follows the Way of Heaven; this is how to preserve oneself and remain free from trouble over the long term.

Great completion seems incomplete (what is truly perfect appears, on the surface, to have something lacking), Chapter 45.

This chapter cites the Nanhua Jing to explain that although Heaven and Earth are vast, their transformations follow the same patterns; although the myriad things are numerous, the principles that govern them are consistent; and although people are many, they are ultimately led by a ruler. The ruler’s foundation lies in De (Virtue/Power), through which the ruler accords with the Dao of Heaven. Thus, the rulers of antiquity governed the world by following Heaven’s De, without deliberate action. Though the sages of the highest antiquity possessed exceptional abilities, they seemed clumsy; though skilled in argument, they sounded inarticulate. Their beings were in accord with the Great Dao, and they took stillness and Wuwei (non-action) as the standard for the world. In this way, the effects of their teaching were inexhaustible, and it could endure for a long time.

The greatest completeness seems incomplete: What is most complete appears as though something is lacking.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Heaven is round, yet need not be measured with a compass; Earth is square, yet need not be marked out with a carpenter’s square. The Great Dao is supremely vast and is not constrained by fixed rules.

Its function does not wear out: Its function never declines.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Because its function has no limit, it can endure for a long time.

The Tongxuan Jing also says: Stillness and clarity are the Dao’s bright mirror; emptiness and purity are Heaven’s radiance. To remain single-minded and unchanging is stillness at its utmost.

The greatest fullness seems empty: What is most full appears as though empty.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Heaven’s levelness need not be checked with a plumb line; Earth’s straightness need not be measured with a cord. When De reaches the highest realm, it too requires no external standard.

Its function has no end: Its function is without limit.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Wuwei is the Dao’s constant state. To act through Wuwei is to follow the Dao of Heaven; this is Heaven’s De.

The greatest straightness seems crooked: What is most straight appears as though bent.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, the world had enduring principles: what was crooked did not need a hook to straighten it, and what was straight did not need a cord to measure it. What is most straight instead appears crooked.

The greatest skill seems clumsy: The highest skill appears as though clumsy.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, the world had enduring qualities of De: what was round did not need a compass to draw it, and what was square did not need a carpenter’s square to measure it. The highest skill instead appears clumsy.

The greatest eloquence seems inarticulate: The most eloquent person appears as though not good with words.

The Nanhua Jing says: “The Great Dao cannot be named.” This means that the Great Dao cannot be expressed in words; what is most straight instead appears crooked.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: “The Great Dao cannot be named; the highest form of debate does not rely on words. Those who are truly skilled at speaking may seem as though they are not eloquent.”

Restlessness can overcome cold.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When Yang Qi (warm, outwardly rising vital energy) reaches its peak, it turns into Yin Qi. Therefore, ingenuity must not be allowed to reach fullness.”

Stillness can overcome heat.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When Yin Qi (cool, inwardly contracting vital energy) reaches its peak, it turns into Yang Qi. Therefore, argument must not be taken to extremes.”

Only through stillness and purity can all under Heaven be brought to peace.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The ancient sages governed through Wuwei (non-action), and the key was to maintain stillness and purity. By maintaining stillness and purity, they could bring all under Heaven back to the right path.”

Chapter Forty-Six: When the World Has the Dao

This chapter cites the “Shangyi” section of the Tongxuan Jing to explain that ancient armies were not sent out to seize land or grasp for wealth. They were sent because the state faced imminent ruin: to quell disorder, protect the people from harm, and turn danger into stability. The Red Emperor, a legendary ruler, brought about a great calamity, so the Yellow Emperor captured him.