《道德真经四子古道集解(寇材质)》Vol. 3

When artisans built waterworks that caused flooding, Zhuanxu, the legendary ancient ruler, put them to death. Now the Seven States have lost the Dao, and people driven by greed and desire are harming all under Heaven. The people are unsettled and have nowhere to live in peace. If anyone raises an army to stop them, warhorses will appear in the countryside, and all under Heaven will fall into chaos.

When the world is guided by the Dao,

The Jingcheng chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: When people’s hearts are in turmoil and no one has a place to settle, they use weapons and armor to bring them under control. Warhorses appear in the countryside, and all under Heaven falls into chaos as a result.

When the world is guided by the Dao,

The Jingcheng chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, rulers who knew how to draw people from afar into allegiance governed through Wuwei (non-action). They stayed close to the people and did not create needless disturbances. Only those who quietly follow the Great Dao can do this.

They turn warhorses out to manure the fields.

The Jingcheng chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: They retire the warhorses from their campaigns and put them to work tilling and fertilizing the fields; the tracks of their carts no longer lead into distant lands. This is called being in one place yet seeming to travel far away, like land sinking beneath the water and vanishing from sight.

When the world has lost the Dao,

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the Spring and Autumn period, the world had lost the Dao, and warfare became the means by which the feudal lords seized power.

No fault is greater than yielding to desire,

The Tongxuan Jing says: No fault is greater than failing to follow the Great Dao. Fighting over trivial matters and failing to restrain anger in one’s heart is called an army of wrath. Thus, raising an army in anger is certain to end in defeat; this is the way of Heaven.

No calamity is greater than not knowing contentment,

The Tongxuan Jing says: No calamity is greater than lacking De (Virtue/Power). Coveting another state’s land and craving its wealth is called an army of greed. Thus, raising an army out of greed is certain to cost one’s life; this is the way of Heaven.

Fault—

The Tongxuan Jing says: No calamity is greater than lacking De (Virtue/Power). Coveting another state’s land and craving its wealth is called an army of greed. Thus, raising an army out of greed is certain to cost one’s life; this is the way of Heaven.

No fault is greater than the desire to possess.

The Tongxuan Jing says: No fault is greater than lacking De. Relying on the strength of one’s state and boasting of its large population, one seeks to appear wiser than an enemy state. This is called an army of arrogance. Thus, raising an army out of arrogance is certain to bring ruin; this is the way of Heaven.

Therefore, those who understand contentment and are content with being content can remain satisfied for a long time.

The Scripture on Penetrating the Mystery says: The ancients understood how to preserve life and knew when they had enough, so blame did not fall upon them.

Chapter Forty-Seven: Without Leaving the Door

The Scripture on Penetrating the Mystery explains: The rulers of antiquity could teach and transform the world and understand how it was governed without leaving their homes. This was because they understood things through things and people through people. Only by cultivating themselves first could they govern the people; only by setting their households in order could they apply this method in government and to their officials. In this way, the world could be governed.

In later times, the farther government’s commands spread, the more disorderly the world became. The more people sought to understand the Way of governing, the less they understood, because they did not cultivate themselves. Thus the sages of antiquity followed nature and governed through Wuwei (non-action). They rectified and cultivated themselves, and the people followed without being commanded. Without acting personally, they understood what was happening; without deliberately displaying themselves, they won recognition; without forcing things, they brought matters to completion. The world was naturally at peace.

Without Leaving the Door, Know the World

The Scripture on Penetrating the Mystery, in its “Chapter on Sincerity,” says: The ancients taught and transformed the world without leaving their homes, yet understood how it was governed. This means that the efficacy of sincere Wuwei issues from within the heart. Without acting personally, one can understand; without deliberately displaying oneself, one can win recognition; without forcing things, the world is naturally at peace.

The Scripture of the Southern Florescence, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: The ancients cultivated the inner through Wuwei and did not deliberately govern the outer.

Without Looking Through the Window, See the Way of Heaven

The Scripture on Penetrating the Mystery says: Without looking out through the window, one can perceive the Way of Heaven. This means that when Shen (spirit) and Qi (vital energy) are clear and still, they accord with the Way of Heaven.

The Farther One Goes, the Less One Knows

The Scripture on Penetrating the Mystery, in its “Chapter on the Nine Preservations,” says: The farther one pursues things outwardly, the less one knows. This means that when the spirit is deliberately exerted outward, it becomes scattered; one must not let it race away. The Scripture of the Southern Florescence says: People today deliberately govern the outer but do not cultivate the inner.

The Scripture on Penetrating the Mystery also says: When sincerity is dissipated outward and thoughts churn within the heart, one cannot govern things well. The farther the reach of the body and spirit’s activity, the more the nearby is neglected; thus one knows less. The Scripture of the Southern Florescence says: People today deliberately guard the outer but pay no regard to the inner.

Therefore, the Sage,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The foundation of governing through teachings and commands lies in rectifying oneself.”

If one does not deliberately issue teachings and commands, the people will still know what to do.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The sages of antiquity cultivated themselves at the root. Without issuing commands, they could still ensure that prohibitions were observed; without bestowing favors, they could still inspire people with benevolence; without deliberate action, they could still understand things clearly.”

Without inspecting things in person, one can still see clearly; without deliberately proclaiming one’s name, one’s reputation naturally becomes renowned.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The sages of antiquity cultivated themselves at the root. Without using their eyes to inspect, they could still see clearly; without using their ears to listen, they could still understand; without displaying themselves in person, their names could still become renowned.”

Without deliberate action, things can still be accomplished.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The sages of antiquity cultivated themselves at the root. Without speaking, they could still win people’s trust; without deliberately seeking, they could still gain something; without deliberate action, they could still accomplish things.”

Chapter Forty-Eight: Each Day, Learning Increases

This chapter discusses governance in antiquity by drawing on the Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi. It is said that during the era of the Three Sovereigns in high antiquity, people kept records by tying knots, since writing did not yet exist. At that time, the world was peaceful and governance had reached perfection. This was called governing the world through the Dao.

Later, people craned their necks and stood on tiptoe to hear news of scholars. When they heard that a worthy person lived somewhere, they would carry provisions and hurry there to study. As a result, they grew distant from their families at home and neglected their duties away from home. The tracks of troops stretched along the borders of the feudal states, while wheel ruts extended for a thousand li. The world was thrown into disorder. This was the turmoil brought about by learning, rooted in those in high positions esteeming knowledge too highly.

Since the time of the Three Kings, the esteem for literary and scholarly pursuits has been just such a manifestation of how the pursuit of cleverness brings disorder to the age. They cast aside the simple people and favored those absorbed in scholarship and skilled in ingratiating themselves with others. They abandoned the Dao of calmness and Wuwei (non-action), and favored inflated, empty talk. The lesser schools of learning each advanced their own doctrines, and had already plunged the world into chaos.

Each day, learning increases,

The Tongxuan Jing says: Although the people of the Zhou dynasty were widely learned and well versed in letters, they could not escape social turmoil. If, today, the people are taught only superficial knowledge, while the Great Dao is not understood and the Sages are not established through the clarity of the Way, and people cling rigidly to written rules and regulations, governing the state will be difficult.

Those who cultivate the Dao should reduce their selfish desires and contrived actions day by day.

The Nanhua Jing (that is, the Zhuangzi) says: Those who cultivated the Dao in ancient times reduced their selfish desires and contrived actions day by day.

Reduce them, and reduce them again.

The Nanhua Jing says: Reduce them, and keep reducing them.

Until one reaches the state of Wuwei (non-action).

The Nanhua Jing says: Until one reaches Wuwei.

Though one practices Wuwei, nothing remains unaccomplished.

The Nanhua Jing says: “Practice Wuwei, and nothing remains undone.” Those above practice Wuwei, and those below do so as well.

In governing the realm, the guiding principle should generally be to avoid disturbing the people and to refrain from needless intervention.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The rulers skilled at governing in ancient times did not intervene recklessly in the affairs of the realm. The key to reducing government business lies in cultivating the Dao by continually diminishing selfish desires and contrived actions.

Once there is needless intervention,

The Tongxuan Jing says: When a tree grows worms, they eventually eat it away from within; people who bring trouble upon themselves are in turn harmed by it. People often come to suffer because of the very things they desire. To use learned methods to create more government business, then try to solve that business through further intervention, is like stirring the water while trying to make it clear. This is exceedingly difficult and cannot serve to govern the realm.

Government business that is too extensive cannot govern the realm.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those in high office must not let government business become too extensive. When it does, governance becomes difficult, and the realm cannot be governed.

End of Scroll Six of the Collected Annotations on the Ancient Way in the Daode Zhenjing by the Four Masters.

Scroll Seven of the Collected Annotations on the Ancient Way in the Daode Zhenjing.

Collected Commentaries on the Ancient Way in the Four Masters’ True Scripture of the Dao and De, Volume Seven, compiled by Kou Cai Zhi of Ancient Xiang.

Chapter Forty-Nine: The Sage Has No Fixed Mind

The Tongxuan Jing says: Although rulers in later generations proclaimed laws and offered rewards, they could not change social customs and popular ways. This was because, in issuing decrees and applying punishments, they did not follow the Dao. The sages of antiquity heard people sing and understood the local customs; they observed music and understood popular ways; they saw those ways and knew the effects of moral instruction. They understood the Great Dao, and even without speaking a word, the people of the world were transformed. To trace the source of this transformation, the key is a person who truly trusts in the Great Dao. This is the highest form of wondrous instruction. Hence it is said: “The sage has no fixed, private mind, but takes the wishes of the people as his own.” The sage cherishes the people as one protects an infant, and all under Heaven will then turn to him.

The sage has no fixed mind,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity never forgot, day or night, to help the people; their kindness extended as far as the Four Seas.

but takes the people’s mind as his own.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When a sage holds the highest position, the state can be well governed; when he holds a lower position, the people still admire his intentions.

Those who are good, I treat well;

The Tongxuan Jing says: When the sages of antiquity saw good conduct, they feared they might not keep pace with it; when they saw what was not good, they regarded it as an ill omen. They did not need to leave the court and teach people in person everywhere to set the world’s customs aright. The people were transformed, corrected their faults, and turned toward goodness because the sage himself first practiced goodness.

those who are not good, I also treat well; thus De is good.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Rulers who governed the people in antiquity credited the people for what went well and blamed themselves for what went wrong. They withdrew to reflect and reproach themselves.

Those who are trustworthy, I trust;

The Tongxuan Jing says: Sincerity is the speech of a noble person; loyalty is the intention of a noble person. When loyalty and sincerity arise from within, they move the world beyond and receive a fitting response. This is how the worthy and the sages teach the people. In ancient times, a sage could sit on his mat and teach, and thereby set the world straight. The people were transformed, as if aided by spirits. The key was for the ruler to be sincere first.

Even toward those who are insincere, I act with sincerity. This is how I win people over through virtue.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When ancient rulers governed the people, they treated what was right as what the people ought to do, but took blame for what went wrong upon themselves. They withdrew to reflect and reproach themselves.

The sage governs the world,

The Tongxuan Jing says: To govern the people, the foundation is to let them live in peace. The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: When ancient rulers saw someone with a physical impairment, they withdrew and reflected on their own failings.

Deeply troubled, for the sake of the world…

The Tongxuan Jing says: The perfected person of ancient times (one whose moral cultivation has reached the highest degree) was inwardly sincere, and let virtue spread in all directions. On seeing something that benefited the world, they rejoiced and kept it in mind; on seeing the world suffer harm, they grieved as if they had lost something.

Let your own heart return to simplicity…

The Tongxuan Jing says: One who shares the world’s joys and sorrows can accomplish the work of kingship.

The people all listen and watch intently…

The sage loves the people as if they were children.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those in higher positions regard their subjects as children, while those below regard their superiors as fathers. Superiors, in turn, treat their subjects as younger brothers, and subjects treat their superiors as elder brothers. Regard your subjects as children, and you can govern the world; regard your superiors as fathers, and you can bring order to the world; regard your subjects as younger brothers, and you will not lightly abandon their lives in times of hardship.

“Entering Life and Leaving Death,” Chapter Fifty

This chapter quotes the Tongxuan Jing to explain that when a ruler governs the world, they should set themselves right with the care of an elder and cherish the people as an older sibling would, so that people are not casually sacrificed in times of hardship.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Today, the rulers and ministers of the seven states risk their lives in warfare. They know the lay of the land, exploit strategic passes and strongholds, understand how harsh laws shape events, and know how to march and deploy troops. When two armies meet, blades clash and arrows cross in flight. Some are killed, others wounded; for a thousand miles, rivers of blood flow, and the wilderness is strewn with bones. Even when one side wins, the other suffers a crushing defeat, and both sides pay a heavy price. War is a place of death; these people are not skilled at preserving life. It is said that in ancient times, those skilled at governing and preserving the lives of the people did not let them fall into a battlefield, such a place of death. That is what it means to be skilled at preserving life. Yet the wars of the seven states today lead people into a place of death.

“Coming forth into life, entering into death,”

The Dongling Jing says: In war, some can bring the dead back to life. When warfare is used skillfully, it can bring benefit; when used unskillfully, it brings disaster.

“Of those who belong to life, three in ten,”

The Tongxuan Jing says: Some meet sudden calamity and die before their time. Those who confront the many with few, or the strong with the weak, will be killed by the armies.

“Of those who belong to death, three in ten,”

The Tongxuan Jing says: Even those skilled at warfare kill. What they delight in may instead bring harm upon them. For every ten thousand they kill, they themselves lose three thousand.

“People’s lives,”

The Dongling Jing says: Human nature hopes for life and abhors death.

“Are moved toward the place of death,”

The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Chapter on Supreme Humanity,” says: Warfare takes human lives, and so it is called a “place of death.”

“Also number three in ten,”

The Chongxu Jing says: War is a place of death, and among those who take part, more than half die in battle.

“Why is this so?”

The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Nine Safeguards,” says: Why are the people of the seven states unable to live out their full natural lifespans? It is all because of war and killing.

“Because they seek life too intensely,”

The Tongxuan Jing says: This is because people pursue the preservation of life excessively and cling to life.

“I have heard that one who is skilled at preserving life,”

The Chongxu Jing says: Those devoted to preserving life can overcome others without using fierce beasts such as birds, bears, tigers, or leopards as emblems on their banners.

“When traveling on land, one does not encounter rhinoceroses or tigers,”

The Nanhua Jing says: To walk through water without avoiding flood dragons takes a fisherman’s courage. To walk on land without avoiding rhinoceroses and tigers takes a hunter’s courage.

To enter an army and fight without wearing armor or carrying weapons—

The Nanhua Jing says: To remain as calm in the face of death as in the face of life, with swords crossing before one’s eyes, takes the courage of a stalwart warrior.

The rhinoceros has no place to use its horn,

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, when De was at its purest, birds and beasts lived together in herds. People could put ropes around them and lead them out for amusement, and they would not harm anyone.

The tiger has no place to use its claws,

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, when De was at its purest, people lived alongside birds and beasts. People could climb onto the animals to look around, and the animals would not harm them.

Weapons have no place to use their sharp edges.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, evil and deceit did not arise. Life was peaceful and free from trouble, and all under Heaven was at peace. The clever had no need for schemes, and the brave had no chance to display their might.

Why was this so?

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, the strong did not oppress the weak, and those who were many did not bully those who were few. The people could preserve their lives and avoid dying young. Why was this so? It was all because peace prevailed throughout the world, with no wars or fighting.

Because people were not placed in situations of mortal danger.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, disasters did not occur and turmoil did not arise. All under Heaven was at peace because people were not placed in situations of mortal danger.

“Dao Gives Birth to Them,” Chapter 51

In this chapter, the Nanhua Jing says: Without the Dao, form cannot come into being; once it has come into being, without De it cannot become manifest. Thus, the Dao guides a person’s nature, while De takes form in a person’s life. The Dao and De make Heaven and Earth a great furnace and the transformations of nature a great smelter. Through Yin-Yang, they bring forth the myriad things.

The Nanhua Jing says: Without the Dao, a body cannot come into being; once it has come into being, without De, life cannot become manifest. Thus, the Dao governs the nature of things, while De is embodied in life.

The Dao and De may be understood as taking Heaven and Earth for a great melting furnace, creation and transformation for a great master smith, Yin-Yang for fuel, and the four seasons for their appointed times, to mold and cast the myriad things. When the spring energy stirs, grasses and plants sprout; by autumn, all things ripen and are gathered in. Metal and stone sound when stirred by the movement of Qi because they contain the breath of the Dao. The myriad things flourish naturally—this, perhaps, is the work of the Dao.

The Dao shapes the many forms of the myriad things, but does not deliberately apply its skill to make them. “Heaven’s Gate” refers to the Void. The myriad things emerge from the Void and begin to grow, yet their source cannot be seen; they come forth, yet the gate through which they emerge cannot be seen. Things are born and die, appear and disappear; though they come and go, no trace of their passage can be seen. This is called “Heaven’s Gate.” Heaven does not deliberately produce things, yet they are nourished; Earth does not deliberately make things grow, yet they continually change. Heaven and Earth practice Wuwei, yet there is nothing among the myriad things that does not move and change. This is how the Dao gives birth to the myriad things.

The Dao gives birth to the myriad things.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao causes things to bring forth one another and grow without end. Without generation and growth, things could not reach their full development. Bringing things into being and helping them grow—this is the Great Dao giving life and nourishment to the myriad things.

De nourishes the myriad things.

The Tongxuan Jing says: De causes things to nourish one another. Without storing up and nurturing, things could not reach their full development. Helping things grow and mature—this is the Great Dao giving life and nourishment to the myriad things.

De nourishes the myriad things.

The Tongxuan Jing says: De causes things to store up nourishment and nurture one another. Without care and protection, things cannot finally ripen. Storing up nourishment and nurturing the myriad things—this is Heaven’s De nourishing them.

The myriad things take on their particular forms.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Heaven sets the four seasons in motion and sends down rain and dew at their appointed times, so that the myriad things may grow.

The myriad things take shape according to their conditions and tendencies.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Earth is deep and substantial, bearing the myriad things, holding within itself what they need and supplying it to them. In this way, it nourishes the myriad things.

Therefore, nothing among the myriad things fails to honor the Dao and cherish De.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The myriad things come into being through the Dao, and grow through De. The Dao enables them to endure and come into being; De gives stability to their forms. The Dao and De are like the parents of the myriad things.

The Dao is revered by people, and De is cherished by them. The Tongxuan Jing says that the Dao is honored by all under Heaven, while De is held in high regard. No one in the world has bestowed a noble rank on the Dao, yet it is naturally revered. The Nanhua Jing says that wherever the Dao is present, sages honor it. How could the myriad things fail to honor it?

The workings of Heaven and Earth are not deliberately arranged by anyone, yet they always unfold naturally. The Nanhua Jing says the same. The Way of Heaven appears in celestial phenomena; the Way of Earth is reflected in its terrain. Yin-Yang forms the governing order, and the four seasons drive change. Together, these are called the Dao. Timely rains fall, the five grains flourish, and the myriad things come into being.

Spring brings forth and nurtures the myriad things; summer makes them grow and cultivates them; autumn brings them to maturity and bears their fruits; winter protects and covers them, allowing them to be stored away. Heaven and Earth store and accumulate, yet do not thereby grow richer. They give what they have stored to the myriad things, yet do not thereby become poorer. They nourish and shelter the myriad things, yet do not claim them as their own.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The constant Dao gives life to and nurtures the myriad things, yet claims no ownership over what it has brought forth. People cannot see how it nurtures the myriad things, yet they grow of themselves. This is called the wondrous, Wuwei Dao. The Chongxu Jing says: The myriad things each have their own forms and colors, and the Dao gives form and color to them all. Once given form and color, the myriad things display their own hues. The Dao acts upon their forms and colors, yet never reveals its own appearance. This is the function of the Dao’s Wuwei.

It performs its work without relying on its achievements.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The constant Dao is the foundation on which the myriad things grow. People cannot see how it brings about their growth, yet they come to fruition of themselves. This is called the wondrous, Wuwei Dao. The Chongxu Jing says: The myriad things each have their own sounds, and the Dao gives sound to them all. The myriad things make sounds, and people hear their varied tones. The Dao acts upon their sounds, yet never makes a sound of its own. This is the function of the Dao’s Wuwei.

It enables the myriad things to grow without ruling over them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The constant Dao transforms and nurtures the myriad things, bringing them to completion, yet does not rule over them. People do not even perceive its De. This is called the wondrous, Wuwei Dao. The Chongxu Jing says: The myriad things each have their own flavors, and the Dao gives flavor to them all. The myriad things display their distinct flavors, and people can taste them. The Dao acts upon their flavors, yet never reveals a flavor of its own. This is the function of the Dao’s Wuwei.

This is called profound and subtle De.

The Chongxu Jing says that the Dao can manifest itself in many opposing states: Yin and Yang, softness and firmness, shortness and length, roundness and squareness, life and death, heat and cold, floating and sinking. It can also give rise to different notes, such as gong and shang, as well as forms and tastes such as emerging and disappearing, dark and yellow, sweet and bitter, rank and fragrant. The Dao itself does not distinguish among things or act with intention, yet it enables all things to possess their own capacity for awareness and action, each finding its proper place. This is called “Mysterious De”: the effect of the Dao of Wuwei (non-action).

All Under Heaven Has a Beginning, Chapter 52

Drawing on the Nanhua Jing, this chapter points out that Heaven and Earth have their own laws of operation. When rulers follow these natural laws and refrain from arbitrary action, All Under Heaven can be at peace; when they go against them, calamity follows. The ancient rulers who governed All Under Heaven, though wise, eloquent, and broadly capable, did not rely on these qualities to impose their own will or boast of themselves. Heaven does not act with intention, yet the myriad things transform naturally; Earth does not deliberately nurture them, yet they grow naturally. Rulers do not act arbitrarily, yet affairs throughout All Under Heaven are accomplished. By abiding by the Dao and practicing Wuwei, All Under Heaven can be governed.

“All Under Heaven Has a Beginning” means that all things under Heaven share a common source. The Ziran chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says that not everyone can understand this source; only the sages of antiquity could know it. From it, Heaven and Earth took shape, Yin and Yang appeared, and the myriad things grew. The Dao gives life to all things without deliberately intervening: this is Wuwei.

“To regard it as the mother of All Under Heaven” means that the Dao is the foundation of all things under Heaven. The Jingcheng chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says that the Son of Heaven takes Heaven and Earth as his model and relies on the myriad things in governing All Under Heaven. The Son of Heaven’s virtue and authority carry great weight, so he must all the more follow the Great Dao and make it the foundation of governance.

“Once one has obtained the mother” means that one has grasped the foundation of all things under Heaven.

The Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) says, “Heaven and Earth follow Wuwei, yet nothing is left undone.” After understanding where the myriad things come from, one should also hold fast to the root they share. The Great Dao may seem inactive, yet it enables all things to change and grow in their own way. The highest cultivation is to hold fast to Wuwei and let all things transform and flourish naturally. In this way, one will not fall into danger even at the end of life.

The Tongxuan Jing, also known as the Wenzi, says that the essence of cultivating Wuwei lies in letting go of cleverness and ingenuity, closing the gates of the senses and desires, calming the Five Emotions, and bringing body and mind into accord with the Dao. When Shen is stored within the formless and the spirit returns to the true Dao, the body can be kept from peril.

“To block its openings” means to draw in the outlets of the senses. The Tongxuan Jing says that the sages of antiquity followed the Great Dao through Wuwei: their mouths could speak, but they did not speak rashly; their minds were clear, but they were not ensnared by thought. They followed the true nature of life and so suffered no harm. When Jing and Qi gather in the mouth, one’s words are apt; when they gather in the mind, one’s thoughts are clear. Responding to the world through Wuwei, one can bring matters to justice without speaking at length, and gain results without deliberate calculation.

“To close its gates” means to restrain the senses so that external things do not draw the spirit away. The Tongxuan Jing says that the sages of antiquity had keen hearing but did not cling to what they heard, and clear sight but did not cling to what they saw. They were not driven by desire, nor did they use their cleverness and talent to chase after affairs. When Jing and Qi are held in the ears, hearing becomes keen; when held in the eyes, sight becomes clear. Responding to the world through Wuwei, they did not cling to hearing and seeing, yet heard clearly and saw distinctly.

By closing the gates of the senses and desires in this way, one has little cause for worry throughout life. The four limbs and the nine apertures—the body’s sensory openings—will not fall ill through desire. This is what is meant by a “True Person.”

“To open its openings” describes how later lesser adepts turn instead to deliberate action: they open their mouths and tongues to express themselves through words, and keep their minds constantly calculating, using clever argument to correct the ways of the world.

“To engage in affairs” describes how later lesser adepts use learning and skill to handle matters: they look with their eyes, listen with their ears, and display their cleverness and talent in hopes of changing the ways of the world.

Those who act in this way will be difficult to save when, at the end of their lives, they fall into hardship.

The “On Rites” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: People in the declining age who promote ritual codes often carve away at human nature and suppress people’s genuine feelings. A person clearly sees with the eyes, yet is made to listen with the ears, as though correcting worldly customs. In fact, this goes against human nature.

Such practices cannot be remedied, even over a lifetime.

The “On Rites” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing also says: People in the declining age who promote ritual codes may clearly desire something in their hearts, yet use rules to forbid their eyes from looking at it. They may like something, yet use rituals to restrain them. Why not investigate what the heart desires, instead of merely forbidding what the eyes see and the ears and eyes seek, and guarding against people enjoying what they like? This is like keeping wild beasts in a pen without mending the fence, while trying only to suppress their wish to escape; or like trying to dam a flowing river with one’s hands. Thus, blocking human nature and forcing these matters into order cannot be remedied, even over a lifetime.

Seeing the small is called clarity (only those who perceive what is subtle can be called clear-sighted).

The Tongxuan Jing says: The ancient sages governed the world through the Dao, keeping to what is subtle. This is what “seeing the small” means. Because they could perceive what was subtle, they attained clarity. Thus, even when intelligent and widely learned, they kept to simplicity as their safeguard. The former kings protected the world through the Dao of Wuwei (non-action), and so endured for a long time.

Keeping to softness is called strength (the ability to hold to gentleness and weakness is true strength).

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of high antiquity could perceive what was subtle and so attain clarity. Though they heard much and were skilled in debate, they kept to plain, unadorned simplicity as their safeguard. The former kings protected the world through the Dao of Wuwei, and so endured for a long time.

Using one’s light (displaying and using one’s intelligence and abilities).

The “On De” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: People of later ages show off their intelligence; this is called worsening the harm.

Returning to clarity (returning to a clear and discerning state).

The Tongxuan Jing says: Even if people of later ages wish to regain clarity, they are like the gravely wounded and will find it difficult to live long.

Leaving no calamity for oneself (not leaving oneself exposed to misfortune).

The Tongxuan Jing says: Once the Great Dao is mixed with clever schemes and calculation, people’s minds become confused. When virtue is mixed with selfish motives, it becomes dangerous. When the mind is caught up in distinctions and attachments, its vision is clouded. Thus, craving and indulging desires disrupts the harmony of one’s vital energy, while affection and aversion wear down the spirit. If these are not promptly cast aside, one’s resolve and vitality will be depleted day by day; one will gradually grow old, ultimately shortening the life bestowed by Heaven. To adorn only the outward appearance harms what is within; to indulge the emotions damages the spirit; to attend only to surface ornament obscures what is real.

This is called “inheriting the constant”: receiving and holding to the enduring Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing also says: The sages of antiquity kept their eyes clear and undrawn by external things; kept their ears still and undisturbed by sounds; spoke with care and refrained from rash judgment; and set aside deliberation so that their minds and spirits would not be wearied. They abandoned cleverness and returned to simplicity and authenticity, tended their spirit, dispensed with calculation, harbored neither likes nor dislikes, and followed the Dao of Wuwei (non-action). With this approach, what could they undertake and fail to accomplish?

Chapter 53: “If I Had the Least Understanding”

The Dongling Jing says: From the later ancient period onward, there have been many wicked and deceitful people in the world, and few who are upright. The frivolous and unrestrained, the perverse and licentious, have been many; the honest and proper, the modest and quiet, few. The wicked speak words that confuse people’s minds, deceiving those who are loyal and upright. As a result, people throughout the world lead one another astray, growing increasingly perverse and losing the right way.

In ancient times, Heaven formed itself naturally, Earth rested in stillness, and the myriad things flourished in a pure and harmonious transformation; even the spirits and ghosts had no occasion to display their supernatural powers. In the age of decline, the Son of Heaven acted in strange ways and his ministers behaved perversely. Only then did spirit arts and occult techniques flourish. When the spirits are said to be angry, it is not because people fail to worship them. Rather, the more excessive and disorderly the sacrifices become, the angrier the spirits grow. The people take to perverse ways and turn to serving ghosts and spirits. Licentious sacrifices spread throughout the world, customs become bizarre and corrupt, and families are ultimately ruined and their livelihoods lost.

The Chongxu Jing says: As benevolence and righteousness decline, the people’s nature grows ever more shallow. Once this way of life takes hold, the Dao can no longer be put into practice.

“To have the least understanding” means to possess a little discernment in the mind, along with a slight tendency toward clever distinctions and calculation.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When people hear words that accord with the Dao, even the foolish are pleased; when they hear that sages possess lofty De, even those of poor character feel admiration.

Although people are fond of the Great Dao, few are willing to put it into practice. The Tongxuan Jing says: Many love the Dao, but few truly use it; many admire the Dao, but few truly follow it.

Those who truly follow the Dao are wary of straying from the right path. The Chongxu Jing says: If a state cannot put this Dao into practice, this is what will happen. The same holds true when we look across the world and into later generations.

The Great Dao is naturally level and easy to follow. The Tongxuan Jing says: The Great Dao is broad and level, and not far from people. If you seek it nearby, you will go out only to return to where you began. Yet the common people are fond of taking shortcuts. The Tongxuan Jing says: The common people favor crooked side paths and are also keen on making offerings to spirits and ghosts; excessive ritual offerings instead provoke the spirits’ anger.

The palaces and halls at court have been made excessively ornate. The Dongling Jing says: The foundation of governing a state lies in keeping the people at peace. If one ignores the times and forcibly conscripts the people to undertake construction projects, this is a grave misfortune. The Chongxu Jing says: The region of Qi and Lu has many ingenious people, skilled in building and construction.

The fields are exceedingly barren.

The Jing of the Grotto’s Numinous Power says: People abandon what is fundamental and chase after trivial details. The sage kings of antiquity, when governing the people, first gave priority to agriculture. When the people farm, they become simple and honest; being simple and honest, they are easier to teach and govern, and the borders are thereby kept secure. When the people engage in farming, their minds become as uncomplicated as children’s: they have fewer selfish preferences and are more likely to abide by public law.

The Jing of Penetrating the Mystery, discussing Shennong’s method of governing, says: If men in their prime do not farm, people somewhere under Heaven will go hungry; if women of marriageable age do not spin, people somewhere under Heaven will suffer from the cold. Therefore, the emperor plowed the fields himself and the empress spun thread herself, setting an example for all under Heaven. If farming is not done diligently, people cannot be fed; if spinning is not done with effort, people cannot clothe and warm themselves. When food and clothing are sufficient, wrongdoing is less likely to arise. The foundation of securing food and clothing lies in not disrupting the seasons for farming and in imposing fewer burdens on the people.

The granaries and storehouses are utterly empty.

The Jing of the Grotto’s Numinous Power says: Farmers devote themselves to producing grain, artisans to making objects, and merchants to trading goods. Grain is the foundation on which people depend for survival, which is why prosperous rulers give priority to agriculture. When a ruler does not value agriculture, he abandons the people. And if a ruler abandons the people, how can he govern the state?

The Jing of Penetrating the Mystery says: An emperor makes the people prosperous; a hegemon makes his own territory prosperous; a state on the verge of collapse cares only for filling the palace treasury and storehouses. A well-governed state can remain secure even when its granaries seem insufficient, while a state nearing ruin falls into hardship even when its storehouses are empty. Thus it is said: When the ruler creates fewer disturbances, the people naturally become prosperous. The foundation of providing for people’s needs lies in not disrupting the seasons for farming.

Wearing splendid clothes,

The Jing of the Southern Florescence says: People in the degenerate age delight in splendid clothing and alluring appearances. These things confuse the mind and make people forget their proper work; this may be called a disorderly fashion. The clothing used to teach the people should be simply sewn garments tied with loose belts. When dress becomes excessively elaborate, customs grow frivolous and lose their simplicity and honesty.

Wearing sharp, precious swords.

The Nanhua Jing records that Zhuangzi said to King Wen of Zhao, who delighted in swordsmanship, “I have three kinds of swords, all of which Your Majesty may choose from.” King Wen asked what the three were. Zhuangzi replied, “The sword of the Son of Heaven, the sword of the feudal lords, and the sword of the common people. Your Majesty holds the position of Son of Heaven yet delights in the swordsmanship of common people. I privately think this falls short of Your Majesty’s station.”

King Wen then took Zhuangzi by the hand and led him into the hall. The cook served the meal, but King Wen repeatedly rose and paced around. Zhuangzi said, “Your Majesty, please sit calmly and settle your Qi. I have finished speaking about my swordsmanship.” After that, King Wen did not leave the palace for three months. The swordsmen were so impressed that they died in their own homes.

Abhor greed for food and drink.

The Nanhua Jing says: What people in the degenerate age delight in is fine food, music, and sensual pleasures. These things confuse the mind and make people forget their proper work; this may be called disorder.

Surplus wealth and goods.

The Nanhua Jing says: To covet money is to seek satisfaction; to covet power and status is ultimately to exhaust one’s strength; to covet goods is to seek profit.

This is called vainglorious theft.

The Nanhua Jing says: The seven teachings above are all great calamities for the world. People are blinded by them and fail to examine themselves, indulging their private desires and coveting without end. Is this not delusion? The Chongxu Jing says: When those above teach and transform people properly, that teaching can reach those below. Once the people have a sense of shame, would they still become thieves? Later, when Sui Hui took charge of government, the bandits fled and hid.

How could this accord with the Dao?

The Tongxuan Jing says: The foundation of simple and honest instruction lies in casting off ostentation and cunning. The Nanhua Jing says: Playing with cleverness and pursuing extravagance cannot bring peace to the world. How could this accord with the Dao?

Those skilled at establishing things build what cannot be uprooted. Chapter Fifty-Four.

In the Tongxuan Jing, Wen Zi asked, “You say that only by following the Dao and cultivating De can one govern the world. In ancient times, some kings inherited their ancestors’ realm and governed for an entire lifetime, even though they lacked De, without suffering disaster or defeat. Why was this?”

Laozi replied, “From the Son of Heaven down to the common people, each makes a living, but some live in abundance and others in poverty. The reason families are ruined and states perish is a lack of De. If a ruler works diligently day and night, never daring to slacken, remains constantly alert, and carefully upholds De, he can avoid danger and ruin. But if he indulges his desires, grows idle and lax, and fails to uphold De with care, destruction may come at any moment. If Jie and Zhou had followed the Dao and cultivated De, then even worthy rulers like Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou would have had no opportunity to establish their achievements. Those in ancient times who were skilled at laying a foundation kept it from being shaken; those skilled at preserving their inheritance did not lose it. Their descendants were therefore able to continue offering ancestral sacrifices, their inheritance passed from generation to generation, and the world remained stable for a long time.”

Those skilled at laying a foundation keep it from being shaken.

The Tongxuan Jing says that those skilled at founding a state make the cultivation of De their foundation. They do not act recklessly or pursue excessive gain, and they remain humble and frugal. The Dongling Jing says that King Wen of Zhou acted calmly and knew when to advance and when to withdraw, so Heaven was sure to aid him. Divination foretold that his realm would endure for thirty generations.

Those skilled at preserving an inheritance do not lose it.

The Tongxuan Jing says that ancient rulers, though living in abundance and fullness, did not become indulgent; though occupying high and honored positions, they did not grow arrogant. By not becoming complacent with abundance, they could keep their wealth for a long time; by not growing arrogant in their honor, they could keep their position for a long time. The Dongling Jing says that King Wen’s De kept King Zhou from harming him. Records of auspicious dreams foretold that his realm would endure for seven hundred years, as Heaven had decreed.

Their descendants were able to continue offering ancestral sacrifices.

The Tongxuan Jing says that wealth and honor remained with them, while blessings and favor extended to their descendants. This, perhaps, is the principle by which ancient rulers governed the world.

By cultivating oneself, one’s De becomes pure.

If scholars and common people can cultivate themselves in accordance with the Dao, they can preserve themselves. Hence the saying, “Cultivate yourself, and your De will become genuine.” The Nanhua Jing says that in ancient times, officials had distinct duties, while common people each corrected their words and conduct and cultivated body and mind. This was a sign of good governance.

Cultivate the family, and De will abound. The Tongxuan Jing says that in ancient times, when ministers acted in accordance with the Dao, they could preserve their families. Hence the saying, “Cultivate the family, and De will abound.” The Nanhua Jing says that ministers who corrected themselves and cultivated their De showed the signs of good governance.

Cultivate the local community, and De will grow. The Tongxuan Jing says that in ancient times, when provincial officials acted in accordance with the Dao, they could preserve their communities. Hence the saying, “Cultivate the local community, and De will grow.”

Cultivate the state, and De will flourish. The Tongxuan Jing says that in ancient times, when feudal lords acted in accordance with the Dao, they could preserve their states. Hence the saying, “Cultivate the state, and De will flourish.” The Nanhua Jing says that feudal lords who corrected themselves and cultivated their De showed the signs of good governance.

Cultivate all under Heaven, and De will spread everywhere. The Tongxuan Jing says that in ancient times, when the Son of Heaven acted in accordance with the Dao, he could govern all under Heaven for a long time. Hence the saying, “Cultivate all under Heaven, and De will spread everywhere.” The Nanhua Jing says that a Son of Heaven who corrected himself and cultivated his De showed the signs of good governance.

Therefore, use yourself to observe yourself. The Nanhua Jing says that in times of decline and disorder, if these five levels are left uncultivated, no loss could be greater. If the common people do not cultivate themselves, they will lose themselves.

Use the family to observe the family. The Nanhua Jing says that if ministers do not cultivate their De, they will lose their families.

Use the local community to observe the local community. The Nanhua Jing says that if provincial officials do not cultivate their De, they will lose their communities.

Use the state to observe the state.

The Nanhua Jing says, “When feudal lords fail to cultivate their virtue, they lose their states.”

We should observe the world as a whole.

The Nanhua Jing also says, “When the Son of Heaven fails to cultivate his virtue, he loses the world.”

How do I know that the world will be as described? I know it from these principles.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “To preserve the foundations of a state, the key is to guard them well. If you only add thickness and expand breadth without firming up the foundation, it will eventually be destroyed. If you do not widen the base but keep building upward, it will eventually topple. To bear a heavy load, it is best to rely on beams; to govern a state, it is best to rely on virtue.” This passage repeatedly emphasizes that a state’s stability rests on guarding virtue and laying a firm foundation.

Chapter Fifty-Five: The Abundance of Inner Virtue

This chapter quotes the “Horse’s Hooves” section of the Nanhua Jing: When the Great Dao prevailed in ancient times and virtue was abundant, people were as simple and innocent as newborn babies. They walked with steady steps but could not tell east from west; when they looked at things, their gaze was intent, yet they did not distinguish darkness from light.

At that time, birds and beasts gathered in flocks, and plants grew luxuriantly. People could tether animals and take them out for amusement, or climb up to inspect birds’ nests, without being harmed. This does not mean that animals were naturally inferior. Rather, people of that time could face danger and fortune calmly and choose their actions with care, so nothing could harm them. This was the result of abundant virtue.

The Chongxu Jing says that in the most ancient times, animals and people lived and traveled together. By the time of the Five Emperors and Three Kings, animals had begun to startle and flee. In the last age, they hid themselves to escape calamity.

The Tongxuan Jing says that in the last age, the Dao declined and virtue grew shallow, so people themselves became a source of harm. Animals, insects, and snakes also injured people, so people cast iron and forged blades to defend themselves against danger. The ancients had abundant virtue and a nature as simple as that of infants. They had no mind for calculating gain and loss, and so lived simply and long.

“Abundance of inner virtue” means that virtue within is deep and abundant.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, the Perfected Ones governed the world by keeping De within and embracing the Dao. Their minds were calm and content; they did not think themselves in the right, and their conduct naturally accorded with harmony. As a result, thieves and bandits ceased to cause disorder. This was the effect of keeping De within. The Chongxu Jing says: By keeping De within, one can understand the principles by which all things come into being and change.

Like a newborn infant.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, when Dao and De were pure and abundant, the people were as simple and innocent as infants only a few months old. They did not know how to weigh gain against loss, and there were no thieves or bandits causing disorder. This was the state brought about by keeping De within. The Nanhua Jing says: The key to nourishing life lies in this: can you be like an infant? You may move about all day without knowing where you are going; sit quietly without knowing what you are doing. Your body is like the trunk of a withered tree. For such a person, calamity does not arrive, nor does good fortune come by design. Neither misfortune nor fortune can arise, and so external things cannot harm them.

Venomous creatures do not sting people.

The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Essence and Sincerity” chapter, says: When Fuxi, a legendary ruler of antiquity, governed the world, De enabled all things to grow without destroying them. In that age, although insects and snakes had poisonous tails and stingers, they held back their venom and did not sting people. This was the effect of keeping De within.

Fierce beasts do not harm people.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When Fuxi governed the world, De enabled all things to grow without destroying them. In that age, although fierce beasts had claws and fangs, people could tether them and lead them along with the herds, and they would not harm anyone. This was the effect of keeping De within.

Birds of prey do not strike at people.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When Fuxi governed the world, De enabled all things to grow without destroying them. In that age, although birds had sharp claws and spurs—the pointed projections on the backs of their feet—people could bend down and take things from their nests without being harmed. This was the effect of keeping De within.

The bones are soft and the sinews supple, yet the hands can grip tightly.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: An infant keeps its fists clenched all day, yet its hands never stiffen. This is because it follows its natural inborn nature. It looks at things all day without its eyes turning or wandering, because its mind and spirit do not chase after things outside. This is the virtue of the Perfected One.

Before knowing anything of sexual union, its genitals are already erect. This is Jing and Qi at the height of fullness.

The Nanhua Jing says: When an infant moves, it does not know what it is doing. Its body is like a withered branch, and its mind like cooled ashes. This is Jing and Qi at the height of fullness. The Chongxu Jing (another name for the Liezi) says that this is the state in which an infant preserves its inborn nature.

It cries all day, yet its voice does not grow hoarse. This is Yin-Yang in perfect harmony.

The Nanhua Jing says: An infant cries all day, yet its voice does not grow hoarse. This is harmony at its height.

To understand harmony is to know what is constant.

The Tongxuan Jing, “Chapter on Lower De” (a chapter in the Wenzi), says: The people of antiquity valued life and regarded it as more important than wealth and profit. They did not let external things harm their spirit, and so they were able to live long. Thus, to understand harmony is to understand the constant Dao.

The Nanhua Jing says: An infant cries all day, yet its voice does not grow hoarse. This is harmony at its height.

To understand harmony is to know what is constant.

The Tongxuan Jing, “Chapter on Lower De,” says: The people of antiquity valued life and regarded it as more important than wealth and profit. They did not let external things harm their spirit, and so they were able to live long. Thus, to understand harmony is to understand the constant Dao. The Chongxu Jing says: This is the infant’s childlike inborn nature in antiquity: Jing and Qi are concentrated, the mind is undivided, and harmony is at its height. External things cannot harm such a person, and no virtue is higher than this.

To know the constant Dao is to be enlightened.

The Tongxuan Jing says: People in later ages treated life lightly and wealth and profit as important. This is called compounding one’s harm. Such people find it difficult to live long. Thus, to know the constant Dao is to be wise.

Trying only to augment life and pursue nourishment instead brings calamity.

The Chongxu Jing says: This is what happens when people in childhood show off their cleverness and skill, cultivate techniques, and flaunt their reputation before the world. The Tongxuan Jing says: Trying only to augment life brings calamity.

When the mind drives Qi and blood to strain beyond their limits, this is called “force.”

The Chongxu Jing says: When people are young and vigorous, their blood and Qi tend to surge and overflow. Desires and thoughts increase in turn, and, drawn along by external things, their De declines. The Tongxuan Jing says: When the mind drives Qi and blood to strain beyond their limits, this is called “force.”

When things reach the height of their strength, they move toward old age.

The Chongxu Jing (another name for the Liezi) says: When people are young and vigorous, their Qi (vital energy) readily surges and flourishes. Desires and thoughts fill their hearts, and they are drawn along by external things; as a result, their De (Virtue/Power) gradually declines. The Tongxuan Jing (another name for the Wenzi) says, “When the heart drives the Qi, this is called forcing one’s strength.”

When things reach the height of their strength, they turn toward old age.

The Chongxu Jing says: When people grow old and frail, their desires and thoughts weaken, and their bodies decline. Nothing external, then, can grow old before the body does. The Tongxuan Jing says, “A person’s spirit, will, and Qi grow fuller and stronger day by day when at rest; when agitated, they are gradually depleted and grow old.”

This is called failing to accord with the Dao.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When someone dies young, it is not because their lifespan was meant to be so short. Rather, they have treated themselves lightly, allowing illness to seize the opportunity and take their life. Without maintaining calmness and contentment, one cannot make one’s De shine forth. Thus, forcing one’s strength goes against the Dao and against De. Nothing in the world that goes against the Dao and De can endure. What fails to accord with the Dao will die young.

What fails to accord with the Dao will die young.

The Chongxu Jing says: When the time of death comes, a person comes to rest and returns to the end of life.

Chapter Fifty-Six: The Wise Do Not Speak (Few understand the Great Dao; those who do do not speak much. This is the chapter’s title.)

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: The true meaning of the ancient Dao of De was obscured and scattered among the various schools of thought. When the nine schools heard the heterodox tendencies, they welcomed them, then used rules and standards to correct themselves and meet the many affairs of the world.

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, the Dao of De was obscured by the Hundred Schools of thought. Whenever the various schools heard a teaching that differed from the old doctrines, they gladly accepted it. They used rules and laws to correct themselves and deal with the urgent affairs of the world, but in doing so they abandoned the ancient Dao of De and no longer followed the way of the former kings.

How is governing the world and caring for the people different from tending horses? A horse herder simply removes what harms the horses. In governing the people, one should likewise remove the people and things that harm them. A wise strategist is unhappy if unable to exercise schemes and adapt to changing circumstances; a skilled debater is unhappy if unable to speak; an astute critic is unhappy if unable to assess and fault others. All are bound by external things and so have lost the Dao.

Those who seek to attract people hope to rise in the court; those of middling standing hope to gain distinction in the palace; those who work through physical strength take pride in overcoming hardship; the courageous rise up when calamity strikes; those who command troops enjoy warfare; those who live austerely prize leaving a name behind; those who emphasize laws and orders hope to expand their governance; those who emphasize ritual instruction value outward appearance; and those who advocate benevolence and righteousness prize social ties. When their wealth is insufficient, the greedy grow anxious; when their power is not impressive enough, the boastful grow despondent. Those who chase power and external things delight in change and are always trying to seize an opportunity to make themselves useful, so they are bound to cause harm. The Hundred Schools have blocked the Great Way, while books and doctrines have become confused and disorderly.

Those who know do not speak,

The Nanhua Jing says: The Daoist sages of antiquity acted without action, thought without scheming, and worried about nothing; only then did they truly understand the Dao. Those who truly understand it are few, and they do not speak much.

Those who speak do not know.

The Nanhua Jing says: Shallow people act and strive, relying on words and books, and take names, forms, sounds, and colors to be real. Those who speak much do not understand the Dao. How could those whom the world calls knowledgeable truly know it?

Those who speak do not know.

The Nanhua Jing says: Shallow people act and strive, relying on words and books, and take names, forms, sounds, and colors to be real. Those who speak much do not understand the Dao. How could people of the world recognize this?

Close the apertures,

The Tongxuan Jing, a Daoist classic, says: The Daoist sages of antiquity closed their sensory apertures and spoke with care and restraint. Those who are truly skilled in debate appear, instead, to be poor speakers.

Shut the gates,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Daoist sages of antiquity shut the gates of the senses and restrained cleverness and ingenuity. Those who are truly clever appear, instead, to be clumsy.

Dull the sharpness,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Daoist sages of antiquity ground away their sharp edges and did not pursue strength or greed; therefore, they did not take up weapons.

Untangle the knots,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Daoist sages of antiquity resolved disputes and brought conflict to an end, and so the world became peaceful and still.

He draws in his own radiance and does not display his sharpness. He lives amid the dust and conventions of the world without falling into conflict or making enemies. This is called “mysterious sameness” (xuántóng): blending completely with all things and dissolving the distinctions between them.

The Nanhua Jing, through the voice of Yan Hui, says that forgetting the body and one’s cleverness, and joining with the Great Dao, is called “sitting in forgetfulness” (zuòwàng): sitting quietly and forgetting one’s form and discriminating intellect. The Tongxuan Wen says that when all things become one, there is no absolute right or wrong.

Thus, no one can win him over through closeness. The Nanhua Jing says that those who speak of benevolence and righteousness value social ties; and those skilled at discernment grow displeased when there is nothing to assess or refute.

Nor can anyone reject him through distance. The Nanhua Jing says that those who prize ritual propriety care about their appearance; and clever, quick-witted people grow displeased when there are no concerns or changes for them to respond to.

No one can entice him with profit. The Nanhua Jing says that those skilled at debate grow displeased when there are no principles to discuss. The Tongxuan Wen says that resentment runs counter to De (Virtue/Power), while conflict unsettles the heart; schemes and plans for fighting also bring displeasure.

No one can entice him with profit. The Nanhua Jing says that those skilled at debate grow displeased when there are no principles to discuss. The Tongxuan Wen says that resentment runs counter to De (Virtue/Power), while conflict unsettles the heart. Using schemes to govern conflict is a grave violation of the Way. Without bringing calamity, one cannot bring calamity to completion.

Nor can anyone harm him. The Nanhua Jing says that the fierce and combative delight in killing, while those accustomed to warfare delight in war. The Tongxuan Wen says that weapons are ill-omened objects; using them to govern conflict is a grave violation of the Way. Only by bringing calamity can one bring calamity to completion.

No one can make him take pride in honor. The Nanhua Jing says that he does not regard wealth and rank as security, nor rely on power to exalt himself. He takes no glory in distinction, and so invites no resentment. Nor can anyone make him feel debased.

The Tongxuan Jing says: One can be rich without relying on material possessions, feel no danger because of low status, feel no shame at being poor, and hold no resentment toward others.

For this reason, such a person is honored throughout the world.

The Nanhua Jing says: The ancients held that wealth, status, eminence, prestige, fame, and profit—all six—disturb the mind. If the mind is not stirred by them, it can be made upright. When the mind is upright, one can reach a state of emptiness, stillness, and Wuwei (non-action), and so there is nothing one cannot accomplish.

Governing the State by the Dao, Chapter Fifty-Seven

The Tongxuan Jing says: After the Five Hegemons rose during the Spring and Autumn period, schemes and deception gradually flourished, and the number of robbers grew. Those above and below came to resent one another, and government orders could no longer be carried out. When water grows turbid, fish are distressed; when government is harsh, the people fall into disorder. The more prohibitions those above impose, the more troubled those below become; the more those above demand, the more those below compete for.

Thus, trying to put out boiling water with fire only makes it boil more fiercely. Understand that Wuwei is the foundation of good governance: it is enough to remove the source of the fire. Hence it is said, “When I practice Wuwei, the people transform themselves naturally; when I favor stillness, the people set themselves right naturally.” The Five Hegemons governed through warfare and punishments, and as a result bred thieves and disorder.

Govern the state by the right way.

The Shangli Chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: In governing a state, one should first establish a political order that cannot be overturned, and then seek victory over the enemy. If the state is not yet well governed, yet one attacks another’s disorder, it is like using fire against fire or water against water. Since both sides are alike, neither can overcome the other, and matters will only grow more complicated.

Use the unconventional in conducting war,

The Tongxuan Jing says that the art of warfare lies in winning through the unexpected. What is unusual is called “the extraordinary”: one may meet agitation with stillness, disorder with good governance, hunger with abundance, and toil with ease. The extraordinary and the ordinary work together, just as Water, Fire, Metal, and Wood restrain one another. In this way, one can prevail in any situation.

Govern the world without disturbing the people.

The Tongxuan Jing says that rulers skilled in governing in ancient times could attain the world without acting recklessly.

How do I know that the world will be as I have described? I know it from the principles that follow.

The Tongxuan Jing says that when government is burdened with too many affairs, it is hard to govern; when laws and orders are too harsh, they are hard to enforce.

When there are too many prohibitions in the world,

The Dongling Jing says that when there are too many prohibitions among the people, their feelings and wishes cannot find free expression, and the world becomes stifled and disharmonious. When prohibitions are few, people’s suppressed emotions can unfold, and they can share joy and understanding with one another.

The people grow even poorer;

The Tongxuan Jing says that food is the foundation of human survival, and the people are the foundation of the state. Therefore, the ruler should follow the seasons above, make full use of the land’s advantages below, and draw on human effort in between. In this way, living things can grow and all things flourish: dead wood is cut in spring, fruits are gathered in summer, vegetables are stored in autumn, and firewood is collected in winter, to provide for the people’s needs. The living have enough food and clothing, and after death their bodies do not lie for long and spread disease. This is how the former kings followed the seasons, made preparations, enriched the state, and benefited the people. Today, however, prohibitions are so numerous that the people grow even poorer.

When the people possess too many sharp weapons,

The Tongxuan Jing says that sturdy armor and sharp blades are not enough to let people flaunt their strength.

The state grows more and more chaotic;

The Tongxuan Jing says that when a ruler delights in displays of courage, the people will fight among themselves, and the state will suffer many calamities. Robbery and killing are then bound to break out below.

When the people possess too many skills,

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says, “As people’s cleverness and ingenuity increase, all kinds of strange things arise.”

The Southern Flower Scripture (another name for the Zhuangzi) says, “Those who consider themselves clever, skillful, and wise seem to me to have lost their way. When people use cunning schemes to outdo one another and push their skills to the utmost, all manner of bizarre achievements appear. When those above scrutinize harshly and pursue excessive precision, those below respond by developing improper thoughts, without knowing where these consequences come from.”

The more numerous the laws and regulations become,

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says, “Governing a state requires an appropriate method; it does not depend on ornate rhetoric. The more numerous the laws and regulations, the more thieves there will be.”

the more thieves there will be.

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says, “Once cleverness and deceit arise, thieves will multiply.”

Therefore, the sage says:

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says, “The law can punish those who are unfilial, but it cannot make people truly filial. It can punish thieves, but it cannot make people honest. In the final age, people throughout the world are made to fear punishment and so dare not steal. How can this compare with the ancient days, when customs were pure and people had no inclination to steal in the first place? Pouring hot water onto boiling water only makes it boil more fiercely. Those who understand the foundation of governing through Wuwei need only remove the source of the fire. Therefore, the sage says: ‘When I do not act arbitrarily, the people transform themselves naturally. When I have no greed, the people become simple and genuine naturally.’”

When I do not act arbitrarily, the people transform themselves naturally.

The “Way’s Origin” chapter of the Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says, “When I do not act arbitrarily, the people transform themselves naturally.” That is, when those in high positions refrain from arbitrary action, the people change naturally.

When I do not interfere excessively, the people prosper naturally.

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says, “When I do not interfere excessively, the people prosper naturally.” That is, when those in high positions do not disturb the people, they can prosper of their own accord.

When I cherish stillness, the people naturally become upright.

The Scripture of Penetrating Mystery says, “When I cherish stillness, the people naturally become upright.” That is, when those in high positions remain still, the people naturally return to the right path.

When I have no greed, the people become simple and genuine naturally.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “When I have no desires, the people naturally become simple and honest.” Thus, when those in high positions have no desires, the people too will naturally become simple and honest.

When Government Is Lenient, Chapter Fifty-Eight

The Nanhua Jing, in “Pianmu,” says: From the Three Kings of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou onward, benevolence, righteousness, rules, and laws have been loudly proclaimed throughout the world. Yet they have carved away at human nature and harmed it. The Three Kings relied on squares, ink lines, and compasses to correct people’s conduct, which was tantamount to cutting away their innate nature. They used ropes, restraints, and glue to bind people firmly together, which was tantamount to eroding their original De. They also used ritual and music to correct people’s behavior, and benevolence and righteousness to soothe the hearts of the people. All these practices caused people to lose their original, natural state.

The world already has its own natural way: what is crooked can bend without a square, what is straight can be straight without an ink line, what is round can be round without a compass, and what is square can be square without a carpenter’s square. Things can join together without glue, and people can make agreements without being bound by ropes. Thus, all things in the world grow naturally, without knowing why they grow; they naturally come to possess things, without knowing why they possess them.

When government is lenient and does not scrutinize people harshly, the people are simple and honest. The principles of past and present are no different, and should not be damaged. Why must benevolence and righteousness bind people’s hearts so tightly, like glue and ropes, and forcibly make them serve morality? If government is excessively clever and harsh in its scrutiny, it is like recklessly boring holes in a wall to plant weeds: all effort and no result. It is also like combing out the hair one strand at a time and counting every grain of rice as you cook: fussy and constrained. How could such an approach suffice to govern the world? The Three Kings governed with excessive scrutiny, and the people were worn down as a result.

When government is lenient and does not scrutinize people harshly, the people are simple and honest.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Feng River is ten ren deep, yet it is not polluted by dust and grime; even gold and stone at the bottom can be seen clearly from the bank. It is not lacking in depth or clarity. It is simply that fish, turtles, jiao dragons, and dragons do not wish to dwell in it. Grain cannot grow on bare rock, and elk do not roam on barren mountains, because there is nowhere there to shelter or settle. Thus, when government orders are lenient and understated, the people are simple and genuine; when orders are harsh and minute, the people fall into want and disorder.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In later ages, those who governed affairs treated harshness as clear-sightedness, haste as efficiency, harsh treatment of subordinates as loyalty, and an abundance of schemes as achievement. This is like cutting leather too wide: the wider it is, the more easily it tears. The more tightly such government orders are drawn, the more readily the people are driven into hardship.

Misfortune and good fortune depend on one another. Benefit and harm come from the same source; misfortune and good fortune arise together. Hence the saying: “Misfortune—good fortune leans upon it. Good fortune—misfortune lies hidden within it.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The understanding of the Three Kings—the general name for the wise rulers of antiquity—grew shallow in later times, so they relied on close scrutiny to govern. When rulers rely on close scrutiny, the people put on a show of goodness to please those above them, thereby concealing their true feelings. Those who attend only to the fine points of documents and laws understand neither governing through Wuwei (non-action) nor the roots of disorder. Governing through excessive scrutiny breeds chaos, corrupts customs, and becomes a sign that a state is doomed to fall.

Who can know where the changes of misfortune and good fortune will end? The Tongxuan Jing says that, apart from the sages of antiquity, no one can fully distinguish the boundaries between misfortune and good fortune, benefit and harm. That is why it says, “Who knows their ultimate end?”

Can there not be a constant right way? The Tongxuan Jing says: The ancients used the right way to transform the people. It took effect easily and was certain to succeed. Later generations, however, used deviant methods to transform them, and the result was effort spent to no avail and inevitable failure.

The right way can turn into the strange and deviant. The Dongling Jing says: Since the near past, there have been few upright people under Heaven. When government is simple, the people are genuine. If the people’s hearts are upright, they can be guided through teaching; there is no need to resort to punishment.

Goodness, too, can turn into something perverse. The Dongling Jing says: Since the near past, there have been many treacherous people under Heaven. When government orders are complicated and harsh, the people become deceitful and false. If you would question people about why they have become deviant, you should first examine whether you yourself are upright.

The people have strayed from the right way for a very long time.

The Tongxuan Jing says that later generations took the more familiar virtues of benevolence and righteousness as rules for conduct, yet did not understand that only those who know how to use the hook, the marking cord, the square, and the compass can properly govern human affairs. Without the square and compass, one cannot determine what is square or round; without the hook and cord, one cannot correct what is crooked or straight. Those in high positions use these standards, and those below them accordingly develop a mindset of observing them. The square and compass may be ingenious tools, but they are not the root of good governance.

Therefore, the sages…

The Tongxuan Jing says that when water is turbid, fish suffocate; when government orders are harsh, the people fall into disorder. When those above have many desires, those below engage in more deception; when those above are ceaselessly meddlesome, the people below become unsettled. To fail to understand that the ruler’s Wuwei (non-action) should be the foundation, and instead use such secondary measures as punishments and government orders to make up for it, is like digging a channel to stop the flow of water or carrying firewood to put out a blaze: the more one does, the worse things become. Using hot water to stop something from boiling only makes it boil more fiercely. Those who understand the root of governance need only remove the source of the fire. Thus the sages reduce government activity and bring stability, and reduce desires so that contentment comes easily. They cultivate the root.

To be upright without harming others, peaceful without being harsh, honest without being unrestrained, and bright without seeking to dazzle: these four ways truly cultivate the right path and govern the world.

To be upright without harming others:

The Tongxuan Jing, in its “Dao and De” chapter, says that the ancients governed the world through the Dao: they were upright without harming others, and the people therefore rallied to them and were transformed. The Nanhua Jing says that the ancients followed the constant Dao; what is called “upright” does not depend on a carpenter’s square.

To be principled without harming others:

The Tongxuan Jing says that the ancients nourished the people through De (Virtue/Power): they were principled without harming others, and the people therefore submitted willingly. The Nanhua Jing says that the ancients followed the constant Dao; what is called “round” does not depend on a compass.

To be honest without being unrestrained.

The Tongxuan Jing says: If people are not forced into action, and their conduct is upright without becoming excessive, the people will be content and frugal. The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, things followed their natural, constant principles. What is curved needs no compass; what is straight needs no marking cord.

Brightness without glare.

The Tongxuan Jing says: If people do not show off their worthiness, and their brightness does not dazzle, the people will be simple and sincere. The Nanhua Jing says: The sages of antiquity did not deliberate deliberately or plan in advance; though they were bright, they did not flaunt it.

Governing the People and Serving Heaven, Chapter Fifty-Nine

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, people could be exalted as Son of Heaven without treating others arrogantly because of their high status. Though they possessed all under Heaven, they did not use their wealth to toy with others. To remain frugal amid wealth and honor may be called possessing De. When the people are frugal, the state can endure.

Governing the people and serving Heaven,

The Tongxuan Jing says: A ruler’s people are like the foundation of a city. When the foundation is deep, the city is secure; when the people are prosperous, the state flourishes.

Nothing is better than frugality.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity governed the world through the Dao. They practiced restraint and frugality and did not squander resources. This may seem like having less; precisely because they did not seek too much, they could achieve greatness and endure.

Only through frugality,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The way for a ruler to govern the state is to cultivate himself through frugality.

This is called early preparation.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When people are frugal, they will not go hungry.

Early preparation is called accumulating De in abundance,

The Tongxuan Jing says: De accumulated can establish the work of a king; stones accumulated can form a mountain; water accumulated can form a river. Nothing great has ever been accomplished without accumulation.

With abundant accumulated De, nothing cannot be overcome,

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those skilled at governing affairs accumulate De. When their De is deep, the people can be put to use.

If nothing cannot be overcome, its limits are unknown,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of high antiquity cast off extravagance and maintained frugality; therefore, they were able to endure.

When all things yield to you without exception, no one knows how great your power is. With power that is unfathomable, you can govern a state.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity cast aside extravagance and kept to frugality, and so were able to endure for a long time.

To govern a state, one must understand that the people are its foundation. Only when the people are treated as the state’s foundation can the state endure.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people are the foundation of the state; frugality is the foundation of the person.

This is called having deep roots and a firm foundation.

The Tongxuan Jing says: A ruler’s possession of the people is like a tree having roots. When a tree grows tall and its roots run deep, its branches and trunk are firm.

This is the way to make a state endure in stability and to make life endure.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people are the roots; the state is like the branches and leaves. When the roots are deep and strong, the branches and leaves flourish. With deep roots, the branches and trunk are firm.

Chapter Sixty: Governing a Great State

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: “My teacher! My teacher! It transforms and nurtures the myriad things, yet harms none of them. Its grace extends through all ages, yet it does not claim benevolence. It has endured since antiquity, yet does not claim longevity. It covers and supports Heaven and Earth, and carves and shapes the myriad things, yet does not boast of its skill. This is called the joy of Heaven.” The sages of old understood the joy of Heaven. Thus they did not incur Heaven’s resentment, suffer people’s criticism, become entangled in external things, or face punishment from spirits and ghosts. When the Dao does not harm the people, all under Heaven lives in harmony and peace, and ruler and people alike can share in that peace.

Governing a great state

The Nanhua Jing says: The sages of antiquity understood the Wuwei (non-action) De of Heaven and Earth; this is the root revered by all things. Taking the Dao as one’s root enables one to be in harmony with Heaven. To be in harmony with Heaven is called the joy of Heaven. Those who understand the joy of Heaven do not incur Heaven’s resentment.

Is like cooking a small fish.

The Nanhua Jing says: The sages of antiquity understood the Wuwei (non-action) De of Heaven and Earth; this is the root revered by all things. Taking the Dao as one’s root enables one to be in harmony with Heaven. To be in harmony with Heaven is called the joy of Heaven. Those who understand the joy of Heaven do not incur Heaven’s resentment.

Is like cooking a small fish.

The Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) says: The reason the sage practices Wuwei is that he can fairly harmonize all under Heaven and bring people into accord with one another. When people live in harmony, the people are at peace and content. Therefore, one who understands the way to bring peace and contentment to the people does not blame anyone for their faults.

To govern all under Heaven through the Dao,

The Nanhua Jing says: While alive, the sages of antiquity followed the natural course of things; after death, they went along with the transformations of the myriad things. In stillness, they joined with Yin energy; in action, they flowed with Yang energy. This is called following the harmony of the Heavenly Dao. To follow the harmony of the Heavenly Dao is called Heavenly joy. Therefore, one who understands Heavenly joy is not burdened by external things.

Thus, ghosts and spirits cannot wreak havoc.

The Nanhua Jing says: The sages of antiquity followed the Heavenly Dao in action and rested as steadily as the earth in stillness. With minds focused and tranquil, they could govern all under Heaven. Ghosts and spirits could not wreak havoc, and the hun and po souls were not troubled. With the mind at peace, all things were at ease. Therefore, one who understands Heavenly joy is not burdened by external things.

Thus, ghosts and spirits cannot wreak havoc.

The Nanhua Jing says: The sages of antiquity followed the Heavenly Dao in action and rested as steadily as the earth in stillness. With minds focused and tranquil, they could govern all under Heaven. Ghosts and spirits did not wreak havoc, and the hun and po souls were not wearied. With the mind at peace, all things submitted. This is living in harmony with others. To live in harmony with others is to bring peace and contentment to the people. Therefore, one who understands how to bring peace and contentment to the people does not invite censure from ghosts and spirits.

It is not that ghosts and spirits inherently lack supernatural power.

The Nanhua Jing says: When the sages of antiquity spoke, their minds were empty and still; from this, they extended their influence to Heaven and Earth and reached through the myriad things. This is Heavenly joy, and it is also following the harmony of the Heavenly Dao.

The spiritual power of ghosts and spirits does not harm the people.

The Tongxuan Jing, “Chapter on Sincerity,” says: The highest spirits transform the myriad people without words. If the spirits’ transforming influence required speech,

It is not that the spirits’ transforming influence would harm the people.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The wordless transformation of the spirits means carrying out and sustaining transformation without words; it does not harm the innate nature bestowed upon those who have spiritual qualities.

The sage does not harm the people either.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people are governed through Wuwei; if they are subjected to deliberate intervention, they will be harmed. What is meant by governing through Wuwei,

Neither side harms the other.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The side that acts deliberately…

The sage does not harm the people either.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people are governed through Wuwei; if they are subjected to deliberate intervention, they will be harmed. What is meant by governing through Wuwei,

Only when neither side harms the other can virtue return to harmony.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who act cannot achieve complete non-action. If they cannot practice non-action, they cannot act appropriately; instead, they will harm the people.

Thus, the virtue of both sides eventually blends together and returns to harmony.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, those who understood how to follow the course of Heaven and take joy in it were sages who nurtured the world with a mind of Wuwei, bringing peace and joy to all under Heaven.

A Great State Is Like a Low-Lying Stream, Chapter 61

The Tongxuan Jing says: During the Warring States period, the feudal lords treated the world and their own states as private estates. Their states were powerful and their ambitions strong. Great states sent armies to invade small ones, while small states arrogantly offended those above them. Each side clung to a hard line, provoking conflict and fostering resentment. They could not make peace for a long time, and the world fell into disorder. Therefore, states should cultivate friendly relations and stability, put an end to war and stop fighting one another. Only then can peace prevail throughout the world.

A great state should place itself low, becoming the meeting place where all under Heaven come together.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao does not prevail through hardness and force, nor does it gain through greed and rivalry. It prevails because people throughout the world naturally submit to it; it gains because people throughout the world willingly draw close to it and join with it. It prevails through gentleness and weakness, and wins people’s hearts through benevolence and righteousness.

A great state should place itself low, becoming the meeting place where all under Heaven come together.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao does not prevail through hardness and force, nor does it gain through greed and rivalry. It prevails because people throughout the world naturally submit to it; it gains because people throughout the world willingly draw close to it and join with it. Gentleness and weakness can prevail; benevolence and righteousness can win people’s allegiance.

Become the feminine side of the world. “Female” here is a metaphor for the humble, gentle, and still side.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The ancient sages took the feminine side of the world, and so they were able to endure.

The feminine often relies on stillness to overcome the masculine.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The way to victory in warfare is to meet disorder with order, agitation with stillness, and strength with gentleness and calm; one must not rush forward recklessly.

Make stillness and humility your guiding principles.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Therefore, sages hold fast to the way of the feminine and gentle, yet are able to establish their own strength. By acting with gentleness and stillness day after day, their merit and virtue do not decline. This is the way of Heaven. Hold fast to the way of purity and stillness, keep to the discipline of the feminine and gentle, and use gentleness and weakness to steady body and mind.

Thus, if a great state can humble itself before a small state, it can win the small state’s allegiance.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When a great state serves a small state, this is called “changing oneself”: altering one’s usual manner and lowering one’s own position.

If a small state can humble itself before a great state, it can win the great state’s acceptance. Merit and virtue do not decline; this is the way of Heaven: hold fast to the way of purity and stillness, keep to the discipline of the feminine and gentle, and use gentleness and weakness to steady body and mind.

Thus when a great state treats a small state with humility, it gains the small state’s trust and allegiance.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “To treat a small state well from the position of a great state is called following change.”

When a small state treats a great state with humility, it gains the great state’s acceptance.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “For a small state to offend a great state is called violating heavenly principle.”

Thus sometimes it is through humility that allegiance is won.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The weak and small, understanding the principle, can gain something without contention.”

At other times, too, it is through humility that results are achieved.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The strong and great, understanding the principle, can win without joining battle.”

What a great state seeks is nothing other than to absorb and nurture the people.

The Chongxu Jing says: “The small state should be pacified by me; if it relies on force, destruction will soon come.”

What a small state seeks is nothing other than to come under the protection of a great state and serve it.

The Chongxu Jing says: “That I serve the great state is the way to seek security.”

Both great and small states can each obtain what they desire.

The Nanhua Jing says: “To make a fresh start with all under Heaven, to stop warfare, let the troops rest, care for brothers and kinsmen, and jointly offer sacrifices to ancestors—this is the practice of sages and people of worth and ability, and it is the common wish of all under Heaven.”

Therefore a great state should treat others with humility.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The sages of high antiquity were humble, yielding, and tranquil; this is to understand how to occupy the low. Only by understanding how to occupy the low can one keep the high position; the arrogant and self-satisfied cannot find a footing.”

Dao Is the Mysterious Master of All Things—Chapter 62

The Nanhua Jing says: In governing the world, the ancient sages invariably first cultivated themselves and only afterward attended to external affairs. They practiced wuwei and tranquility; only after rectifying themselves did they act. Truly they simply did well what ought to be done.

Later rulers, however, took their own views as norms and used principles and laws to make demands on others, believing that everyone should obey and be transformed by their instruction; this is in fact to counterfeit virtue. To govern the world in this way is like crossing the sea, digging a river, or making a mosquito carry a mountain: labor without success. Better to emulate the Three August Ones: sit at ease and practice the way of wuwei; without effort, the world is naturally governed. To follow the great Dao is not laborious.

This is what is called “Dao.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao gives rise to the myriad things. It operates according to Yin-Yang, transforms into the four seasons, and further differentiates into the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water). Each thing finds its proper place and condition; this is called the Dao.

The Dao is the deep and hidden source of all things.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: The Dao is the root from which all things arise and on which their functioning depends.

The Dao is a treasure for people who are good.

The Nanhua Jing says: All things live by obtaining the Dao, and actions succeed when they accord with it. The Tongxuan Jing says: Nothing in the world is easier than doing good. To do good is to be tranquil and practice Wuwei (non-action), allowing one’s nature to unfold without being led astray by unnecessary things or enticed by external objects. It is to follow one’s nature and preserve what is genuine, without changing one’s original true self. That is why doing good is easy.

The Dao is also something on which people who are not good can rely.

The Nanhua Jing says: All things die when they lose the Dao, and actions fail when they go against it. The Tongxuan Jing says: Nothing in the world is harder than doing what is not good. To do what is not good is to be swayed by corruption and delusion, to resort to pretense and deceit, and to become agitated and filled with desires. All of this goes against human nature, which is why doing what is not good is so difficult.

Fine words can be used to guide people.

The Tongxuan Jing says: First teach people through reason, then guide them through virtue, and they can be encouraged to do good.

Dignified conduct can be used to restrain people.

The Tongxuan Jing says: If a brief admonition goes unheeded, use authority and punishment to restrain them.

When people have faults, how can they simply be abandoned?

The Tongxuan Jing says: If they are admonished so sternly, how much wrongdoing can remain? If a brief admonition goes unheeded, use authority and punishment to restrain them. People should not be abandoned, and things should not be discarded.

Therefore, the Son of Heaven was established,

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, the Son of Heaven was established to set forth principles for governing the world, so that people might return to their roots, follow the Dao (the Way) of Wuwei (non-action), and be nurtured and transformed naturally in stillness. Emperors were not established to satisfy their desires, and sages did not ascend to the throne so that they could enjoy an easy life. In those days, the strong oppressed the weak, the many bullied the few, the cunning deceived the dull-witted, and the brave harmed the timid. People each kept their own schemes and deceptions, refusing to teach one another; they amassed wealth but would not share it. That is why the Son of Heaven was established: to bring order and reconcile competing interests.

The Three Dukes were appointed—the Three Dukes were high-ranking officials who assisted the ruler.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, no single person’s understanding could encompass the whole world, so the Three Dukes and Nine Ministers were appointed to assist the ruler. To ensure that distant states and regions with different customs could also receive instruction and beneficence, feudal lords were appointed to teach them.

Even if one possessed a jade disk worth a city—the “embraced jade disk” was a great jade disk held in both arms—

The Tongxuan Jing says: Power is like the carriage in which a ruler rides. Tang Yao grew thin from hard work, Yu Shun’s skin grew dark, and Great Yu developed thick calluses while laboring to control the floods. They did not covet stipends or cling to office; they wanted to bring benefit to the world and rid the people of suffering. From the Son of Heaven down to ordinary people, if one’s toil and exertion do not make one thin, sun-darkened, or calloused, yet one hopes to live in abundance without working, that has never happened.

To ride ahead in a chariot drawn by four horses—here, “four-horse team” means a chariot drawn by four horses—

The Tongxuan Jing says: Ministers are like the four-horse chariot in which a ruler rides. Yi Yin carried a cooking cauldron when he sought an audience with Tang of Shang; Lü Wang once worked as a butcher before later assisting the Zhou dynasty; Baili Xi was once sold; Guan Zhong was once bound in chains; Mozi traveled year after year, never staying long enough for soot to gather in a chimney; Confucius traveled from place to place teaching, leaving before the mat beneath him had grown warm. They labored with their bodies, and their limbs had no rest. This shows that one cannot live in abundance without working; it has never been so.

It would be better to sit upright and offer this Dao to the ruler.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, when the Three Sovereigns governed the world, they need not leave their halls for their instruction to spread in all directions; they need not say a word for the world to be greatly transformed. Customs changed, and the people corrected their ways and turned toward goodness, as if naturally transformed by a wondrous influence. Punishment is not enough to change customs, and killing is not enough to stop wrongdoing. Only wondrous instruction is truly precious.

Why did the ancients value this Dao?

In ancient times, rulers and ministers took on only simple, limited duties, while ordinary people did only what was easy to accomplish. Rulers and ministers did not grow weary of one another, and thus their governance could endure. The Dongling Jing says that when a ruler quiets his mind and spirit and reduces official business, while ministers act with respect and care and fulfill their duties, peace can soon be achieved.

The Tongxuan Jing says that rulers skilled in governing in ancient times took the rivers and seas as their model. The rivers and seas do not act with intent, yet the streams flow together into them; they do not seek to obtain, yet they receive; they do not go about in person, yet remain securely in their place. This is the way Heaven and Earth operate: through Wuwei (non-action), all things are provided for; without seeking, something is gained.

The Nanhua Jing says that in ancient states governed through De (Virtue), the people were simple and had few schemes, and so they could govern themselves.

The Nanhua Jing says that the ancients valued Wuwei: those in high positions acted without action, and those below them did so as well.

Chapter Sixty-Three: Acting Through Non-Action

This chapter draws on the Nanhua Jing to explain the non-action by which an emperor should govern. It holds that Youyu was inferior to Taishi. Taishi governed through Wuwei. He slept peacefully and calmly, without dreaming; when he awoke, he was at ease and free of tangled thoughts. His understanding was clear and honest, without deceit; his De was pure and genuine, without pretense. The Dao had never departed from human nature.

Youyu, by contrast, took deliberate action, as though diminishing natural goodness and benevolence and righteousness in order to make people’s hearts turn toward goodness. Though this could win people’s hearts, it inevitably involved deceit and pretense, and benevolence did not arise from people’s natural disposition. The ancient sages could practice the Way of Wuwei without making matters complicated or deliberately pursuing flavors. Governing the world did not require difficult, coercive methods.

“To act through non-action” means to do things without contriving or forcing them. “To attend to affairs through non-affairs” means to handle matters without creating needless disturbance. The Nanhua Jing says that this is to be free and at ease, acting without action in accordance with nature.

When dealing with affairs, begin where there seems to be nothing to do; when seeking knowledge, recognize what you do not know.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “To deal with things through non-action is to understand that there are things you do not understand.” The Nanhua Jing says, “Wander freely in the realm of doing nothing.” Here, “doing nothing” does not mean being too lazy to act. It means not acting recklessly or forcing an outcome.

Savor the taste of what has no taste.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The ancients savored the Dao and would not abandon it. People today abandon the Dao, and so cannot savor it.” Here, “savor” means to experience and understand.

The great and the small.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The workings of Heaven and Earth take the small as their foundation; the achievement of the Great Dao, too, begins with what is subtle.” The sages of antiquity modeled themselves on the Dao of Heaven. They lived by Wuwei, were gentle and humble, and perceived what was subtle. This is what it means to see the small. Only by seeing the small can one accomplish great things.

Much and little.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The workings of Heaven and Earth take the few as their guide; the achievement of the Great Dao, too, comes from the few.” The sages of antiquity modeled themselves on the Dao of Heaven and governed the world through the Dao, keeping their displayed cleverness in check. This is what it means to understand that the few are essential. Only by understanding this can one achieve what is complete.

Respond to resentment with kindness.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Deep kindness brings a good return; deep resentment brings great calamity. To show little kindness while expecting a generous return, or to harbor resentment while believing no calamity will follow—such things have never happened. Examine how events begin, and you can know how they will unfold.”

Plan for difficulties while they are still easy to handle.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The ancients taught through the right way, and things were easy to accomplish. Later generations taught through the wrong way, and things became difficult to accomplish, ending inevitably in failure.”

Begin with what is subtle to accomplish great things.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Some things are easy to begin but hard to finish; others are hard to bring about but easy to ruin. What is easy to begin but hard to finish is practical work; what is hard to bring about but easy to ruin is speech.” This means that when doing something, one should consider not only whether it is easy to begin but also whether it can be brought to completion. Speech, in particular, can easily cause things to go wrong.

The difficult affairs of the world must begin with what is easy.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Everyone knows that what is useless can harm what is useful, yet this keeps them from broad and clear understanding. Day after day passes, leaving too little time to fulfill one’s Dao.” These words remind people not to focus only on immediate usefulness, but to discern the root of things early.

The difficult affairs of the world must begin with what is easy.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Everyone knows that what is useless can obstruct what is useful. Therefore, those who attend only to immediate cleverness do not gain a broad understanding. They also find that the hours of each day are not enough, and so struggle to accomplish the Great Dao.

Great undertakings in the world always begin with what is small.

The Tongxuan Jing says: One may spend the time used for playing chess in asking about the Dao and gain profound insight. Regard matters as plain and manageable, begin with what is small, and do not pursue grandeur for its own sake.

Thus the sage…

The Tongxuan Jing says: Without persuasion through words, the people naturally trust; without deliberately bestowing favors, they naturally feel benevolence; without personally rushing about and laboring, affairs of government can still be well ordered; without deliberate action, things can still be accomplished. This is because Heaven’s heart—the Way inherent in Heaven—can transform the myriad things, and the Way of utmost sincerity is itself instruction. The Three Sovereigns governed the world precisely by following the Way of Wuwei (non-action).

By never deliberately undertaking great things, one can instead accomplish great achievements.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The ancient rulers skilled at governing the state took the rivers and seas as their model. The rivers and seas follow their natural course, yet can contain the waters of a hundred streams. The streams flow toward the rivers and seas, and thus the rivers and seas achieve their vastness.

Those who make promises carelessly are unlikely to keep them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: To speak but not keep one’s word, to bestow favors without benevolence, to act without bringing order to affairs, and to act deliberately without accomplishing anything—these all come from this: even those who appear to be acting, such as the ancient rulers known as the Five Emperors and Three Kings, may not have followed the Dao with a heart of utmost sincerity.

Those who regard matters as too easy will encounter more difficulties.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Later generations have no foundation for administering government or teaching the people, yet wish to stand above the myriad people. This is truly difficult.

Thus the sage…

The Tongxuan Jing says: Matters are difficult to accomplish but easy to ruin; arguments are difficult to establish but easy to discard. Therefore, the sage devotes himself to contemplating the Great Dao, while the wise can see for themselves the principle of Wuwei.

The sage still regards things as difficult, and therefore in the end encounters no difficulties.

The Tongxuan Jing says: To abandon what is easy to accomplish and insist on pursuing what is difficult will inevitably end in failure. This is the way of the foolish and deluded. Those in positions of authority govern through Wuwei, and those below them also act in accordance with their natural course.

Chapter Sixty-Four: What Is at Rest Is Easy to Hold

In this chapter, the Tongxuan Jing says: People of the decadent age are clouded by deviant desires and have lost their nature; their actions often depart from the right path. If a state is governed in this way, it will fall into disorder; if one cultivates oneself in this way, one’s cultivation will become mere pretense. Those who do not understand the Great Dao cannot return to the right path.

This chapter cites the Tongxuan Jing to explain that people in the latter age are misled by harmful desires, lose their original nature, and often act contrary to the right way. When the state is governed with this mindset, it falls into disorder; when people use it to cultivate themselves, their efforts become mere pretense. Those who do not understand the Dao cannot return to the right way, and those who do not understand De cannot bring stillness to their hearts.

Human nature is originally free of evil and defilement. But when people take pleasure in deviant things for a long time, they gradually forget what they were like at the beginning, until they come to regard such habits as normal. Water is clear by nature, yet sand and earth can muddy it. Human nature is upright by nature, yet deviant words can harm it. Once people understand that a wicked act is of no use to them, even the greedy will refuse to commit it. But if they do not understand that desire brings them no benefit, even those usually known for their integrity may be unwilling to let it go.

People often lose their states, die at the hands of others, and become a laughingstock to the world because they cling to what they love. Thus, acting recklessly brings failure, while holding on stubbornly leads to loss. When people understand that fanning themselves in winter or wearing a fur coat in summer is of no use, they can see that there is no need to cling to anything in the world that is as useless as dust and grime. Hence, acting without presumption brings no failure, and grasping at nothing brings no loss.

“Things are easy to maintain when they are settled.” The Tongxuan Jing says: “Whether the plans in one’s heart are crooked or upright is the gateway through which fortune and misfortune arise.”

“Matters are easy to plan for before signs of them appear.” The Tongxuan Jing says: “Action or stillness, public-spiritedness or selfishness: these are the turning points between benefit and harm.”

“Things are easy to break apart while they are still fragile.” The Tongxuan Jing says: “Misfortune comes upon people through their own doing; blessings, too, are brought about by their own efforts.”

“Things are easy to disperse while they are still slight.” The Tongxuan Jing says: “Accumulate right conduct without pause, and blessings will take shape; accumulate wrongful conduct without pause, and misfortune will follow.”

“Deal with matters before they arise.” The Tongxuan Jing says: “People often make light of small harms and overlook tiny matters. As a result, minor troubles gradually become great disasters. By the time disaster strikes, it is often too late to save the situation. One must therefore be careful even with the smallest things. Later generations know to remedy trouble after it has arisen, but do not understand that careful attention to its early signs can prevent it from arising at all. Preventing trouble is easy; trying to repair things after trouble has begun is difficult.”

“Bring order to the situation before it falls into disorder.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who follow the Dao attend to what is small and guard against trouble before it arises, so great calamities never take root. People today refuse to handle small matters with care and prevent trouble from arising; they wait until it has taken shape before trying to remedy it. By then, even immortals can do nothing. Trouble should be traced to its source and guarded against before disorder begins. Once many factors have accumulated into a calamity, there is no way to save the situation.

A tree too large to wrap one’s arms around began as a tiny sprout.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Even a massive tree was once no thicker than a handful. It grew gradually from something small, and only after accumulating day by day did it become tall and great.

A nine-tiered terrace is built up from basketfuls of earth.

The Tongxuan Jing says: A platform towering into the clouds begins at ground level. Only by piling up earth layer by layer can a high terrace be formed. Small accumulations, in the end, create something vast.

A journey of a thousand miles also begins with the first step beneath one’s feet.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Even a lame turtle can travel a thousand miles because it keeps moving forward, one step at a time. The way from near to far depends on steady accumulation.

Trying too hard to force things often brings failure instead.

The Dongling Jing says: Those who especially prize whiteness see black as filth. Those who crave possessions too much can no longer see anything else worth cherishing; those who favor crooked ways exclusively cannot see the value of the right way. People in later generations who die young did not do so because they failed to practice techniques. On the contrary, they used those techniques too cleverly and too excessively, shortening their lives. The Tongxuan Jing says: Those who pursue success single-mindedly often end up in hardship; those who favor crooked ways often suffer loss. They are harmed by their own obsessions. Thus, deliberate, willful action brings failure.

Cling stubbornly to something, and you will lose it as well.

The Dongling Jing says: Those who favor black things see white as filthy. Those who especially love horses can no longer see anything else worthy of love. Those who are excessively obsessed with ghosts can no longer recognize the worth of the spirits. In the age of decline, spirits grow angry not because people fail to make offerings to them, but because there are too many improper sacrifices—excessive or contrary to ritual propriety—which only make the spirits angrier.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When people bring down their state, die themselves and incur resentment, or become a laughingstock under Heaven, it is always because they are greedy for desire. Thus, clinging stubbornly to something can cause you to lose it.

People today are superstitious about spirits and ghosts. Who can guide them back to the right path? The way to govern lies in the Dao, not in techniques and arts. The noble person acts with upright energy; the petty person acts with deviant energy. Therefore, the sage follows nature and does not act recklessly, so does not invite failure; the sage does not cling stubbornly, so has nothing to lose.

To favor sacrifices that violate ritual propriety while disregarding future calamity is deviant energy. Hence the saying: “With Wuwei (non-action), there is no failure.”

People in the age of decline are obsessed with ghosts and spirits and disregard future calamity. This is deviant energy. Hence the saying: “Without clinging, there is no loss.”

People often fail just when they are close to success. The Tongxuan Jing says: The first signs of fortune and calamity arise in what is subtle, yet people find them hard to perceive. Petty people do not know where calamity comes from, and so their actions lead them into wrongdoing. This is because they do not treat subtle matters with care.

If you are as careful from beginning to end as you were at the start, you will not fail. The “Fuyan” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: Officials fall through misgovernment; filial devotion declines when it cannot be carried through to the end; calamity arises from stubborn, reckless action; illness comes from carelessness. Therefore, if you remain careful from beginning to end, nothing will fail.

The sage…

The Tongxuan Jing says that sages can see how things change from beginning to end, so they must examine them carefully. When King Zhou of Shang began using ivory chopsticks, Jizi lamented that extravagance had already begun to show itself. When people in the state of Lu began burying wooden figures with the dead, Confucius lamented that this violated ritual propriety. By seeing how things begin, one can infer where they may lead.

“To desire what others do not desire” means that the ancients sought what lay beyond the reach of ordinary people, and that what they ultimately sought was the Dao (the Way).

“Not to value goods that are difficult to obtain”: the Tongxuan Jing says that the ancients did not prize rare and hard-to-find goods, nor did they value things that were of no use.

“To learn what others do not learn” means that the ancients studied what ordinary people were unable to study, and that what they ultimately studied was the Dao.

“To make amends for the faults committed by everyone”: the Tongxuan Jing says that the ancients practiced goodness, however small the deed, and corrected faults, however slight they might be.

“To use these things to help all beings follow their own nature”: the Tongxuan Jing says that the nature of the sages of antiquity accorded with the Dao. They knew without studying, saw clearly without looking, and understood without listening. This is what it means to follow the Way of nature.

“And not dare to act recklessly”: the Nanhua Jing says that in ancient times, those in positions of authority governed through Wuwei (non-action), while those below them likewise followed their nature and refrained from reckless action.

This chapter cites the Nanhua Jing to explain that in ancient times, when the Great Dao and De were prevalent, rulers did not prize reputations for worthiness or deliberately appoint people for their abilities. The ruler was like a marker on a high branch, while the people were as free as deer in the wild. People acted uprightly without calling it “righteousness”; they loved one another without calling it “benevolence”; they were honest in their dealings without calling it “loyalty”; and they acted appropriately without calling it “trustworthiness.” They acted naturally and helped one another, without seeing this as a gift. Their actions left no trace of deliberation, and they did not publicize their achievements. The people remained simple, and so were easy to govern.

“Those in ancient times who were skilled in following the Dao” refers to people of antiquity who were adept at following the Dao.

The Nanhua Jing says: “The rulers of remote antiquity governed the world through Wuwei (non-action), simply following the De of Heaven”—that is, the natural power of Heaven.

“Not to make the people clever” means not to make them shrewd and crafty.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When people are sincere and return to simplicity, the people will not deceive or conceal.”

“Rather, to keep them simple” means to let the people remain simple, undisturbed by clever schemes and stratagems.

The Nanhua Jing says: “In the south of Yue there was a city called the Land of Jiande. Its people were simple and unskilled in cleverness, and so were easy to govern.”

“The people are difficult to govern” means that the people are hard to govern.

The Nanhua Jing says: “Today, the Zhou people prize cleverness and ornate embellishment. These are not enough to bring peace to the world, and so the people are difficult to govern.”

“Because their cleverness is excessive” means that they have too many crafty schemes and stratagems.

The Nanhua Jing says: “If a ruler sincerely prizes cleverness but does not follow the Dao, the world will fall into great disorder. The repeated turmoil under Xia Jie and Shang Zhou arose from their esteem for cleverness. The people today are likewise difficult to govern because they have too many crafty schemes and stratagems.”

“Therefore, governing the state through cleverness is the state’s ruin” means that governing through cunning and expedient schemes brings calamity to the state.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “If one relies on personal cleverness to govern a state, it is difficult to keep the state peaceful for long. Esteeming cleverness gives rise to deceit; when deceit spreads, it becomes the way of a state’s destruction. Therefore, governing through cleverness is the state’s ruin.”

“Governing the state without cleverness is the state’s good fortune” means that the state is blessed when it is not governed through cunning and expedient schemes.

The Daoyuan chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: “In ancient times, the state was not governed through cleverness. This was precisely the state’s good fortune.”

“To understand these two” means to understand these two approaches to governing and their respective consequences.

The Nanhua Jing says: “Set aside lesser cleverness, and greater wisdom will naturally become clear.”

“This too can serve as a model”: this can also be taken as a guiding principle for governance.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Governing through clever knowledge and schemes brings no results, no matter how much effort one expends. Relying only on one’s own intelligence and talent leads instead to many mistakes. Those who enjoy showing off their schemes and exhausting every stratagem invite trouble through their cleverness. Trying to arrange everything through calculation is like stirring up a stream and expecting it to become clear: it is extremely difficult. Those who understand the roots of good governance need only set aside clever schemes and let all things change of themselves.

Know the guiding principles at all times and follow them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: If people today wish to study the Great Dao, but have no clear and mysterious sage to guide them and merely cling to the words of books, they will never truly govern things well.

This is called “Mysterious De” (hidden, unobtrusive virtue that accords with nature).

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of antiquity held Mysterious De in their hearts and transformed all things swiftly and wondrously. Only those who accord with the great harmony of Heaven and Earth, hold to their nature, and respond to circumstances as they arise can govern well. This is called Mysterious De.

Mysterious De is profound and beyond measure.

The “Nature” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: The sages of high antiquity remained in accord with Heaven and Earth and cultivated the Dao with impartiality. The deeper the human way, the deeper one’s De. When De is profound, achievements and renown can be attained. This is called Mysterious De, profound and beyond measure.

It runs counter to what the world values.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “It runs counter to the common inclinations of all things.” The commentary explains: What is truly lasting does not depend on cleverness; hence it is said to run counter to worldly ways.

Only then can the greatest fulfillment be attained.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: To accord with Heaven and Earth and merge with them so deeply as to leave no trace, appearing dull and dim—this is called Mysterious De. It runs counter to worldly inclinations, yet accords with the greatest fulfillment.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “It runs counter to the common inclinations of all things.” The commentary explains: What is truly lasting does not depend on cleverness; hence it is said to run counter to worldly ways.

Only then can the greatest fulfillment be attained.

The Nanhua Jing says: To accord with Heaven and Earth and merge with them so deeply as to leave no trace, appearing dull and dim—this is called Mysterious De; it is to accord with the greatest fulfillment.

Chapter Sixty-Six: Rivers and Seas as Kings of the Hundred Valleys

This chapter draws on the Tongxuan Jing to explain that the sages of antiquity governed the world through the Dao without claiming credit for their achievements. They took the rivers and seas as their model: they did not boast of their vastness, but let their renown arise naturally, and so were able to establish kingly rule.

People’s feelings and nature are won over by De, but they do not truly submit to force. De is expressed through yielding, not rivalry. Thus the sages of old, if they wished others to respect them, first respected others; if they wished others to be honored, first praised them; if they wished to surpass others, first showed humility; and if they wished others to take a lower position, first lowered themselves. In this way, relations between high and low, honored and humble, could be brought into balance.

When sages spoke, they placed themselves below others; when they acted, they put themselves last. The people of the world were then glad to uphold them and did not grow weary of them; they supported them without feeling burdened. This was because their De was abundant and their Qi gentle and harmonious. Those who know how to give can, in turn, gain; those willing to stay behind can, in turn, move ahead. This comes close to the Dao. To extend De throughout the world and preserve it through humility was the way the former kings held the world, and so their rule could endure. This is what it means to take the great sea as a model and govern the world through yielding.

The rivers and seas become the destination of all streams because they lie in low places. Many rivers flow toward them, and so they gather into vast bodies of water. The Tongxuan Jing says that the rivers and seas can receive the waters of a hundred streams because their terrain lies low; they are also like a deep celestial pool, where fish and turtles gather. The sea does not turn away waters flowing eastward, and so it is boundless.

Sages take the rivers and seas as their model. They occupy the lowly position in which others see no honor, and so the people of the world turn toward them and uphold them. The sage’s humility and willingness to yield mean placing himself low; precisely for this reason, he can reach a high position. Those who boast of themselves cannot establish themselves. The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: Yao and Shun became emperors through yielding, Tang and Wu became kings by striving to seize power, while Bai Gong brought about his own ruin by contending for authority.

The “Dao and De” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says that one who wishes to stand above others should lower himself in speech. Then the people of the world will respond to him and draw near, willing to uphold someone who yields.

To get ahead of others, place yourself behind them; to stand above others, speak with humility.

The “Dao and De” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: “If you wish to stand above others, speak humbly.” Then people throughout the world will gladly draw near to you, and none will be unwilling to recommend you or yield precedence to you.

To get ahead of others, place yourself behind them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “If you wish to get ahead of others, place yourself behind them.” Then people throughout the world will esteem your benevolence and righteousness, and will not find in you the harshness of someone who bears down on others.

Thus, when he stands above others, people do not feel oppressed; when he leads the way, they do not feel obstructed.

The “Origin of the Dao” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: “When he stands above others, people do not feel oppressed; when he leads the way, they do not feel obstructed.” For this reason, people throughout the world rally to him, and even the treacherous and wicked hold him in awe.

Thus, when he leads the way, people do not feel obstructed.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When he stands above the people, they do not feel oppressed; when he leads the way, people do not feel obstructed. Even distant kingdoms and places with different customs, as well as flying insects and crawling creatures, all draw near to him.”

Thus, people throughout the world gladly recommend him and do not reject him.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “People throughout the world gladly recommend him and do not reject him. Wherever he goes, nothing is inaccessible; whatever he does, nothing goes against him. For this reason, he is honored by all under Heaven.”

This is because he does not contend with others.

The “Naturalness” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: “The rulers of old who were skilled at governing the state modeled themselves on the nature of rivers and seas, which humbly remain in low places. Rivers and seas stay low and do not contend with the streams for height, so all the streams flow into them. Nothing can contend with them. Thus, the Dao does not establish itself by force or military might. It places itself behind all under Heaven and does not actively vie for anything. Because it does not contend, no one can contend with it.”

Thus, under Heaven, no one can contend with him.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Ordinary people tend to act by striving to claim more. The sage, by contrast, acts humbly and stays low, so no one can rise above him. Because he does not contend with the myriad things, no one under Heaven can contend with him.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao appears simple, yet can unfold into vastness; it is deep and subtle, yet its workings are made clear. It is gentle, yet can also be strong. It gathers in Yin energy and exhales Yang energy, revealing the radiance of the sun, moon, and stars. The sun and moon move by virtue of the Dao; because of it, mountains rise high, abysses grow deep, birds take flight, beasts run, qilin roam, and phoenixes soar. The Dao enables those in lowly positions to attain honor, preserves what was once lost, and places those who willingly yield ahead of others.

The Dao’s three treasures are these: first, compassion; second, frugality; third, not daring to put oneself ahead of everyone under Heaven. The sages of antiquity held to gentleness and did not show off their strength or strive to win. They yielded in all things and claimed nothing for themselves; they were neither proud nor extravagant. Their achievements and renown arose naturally, so they could establish a kingly realm and sustain it for a long time. The effects of these three treasures are vast and far-reaching.

Everyone under Heaven says that my Dao is vast.

The Tongxuan Jing says: My Dao accords with Wuwei (non-action) and receives all things without preference.

Yet it seems to be of no use.

The Tongxuan Jing says: My De (Virtue/Power) conceals an appearance of seeming foolishness and can also accommodate things that appear unfit for use.

Precisely because it is vast, it seems unlike anything of ordinary use.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The rulers of antiquity who were skilled at governing the state modeled themselves on the Wuwei of rivers and seas. They were content to occupy positions that seemed unfit for use, and so could become kings over all under Heaven.

If it truly resembled some concrete, conspicuous thing, it would long ago have become small and limited.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sage kings of antiquity, though clever and wise, held to themselves an attitude that seemed foolish. They did not act recklessly, and the world was thereby governed.

I have three treasures,

The Tongxuan Jing says: My Dao has three treasures: through humility, attain honor; through frugality, achieve abundance; through yielding, gain the advantage.

I cherish and uphold them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao’s character lies in protecting these three treasures.

The first is compassion.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao of Heaven and Earth uses vastness to embrace what is small, and humility to protect itself.

The second is frugality.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao of Heaven and Earth takes the little as the beginning of the much, and frugality as the means of securing itself.

The third is not daring to put oneself ahead of everyone under Heaven.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao of Heaven and Earth makes those who fall back the guiding force; to remain behind is precisely to yield.

Compassion is what makes one courageous; frugality is what makes one able to restrain oneself. The third treasure is not daring to place oneself ahead of all under Heaven.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The way Heaven and Earth operate is to put those who are ahead behind, and to let those who are behind yield to themselves.”

Because of compassion, one can be courageous.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The sages of antiquity modeled themselves on the Dao’s humility, and so were content to remain below others. By occupying a low position, they gained respect. This is how the Way of Heaven brings things to completion.”

Because of frugality, one can be generous.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The sages of antiquity modeled themselves on the Dao’s frugality, and so were content to take little. Frugality, paradoxically, can make people prosper. This is how the Way of Heaven brings things to completion.”

By not daring to strive to be first, one can become a leader whom others value.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The sages of antiquity modeled themselves on the Dao’s willingness to yield, and so were content to remain behind others. By yielding, they came to the front. This is how the Way of Heaven brings things to completion.”

Today, people abandon compassion yet still want to flaunt their courage.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “People in the latter age are strong-willed and disdain weakness, but do not understand that this invites defeat. Those who flaunt their strength will eventually perish.”

They abandon frugality yet still seek abundance.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “People in the latter age are extravagant and disdain frugality, strong-willed and disdain weakness, but do not understand that this invites defeat. Those who flaunt their strength will eventually perish.”

They abandon frugality yet still seek abundance.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “People in the latter age are extravagant and disdain frugality, but do not understand that this invites defeat. The arrogant and extravagant will eventually perish.”

They abandon yielding and staying behind, and instead strive relentlessly to be first.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “People in the latter age strive to be first and disdain staying behind, but do not understand that this invites defeat. Those who strive to be first will eventually lose everything.”

Acting this way will ultimately lead to ruin.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The root of courage and strength lies in humility and softness; the root of making broad use of resources lies in frugality and restraint; the root of striving for the lead lies in yielding and falling behind. If these three are lost, the state will perish.”

A compassionate person will win when leading troops into battle.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Therefore, the Dao does not prevail through hardness and violence. It causes all under Heaven to submit of their own accord, without seizing by force. The soft and weak can prevail.”

Used to defend, it brings security.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “In the latter age, building high walls and digging deep moats is not enough to guarantee security. Those skilled at defense need not struggle against others to resist them.”

When Heaven is about to help him,

The Tongxuan Jing says, “The Way of Heaven diminishes what is full and adds to what is insufficient.” The Dongling Jing says, “When Dao and De are abundant, even ghosts and spirits come to offer help. Such a person may be called virtuous.”

Use compassion to protect yourself.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “When the world is at peace, guard yourself with the Way and righteousness; when the world is in turmoil, guard the Way and righteousness with yourself.”

Chapter Sixty-Eight: Those Skilled in the Way

This chapter quotes a passage from the Nanhua Jing. Marquis Wu of Wei asked Xu Wugui, “I want to care for the people, practice benevolence and righteousness, and put an end to war. Can this be done?” Xu Wugui replied, “Your troops are drawn up between the Lijiao gates, while cavalry gallop through the ranks in front of the Zitan Palace. How can this be called putting an end to war? The ancients did not conceal actions that went against reason among their gains; they did not rely on cleverness to defeat others, nor on schemes, nor on war. Today, you kill the people of other states and seize their lands to nourish your own ambitions and spirit. Who could call such warfare good? Where, in it, is victory? If you truly want to put an end to war, you should cultivate inner sincerity and let your intentions accord with Heaven and Earth’s nature of Wuwei, without disturbance. Once the people are no longer under threat of death, what more need you say about ending war? Those of old who were skilled in cultivating the Way did not flaunt their courage; those skilled in warfare were not quick to anger. They appointed the worthy and did not contend for superiority, and so peace prevailed throughout the world.”

Those skilled in the Way do not flaunt their courage.

The Dongling Jing says, “Do not rely on weapons and armies to assert your strength.”

Those skilled in warfare are not quick to anger.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Those of old who were skilled in warfare restrained their anger. Only when anger was held in check could authority be established.”

Those skilled at defeating the enemy do not contend with others.

The Tongxuan Jing says, “Those skilled in warfare do not contend with others. They respond to the time and circumstances and act according to the wishes of the people; therefore, the world submits to them.”

Those skilled in employing others.