《道德真经四子古道集解(寇材质)》Vol. 4

Those skilled at employing people can coordinate with one another without getting in each other’s way, like the many feet of a crawling creature. They can also be like the tongue and the teeth: one soft, one firm, rubbing against each other without causing injury. The jade huang of the Xiahou clan, an ancient ritual object, was not without flaws, and the Bright Moon Pearl was not without blemishes, yet people throughout the world still regarded them as treasures. A wise person does not overlook someone’s great strengths because of a minor fault. If you focus only on others’ shortcomings, forget their strengths, and still hope to find worthy people throughout the world, you will find it difficult.

This is the Virtue of non-contention.

The Tongxuanzi says: Those who can win people’s hearts must first be able to settle themselves. Those who can settle themselves must have gentle, humble dispositions. Those who can establish hegemony must be skilled at winning; those who can defeat their enemies must possess Virtue.

This is called making good use of the strength of others.

The Tongxuanzi says: Cherishing the worthy is called benevolence; showing respect to the worthy is called propriety.

This is called accord with the Way of Heaven, the highest principle since ancient times.

The Tongxuanzi says: A state with a thousand chariots can become king by putting civil Virtue into practice; a state with ten thousand chariots will perish if it is bent on making war.

“On the Use of Arms,” Chapter Sixty-Nine

The Tongxuanzi says that there are five kinds of warfare: righteous warfare, responsive warfare, wrathful warfare, greedy warfare, and arrogant warfare. To punish the violent and aid the weak is called righteous warfare. To take up arms because an enemy has invaded and one has no choice is called responsive warfare. To fight over a minor matter, unable to restrain one’s anger, is called wrathful warfare. To wage war out of greed for another’s land and wealth is called greedy warfare. To rely on the strength and large population of one’s state and flaunt its might before an enemy is called arrogant warfare.

Righteous warfare can make one a king; responsive warfare can bring victory; wrathful warfare leads to defeat; greedy warfare brings calamity; and arrogant warfare leads to ruin. Such is the law of the Way of Heaven. In this age of the Warring States, treacherous ministers and rebels take up arms recklessly and underestimate their enemies. They launch surprise attacks when their opponents are unprepared, often bringing calamity upon themselves first. No calamity is greater than underestimating one’s enemy.

In discussing the use of force, the ancient text Tongxuan Jing, “The Upper Rites,” says: “Use stratagems to direct the army: make the enemy’s weary troops find rest, while those who are well fed fall into hunger; make those who are at ease be forced into action, and those who are well ordered fall into disorder. This enables the one who acts later to seize the initiative. How could such a side fail to prevail? The one who acts later and gains control can win.”

I dare not take the initiative,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Those who speak or act first are likely to reach an impasse.”

but choose to remain behind,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Those who act later can move into the lead. How could such a side fail to prevail? The one who acts later and gains control can win.”

I dare not take the initiative,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Those who speak or act first are likely to reach an impasse.”

but choose to remain behind,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Acting later is the root of achievement.”

I dare not advance an inch,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Yielding first is a way to make room for extension.”

but choose to retreat a foot.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Yield an inch now to advance a foot later; the gentleman acts this way too.”

This is called marching without appearing to march,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When troops are sent out for the sake of others, the people will lend their support; when they are sent out only for oneself, the people will turn away.”

striking as though one had no arms,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “With the people’s support, even the weak can grow strong.”

confronting the enemy as though there were no enemy,

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Abandoned by the people, even the strong will fall.”

and holding a weapon as though one had none.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The ancients placed the way to victory in ending conflict without fighting, thereby bringing the feudal lords into submission. This is the highest form of military action.”

There is no greater calamity than underestimating the enemy.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Those who flaunt their force and act with brutal arrogance will lose their lives; skilled debaters, too, may fall into difficulty by relying on their cleverness. One may know through wisdom how to win, yet fail to see through wisdom when one will lose. Those who excel at only one skill and understand only one doctrine can discuss specific matters with others, but cannot be expected to respond broadly.”

To underestimate the enemy is to risk nearly losing what I hold dear: my “treasure.”

The “Chapter on Higher Virtue” in the Tongxuan Jing says: Laozi observed how shadows change and understood the principle of staying behind and going with the flow. Those who act later are often less likely to go wrong. Thus the sage says: do not hesitate or cling to old ways; remain behind and do not rush to the front. It is like stacking firewood: the pieces added later end up on top.

So, when two armies face one another and their weapons meet…

The Tongxuan Jing says: Hearing that the ruler of an enemy state was treating his people brutally, a ruler sent troops into that state. When the two armies met and were on the verge of battle, the side that took a defensive position behind was able to prevail.

The side moved by compassion can prevail.

The Tongxuan Jing says: To stay behind means that the sage holds to stillness, preserves the discipline of yielding and retreating, adapts to changing circumstances, and remains behind without rushing ahead. Such strength runs deep and is so firm that it cannot be shaken. No one can compete with it and win; therefore, the side that stays behind can prevail.

“My Words Are Very Easy to Understand,” Chapter Seventy

The Chongxu Jing records that the Grand Steward of Shang, an official responsible for state affairs, visited Confucius and asked, “Are you a sage?” Confucius replied, “How could I presume to claim the title of sage? I am simply someone with broad learning and knowledge.”

The Grand Steward of Shang asked, “Were the Three Kings sages?” Confucius replied, “The Three Kings were skilled in using wisdom and military force. Whether they deserve to be called sages, I do not know.”

The Grand Steward then asked, “Were the Five Emperors sages?” Confucius replied, “The Five Emperors were skilled in practicing benevolence and righteousness. Whether they deserve to be called sages, I do not know either.”

The Grand Steward asked again, “Were the Three Sovereigns sages?” Confucius replied, “The Three Sovereigns were skilled at adapting to the times. Whether they deserve to be called sages, I still do not know.”

Greatly surprised, the Grand Steward of Shang asked, “Then who should be considered a sage?” Confucius answered solemnly, “In the Western Zhou there was a Grand Historian named Lao Dan, Laozi, who served as a historian at the Zhou court. He may be called a sage. He did not govern by deliberate action, yet the world was not in disorder. He gave few commands, yet people naturally trusted him. He did not impose instruction, yet people followed the right path of their own accord. He was vast and profound; the people could not even say what he had done. He may truly be called a great sage.”

Thus, the Great Dao Laozi speaks of teaches all things through Wuwei (non-action).

My Words

The Nanhua Zhenjing (Zhuangzi) says: Lao Dan understood the effortless and simple De (Virtue/Power) of Heaven and Earth. This is the root and source of the Great Dao. The Great Dao, in essence, teaches all things through Wuwei.

The Nanhua True Scripture says that Lao Dan understood the qualities of Wuwei (non-action), simplicity, and ease that prevail between Heaven and Earth. These are what are called the “Great Ancestor,” the “Great Root,” and the “Great Master”—the foundation and highest standard of the Great Dao.

“Very easy to understand” means that the principles of the Great Dao are, in fact, easy to grasp.

The Tongxuan Scripture says that the principles on which a great state is governed must not be narrow. A vast territory cannot be governed by cramped institutions; a ruler’s high position should not bring tangled affairs of state; and a large population should not be subjected to harsh instruction. When affairs are tangled, they are hard to govern; when laws are harsh, they are hard to enforce; and when demands are too few in scope, it is difficult to provide for the people. In general, government should be clear and concise. A state is hard to govern through elaborate, convoluted argument. Thus, the sage does not undertake what brings no benefit to good government and instead encourages disorder; the wise person does not adopt methods that offer no practical help and only increase expenditure.

Therefore, one need not seek many achievements, complicated affairs, or excessive needs. Simple achievements are easy to accomplish; streamlined affairs are easy to govern; and modest needs are easy to meet.

“Easy to put into practice” means that the Great Dao is also easy to follow. As stated above, when achievements are simple, affairs streamlined, and needs modest, they are easy to accomplish, govern, and satisfy.

The Tongxuan Scripture says that rivers can flow far because they wind and stretch across the land; mountains appear lofty because their slopes rise in successive tiers; and the Great Dao can nurture and transform the myriad things because it is open and unhurried. Even someone who has mastered one craft, knows one matter well, or possesses one particular talent can speak only from that limited perspective. Such a person cannot address broadly the fundamental problems of governing a state.

The teaching about the Dao is this: the Great Dao is vast and profound, and its breath is in communion with Heaven. Those who share Heaven’s breath can become emperors; those whose conduct accords with righteousness can become kings; those whose workings accord with the Way of Heaven can become hegemons. If they cannot achieve any of these, their states will fall. Thus, to govern without relying on many words and to educate without stirring up a welter of affairs is the way Heaven’s heart sets change in motion and brings about governance through Wuwei (non-action). With a method of governance rooted in the Dao, a few affairs are enough to govern a state; without such a method, however many affairs there may be, they will only create disorder.

The Tongxuan Scripture says that in the latter age, people are confined by narrow interests and blinded to the Great Dao, so they cannot understand or put it into practice. “No one can know” means that no one is able to understand.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the latter age, people study only shallow things. This knowledge obscures their De, so they cannot truly understand the Dao. The Nanhua Jing says: The “De” spoken of by the ancients was never narrow knowledge. Later generations cling to shallow understanding and thereby damage their De, so they cannot understand the Dao.

No one is able to put it into practice.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the latter age, people perform only small acts of goodness. These trivial good deeds obstruct the Dao, so they cannot put the Dao into practice. The Nanhua Jing says: The “Dao” spoken of by the ancients was never a matter of doing small things. Later generations cling to trivial actions and thereby damage the Dao, so they cannot put it into practice.

Words must have a foundation,

The Tongxuan Jing, in the “Subtle Illumination” chapter, says: Words must have a foundation, and actions must have a guiding principle. The highest form of speech ultimately does not cling to words.

Actions must have a guiding principle.

The Tongxuan Jing, in the “Sincerity” chapter, says: Words must have a foundation, and actions must have a source. The highest form of action ultimately does not cling to doing.

Only those who do not understand,

The Tongxuan Jing says: People in the latter age study only shallow things, like those who get soaked scrambling for fish or those who hurry after pack animals. Those with shallow understanding contend only over trivial matters; this is because they do not understand.

Therefore, no one understands me.

The Tongxuan Jing says: People in the latter age study only a shallow version of the Dao and lose its foundation. Even if they master many skills, these are like foam on the water’s surface: shallow and quick to disappear. It is better to say little. Harming others and showing off one’s abilities is like cutting off someone’s fingers. This shows that truly wondrous abilities cannot be brought forth through deliberate display. Therefore, no one understands me.

Those who understand me are few,

The Chongxu Jing, another name for the Liezi, says: In the Western Zhou, the Grand Historian Lao Dan was a sage. He governed without imposing order, yet the world was not in chaos; he issued no commands, yet people naturally trusted him; he did not deliberately teach, yet people acted on their own. His realm was boundless, beyond the people’s ability to describe in words. He could be called a great sage.

Therefore, those who can emulate me are precious.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sage is profound and still, relying on the mysterious Dao to govern the world through Wuwei (non-action). He does not deliberately set out to accomplish anything, yet his achievements come about naturally. People respect him and naturally trust him; he does not deliberately teach, yet people act on their own. His realm is boundless, beyond the people’s ability to describe in words. He could be called a great sage.

Therefore, those who can emulate me are precious.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The sage is profound and still, following what is natural and governing the world through Wuwei (non-action). He does not deliberately act, yet his achievements come about of themselves. The Dao (the Way) is precious because it can change unpredictably, like a dragon; most precious of all is its wondrous power to transform.”

Therefore, the sage…

The Nanhua Jing says: “One who does not depart from the root is called a ‘heavenly person.’ Taking Heaven as the root, De (Virtue) as the foundation, and the Dao as the path, such a person can foresee and adapt to change; this is what it means to be a sage.”

“To wear coarse cloth on the outside and cherish fine jade within” is a metaphor for having a plain appearance while possessing precious De and wisdom inwardly.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When jade is hidden in a mountain, the plants and trees appear lush and moist; when pearls lie in the depths, the scenery along the shore does not wither. When the Dao is present within the heart, a person’s body, spirit, and bearing naturally come into harmony.”

This chapter draws on the Nanhua Zhenjing (the Zhuangzi) to point out that seeking the Dao should not be mixed with too many tangled doctrines. The more doctrines there are, the more people’s minds are disturbed. Disturbance brings confusion, and confusion gives rise to troubles that are often difficult to remedy.

In ancient times, the teachings of virtuous people guided the populace and ensured that legal disputes were judged fairly. The worthy held positions of high rank, while capable people each fulfilled their duties. Their beneficence reached the people, who in turn appreciated this virtuous governance. Later, however, customs declined. Factions colluded with one another, each recommending its own associates and abandoning public duty in pursuit of private gain. People inside and outside the court promoted one another, so that the treacherous took office while the worthy withdrew. The ancient Way of morality was thereby obscured, as can be seen in the writings of the various schools of thought.

Among the Confucians, Hui Shi and others advanced numerous doctrines and produced so many writings that they filled five carts. Yet their views differed and became confused and mixed together; their arguments were elaborate and hard to apply in practice. The Mohist teachings of Mo Di and Qin Guli differed from the Way of the former kings and rejected ancient rites and music. Mozi admired the way Yu the Great conducted himself; if later Mohists all acted in the same way, they would wear themselves out. The School of Names figures Song Xing and Yin Wen made ornate, mountain-shaped hats to mark themselves out; the author considers this of no benefit to the world. The Legalist views of Peng Meng, Tian Pian, and Shen Dao do not accord with the way living people should act, but instead resemble rules for treating the dead. Debaters such as Gongsun Long could use argument to make people yield verbally, but could not convince them inwardly.

These writings teach people to contrive falsehoods through cleverness and ingenuity, then let them stray into excessive and improper conduct, only to restrain them afterward with laws and punishments. Even if this harms the world, it cannot put an end to wrongdoing. Acting solely through cleverness and ingenuity leads to many mistakes. If a ruler exalts schemes and exhausts every stratagem, governing the state through cleverness will only bring disaster upon it.

Gold forms in the mountains and jade in the rocks, yet these can damage one another. Trees produce insects, which in turn bore into the trees themselves. Likewise, people who keep pursuing doctrines may end up disturbing themselves. The more the rulers learn, the more complicated affairs below become; the more complicated affairs above become, the more troubled and confused the people grow. Pouring hot water onto boiling water only makes it boil more fiercely. One must understand that Wuwei (non-action) is the foundation of governance: remove the source of the fire, and that is enough. “Wuwei” means not burdening the people with harsh policies and artificial contrivances, but following the nature of things so that society naturally returns to what is right. The misguided doctrines and partial arguments of the various schools of thought are now precisely the obscuring forces that have thrown the world into disorder.

Recognizing that you still have things you do not understand is wisdom; failing to understand yet believing that you do is a fault.

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, those skilled in applying the Great Dao followed things as they were and did not act rashly. All things then transformed of themselves, and in the end no harm came to them. That is why it says, “Recognizing that you still have things you do not understand is wisdom.” Those who do not understand the Great Dao yet presume to act only disturb themselves, turning good fortune into misfortune. That is why it says, “Failing to understand yet believing that you do is a fault.”

Only by treating this fault as a fault can one avoid falling into it. People of lesser ability often bury themselves in books and chase after profit, turning the pursuit of learning and profit into a fault without realizing that this itself is the fault.

The Nanhua Jing (Zhuangzi) puts these words in Nan Rongchu’s mouth: When someone in the neighborhood falls ill, everyone goes to visit. If the sick person can describe the illness, perhaps they can take care in tending to it and keep it from becoming serious. Recognizing one’s own faults makes it possible to stop being troubled by them. Sages, too, notice and take seriously their own faults, and so are not overcome by them. Nan Rongchu says that hearing of the Great Dao is like adding medicine to an illness; if one can let go of attachment to one’s existing faults, one can escape their harm.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Only the sages of antiquity understood that recognizing an illness and treating it can bring one to a state without illness.

Chapter 72: The People Do Not Fear Authority

The Tongxuan Jing explains: The sages of high antiquity brought stability to the world through the Dao. They kept to gentleness and did not assert their strength; they did not deliberately seek fame or distinction. Their achievements and renown arose naturally, and so they were able to establish kingship. People’s hearts are won over by virtue; they do not truly submit through force. If a ruler cherishes himself and the people, and treats the people with virtue, they will rally to him, and the whole world will give him its allegiance.

When the people no longer fear coercive power, true authority will descend.

The Chongxu Jing (Liezi) says: One cannot make others respect oneself by demanding it. And if respect is not forthcoming, there is no need to worry that this will bring harm or humiliation.

Do not constrict the places where the people live…

Here, “authority” refers to coercive power, while “great authority” refers to the respect inspired by virtue. “Do not constrict the places where they live” is advice to rulers not to oppress the people or leave them without a place to live.

The Nanhua Jing says that the gardens of the Xiwei clan, the parks of the Yellow Emperor, the palaces of Tang Yao and Yu Shun, and the wish of Shang Tang and King Wu of Zhou that people honor them had all yet to reach the true Dao. If people do not deliberately seek others’ respect, where can danger and humiliation come from?

Do not let your dwelling become cramped. The Nanhua Jing says that from the gardens of the Xiwei clan and the parks of the Yellow Emperor to the palaces of Tang Yao and Yu Shun and the houses of Shang Tang and King Wu of Zhou, virtue gradually declined, and the places where people lived became ever more confined.

Do not reject the circumstances in which you find yourself. The Tongxuan Jing says that the way of governing a great state must not be narrow, and a vast territory must not be governed by overly restrictive institutions. If a ruler fails to win the people, he cannot accomplish great things in the world; even if he wins them, he cannot hold the world for long if he loses the Dao.

Only when people do not reject their own circumstances will others refrain from rejecting them. The Chongxu Jing says that standards of conduct must be applied to oneself, while their effects should be judged by looking to others. If others care for me, I should care for them in return; if they dislike me, I should reflect on myself.

Thus the sages act in this way. The Chongxu Jing says that Shang Tang and King Wu of Zhou cared for the people of the world and therefore became kings; Xia Jie and the tyrant Zhou of Shang despised the people and therefore perished.

The sages know how to examine themselves. The Tongxuan Jing says that the key to winning the people’s allegiance lies in knowing oneself. Can those who constantly blame others for their faults truly know whether they themselves are right?

The sages do not show off. The Tongxuan Jing says that sages do not contend for strength, and therefore can establish a kingly enterprise.

The sages care for themselves. The Tongxuan Jing says that no virtue is greater than caring for others; those who care for others will not incur resentment or punishment.

The sages also do not exalt themselves. The Tongxuan Jing says that sages cherish themselves and so attain the honor that is their due.

Therefore, one should abandon the practices described above and adopt those described below. The Tongxuan Jing says that when one lets go of one side and chooses the other, disasters sent by Heaven will not arise. Forgetting the side one has abandoned makes faults fade and blessings arrive.

The Tongxuan Jing says that during the Warring States period, the states went to war for their own interests. Nothing was a greater calamity than killing innocent people and sustaining unrighteous rulers. To indulge one’s own will while disregarding the suffering of the people under Heaven is intolerable to the order of Heaven, hated by the people, and condemned by Heaven. Those who flaunt their strength and courage and persist recklessly in their own course often bring death upon themselves. This is what Heaven abhors. Yet who can understand why? Heaven’s net is vast and open, yet it lets no one who deserves punishment escape.

The “Dao and De” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says that in the troubled age of warfare, people weigh their interests against one another and already harbor murderous intent. Thus flaunting strength and courage brings death upon oneself.

The Chongxu Jing says that one who practices the Dao can make it impossible for even a brave person who wants to assassinate them to act, and can thwart even a skilled attacker. But even if the assassination fails and the attack misses, the result is still humiliation. Better is the way of the sages of antiquity: they made the brave afraid to assassinate and the skilled attacker afraid to strike. “Afraid” here means more than simply having no thought of killing. At a deeper level, the sage has no intent to kill, no wish to harm others, and no desire for personal gain. As a result, men and women throughout the world are glad to cherish and assist the sage, and cannot bear to kill them. Even without rank or office, the sage is still someone everyone wishes to keep safe and help prosper. Thus, by not flaunting strength or acting recklessly, one can preserve one’s life.

Understanding these two approaches makes it clear that one brings benefit and the other calamity. The Tongxuan Jing says that love of valor leads toward danger and ruin; those who assert themselves through force will ultimately die because of their aggression.

As for the words, “Heaven abhors it, but who knows why,” they refer precisely to the fact that people may not be able to see the reasons behind Heaven’s punishment.

The Chongxu Jing says that old age may bring benefit, but it may also bring harm.

The Tongxuan Jing says that showing off one’s courage and strength leads toward danger and ruin. Those who rely on force to bully others often lose their lives as a result.

Who can know why Heaven detests what it detests?

The Chongxu Jing says that Lao Dan told Guan Yin, “Who can know why Heaven detests what it detests?”

For this reason, even the sages treat the matter with caution.

The Tongxuan Jing says that nothing in the world is easier than doing good. Doing good here means keeping still, following nature, and refraining from reckless action; that is why it is easy. Nothing in the world is harder than doing what is bad. Here, evil means acts such as usurping power, murdering a ruler, and deceit. These go against human nature, so they are difficult to carry out.

The Way of Heaven—the patterns by which nature operates:

The Tongxuan Jing says that the Way of Heaven diminishes what is full and adds to what is lacking. The way of ghosts and spirits does not support those who are arrogant and self-satisfied.

Not competing, yet skilled at victory:

The Tongxuan Jing says that those who cultivate De (Virtue/Power) in secret will surely receive blessings in the open; those who do good deeds in secret will surely receive a public response. Sow millet, and you will not harvest some other grain. Sow evil deeds, and you will not receive good in return.

Not speaking, yet skilled at responding:

The Tongxuan Jing says that when people do wrong in full view of everyone, other people punish them; when they do wrong in secret, ghosts and spirits punish them too.

Coming of its own accord, without being summoned:

The Tongxuan Jing says that the Way of Heaven is like sunlight in winter and shade in summer. All things naturally turn toward it, yet no one drives them. It is a response that arises when nature reaches a subtle state: it comes without being summoned and departs without being held back.

Calm and composed, yet skilled at planning:

The Tongxuan Jing says that the Way of Heaven is broad and level, and not far from people. If one turns toward goodness, even occasional mistakes will not bring resentment. If one does not turn toward goodness, even someone who considers himself loyal may invite misfortune.

Heaven’s net is vast:

The Dongling Jing says that when a net of prohibitions is set loosely, people can more easily evade it and are less likely to break the rules. Heaven’s net is vast and loosely woven, yet nothing escapes it.

The phrase “Those who sow millet do not harvest grain” means that what one plants determines the result one receives.

The Tongxuan Jing says that during the Warring States period, the violent and combative killed one another without thinking they were guilty. The people hated them, and Heaven punished them as well. The Way of Heaven may seem wide-meshed, but it lets nothing slip through. “Heaven’s net is vast; its mesh is loose, yet nothing escapes” means that Heaven’s net stretches far and wide, and nothing can get away from it.

In the chapter “The People Are Not Constantly Afraid of Death,” the Nanhua Jing points out that the Five Hegemons knew only how to talk about punishments, social ranks, rewards, and penalties. This did not enable them to govern the people well. They knew the methods of punishing people, but not the fundamental Way of governing the world. Punitive methods might be applied throughout the world, but they were not enough to bring it peace.

In later generations, laws and decrees often set standards too high for people to meet. Taxes and labor duties were burdensome, and punishments were so severe they were hard to endure. Hemmed in by harsh policies, the people pretended to be clever and deceived those in power, committing dangerous acts that crossed the bounds. Even strict laws and cruel punishments could not stamp out wrongdoing. When beasts are driven into a corner, they charge with their horns; when birds are cornered, they peck; when people are left with no way out, they resort to deceit. This is precisely the kind of situation being described.

Thus, under the Five Hegemons, complicated laws and harsh punishments only bred deceit among the people: the government above was busy with endless affairs, while the people below voiced constant resentment. The more demands were made, the less was truly achieved; the more prohibitions were imposed, the less they could prevent. It was like pouring hot water onto boiling water: the water only boiled more fiercely. Those who understand the root of governing through Wuwei need only remove the firewood, and the water will cool on its own. When those in power remain calm and interfere little, the people return to the right path. The Five Hegemons, by contrast, used cruel punishments to hunt down and execute offenders themselves. Few who take the place of the officials charged with killing can do so without harming their own hands.

The people are not constantly afraid of death,

The Tongxuan Jing says that even when the Five Hegemons enforced harsh laws and punishments, they could not establish true authority; killing people could not stamp out wrongdoing.

so how can they be frightened by death?

The Tongxuan Jing says that severe laws and decrees, and killing at the slightest pretext, are not the work of an emperor governing the state. Nor is frequent use of flogging and other punishments a way to govern the world for long.

If the people could be made constantly afraid of death,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Five Hegemons—the lords who successively dominated during the Spring and Autumn period—enacted dense laws and harsh punishments, and the people began to resort to deceit. When those above demanded more, those below fought among themselves. The more they demanded, the less they gained; the more prohibitions they imposed, the less they were able to restrain.

Those whose conduct is out of the ordinary…

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Chapter on Lower De,” says: In troubled times, people show off their cleverness, deceive those in power, pursue deviant ways, and fight among themselves, even committing harmful acts. No matter how severe the laws and punishments, they cannot stop people from breaking the law and committing crimes. When a wild beast is driven into a corner, it charges with its horns; when a bird is driven into a corner, it pecks; when a person is driven into a corner, they resort to deceit. This is what the saying means.

“If I had the power, I would have them killed”—

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, those skilled at governing accumulated De and used it to guide the people. Today, imposing brutal punishments only brings calamity and ruins social customs; these are signs that a state is heading for ruin.

“Who would dare do such a thing?”

The Tongxuan Jing says: The laws of the former kings were not invented without cause. When laws are lenient and punishments restrained, prisons stand empty, customs throughout the realm return to simplicity, and people harbor no deceitful thoughts. This is the kindness the sages bestowed upon the people.

“There is always someone in charge of killing who will do the killing.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: In ancient times, officials were appointed to restrain the people and keep them from behaving recklessly. Rulers were established to restrain officials and keep them from acting arbitrarily. Laws and principles of governance were set down to restrain rulers and keep them from deciding matters however they pleased.

To take the place of the one in charge of killing and kill someone yourself is like taking the axe from a master carpenter and chopping wood in his stead.

The Tongxuan Jing, in “The Chapter on Supreme Benevolence,” says: When a whale leaves the water, it falls under the control of ants. When a ruler abandons the duties he should oversee and instead competes with his ministers in handling particular tasks, he falls under the control of the officials in charge. Ministers conceal their abilities and leave everything to the ruler. If the ruler fails to employ capable people and prefers to handle every matter himself, his abilities will steadily become strained, and he will bear responsibility for the results. Affairs pile up at the lower levels and cannot be sorted out; his wisdom is insufficient to govern state matters, and his authority insufficient to enforce punishments. The ruler can no longer engage with the world under Heaven. To take the place of the official responsible for executions and kill someone oneself is like taking the place of a master craftsman and chopping wood.

Few people who take the place of a master craftsman and chop wood escape injuring their own hands.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When a ruler displays his likes and dislikes in his moods and openly reveals his desires, officials responsible for their duties stray from the right path and pander to him. Officials in charge twist the law and act according to the ruler’s inclinations. Rewards no longer match merit, and punishments no longer match offenses. Those above and below become divided; ruler and ministers resent one another, and the officials fall into disorder. The ruler’s intelligence cannot put an end to disputes over right and wrong, and his discernment cannot reveal his own faults. Instead, he blames his ministers. As a result, the ruler grows more exhausted while his ministers grow more at ease. That is why it is said that few who take the place of a master craftsman and chop wood escape injuring their own hands.

“The People Go Hungry,” Chapter Seventy-Five

In this chapter, the Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: When the Zhou people prize cleverness and skill but do not follow the Dao (the Way), the world falls into disorder. How do we know this? The more ingenious the bows and crossbows, bird-catching devices, and other contrivances become, the more easily birds are hunted down. As for fishing hooks, bait, nets, fish traps, and the like…

This chapter of the Zhuangzi (the Nanhua Jing) says: When people pursue cleverness and skill but do not follow the Dao (the Way), the world falls into disorder. How can we know this? The more techniques there are for making bows and crossbows and setting up devices for shooting birds, the more easily birds are killed. The more methods there are for using hooks, bait, nets, traps, and fish weirs, the more easily fish are caught. The more skill there is in setting up sharpened barriers, nets, and pitfalls to catch animals, the more wild creatures in marshlands suffer. As deceit, cunning, sophistry, and disputes over notions such as “hard and white” and “same and different” multiply, social customs are thrown into confusion by debate. From ancient times to the present, the world has repeatedly fallen into great disorder, especially in the times of Jie of Xia and Zhou of Shang. The root of this disorder lies in the esteem for cleverness and skill. Today, the intellectual climate of the world prizes ingenuity, making the people difficult to govern. That is why this chapter was written.

The people’s faces are marked by hunger; some die not because their lives have run their course, but because they have gone without food.

The people go hungry because those in power levy too much tax. The Tongxuan Jing says: A person works hard at farming, yet cultivates fewer than ten mu of land and, in an ordinary year, harvests no more than four shi of grain. A wife, children, and elderly or frail family members all depend on this grain to live, while also facing calamities such as floods and droughts. If they must still meet the demands of those in power, the ruler too should be troubled by this.

That is why the people go hungry. The Tongxuan Jing says: Greedy ministers and tyrannical rulers in the latter ages drain the people’s strength to satisfy boundless desires, like drawing all the water from a pool to catch its fish. Deprived of Heaven and Earth’s nourishment and beneficence, the people are left destitute and starving.

The people are difficult to govern, the Nanhua Jing says, because they are subjected to too much cleverness and skill.

This is because those in power are always bent on taking action. The Tongxuan Jing says: Rulers of later generations act rashly in everything. They only exhaust the world and cannot govern it well. The more desires those in power have, the more punishments their subjects suffer; the more complicated the rulers’ affairs, the more schemes their subjects devise in response. Creating problems through elaborate systems and then trying to suppress them with still more measures is like fanning a flame while trying to stop it from burning: it is difficult to succeed. Trying to stop boiling with hot water only makes it boil more fiercely. Those who understand the root of good governance need only remove the source of the fire.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When those above take action, those below follow suit. Establishing documents and scholarship opened the way for the people’s artifice and cunning. They were allowed to stray into crookedness and excess, then afterward restrained by laws and punished with penalties. Even if this harms the people of the world, it cannot put an end to wrongdoing, and so the state is difficult to govern.

People take death lightly.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When the people take death lightly, restraining them with laws and punishing them with penalties after they have broken the law—even if this harms the people of the world—cannot put an end to wrongdoing, and so the state is difficult to govern.

People take death lightly.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When the people take death lightly, they persist in their pursuits even knowing these may cost them their lives. Their desires have no limit, and penalties then bring death upon them.

Because their desire to stay alive is too strong,

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the declining age, foolish rulers demand things from their ministers without considering what they already possess, and take the people’s property without regard for what they can afford. Men and women are thereby prevented from farming and weaving, and struggle to make it through each day. Rulers and ministers resent one another; the people labor hard yet remain poor, while the ruler continues to indulge his own desires. This is why people take death lightly.

That is why people take death lightly.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When those above are insatiably greedy, those below become grasping and unwilling to yield. The people are impoverished and distressed, and conflict follows. This is why people take death lightly.

Only those who do not place too much importance on staying alive,

The Nanhua Jing, another name for the Zhuangzi, says: In ancient times, those in high positions valued life. The more they valued life, the less they valued wealth. In later times, when people lacked material goods, they resorted to theft. Who, then, should be blamed for the spread of thievery? Those in high positions should be blamed for loving wealth and failing to cherish life.

Such people are better than those who value life above all else.

The “Nine Observances” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: Only those who do not place too much importance on staying alive can attain longevity.

Chapter Seventy-Six: “The People’s Lives.”

When people lack material goods, they resort to theft. Who, then, should be blamed for the spread of thievery? Those in high positions should be blamed for loving wealth and failing to cherish life.

Such people are better than those who value life above all else.

The “Nine Observances” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: Only those who do not place too much importance on staying alive can attain longevity.

Chapter Seventy-Six: “The People’s Lives.”

During the Warring States period, the states fought without cease, exhausting the wealth of all under Heaven to satisfy the desires of one person. No disaster could be more grave. Indulging one person’s desires brings lasting harm to the people of the world. This is intolerable to the principles of Heaven, hateful to the people, and something Heaven will punish. Therefore, an army that relies on brute force will ultimately perish. All who insist on being unyielding are walking the road to death. How could they possibly escape destruction?

The Nanhua Jing (the Zhuangzi) says: People live because Qi gathers; they die when Qi disperses. Once Qi has dispersed, they are dead.

When plants and trees are growing, they are tender and fragile; after they die, they become withered and hard. The Tongxuan Jing says that when all things are growing, they are lush and flourishing like plants and trees, but after death they wither and decay, their Qi dispersing as they perish.

Thus, what is hard and strong tends toward death, while what is soft and weak has life in it. The “Dao Origin” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing also says: “The hard and strong belong to the class that moves toward death; the soft and weak belong to the class that has life.”

Therefore, an army that relies on brute force cannot win. The Tongxuan Jing says: “To be firm, hold fast to softness; to be strong, hold fast to weakness. When softness accumulates to a certain degree, it can become firmness; when weakness accumulates to a certain degree, it can become strength. Observe the direction in which things accumulate, and you can tell whether they will endure or perish.” Thus, an army that relies on brute force will ultimately perish.

Wood that is too hard is easily broken; leather stretched too tight is easily torn. The Tongxuan Jing says: “When wood is too hard, it breaks; when leather is too taut, it tears.”

The strong are instead below, while the soft and weak are above. The “High Virtue” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing uses trees as an example: their thick, sturdy trunks grow low, while their small, pliant branches grow high. It is like a pile of firewood, with the smaller pieces often placed on top.

The operation of the Way of Heaven reduces what is full and adds to what is lacking. It is like drawing a bow: what is high is pressed down, and what is low is raised; what is in excess is reduced, and what is insufficient is replenished. The Tongxuan Jing says that the Way of Heaven works this way, and so does the Way of Earth: lowering what is high and increasing what is low.

The ways of human society, however, are not like this.

The Tongxuan Jing also says that the wise rulers of antiquity took the people’s wealth with restraint and provided for themselves in moderation. They assessed each year’s harvest and learned what the people had saved and needed for daily life before deciding how much to collect. In this way, they could work within the conditions bestowed by Heaven and Earth and keep the people from hunger and cold.

The rulers felt compassion for the people. When the people went hungry, they did not indulge in fine food; when the people suffered from cold, they did not wear thick furs, even in winter. They shared the people’s hardships and joys, so there were no sorrowful or suffering people under Heaven. Who in later generations could use their own surplus wealth to provide for all under Heaven? Only the virtuous rulers of antiquity could care for widowers, widows, orphans, and the childless, and follow the Way of Heaven by relieving the people’s hardship.

The principle by which a ruler governs a state is not like this: a ruler cannot, as Heaven’s Dao does, reduce what is in excess and supplement what is insufficient.

Reducing what is insufficient

The Tongxuan Jing says: The people’s harvest must support their wives and children, the elderly, and the young. If floods or droughts strike as well, and taxes are hard to pay, life becomes even more difficult.

Supplying those who have too much

The Tongxuan Jing says: Rulers take wealth from the people to support those above them, and they have already taken far too much.

Who can take from those who have plenty and supply the world’s needy?

The Tongxuan Jing says: The greedy rulers and tyrants of the latter age drain the people’s wealth to satisfy their own endless desires. They take far too much from the people, leaving them hungry and cold. Who, then, can provide for those in need?

Only a person who has the Dao can do this.

The Nanhua Jing (another name for the Zhuangzi) says: The sages of antiquity cared for the elderly, the frail, orphans, and widows, ensuring that they all received support.

Therefore, the sage

The Nanhua Jing says: How complete the ancients were! They nurtured all things, and their kindness reached the people.

Acts without claiming credit for what is done;

The Tongxuan Jing says: Heaven and Earth move, and all things depend on them to grow, yet no one knows their grace.

Accomplishes great works without claiming merit;

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Dao of Heaven and Earth brings all things to completion without claiming merit; therefore, all things do not know its grace.

Does not wish to display their own excellence.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sage’s heart is empty and still. They do not think they possess anything, nor do they feel they are good enough. Precisely because they consider themselves insufficient, they are able to cultivate virtue.

Chapter 78: What Is Soft and Weak in the World

The Tongxuan Jing says: The sea does not reject small streams that flow into it, and so it becomes vast. The mountains and forests do not reject crooked, low-growing trees, and so they flourish. The sage does not reject the words of a woodcutter, and so his reputation spreads farther. If a statement is sound, even the opinion of a merchant or woodcutter should not be discarded; if it is unsound, even if it comes from a ruler or high minister, it should not be adopted. In judging right and wrong, one should not rely on a person’s rank or status.

When the people suffer hardship and the ruler feels no concern, that ruler is not wise. A minister’s duty is to uphold his responsibilities and give his life when the state is in danger. In times of disorder, few ministers can devote themselves fully to loyalty, and their abilities go unused. Those who exhaust their strength and offer loyal counsel are often not heard. For this reason, the sages of antiquity took water’s gentleness and humility as their model: they embraced filth, endured humiliation, and willingly listened to advice and accepted remonstrance. A ruler of all under Heaven, too, should be able to contain filth, like water.

Nothing in the world is softer and weaker than water,

The Tongxuan Jing, “The Origin of the Dao” chapter, says: Nothing in the world is softer and weaker than water.

Yet it can overcome what is hard,

The Tongxuan Jing says: Water’s power lies in its ability to pierce metal and stone and sweep across the world with immense force.

Nothing in the world is softer and weaker than water,

The Tongxuan Jing, “The Origin of the Dao” chapter, says: Nothing in the world is softer and weaker than water.

Yet it can overcome what is hard,

The Tongxuan Jing says: Water’s power lies in its ability to pierce metal and stone and sweep across the world with immense force.

And nothing can surpass it,

The Tongxuan Jing says: The flow of water is inexhaustible, and even its subtlest movements are hard to grasp.

Nothing can take its place.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When struck, water bears no mark; when pierced, it is not wounded; when cut, it is not severed; when burned, it is not scorched. It is soft and supple, flowing with the circumstances; it cannot be destroyed or scattered.

Thus softness and weakness can overcome strength and hardness.

The Tongxuan Jing, “Highest De” chapter, says: Laozi observed the tongue and taught that one should hold to softness and weakness. Teeth are harder than the tongue, yet they are destroyed before it.

The small and weak can overcome the great and strong.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Softness, when steadily accumulated, becomes strength; weakness, when steadily accumulated, becomes power. Nothing has ever been accomplished without accumulation. In the world…

People in the age of decline are often strong-willed: they prize hardness and despise softness, unaware that this makes them lose something. So they find it difficult to be gentle and humble.

Everyone knows this principle, yet few can truly put it into practice.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “A noble person should examine the facts and not readily believe slander. If a ruler does wrong and no one remonstrates with him, the one who stays silent is no loyal minister.”

Everyone knows this principle, yet few can truly put it into practice.

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When a minister offers remonstrance and the ruler will not listen, it is because the ruler lacks wisdom.”

Thus the sage…

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The rulers of ancient times who were skilled at governing took water’s softness as their model. Water is gentle and subtle, yet it can gather into a mighty current. Accomplishments and renown, too, arise in accord with the natural course of things.”

This is what is meant by: “Only one who bears a state’s filth is worthy to be its lord.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “The sages of ancient times did not do things that invited reproach, nor did they hate those who criticized them. Even when the whole world reproached them, they did not become disheartened.”

This is also what is meant by: “Only one who bears a state’s ill fortune is worthy to be king of the world.”

Upright words often sound like their opposite.

The Tongxuan Jing, in the “Supreme Benevolence” chapter, says: “When people in later ages speak their minds, they are refuted with words; when someone offers remonstrance, they are punished for an alleged offense. Yet they still hope to bring peace to the world and win the allegiance of the people. They are far from understanding the way things are.”

“Upright words often sound like their opposite.”

The Tongxuan Jing, in the “Supreme Benevolence” chapter, says: “When people in later ages speak their minds, they are refuted with words; when someone offers remonstrance, they are punished for an alleged offense. Yet they still hope to bring peace to the world and win the allegiance of the people. They are far from understanding the way things are.”

“Responding to Great Resentment,” Chapter 79.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Even when deep resentment has been calmed, some resentment remains. How can this be considered a proper resolution? The sages of antiquity did not rely on words to draw the people close, nor on words to attract those from afar. Instead, they won the willing support of those nearby and led those far away to come and join them. When rulers and people shared the same hopes, they lived in harmony; when they held fast to the same principles, their ties were secure; when they thought about things together, they understood one another. With the people’s strength, the state grew prosperous; with the people’s praise, the ruler rose to prominence.

In times of decline and disorder, actions could invite bandits, and words could bring disaster. Those who spoke first could not necessarily foresee what would follow, yet others were already echoing them. Words heard close at hand could travel a thousand miles; that alone could become a source of calamity. The tongue is like the pivot of a trigger: once words are spoken at the wrong moment, even four galloping horses cannot catch them. This passage urges people of the Warring States period to resolve enmities, end warfare, and stop fighting, so that peace may prevail throughout the world. That is what is good.

“To calm deep resentment” means to quiet profound grievances.

The “Subtle Illumination” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: The ancients believed that forcing a settlement of deep resentment could still bring disaster. The tongue is like a trigger mechanism; when words are spoken carelessly, even swift horses cannot retrieve them. This passage urges the states of the Warring States period to resolve their enmities and end their wars, so that peace may prevail throughout the world. That is what is good.

“To calm deep resentment” means to quiet profound grievances.

The “Subtle Illumination” chapter of the Tongxuan Jing says: The ancients believed that the key to settling deep resentment lies in having a virtuous person administer the contract. To refrain from contention is what is good.

“Some resentment must remain; how can this be called good?” Even after resentment has been calmed, some grievance remains. How can this be called good?

The Tongxuan Jing says: In the Warring States era, political rule had strayed from the Dao. People brought about turmoil and formed bitter enmities. Even if these were temporarily calmed, some resentment would inevitably remain. How could that be considered a proper resolution?

“Therefore the sage…” means that the sage, accordingly…

The Nanhua Jing says: The sages of antiquity possessed complete virtue and were able to bring harmony to all under Heaven.

“To hold the left half of the contract” means to possess the left-hand portion of an agreement. In ancient times, a contract was divided into two halves, with each party holding one. The creditor usually kept the left half; here, the phrase refers by extension to holding the proof of an agreement and fulfilling its terms.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Yin harms the myriad things, while Yang nurtures them. The sage’s way of governing follows Yang and brings harmony throughout the world; following Yin, by contrast, would fill the world with resentment and discontent.

“Without making demands of others” means not seeking payment from others or treating them harshly.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The deeper the resentment, the greater the harm it causes. Resentment cannot be stored up without being allowed to dissipate; nothing like that has ever happened.

“Therefore, the virtuous person administers the contract”: the virtuous person oversees the agreement and acts according to its terms.

The Tongxuan Jing says: Only by accumulating virtue can one establish royal rule, just as a mountain is formed by piling up stones. No one has ever accomplished a great undertaking without accumulating what is needed.

“The person without virtue administers the levies”: one who lacks virtue oversees taxation and collection.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When resentment accumulates, it brings about ruin; when water accumulates, it gathers into a river. Nothing can come into being without first accumulating.

The Way of Heaven does not favor those close to it, yet it often helps the good.

The Tongxuan Jing says: The Way of Heaven shows no partiality; it helps only those who have De (Virtue).

Chapter Eighty: A Small State with Few People

The Nanhua Jing, in “Rummaging Trunks,” says: In ancient times, when the Great Way prevailed and De was unspoiled, Rongcheng, Dading, Bohuang, Zhongyang, Lilu, Lixu, Hexu, Zunlu, Zhurong, Fuxi, Shennong, Xuanyuan, and others governed the world. People then kept records by tying knots. They found their food delicious and their clothes beautiful, lived securely in their homes, and took pleasure in their local customs. Neighboring states could see one another, and the sounds of their chickens and dogs could be heard, yet people lived to old age and died without visiting one another. In such an age, people lived simply, the world was at peace, and governance had reached its ideal.

Make the state small and its people few.

The Tongxuan Jing, in “Words of Guidance,” says: Gaining thousands upon thousands of soldiers is not as good as hearing one fitting word. Obtaining the pearl of Marquis Sui is not as good as understanding the root of a matter. Acquiring the jade of He is not as good as knowing how a matter should be handled. However vast the world may be, a state that delights in using military force will eventually perish. Even if a state is at peace, delighting in war will bring it into danger. Therefore, make the state small and its population few, so that even if the people possess all kinds of implements, they do not depend on or use them.

Let the people possess all kinds of implements, yet not depend on or use them.

The Dongling Jing says: The ancient sage kings valued cultivation because they regarded agricultural production as the foundation of education, using it to encourage the people to farm.

Make the people cherish life, and not readily risk death by traveling far or moving elsewhere.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When Fuxi ruled the world in ancient times, he took nurturing all things as his De and did not kill indiscriminately. People then had no desire to contend with one another for gain or to harm one another, and the world was at peace.

Encourage the people to farm.

Make the people cherish life, and not readily travel far or move elsewhere.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When Fuxi ruled the world in high antiquity, his Virtue was naturally kind and generous. He simply allowed the myriad things to grow and did not kill or harm them. At that time, people had no thoughts of competing for gain or avoiding harm, and the world was at peace.

Although boats and carts existed, no one rode in them.

The Nanhua Jing says: In the age of Shennong in high antiquity, people slept peacefully and at ease, and rose slowly, stretching out comfortably. They knew their mothers but not their fathers, lived alongside elk, and bore one another no ill will. This was an age when Virtue was at its purest.

Although armor and weapons existed, there was nowhere that needed to display them.

The Tongxuan Jing says: When the Yellow Emperor governed the world, he regulated the movements of the sun and moon and the Qi of Yin-Yang, established the seasons, and set the tones and calendar in order. He distinguished men from women and clarified the ranks of high and low. Those who farmed would yield the boundaries of their fields to others, and no one picked up things lost along the road.

He restored the people to keeping records by tying knots,

The Nanhua Jing says: In the age of the Three Sovereigns long ago, people tied knots to keep records and conduct affairs.

and used this method.

The Nanhua Jing says: In the age of high antiquity, when the Great Dao prevailed and Virtue was profound, rulers governed through Wuwei (non-action), yet the world was still governed with ease. Those above acted without action, and those below followed their natural course.

They found their own food delicious,

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, people gathered acorns and chestnuts by day and found their own food delicious. For this reason, they were called people who understood the Way of life.

They found their own clothes beautiful,

The Nanhua Jing says: In ancient times, people knew nothing of dressing fashionably. They gathered plenty of firewood in summer and used it to keep warm in winter, and they considered this way of life good. For this reason, they were called people who understood the Way of life. The Tongxuan Jing says: The clothes people wore in ancient times were warm and practical, without ornament.

They were content with their own homes.

The Nanhua Jing says that people in ancient times lived in nests built in trees or in caves in the mountains. At night they rested in the trees, feeling secure in their homes, and so were called “the people of Youchao.” The Tongxuan Jing says that in those days the world was at peace. The feudal states had no dealings with one another by way of armies, and the ruts of war chariots did not extend a thousand li. People lived peacefully in their own places.

People cherished their customs.

The Nanhua Jing says that people in ancient times cherished their customs. The Tongxuan Jing says that in those days no treachery or wrongdoing occurred. People lived in ease and quiet, and the world was peaceful, so they were content with their own way of life.

Neighboring states could see one another,

The Nanhua Jing says that in ancient times neighboring states could see one another, yet there were no roads or tunnels through the mountains, and no ferries or bridges across the waters and marshes.

The cries of their chickens and dogs could be heard by one another,

The Nanhua Jing says that in ancient times the cries of chickens and dogs could be heard between neighboring states. All kinds of living creatures and things dwelled together, spread throughout their respective communities.

The people lived until old age and death,

The Nanhua Jing says that in ancient times the people lived until old age and death. The Tongxuan Jing says that in those days the strong did not oppress the weak, and the many did not bully the few. The people could preserve their lives and did not die young.

The cries of their chickens and dogs could be heard by one another; all kinds of living creatures and things dwelled together, spread throughout their respective communities.

The people lived until old age and death,

The Nanhua Jing says that in ancient times the people lived until old age and death. The Tongxuan Jing says that in those days the strong did not oppress the weak, and the many did not bully the few. The people could preserve their lives and did not die young.

Yet they did not visit one another.

The Nanhua Jing says that people in ancient times lived alongside elk and other animals. They farmed for food and gathered materials to make clothing. They had no wish to harm one another, nor did they visit one another. This was a sign that their virtue had reached a profound depth.

“Trustworthy Words Are Not Beautiful,” Chapter 81

This chapter uses the Nanhua True Scripture to explain the qualities of ancient Daoist arts: their guiding aim is Wuwei (non-action), their foundation is “constant absence and presence,” and their leading principle is the “Great One” (Taiyi), the original and unified Dao. Their outward expression is gentleness and humility; inwardly, they are empty and do not hinder the myriad things.

Lao Dan said: Everyone else strives to be first, while I alone am willing to fall behind and bear the world’s filth. Everyone else seeks fullness, while I alone hold to emptiness, and so I have more than enough. Everyone else seeks good fortune, while I alone bend and preserve myself, seeking only to avoid error. In cultivating the Dao, make depth your foundation and simplicity your standard. What is rigid will be damaged; what is sharp will be blunted. Those who practice Wuwei laugh at clever contrivances and are always generous toward the myriad things. They do not deliberately diminish others; this may be called the highest form of cultivation. Lao Dan was truly a sage of ancient times, vast and profound! These words aim to remedy the harm caused by ornamentation and cleverness.

“True words are not adorned.” The Tongxuan Scripture says: The ancients followed the Great Dao, were honest and sincere, and returned to simplicity; people did not deceive or conceal the truth.

“Adorned words are not trustworthy.” The Tongxuan Scripture says: Later generations learned about contracts used as proof, and trust declined; they learned mechanical skills, and simplicity declined as well. Petty cleverness harms the Great Dao, while fussy scrutiny damages De.

“Those skilled in practicing the Dao do not argue.” The Tongxuan Scripture says: The ancients were upright and simple, neither acting recklessly nor resorting to deceit, so the people could readily follow the right path. The Dongling Scripture says: Understanding principles without arguing is called “the Dao”; this kind of Dao can bring people to rest.

“Those who argue are not skilled in practicing the Dao.” The Tongxuan Scripture says: Later generations learned to use documents, and the ways of the world fell into decline; petty argument harms the right path. The Dongling Scripture says: Understanding principles and using them to argue is called “knowledge”; it is used to govern others. The Nanhua Scripture says: Argument often brings no benefit.

“Those who truly possess wisdom do not seek breadth of knowledge.” The Tongxuan Scripture says: In ancient times, governance was clear and people lived peacefully without demands, so subjects did not harm one another.

“Those with broad knowledge do not necessarily truly understand.” The Tongxuan Scripture says: Later generations learned to scheme, and benevolence declined; small achievements came to obstruct good governance. The Nanhua Scripture says: Those with broad knowledge do not necessarily truly understand.

The sage does not accumulate wealth…

The Nanhua Jing (Classic of the Southern Florescence) says: “The Way of the sage moves without ceasing, yet accumulates nothing; therefore, all under Heaven submits to him. Understanding the Way of Heaven and reaching the realm of the sage, he is open in all six directions and acts without action; he is broad in all four quarters and empty and still. When one possesses the Virtue of a ruler, the myriad things can each grow according to their own nature. Those who are benighted in this and cannot quiet their minds cannot achieve this. If one accumulates things, one feels a lack; if one stores things away, one feels an excess. Therefore, the sage treats carefully what he gathers.”

“Once you have given to others, you yourself become more abundant.”

The Tongxuan Jing (Classic of Penetrating Mystery) says: “When princes and dukes esteem the Yang Way—the vigorous way of governing through giving—the myriad things flourish. When they esteem the Yin Way—the way of governing through concealment and restraint—all under Heaven declines. If Qi does not descend and join with Yin Qi, the myriad things cannot come into being. If a ruler does not humble himself before his ministers and people, the transformation of Virtue cannot be put into practice.”

The Chongxu Jing (Classic of the Empty and Sublime) records that when Yao governed the realm, he once wandered along a country road and heard children singing: “You nourish the people and let them live in peace and contentment; none fails to receive your benevolence. You do not impose your will or interfere recklessly, but follow the patterns of Heaven.” Here, the children’s song portrays Yao’s way of governing: following nature and allowing the people to find joy in their own lives.

The Nanhua Jing says: “Once you have given to others, you yourself possess even more.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “Princes and dukes, who stand above the people, should make the Way and Virtue shine throughout the realm. When those in high positions abandon evil and follow good, the people will not leave and migrate elsewhere. Thus the people choose whether to depart or to return and join them: as fewer depart, more come to join them.”

The Chongxu Jing records that Yao was delighted when he heard this, and asked the child, “Who taught you to sing these words?” The child replied, “They are an old poem. The people sing it with their bellies full and their hearts at ease.” Here, “bellies full” describes a peaceful life, free from worries about food and clothing.

The Nanhua Jing says: “The Way of Heaven moves without ceasing and accumulates nothing; therefore, the myriad things are brought to completion.”

The Tongxuan Jing says: “When the sun rises above the earth, the myriad things grow and flourish. When thunder sounds, the myriad things sprout. When rain moistens them, the myriad things unfold.”

The Way of the sage…

The Nanhua Jing (also known as the Zhuangzi) says: The Way of the sovereign continues to operate without cease and does not accumulate private gain; therefore, all under Heaven will return to it. The sage’s mind is tranquil. Like Heaven and Earth, it can reflect all things; like a mirror, it reveals all things. Thus, all under Heaven is at peace.

Act, yet do not contend with others.

The Tongxuan Jing (also known as the Wenzi) says: The governance and conduct of those who possess De (Virtue/Power) resemble the Dao (the Way). Yin-Yang moves according to a fixed rhythm, and those who possess De do not drive things to extremes in their actions. Without wind, fire will not catch; when those who possess De do not speak lightly, shallow people have nothing to criticize. Fire needs kindling to burn; the words of those who possess De must be trustworthy. When words are both trustworthy and true, whatever one undertakes will succeed.

End of Volume Ten of the Daode Zhenjing Sizigu Daoji Jie.