《道德真经集注(宋太守张氏)》Vol. 2

The Dao has no form that can be named, yet it can give form to the myriad things. Thus it constantly gives birth to the myriad things, while it itself never becomes any particular thing. Its essence is clear and tranquil, and therefore it is said to “return to no-thing,” that is, to return to a state without concrete form or substance.

Heshang Gong (a Han-dynasty scholar who annotated the Laozi) held that “thing” refers to what has substance, and that “returning to no-thing” means returning to a state without substance.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) held that the Dao has constant principles, and that its pattern can be trusted and upheld; hence it is called “sheng sheng” (continuous and unbroken). Although it is continuous and unbroken, it has no fixed form, so it cannot be designated by name. When traced to the utmost, it has never become a “thing”; it has reached the highest level, to which nothing can be added.

“This is called the form of the formless”: Heshang Gong says that the Dao has no shape, yet it can establish shapes for the myriad things. Wang Pang says that it exists, yet cannot be seen.

“The image of no-thing”: Heshang Gong says that the Dao itself has no materiality, yet it establishes images for the myriad things. Wang Bi (a metaphysician of the Wei state during the Three Kingdoms period, who annotated the Laozi) says: if one says it is nonbeing, the myriad things nevertheless come to be through it; if one says it is being, its form cannot be seen. Therefore it is called “the form of the formless, the image of no-thing.” Wang Pang says that it exists, yet cannot be grasped.

“This is called the indistinct and vague”: Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, who once wrote an imperial commentary on the Daodejing) says that this refers to a form without form and an image without substance; one can say neither that it is being nor that it is nonbeing. It is difficult to describe, and so it is called “indistinct and vague” (huhuang). Heshang Gong says that it is sudden and vague, as if present and as if absent, and cannot be seen. Wang Bi says that it cannot be securely grasped. Wang Pang explains: “hu” is within being and approximates nonbeing; “huang” is within nonbeing and approximates being. The Dao is neither being nor nonbeing, and cannot be definitively named.

“When one goes to meet it, one does not see its head”: Heshang Gong says that the Dao has no beginning, so it cannot be awaited in advance. If people eliminate their desires and passions, they will naturally turn toward it.

“When one follows it, one does not see its back”: Tang Minghuang says that the Dao has no beginning, so when one meets it face-to-face one does not see its head; it has no end, so when one follows it one does not see its tail. Heshang Gong says that the Dao has no trace by which one can approach it or grasp it; people naturally turn toward it.

This passage comes from Chapter 14 of the Daodejing. It says that the Dao is without form or image; one cannot meet it from the front or follow it from behind and see its beginning or end. Yet one can use the unchanging principle of past and present to govern the myriad affairs of today, and from this infer the origin of all things.

The gist of the various commentaries is as follows.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Xuanzong): The Dao has no beginning, so if one goes forward to meet it, no head is seen; it has no end, so if one follows behind it, no tail is seen. By holding fast to the ancient Dao of Wuwei (non-action), one can use it to steer the affairs of today, which involve action, and cause the ways of the world to return to simplicity.

Heshang Gong: The Dao is One; without shadow or form, it cannot be grasped. The sage keeps to the ancient Dao and governs the myriad things by means of the “One,” knowing that today too one should take the “One” as root.

Wang Bi (a commentator of Wei in the Three Kingdoms): The Dao is without form and without name; it is the root of the myriad things. Though times change and customs alter, the myriad affairs cannot depart from it; therefore holding to the ancient Dao enables one to govern present affairs. Although high antiquity is distant, its Dao still remains; thus, though situated in the present age, one can know the ancient beginning.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song commentator and son of Wang Anshi): Things have fixed forms, and only then are front and back distinguished; the Dao has no bodily form, so how could it have beginning or end? What is called “meeting and following” refers to the Dao’s operation within the myriad things; the Dao itself is not different. What is called “the Dao of antiquity” refers to the Dao that is constant and unchanging through past and present; precisely because of this, it can respond to the myriad changes of worldly affairs. Tracing upward to “the beginning of no-beginning” and understanding whence the myriad things come is to attain the reality of the Dao.

Daoji: the guiding order and essential point of the Dao, that is, the root that does not change from ancient times to the present, similar to what the Zhuangzi calls “the principle without beginning.”

Chapter 15: Those in Antiquity Who Were Good at Being Shi

Those in ancient times who were good at cultivating the Dao (Heshang Gong’s commentary: this refers to rulers who had attained the Dao) were subtle and wondrous, profoundly penetrating, and so deep and far-reaching that people could not fathom them. (Tang Xuanzong’s commentary: “Shi” means “affairs,” referring to people who took cultivating the Dao as their life’s work. They penetrated and illumined all subtle discourses and the wondrous Dao; their De and bearing were deep, remote, and difficult to recognize. Heshang Gong’s commentary: Their Dao and De were deep and far-reaching; to outsiders they appeared as if blind and deaf, and there was no way to see what strengths they had.)

Precisely because they were unfathomable, one can only reluctantly describe and portray them. (Tang Xuanzong’s commentary: Precisely because their measure of De was difficult to recognize, one reluctantly used outward descriptions to explain it.)

“Hesitant, as if crossing a river in winter” means that they acted cautiously and with hesitation, like crossing water in the bitter cold of winter, deliberating over every step.

(Another commentator says: “Shi” is the designation for those engaged in the Dao. They were subtle and mysteriously penetrating; possessing this Dao, they withdrew and hid it within, so outsiders could not see their progress. The shi of that time were different from this, and therefore the text specifically says “those in antiquity who were good at being shi.”)

Cautious, as if crossing a river in winter

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang comments: “Yu” means leisurely and composed. One skilled in cultivating the Dao (the Way) is at ease in the world, yet cautious like someone crossing a river in winter, because there is something he fears in his heart. His mind is not stained by external things, and so he can be leisurely and free.

Heshang Gong (the Han-dynasty scholar who annotated the Laozi) says: When doing things he is especially cautious, deliberating again and again, as if he had some concern in his heart. Wang Bi (the Three Kingdoms Wei metaphysician who annotated the Laozi) says: In crossing a river in winter, that hesitant manner, as if he wants to cross and yet does not want to cross, makes his inner condition impossible to see clearly. Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure and son of Wang Anshi) says: “Yu” means precaution beforehand. The Perfected Person (zhiren, a person of the highest moral cultivation) does not cling to external things in his mind, and acts only when matters press close. Crossing a river in winter means repeatedly examining things when faced with an affair, as if he moved only when he had no choice. The Zhuangzi says: He does not specially devote himself to worldly affairs.

Hesitant, as if fearing neighbors on all four sides

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang comments: “Youyu” means hesitation and indecision. The preceding line says the good person is unstained, and therefore leisurely; yet when one looks at his conduct, he appears deeply hesitant, like people today who fear their neighbors and remain on guard.

Heshang Gong says: In advancing and retreating they are cautious and restrained, like a person who has broken the law and fears his neighbors will find out. Wang Bi says: When neighboring states on all four sides join forces to attack the central ruler, the ruler is bewildered and does not know where to go. The traces of a person of the highest De (Virtue/Power) cannot be seen, and the direction of De cannot be discerned; the principle is likewise. Wang Pang says: One may have nothing to guard against, and yet he still guards, because the Perfected Person is silent and profoundly deep and does not reveal anything from the dwelling of mind and nature. Thus he always seems to fear his neighbors, restraining his traces and not giving himself free rein.

Solemn as a guest

Heshang Gong says: The Perfected Person’s bearing is grave and correct, yet without any artificiality. Wang Pang says: He does not take worldly affairs as his own responsibility, and so his countenance is quiet and detached.

Dispersing, as if ice were about to melt

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang comments: Although outwardly he is solemn as if possessing a formal bearing and does nothing, inwardly he does not become stuck on external things, like spring ice gradually melting and dispersing, relaxed and transparent.

The explanations by Heshang Gong and Wang Pang in the commentary are the same as those quoted for the preceding line and are not repeated here.

"Solemn and sincere, as if unadorned"

Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang) comments: The mind has already melted away like ice, suddenly becoming clear and open, yet one does not boast or cling to this, still able to maintain a sincere and generous bearing, as though simple and uncarved, making no discriminations. Heshang Gong comments: "Solemn" (dun) refers to a substantial and thick constitution; "unadorned" (pu) refers to a form not yet differentiated—guarding Jing and Shen within, without outward embellishment. Xiuzhu comments: When timber has not yet been fashioned into vessels, it is called "pu," which figuratively represents the complete original substance of human nature. Only after the ice has melted can one preserve the wholeness of one's innate nature, not being carved or polished by artificial adornment—hence the phrase "as if unadorned."

"Vast and open, as if a valley"

Minghuang comments: De and temperament are broad and capacious, excluding nothing, like a valley that can contain the ten thousand things. Heshang Gong comments: "Vast" (kuang) means broad and great; "valley" (gu) means empty and void. One does not claim De, merit, or fame for oneself, and therefore can encompass all things. Wang Pang comments: One's original nature is complete without deficiency, yet one does not consider oneself as possessing this completeness; therefore the mind is broad and empty, like a valley that can both receive and respond to external things.

"Undifferentiated, as if turbid"

Minghuang comments: One harmonizes and moistens one's radiance without displaying it outwardly, blending indistinctly with the crowd; on the surface like turbid water, yet in reality clear and pure. Heshang Gong comments: "Undifferentiated" (hun) means guarding one's original authenticity; "turbid" (zhuo) means not displaying one's own brightness. One merges with others and does not elevate oneself. Wang Bi's commentary on the final phrase preserves only "and moreover responds"—the general meaning being to accord with external things without clinging to them.

Note: This passage uses images such as "ice," "uncarved wood," "valley," and "turbidity" to describe the inner cultivation of the Daoist practitioner. "Ice melting" refers to the dissolution of emotional consciousness and desire, returning to the void and empty original substance; "uncarved wood" refers to innate nature before it has been carved and shaped; "valley" refers to emptiness that is capable of containing; "turbidity" refers to not flaunting one's own brightness but harmonizing one's light and merging with the dust of the world. The various commentators emphasize different aspects, but all revolve around the core principle of "removing attachment and returning to original authenticity."

The scripture uses water to explain how a Dao cultivator can remain clear and bright amid confusion and disturbance, and how one can grow naturally within stability.

“Harmonizing the light and blending into the world, seeming turbid yet clear” means that the cultivator withdraws his radiance and merges with the ordinary world; outwardly he appears turbid, but inwardly he guards his original truth. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) takes this to mean “harmonizing the light and becoming one with the dust.” Heshang Gong (He) holds that the “turbid” person guards his original nature without revealing it, and joins with others without exalting himself. Wang Bi (Bi) says that these are all metaphors describing a person’s bearing and atmosphere, which are difficult to define by any concrete shape or name. Wang Pang (Pang) of the Northern Song uses water as a metaphor: water is originally clear, and becomes turbid only because foreign matter mixes into it. If a person cannot maintain his own purity amid worldly affairs, he too will appear wholly turbid.

“Who can, amid turbidity, wait in stillness and let it gradually become clear?” asks: who can remain quiet within turbidity and let it slowly clarify? “Who” means “whoever.” Emperor Xuanzong holds that one should use a calm and settled mind to let turbidity gradually clear itself. Wang Pang says that a person whose original nature is clear is like clear water: if stirred with force, it becomes even more turbid; only by waiting quietly does it gradually become clear. The person who possesses the Dao is not stained by external things precisely because he can be still and gradually clear.

“Who can, within stability, keep moving and let life gradually emerge?” asks: who can maintain movement within stability and let vitality slowly issue forth? Emperor Xuanzong holds that some people dwell long in clarity and quietude, then pursue higher arts and practices, which instead causes their clear and quiet nature to stagnate in those arts. One should let the clear and quiet nature manifest naturally, moving and giving rise to life. Heshang Gong says that only one who can remain quiet for a long time can gradually attain long life. Wang Bi holds that in darkness, if one responds to things according to principle, one gains clarity; in turbidity, if one waits upon things with stillness, one gains clarity; in stability, if one responds to things with movement, one gains life. This is the way of nature. “Who can” indicates its difficulty; “gradually” indicates composure and care. Wang Pang holds that when one returns to stillness and quiescence, one can be stimulated and thereby penetrate, and so life gradually emerges, ending and then beginning again. Movement and change are inherently non-abiding; external things cannot make them stop. Who can make them settled? This means complying with the principle of Yin-Yang, riding the operation of nature, and having no intentional mind in the midst of it; therefore all say “gradually.” By speaking of turbidity, one knows that stability is clarity; by speaking of stability, one knows that movement is turbidity. This shares the same subtlety of mutual illumination as the preceding passage.

Commentary on Chapter Fifteen

Those who keep to this Dao do not seek fullness.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) says: To preserve the Dao of “gradual clarity and gradual growth” (from Laozi, Chapter Fifteen: “Who can, amid turbidity, stop? Still it, and it gradually becomes clear; who can, amid stability, move? Move it, and it gradually grows”—meaning to clarify slowly within turbidity and to grow slowly within stability), one must not allow any attachment or stagnation. If one becomes attached to seeking clarity or seeking growth, that is “fullness,” and one will lose this Dao. Hence it says, “not desiring fullness.” Heshang Gong says: To preserve this Dao of gradual growth, one must not be luxurious, arrogant, or overflowing with fullness. Xiu says: The “fullness” that does not consider itself full is true great fullness. If, after awakening to the Dao, one thinks one possesses the Dao, that is to claim the Dao for oneself, and one is far from the Dao.

“It is only because one is not full that one can be worn and not newly completed.”

Emperor Xuanzong says: Only one who is not self-satisfied can act in a worn and modest manner and does not stagnate or become attached because of newly acquired results. Heshang Gong says: Only one who is not self-satisfied can guard simplicity and conceal glory, not seeking the name of new achievement, because “new achievement” means valuing fame and merit. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) says: The Dao originally has no form; it is not something that vessels can contain. Use it, and it is more than sufficient; seek it, and it cannot be obtained. Therefore those who have the Dao are never full, and the function of the Dao is inexhaustible. Those who attain the Dao do not become full, and those who complete the Dao do not regard it as a new accomplishment. The Dao pervades all things without decay precisely because it has no distinction between new and old. Decay arises from newness; decline arises from completion. Even upon completing the Dao, one should always place oneself as if worn and decayed. If one has just attained the Dao and boasts of a new accomplishment, this contradicts the intent of the Dao and is not true great completion. Laozi says, “Great completion seems incomplete; its use is never worn out.” Every sentence in this chapter follows an order, all the way to completing the Dao; to complete yet appear worn—then the principle is complete.

Chapter Sixteen

“Attaining the Extreme of Emptiness,” Chapter Sixteen: “Attaining the Extreme of Emptiness,”

This is the chapter title and first line of Chapter Sixteen of the Laozi. “Attaining the extreme of emptiness” means bringing the mind and spirit to utmost emptiness and stillness; this is continuous with the commentary in this chapter on not being full and not being attached.

Those who attain the Dao must reduce emotions and desires, keep the five viscera pure within and without, and thereby reach the state of utmost emptiness. “Guarding quietude firmly” means firmly maintaining clarity and quiet, and doing so with sincerity, steadfastness, and single-mindedness.

Heshang Gong (the famous Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) says: Those who attain the Dao lessen their emotions and desires; when the mind is pure and quiet, they can reach utmost emptiness. They guard clarity and quiet and practice sincerity and steadiness.

Tang Xuanzong (that is, “Minghuang”) says: Utmost emptiness is the mysterious source, called the “wondrous root.” When people are born, all receive this wondrous root of utmost emptiness, but once the body has desires to take in external things, the wondrous root scatters and is lost. To make the wondrous root fill oneself again, one must cut off worldly entanglements and defilements and guard this feminine, soft, quiet, settled, sincere, and substantial state; then the Dao of utmost emptiness will naturally return to the body.

Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin period commentator) says: Attaining emptiness means being empty to the utmost; guarding quietness means being quiet to the point of solidity—this is the true state of things.

Xiu (a commentator) says: To attain emptiness one must make emptiness reach its extreme; to guard quietness one must make quietness deep and substantial. One who wishes to observe the principles of things should first devote himself to single-mindedness. In the matter of pursuing learning, when at rest it easily obstructs the Dao, while in action it can penetrate one’s original nature; therefore one must attend to both movement and stillness.

“The ten thousand things arise together”: Heshang Gong says: “Arising” means growing; the ten thousand things grow together. Wang Bi says: “Arising” means movement and growth. Zhang Pang (a Song-dynasty scholar) says: The ten thousand things emerge from emptiness and quietness and ultimately return to emptiness and quietness; from the changes of spring growth and autumn decay, this can be clearly seen.

“I thereby observe their return”: From this I observe the cycles of coming and going of the ten thousand things and see that they will ultimately return to their root.

Laozi says: Why is it that knowing how to hold fast to softness and weakness and to preserve tranquility enables one to reach the utmost emptiness and quiescence? One need only observe the growth, transformation, and operation of the myriad things: when they return to their source, they always return to a state of stillness. From this one can understand this principle.

Heshang Gong says: From this I observe that there is no thing among the myriad things that does not return to its own root. People should constantly remember to value the root.

Wang Bi views the coming and going of the myriad things through the lens of empty stillness: whatever arises is produced from emptiness; movement, too, arises from stillness. Therefore, although the myriad things bustle and act, in the end they must all return to empty stillness. This is the most fundamental home of things.

Li Pang says: When the mind is empty and still, it becomes clear; being clear, it can see the principles of things. Seeing the principles of things clearly does not depend on deliberate action but on contemplating the actual condition of the myriad things as they return to their original nature.

“The myriad things flourish and grow profusely”: The myriad things grow abundantly and luxuriantly. (“Yunyun,” according to Heshang Gong’s explanation, describes the appearance of luxuriant flowers and leaves.)

“Each returns to its own root”: Each thing returns to its own root. Heshang Gong says that the myriad things have times of withering and falling away, but when they return to the root they can grow anew. Wang Bi says this is each returning to the place where it began. Li Pang holds that returning to the root means restoring original nature and returning to the source of nature and life. Although plants, trees, and animals are all different, the principle in them is the same.

“Returning to the root is called stillness”: Returning to the root is called “stillness.” Heshang Gong explains that “root” means foundation; the characteristics of the root are stability, softness and weakness, and humble dwelling in the lowly place, and therefore it does not die.

“Stillness is called returning to destiny”: Stillness is called “returning to destiny” (fuming), that is, returning to the source of life and restoring the original, true state. (“Ming” refers to the fundamental root that Heaven endows to life.)

The branches and leaves of plants and trees grow lush and tangled, yet in the end each returns to its root. Returning to the root and reaching utmost stillness may be called restoring the nature and Heavenly Mandate received from Dao (the Way). (Commentary by Li Longji, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang.)

Heshang Gong (a Han dynasty commentator) says: To return to quietude is to restore one’s original nature and life, so that people do not die.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) says: Only after birth is it called “nature”; nature is endowed by “destiny”; “destiny” exists before birth and is the whole of Dao. The Yijing says, “Exhausting principle and fully realizing nature, so as to reach destiny”: contemplating “return” is exhausting principle; “returning to the root” is fully realizing one’s nature; “returning to destiny” is reaching the Heavenly Mandate; and reaching the utmost of the Heavenly Mandate still does not depart from one’s nature.

Heshang Gong also says: Returning to one’s original destiny and causing people not to die is the constant principle by which Dao operates.

Wang Bi (a Three Kingdoms commentator) says: Returning to the root is stillness, so it is called “stillness”; being still, one can return to one’s original destiny, so it is called “returning to destiny”; returning to destiny, one attains the constancy of nature and life, so it is called “constant.”

Wang Pang also says: As soon as a person is born, he enters into form; entering form, he is bound by the patterns of Qi (vital energy) and number. The hidden transformations and changes of the myriad things do not pause for a moment. Only by returning to one’s original destiny can one become clear and stable, eternally still, so that external things cannot make one shift.

Emperor Xuanzong says: Guarding stillness and returning to destiny may be called having constancy; one who understands how to guard constancy sees with greater clarity.

Heshang Gong says: To be able to know the constant principle by which Dao operates is “clarity.”

Wang Pang says: If what one knows is not the constant Dao, it is not true knowledge. What the sage treasures as “clarity” is simply self-awareness and self-illumination.

Not understanding the constant Dao, one acts recklessly and brings down misfortune.

“If one does not constantly maintain one’s virtue, one may bring shame upon the sacrifices”: This comes from the Zhouyi (Book of Changes) and means that if one cannot preserve one’s virtue over the long term, one may cause the sacrifices to be disgraced. To lose the constant Way and act recklessly will inevitably invite misfortune.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) comments: If a person loses the constant Way and acts recklessly, he will certainly bring misfortune upon himself.

Heshang Gong comments: One who does not understand the constant principles followed by the Great Dao will recklessly employ cleverness and deceit, thereby losing the clarity of Shen (spirit); hence the danger.

Wang Bi comments: “Constancy” is neither partial nor biased; it does not display brilliance, nor does it have the appearances of light and dark, cold and warmth. Therefore it is said, “Knowing constancy is called clarity.” Only by returning to this can one encompass and penetrate all things, so that there is nothing one cannot accommodate. If one loses it, then as soon as the mind of discrimination arises, one falls into partiality and perversity, and all things each cling to one side. Therefore it is said, “Not knowing constancy, one acts recklessly and brings misfortune.”

Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song) comments: If one cannot comprehend the root of nature and life, one will take all appearances as real; thus delusive feelings arise and one is moved by external things. Even after ten thousand ages one would not awaken. Among calamities, none is more severe than the harm brought by imbalance of Yin-Yang.

“Knowing constancy, one can accommodate”: When one understands how to maintain the constant Way, the mind becomes empty, quiet, and clear, like a broad valley, able to contain everything. Heshang Gong holds that if one can know the principle constantly practiced by the Great Dao, one can remove passions and forget cravings, becoming all-embracing. Wang Bi says this is to be all-encompassing and penetrating. Wang Pang says that to know the constant Dao is to reach a realm without flaw; what then could not be accommodated?

“Accommodating, one becomes impartial”: To accommodate all things and respond without deliberate mind, with no selfish or perverse thoughts, is to be impartial. Heshang Gong says that to be all-embracing is to be impartial and selfless. Wang Bi says that to be all-encompassing and penetrating is to reach a state of broad fairness. Wang Pang says that when there is no distinction between things and self, where could selfishness remain?

“Impartial, one becomes king”: One who is impartial and selfless will have all things return to him. Heshang Gong says that to be impartial and selfless is to be able to become king of the world. Wang Bi says that broad fairness enables one to shine everywhere. Wang Pang says that when the inner mind is impartial, outwardly one can become a king.

“Being king, one becomes Heaven”: To be as broad and selfless as a king is to share the virtue of Heaven.

The King Is Heaven: Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang) says that if a ruler’s De can cover the myriad things as Heaven does and make the myriad things gladly turn to him, then it accords with the De of Heaven. Heshang Gong says that when De penetrates the spiritual and divine, one communicates with Heaven. Wang Bi says that only when De reaches everywhere and is universally complete can one be identical with Heaven. Zhang Pang says that the king is the highest attainment of the human way; by bringing the human way to its utmost, one can penetrate through to Heaven.

Heaven Is Dao: Tang Xuanzong says that only when the ruler’s De is like Heaven can he put the Dao into practice. Heshang Gong says that when De communicates with Heaven, it accords with the Dao. Wang Bi says that only by uniting in De with Heaven, realizing the great Dao, and penetrating without obstruction can one reach the utmost of emptiness and nonbeing. Zhang Pang says that only with the Dao is one a companion of Heaven; only as Heaven’s companion can one exhaust the Dao. Whether the Dao ultimately belongs to Heaven or to humanity is then difficult to distinguish.

The Dao Is Enduring: Tang Xuanzong says that only when the Dao prevails throughout the world can one long enjoy blessings and prosperity. Heshang Gong says that only by becoming one with the Dao can one endure. Wang Bi says that only by exhausting emptiness and nonbeing and grasping the constancy of the myriad things does one attain the utmost. Zhang Pang says that this is what is called “constancy.”

To the End of One’s Life Without Danger: Tang Xuanzong says that by walking together with Heaven in its Dao, one can reach the end of one’s life with no danger ever arising. Heshang Gong says that to be impartial and able to be king is to be penetrating; when communication with Heaven and accord with the Dao are added, and all four are fully present, then De is vast and profound. Without calamity or fault, one coexists with Heaven and Earth and does not fall into danger. Wang Bi says that “Nonbeing” (that is, the Dao of emptiness and nonbeing) is not harmed by water and fire or destroyed by metal and stone. Apply this to the mind, and fierce beasts will find no place to sink their claws, and weapons will find no place to deploy their blades—what danger could there be? Zhang Pang says that Heaven and Earth arise together and the myriad things are joined as one body; who could bring him into danger?

The highest: those below merely know that he exists.

The highest type of ruler is one of whom the people know only that he exists.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Emperor Xuanzong) comments: “Taishang” refers to the ruler of a simple, remote antiquity. “Those below know” means that the subjects know only that there is a ruler above them; they revere him as they revere Heaven, yet he does not impose teaching and transformation, nor does he deliberately act, so the people have no way to praise his virtue. Heshang Gong comments: “Taishang” refers to the great ruler, that is, the nameless ruler; “those below know that he exists” means the people know only that there is a ruler, but do not submit to him in flattery, and the customs of the people remain plain. Wang Bi comments: “Taishang” refers to the great person; because he occupies the highest position, he is called “Taishang.” The great person occupies a high position, handles affairs through Wuwei (non-action), and carries out teaching through the “teaching without words,” setting an example rather than issuing commands by speech. The myriad things grow naturally, yet he does not claim to be their originator, so the people know only that this ruler exists. Zhang Pang, a Song scholar, comments: this is the age of governance following the Three August Ones, governing through Wuwei so that the people each find security in their livelihoods without knowing why it is so; how could there be any question of being close to him or praising him?

Next: they are close to him and praise him.

The next best type of ruler is one whom the people are close to and praise.

Emperor Ming of Tang comments: as the Dao and De gradually declined, rulers implemented good government and teaching; because benevolence was displayed outwardly, the people drew close to them, and because achievements were outstanding, the people praised them. Heshang Gong comments: their virtue could be seen, and their kindness could be recounted, so the people loved and praised them. Wang Bi comments: the ruler could no longer handle affairs through Wuwei or teach without words, but instead established good government and promoted teaching, so that the people could be close to him and praise him. Zhang Pang comments: when policies have clear results, the people feel gratitude for kindness and turn their hearts toward submission, and thus names of blame and praise become manifest. Although this is enough to bring order to the world for a time, the ruler has already departed from the integrity of the Dao and De, and the people have already lost the upright way of their natural disposition; disorder begins from this, and this belongs to rule by benevolence and righteousness.

Next: they fear him.

The next best type of ruler is one whom the people fear.

Heshang Gong comments: he establishes penal law to govern the world. Wang Bi comments: the ruler can no longer transform the myriad things through kindness and benevolence, but can only rely on awe-inspiring force and power. Zhang Pang comments: this is rule by law and institutions.

Next: they slight him.

At the next level, the people slight and insult the ruler.

This passage comes from Chapter 17 of the Daodejing and discusses the relationship between the quality of a ruler’s governance and the degree to which the people trust and submit to him.

The Origins of “Fear Him” and “Insult Him”

When a ruler’s De (Virtue/Power) declines and his administrative orders become numerous and riddled with abuses, he can only drive the people by means of punishments, and the people then submit out of fear. When the people harbor deceit and the ruler is unable to see clearly, he will be treated with contempt and deceived. Minghuang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji, whose commentary is titled Daode Zhenjing Shu) and Heshang Gong (the famous Han dynasty commentator on Laozi) hold roughly the same view: when prohibitions are numerous and vexatious, the people cannot sincerely attach themselves to the ruler, and so they either fear or insult him. Wang Bi holds that if one governs the state without using the correct Dao (the Way) to bring order to the people, but relies only on clever devices and schemes, those below will seek ways to evade him, and his orders will not be obeyed; hence the phrase “insult him.” Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song and author of the Laozi Zhu) says that when the ruler has lost De and lacks good governance, the people will treat him with contempt.

“When Trust Is Insufficient, There Is Distrust”

When the ruler lacks sincerity and trustworthiness toward his ministers and people, those below respond with cunning and deceit and repay him with distrust. The commentators regard this as a natural principle: when those above are insufficient in trustworthiness, those below are likewise untrustworthy. Wang Pang cites Mencius’s saying “To have it in oneself is called trustworthiness” as proof, saying that if a person fully preserves his original nature, he will not lose the constancy of Heaven’s mandate; if a ruler governs by turning away from the great Dao, he violates human nature, and thus appears deficient in “trust.” When those above lose trust, those below fall into frivolity and deceit; this is the greatest calamity and disorder.

“How Hesitant He Is, Valuing His Words”

This line means that the people draw close to and praise the ruler because he has words of De and instruction; the people therefore treasure his words and, on that account, draw near to him and praise him. Heshang Gong illustrates this with the “ruler of the highest order,” by which he means the highest type of ruler.

This commentary centers on Chapter 17 of the Daodejing, on “the highest [ruler]: those below know that he exists” and “when the work is accomplished and affairs are completed, the common people all say, ‘We are naturally so.’”

Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang) holds that the reason the common people draw near to and praise the ruler is that the ruler has virtuous government and instructive words; therefore everyone values his words, draws near to him, and praises him. Heshang Gong (a Han-dynasty scholar who commented on the Laozi, referred to here simply as “He”) says that when the highest rulers of high antiquity handled affairs, they were still as cautious as if they treasured words, fearing only that they might depart from the great Dao (the Way) and lose naturalness. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) explains the “you” in “you xi”: “you” means hesitation, not acting rashly; “gui” means not being casual. He quotes the Zhuangzi, “Words are wind and waves,” and says that when the sage speaks he is often as if apprehensive, not daring to open his mouth lightly—how much more so in action. The people are difficult to govern because those above like to engage in deliberate action; therefore even the sage finds governing difficult.

“When the work is accomplished and affairs are completed,” Heshang Gong says, refers to peace under heaven.

“The common people all say, ‘We are naturally so,’” Tang Xuanzong explains: the ruler accomplishes the work without claiming it, completes undertakings without deliberate contrivance; the people benefit daily but do not perceive where it comes from, and all say, “We were naturally successful just as we are.” This is the most enlightened ruler; those below know only that he exists. Heshang Gong adds that the people do not know that the ruler’s De (Virtue/Power) is profound and generous; instead they think things are inherently so. Wang Bi (a Three Kingdoms Wei metaphysician) says that the first stirrings of naturalness cannot be seen, and its purport cannot be glimpsed. Nothing can alter its words; it responds like an echo, and so it is said, “How hesitant he is, valuing his words.” The ruler abides in Wuwei (non-action), practices the teaching without words, and does not stand above the myriad things by visible traces; therefore when the work is accomplished and affairs are completed, the people also do not know why it is so. Wang Pang says that this is the people turning toward good and distancing themselves from wrongdoing without knowing who caused them to do so.

Chapter 18, “When the great Dao is abandoned, benevolence and righteousness arise”: Tang Xuanzong’s note is that when social customs become thin and simple purity dissipates, the great Dao no longer prevails; then names such as benevolence and righteousness arise, and petty achievements emerge from this.

Only when the Great Dao does not prevail do doctrines of benevolence and righteousness appear. When the Great Dao declines and social customs shift from plainness to superficiality, people begin to exalt minor virtues such as “benevolence” and “righteousness.” Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong Li Longji; this is his commentary) held that people help one another only when life is difficult, and that governance through purposeful action brings harms; the sage’s intention to save the world remains constant, but circumstances may be peaceful or perilous and cannot be judged by one standard. Heshang Gong said: when the Great Dao flourishes, every household has filial children and loyal, trustworthy people, so the names of benevolence and righteousness have no way to appear; only because the Great Dao is abandoned do unfilial and rebellious acts arise, and only then do benevolence and righteousness become something that needs to be proclaimed. Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin metaphysical thinker) said: to abandon governance by Wuwei (non-action) and instead guide the myriad things by exercising wisdom and establishing a reputation for goodness is to depart from the Great Dao.

When wisdom appears, great hypocrisy arises along with it. Emperor Ming said: those who employ wisdom inevitably establish laws and regulations; once laws and regulations appear, cunning and craftiness breed, and great hypocrisy follows. Heshang Gong said: when those in power slight plain and sincere De and value eloquence, slight simplicity and honor ornamentation, their subordinates comply with the ruler’s inclinations and engage in false and deceitful conduct. Wang Bi said: when clear-sighted scrutiny is used to investigate fraud and hypocrisy, people see that outward traces are exposed and learn to evade them; thus as soon as wisdom appears, great hypocrisy is produced.

Only when the six relations are not harmonious do the names of filial piety and parental kindness arise. The six relations refer to father and son, husband and wife, and older and younger brothers. Emperor Ming said: when closeness and distance lose their proper order, there is disharmony; that kin treat one another with filial piety and parental kindness is precisely because they have strayed from the Great Dao, which is why these particular names appear. Heshang Gong said: only when the six relations are cut off and relatives are not harmonious do filial piety and parental kindness support and nourish one another. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) said: in an age of utmost De, everyone fulfills their original nature; among the six relations there is originally no lack of filial piety or parental kindness, and filial piety and parental kindness are simply the natural norm, so there are no names of “filial piety and parental kindness.” That people today exalt and revere acts of filial piety and parental kindness is precisely because the six relations are no longer harmonious.

Only when the state’s government is benighted and chaotic do loyal ministers become manifest. This sentence continues the preceding passage and likewise says that the exaltation of moral categories arises after Dao and De have declined: the name of the loyal minister stands out because the state has lost clear and good governance.

Abandon Sagehood and Discard Wisdom means cutting off the sage’s artificial fabrications and casting aside worldly cunning and scheming. “Abandoning sagehood” means stopping the sage’s actions of establishing rites and laws and setting up moral instruction; “discarding wisdom” means throwing away opportunistic and calculating thoughts.

Heshanggong believed that the sage’s deliberate fabrication deviates from humanity’s original simplicity and honesty, and that one should return to the beginning and guard the fundamental “Yuan” (origin). The institutions of the Five Emperors (the five ancient sovereigns of legend) were all forms established by imitating external things. After Cangjie (the legendary inventor of writing) created writing, it was still not as simple and unadorned as the age of the Three Sovereigns (remote ancient sovereigns of legend), when knotted ropes were used to record events.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang’s commentary says: cut off the traces of the sage’s teachings, and instruction returns to Wuwei (non-action); cast aside ordinary people’s cleverness and deceit, and the human heart becomes naturally simple and honest. When the human heart is simple and honest, opportunism and hypocrisy no longer arise; when governance is by wuwei, the wind of contention and pursuit also ceases. People accord with the harmonious Qi (vital energy) of Heaven and Earth, and the myriad things each attain their nature—this is to obtain a hundredfold benefit.

Wang Pang believed that people’s original nature is pure and flawless; only because they lose their true nature do they fall into hypocrisy, and so some forcibly establish sagehood and wisdom as rulers and teachers. As sagehood and wisdom are promoted, the people continually chase after them and no longer return to their original truth, drifting farther and farther from the root. Although sagehood and wisdom may bring small temporary benefits, in the end they cause the people to lose their priceless simplicity and truth. Cut them off and cast them away, and the people can return to a state of no meddlesome affairs—how could the benefits therein be fully calculated?

Cut Off Benevolence and Discard Righteousness, and the People Return to Filial Piety and Compassion

The scripture says that when people cast aside deliberately flaunted “benevolence” and “righteousness,” the common people can instead recover their natural dispositions of filial piety and parental compassion.

Heshang Gong’s commentary: To cut off “benevolence” means no longer displaying benevolence by bestowing favors; to discard “righteousness” means no longer exalting the keeping of trust through documents and contracts.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Li Longji)’s commentary: By cutting off the benevolence of the Mohist advocacy of “universal love” and discarding a “righteousness” that makes distinctions and calculations, people can return to great filial piety and great compassion.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure, son of Wang Anshi, who also annotated the Laozi) comments: In highest antiquity, in the age of ultimate De (Virtue/Power), fathers and sons were affectionate toward one another, and this was already sufficient. Later benevolence and righteousness arose, and name and reality became entangled with each other; gain and loss were thrown into confusion, and people’s nature became confused along with them. Generally, when branches and twigs flourish, the root necessarily declines—this is the natural principle. Filial piety and parental compassion are originally the root of benevolence and righteousness.

The commentator further poses a question: Some hold that Confucius and Mencius elucidated the Dao (the Way) of Yao and Shun and spoke exclusively of benevolence and righteousness, yet here Laozi is taken as correct—which account is right? The answer: Summer takes the growth of the myriad things as its achievement; autumn takes harvest and storage as its De. One causes the myriad things to flourish but depart from the root; the other causes them to wither and return to the source. The Dao is like the sequence of the year, and the sage is like the seasons within it. Once the Dao is understood, Confucius and Laozi complement each other, end joined to beginning, and are not opposed.

Cut Off Cleverness and Discard Profit, and There Will Be No Thieves

Heshang Gong’s commentary: “Cutting off cleverness” means using deceit and falsehood to confuse the true; “discarding profit” means blocking the paths of private gain and closing the doors of those in power who seek private interests.

Emperor Xuanzong’s commentary: When people boast of their own single skill, thoughts of contending for profit arise in their hearts. Therefore, by cutting off cunning devices, people no longer contend; by discarding greed, people are naturally content. Being content, they will not become thieves.

Wang Pang’s commentary: When the ethos of cleverness and profit prevails, the desires of the common people become extravagant and self-indulgent, and fundamental occupations such as farming decline accordingly, necessarily leading them toward theft. The above three matters all harm the root through branch ends.

These Three, Taken as Adornment, Are Insufficient

Heshang Gong’s commentary: This refers to the three matters above that are to be cut off and discarded. To take them as embellishment is still insufficient.

On “Refinement Is Insufficient”

Heshang Gong says: The claim that “refined adornment” is insufficient for educating the people is made because refinement cannot make the people understand the Dao. Xiu (a commentator whose biographical details are unknown) says: Refined adornment is secondary relative to plainness; when the secondary surpasses the essential, it appears insufficient, and the people thereby lose their original nature. Another edition has “refined but not yet sufficient”; this reading is incorrect.

“Therefore let them have something to belong to”

Tang Xuanzong (Emperor Ming of Tang, Li Longji, who annotated the Daodejing) says: The three—sagely wisdom, benevolence and righteousness, and cleverness and profit—should all be cut off and abandoned. Because no method of cultivation is indicated, it is said that “refinement” is not yet complete and is insufficient to attain the highest transformative teaching; thus people are made to have another place of return, which refers to the content below. Heshang Gong says: This should be understood as the meaning of the next sentence. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar, son of Wang Anshi, who also annotated the Laozi) says: Let the people attribute their original nature to the four matters below.

“See the plain and embrace the uncarved”

Heshang Gong says: “Seeing the plain” means embracing plainness and preserving one’s true nature, not esteeming refined adornment. “Embracing the uncarved” means seeing the plain and simple original nature and displaying it to others, so that it can serve as a standard.

Wang Pang says: This does not mean looking at external things but seeing one’s own original nature. The plain is the essence of nature. Human beings are originally pure and quiet, unstained by external things; therefore they have no ornamental coloration and display the plain color. In autumn the myriad things return to stillness, and their color is white—this is the spontaneity of heavenly principle. The uncarved is the complete state of nature: the uncarved is taken as the root and vessels as the branch.

“Reduce selfishness and diminish desires”

Tang Xuanzong says: Seeing true plainness, embracing simplicity, reducing selfish thoughts and evil intentions, and diminishing greedy desires.

Heshang Gong says: “Reducing selfishness” means being upright and without selfish motives. “Diminishing desires” means knowing contentment.

Wang Bi (a Wei dynasty Xuanxue scholar of the Three Kingdoms period, author of the Laozi Commentary) says: Sagely wisdom is the skillful use of ability; benevolence and righteousness are the good conduct of human beings; cleverness and profit are the skillful use of utility. The scripture directly says to cut them off, but its wording then seems too incomplete; it does not give people something to belong to, and thus cannot reveal its underlying intention. Therefore it says that these three are insufficient as refinement, and thus people must be given something to belong to—namely, plainness and few desires.

Wang Pang says: Selfish desires all arise from one’s own activity. Once there is a self, there are external things; once there are external things, external entanglements increase; when external entanglements increase, one loses the root.

“Cut off learning and have no anxiety” (the chapter title of Chapter 20)

Heshang Gong says: “Cutting off learning” refers to learning that does not accord with the true Dao, that is, words that do not conform to the Dao.

A Commentary on Chapter 20 of the Dao De Jing

Cut off learning, and there will be no worry: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji, comments that cutting off worldly learning means the simple, unadorned original nature will not dissipate; reducing selfish desires and restraining cravings means there will be no worry. Heshang Gong (the Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) says that removing superficial embellishment means there will be no trouble. Xiu (a commentator) says that learning is for seeking to return to the destiny of one’s original nature. If one understands the root of destiny, one no longer sees any external thing as something to grasp, and so there is no need to learn anything further. When cultivating the Dao reaches this point, good and bad fortune are both transcended—who would still worry about them? Confucius said, “Delight in Heaven and know destiny.” The greatest of worries is to make a distinction between knowing and rejoicing; that is not an embodiment of the great Dao.

Between “Wei” and “A,” how far apart are they?: Heshang Gong says, Both are replies—how much difference can there be? This satirizes the contemporary contempt for plainness and esteem for ornamentation.

Good and evil—how far apart are they?: Emperor Xuanzong comments that “Wei” is a respectful reply and “A” is a negligent reply; both issue from the mouth, so why say they are close? Yet respect is good and negligence is evil; this serves as an analogy for worldly learning. Cut it off and there is no worry; do not cut it off and trouble arises. The key lies only in the luminous awareness of the mind—where is there really such a great distance? Heshang Gong says that good means praise and evil means contention; how much difference is there between the two? This is a bitter complaint against hating the loyal and upright and employing the flattering and wicked. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) says that the substance of the Dao is originally one; when it descends and transforms to generate the myriad things, Yin-Yang divide, and turmoil arises from this. All such distinctions belong to the deluded mind; viewed through the true illumination of the Dao, they are all like dreams and illusions. “Wei” and “A” both issue from the mouth and originally have no different form, yet people in the world take “Wei” as respectful and “A” as negligent, and from this arise the feelings of right and wrong, joy and anger. If one asks what the reason for their difference ultimately is, what is it? The distinction between good and evil is likewise so.

What people fear, one cannot but fear: What the world fears, one cannot but regard with awe.

Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang) comments: If one does not cut off the shallow learning of the world, the pure and upright nature that everyone originally possesses will be laid waste, and there will be no stopping it.

Heshang Gong comments (Heshang Gong is the pseudonymous Han dynasty Daoist commentator): Some say that the minds of worldly people are muddled; when they wish to seek learning and compose writings, and to pursue fame and profit, their desires have no limit.

Wang Bi comments (Wang Bi was a Xuanxue scholar of the Three Kingdoms period): This laments that worldly people are far removed from the Dao (the Way) of simplicity and uncarved plainness.

Wang Pang comments (Wang Pang was the son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song): All things and events push one another along, ending and beginning again, generating without cease—where is there any exhaustion? Yet worldly people insist on dividing each and every thing into beauty and ugliness, good and evil—is this not delusion? Only the sage can penetrate all antiquity as a single moment and make no distinction of gain and loss within it.

“The multitude are bustling and joyous”: This describes the crowd indulging in delight and giving free rein to desire.

“As if enjoying the Tailao feast”: Like hungry people imagining the richness of a grand sacrificial banquet, their desires never know satisfaction. The Tailao is the highest ritual standard in sacrifice, with all three victims—ox, sheep, and pig—present.

“As if climbing a terrace in spring”: Like climbing a terrace on a spring day and gazing far off, when yang Qi (yang vital energy) is aroused, all things are stirred, and the human heart drifts along with them, with desires surging. Wang Pang holds that spring is the season when the vitality of all things bursts forth, when they turn from stillness to motion and abandon the root to pursue the branches; a terrace is high ground from which one may gaze far off at scenes in all directions. Those who do not understand the ultimate principle all chase after things and give rise to emotions and desires; such is their condition.

“I alone am quiet and detached, before any sign appears”: I alone am tranquil and plain, not yet revealing any trace of desire.

“Like an infant that has not yet smiled”: Just like an infant before it can smile, pure and without artifice. “Hai” refers to an infant first being able to smile.

This passage is the first half of Chapter 20 of the Laozi. The author uses the “infant” and “chengcheng” to describe the state of mind of one who embodies the Dao.

“I alone am calm and still, as if in fear; in my desires there is hardly any sign, like an infant that does not yet smile.”

I alone am plain and tranquil, with no trace of desire showing, like an infant that does not yet smile. Commentators say that “pa” here is interchangeable with “bo” (to moor, to rest), meaning not to drift along with external things. Wang Pang of the Northern Song (son of Wang Anshi) held that this means the mind-nature does not give rise to clever deliberation, but harbors and nourishes harmonious Qi and guards the original Oneness, just like an infant.

“Chengcheng, as if there were nowhere to return.”

The mind moves with external things yet does not cling to any destination, like a traveler far from home with no fixed lodging. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) commented: “The perfected person has no mind; in movement he follows things, taking or giving nothing.” “Chengcheng” describes the appearance of movement. Wang Pang said that this means according with the transformations of the myriad things without self-interest, and therefore having no particular direction to return to.

“The multitude all have surplus, while I alone seem to be lacking.”

People of the world all seek accumulation and compete to display their cleverness and wealth. Emperor Xuanzong commented: “They are addicted to dusty affairs, boast of cleverness and intelligence, consider themselves to have plenty, and display it as greatness.” Heshanggong commented: “The multitude take surplus wealth as extravagance and surplus wisdom as pretension.” The phrase “I alone seem to be lacking” contrasts with this, showing that the one who embodies the Dao does not take surplus as glory, but rather seems to want nothing at all.

This passage comes from Chapter 20 of the Laozi. It contrasts “the multitude” with “I” and includes explanations by commentators of successive dynasties.

Always as if insufficient, as if something of one’s intent has been left behind. Worldly people always seem to have something they seek or something on their minds, as if they could never be satisfied. Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji) says: I seem to have lost something. Heshang Gong (a Han-dynasty Daoist commentator) says: I alone seem abandoned, appearing insufficient. Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin metaphysician and commentator on the Laozi) says: everyone’s heart harbors thoughts and aspirations, filling their breasts, and so it is said that “all have more than enough”; my mind is broad and empty, Wuwei (non-action) and without desire, as if I have lost something. Xiu (a commentator) says: transcendent and self-forgetting, not clinging to what one possesses.

I have the mind of a fool! Heshang Gong says: not following the ways of ordinary people, I hold to purity and oneness without wavering, like the mind of a fool. Wang Bi says: cutting off the mind of cunning and discrimination, making no analysis; within the heart there are no preferences or desires, and one’s feelings are hidden and subtle, impossible to peer into.

Pure and simple, indeed! Tang Minghuang says: Am I really a fool’s mind, so forgetful? It is only that my mind is pure, simple, and single-minded, and so it appears like forgetting. Heshang Gong says: without discrimination. Wang Bi says: without analysis, it cannot be named or described. Xiu says: pure purity seems foolish, but is in fact the utmost of true wisdom. One edition reads “Dundun” (undifferentiated).

The worldly people are bright and shining. Zhaozhao refers to being clear and conspicuous. Tang Minghuang says: it refers to worldly people showing off their cleverness. Heshang Gong says: clear and penetrating. Wang Bi says: displaying their brilliance.

I alone seem dim. Tang Minghuang says: hiding oneself, concealing one’s brilliance and nurturing obscurity. Heshang Gong says: as if dark and unilluminated. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar, son of Wang Anshi, and commentator on the Laozi) says: things and I are both forgotten, not clinging to discrimination, and so it seems dim and confused.

The worldly people are sharp and scrutinizing. Chacha refers to clear-sightedness that is harsh and meticulous. Tang Minghuang says: it refers to establishing laws and institutions. Heshang Gong says: chacha means urgent and severe. Wang Bi says: discriminating and analyzing. Xiu says: extending the meaning of zhaozhao (bright and shining) into government affairs produces chacha (sharp scrutiny).

I alone am dull and unassuming. Menmen refers to being honest, generous, and harmonious, without harsh scrutiny.

I alone am muddled and undifferentiated.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) says: This speaks of a broad and generous mind that does not calculate. Heshang Gong says: “Muddled” means the absence of a mind that divides and discriminates. The commentator Xiu says: If one applies a dim, unknowing state of mind to governing, one will be broad and undifferentiated, not seeking a little immediate profit or quick satisfaction.

So placid, as if like the sea.

Heshang Gong says: I alone am vague and unsettled, like the waters of rivers and seas flowing ceaselessly, with no knowing their limits. Wang Bi says: This state cannot be seen with the eyes. The commentator Xiu says: The Dao-mind, before any thought has stirred—through the arising of the myriad things and their final return again to original nature (referring to humans’ inherently pure nature)—is at this point placid, deep, and broad, like the great sea gathering in a hundred rivers; the nature of water is perfect and complete. Another edition has “suddenly as if obscure” (hu ruo hui); this is incorrect.

Drifting, as if there is nowhere to rest.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang says: Outwardly one is vague and dim, while inwardly one is still, transcending worldly learning, as if there were no place to stay or rely on. Heshang Gong says: I alone am drifting and soaring, without resting; my will and intention lodge in a numinous realm. Wang Bi says: There is nowhere by which one is bound. Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song, who also commented on the Laozi) says: The previous line, “placid as the sea,” speaks of substance; this line speaks of its function: drifting high and far, unobstructed everywhere, yet clinging to nothing—what else could it be but function? Another edition has “quiet” (ji) in place of “drifting” (liao); this is incorrect.

The multitude all have their uses.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang says: People in the world each have their own undertakings and all pursue worldly views. Heshang Gong says: “Yi” means having something to do. Wang Bi says: “Yi” means use; all wish to apply themselves in some way. Wang Pang says: If one becomes attached to things, one is enslaved by things; if one can transcend things and not be dragged along by them, then one can employ the myriad things, and the myriad things cannot enslave one.

Others all have their own capacities and wish to put them to use; I alone am dull and seem rustic and inferior.

Zhang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) says: If a person is pulled along by external things, he becomes a tool of external things; if he can master the myriad things without being enslaved by them, then the myriad things cannot enslave him. Heshang Gong (a Han-dynasty Daoist who annotated the Laozi) says: I alone practice Wuwei (non-action). Emperor Xuanzong of Tang’s commentary says: “Dull” means not giving rise to a discriminating mind; “rustic” means appearing insufficient, though inwardly one is actually clear and penetrating. Outwardly one seems insufficient, and so the text says “as if.” Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin era scholar of the Dao) says: I have no pursuits or actions, muddled and dim, as if I know nothing, and so it says “dull and rustic.” Zhang Pang further says: External things cannot intrude—this may be called “dull”; what is seen is as if unseen—this may be called “rustic.” Some editions have “and” as “as if,” and the meaning is also connected.

I differ from the people of the world, and what I value is seeking nourishment from the “Mother”—that is, the Dao, the root source of all things—returning to the Dao and taking the Dao as my foundation.

Preface (Annotator’s Explanation)

Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang), explaining “seeking food from the mother,” says it means being like an infant: not scheming for a livelihood and not pursuing anything. Hence the preceding phrase “like an infant that has not yet smiled” and the following phrase “one whose De is thick is comparable to a newborn babe” both carry this meaning. Only thus can one be different from the crowd. Originally there was no “qiu”; the two characters “qiu” and “yu” were added by later people. When sages expounded the scriptures, they were originally without taboo, but when later generations used them for moral instruction, doubts arose. The ancient meaning that clarifies the principle cannot be altered; it is enough that the sentences read smoothly. Therefore the view maintained here is to preserve the ancient text. Sima Qian said that Laozi’s Daodejing is about five thousand words; this shows that once the principle and meaning have been clearly explained, speech ceases, and one need not be bound by the fixed number of five thousand characters.

Wang Bi (Bi) says: “Feeding on the mother” is the root of life. Everyone in the world abandons this root and prizes external ornament, and so Laozi says, “I alone wish to be different from others.”

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) says: One does not chase things outward but receives nourishment from the Dao (the Way). The Dao is the mother of the ten thousand things. One edition lacks the two characters “qiu yu,” and the meaning still makes sense.

Chapter Twenty-One: “The Countenance of Great De (Virtue/Power)”

“The countenance of great De”: Heshang Gong (He) glosses “kong” as “great.” A person of great De excludes nothing from inclusion, can bear turbidity, and dwells in humility.

Tang Xuanzong glosses “kong” as “extremely” and “cong” as “accordant.” This is a rhetorical question: What are the appearance and conduct of one whose De is extremely deep? The answer: all that such a person does is simply to follow the utterly empty and still Dao. Heshang Gong glosses “wei” as “alone,” meaning that a person of great De does not follow custom but singly accords with the Dao. Wang Bi glosses “kong” as “empty,” meaning that only by taking emptiness and openness as one’s De can one then act and accord with the Dao.

The commentator “Xiu” explains: When the Dao is present in me, it is called De; when De is cultivated to the utmost, it becomes one with the Dao. The Dao is originally invisible and becomes manifest only through De. A person of De is without self and merely follows the Dao.

Main Text

“The Dao as a thing is only blurred and indistinct”: The Dao, as a thing, is as if present and as if absent, blurred and difficult to make clear.

Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) says: Here it explains the Dao (the Way) that “the greatest De” (Virtue/Power; kongde)—the most abundant De—follows. The Dao is neither being nor non-being; it is empty and still, with inexhaustible wondrous function, and it is difficult to describe by name. Therefore it is called “vague and indistinct” (huanghu). Heshang Gong says: In relation to the myriad things, the Dao comes and goes vaguely and indistinctly, with no fixed place. Xiu says: The Dao contains both Yin and Yang; where Yin and Yang are subtle, it seems both absent and present—this is what is called “vague and indistinct.”

The Dao is simply vague and indistinct.

Elusive and vague, within it there is an image. Heshang Gong says: The Dao exists only in the vague and formless; alone it provides norms and images for the myriad things. Xiu says: Only when one Yin and one Yang [interact] is an “image” formed. One edition reads “hu xi huang xi” (elusive and vague).

Vague and elusive, within it there is a thing. Emperor Ming says: “Thing” is the “thing” in the preceding phrase “the Dao as a thing.” The myriad things return from being to non-being and go back to the source of the Dao, so it says “within it there is a thing.” Heshang Gong says: Although the Dao is vague and elusive, within it there is the “One”; it manages creation and transformation and relies on primordial Qi (vital energy) to complete form and substance. Wang Bi says: The Dao begins the myriad things through formlessness, yet does not confine itself to completing any single thing; the myriad things thereby begin and thereby are completed, yet people do not know why this is so. Hence it says, “Vague and elusive, elusive and vague, within it there is an image.” Wang Pang says: Only one Yang and one Yin generate the myriad things; the vague and elusive is the subtlety of Yin and Yang, so it can transform and become images and things. One edition reads “huang xi hu xi” (vague and elusive).

Deep and dark, within it there is Jing (essence). Yao and ming both mean deep, distant, and dark; this means that the depths of the Dao are hidden and subtle, difficult to see, yet within them is contained subtle Qi.

This passage of scripture comments on Chapter 21 of the Daodejing: “So deep, so dark—within it there is Jing (essence); this Jing is utterly real; within it there is trustworthiness.”

On “Yao-ming” and “Jing”

Tang Xuanzong (“Minghuang”) says: The Dao (the Way) is indistinct and elusive, as if present and as if absent; it is profoundly deep and remote, difficult to fathom. Yet it generates the myriad things and exerts its function, and its subtle wonder is exceedingly hidden.

Heshang Gong (“He,” traditionally a Han-dynasty scholar who annotated the Laozi) says: The Dao conceals its achievements and withdraws its reputation; in itself it is profoundly hidden and formless. Within it there is Jing and Qi (vital energy); it is the place where spiritual brightness converges and Yin-Yang meet.

Wang Bi (a xuanxue thinker of the Wei during the Three Kingdoms and a commentator on the Laozi) says: Yao-ming is the appearance of something deep, distant, and dark, so deep that it cannot be directly seen. Yet the myriad things all depend on it for their existence, and through the myriad things its reality can be seen; therefore it is said, “So deep, so dark—within it there is Jing.”

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) says: Jing is the beginning from which the myriad things are produced. The “images” and “things” mentioned earlier are precisely the concrete manifestations of the Dao. Once the substance of the Dao is fully present, it brings forth things of every kind. The place from which the myriad things emerge lies in a profundity so subtle that it cannot be fathomed; therefore it is said, “So deep, so dark.”

On “Its Jing Is Utterly Real” and “Within It There Is Trustworthiness”

Heshang Gong says: This means that the Dao’s Jing, Qi, and Shen (spirit) are subtle and utterly real, with no embellishment.

Wang Pang says: Jing is the beginning of the formation of bodily form, and originally there is nothing untrue about it. The reason it is further said to be “utterly real” is that things may lose their principle and lose their Jing, and human artifice and false adornment become submerged in them; therefore its reality must be specially emphasized.

Tang Xuanzong says: The nature of Yao-ming has no falseness or confusion. When the myriad things are moved by it, it invariably responds, and its responses are never mistaken; therefore it is said that “there is trustworthiness.” Heshang Gong says: The Dao hides its achievements and conceals its name, and its verification lies therein. Wang Bi says: Trustworthiness means verification. The myriad things return to Yao-ming and attain the utmost of true Jing; thereby the natures of the myriad things are settled, and therefore it is said, “Its Jing is utterly real; within it there is trustworthiness.”

Wang Pang further says: The Jing of Yao-ming transforms and generates the ten thousand kinds; the myriad things each attain their nature and destiny, and their norms and standards, images and patterns all have definite rules that can be known in advance without error—this is “trustworthiness.” He also quotes the Zhuangzi: “Before there were bodily forms, there was already distinction.”

“From Ancient Times to the Present, Its Name Does Not Depart”

This line is merely a fragment, so only a brief literal understanding can be given: from ancient times to the present, the Dao’s name has always existed and has never disappeared.

This passage is a commentary on the line in Laozi, “yi yue zhong fu” (“by which one surveys the multitude of beginnings”), and at the end it raises a question: By what do I know that the beginnings of the myriad things are like this?

The Dao, from ancient times to the present, transforms and gives birth to the myriad things. Because the myriad things receive the operation of the Dao, each has its own function, and because of its function each receives a name. The Dao’s work of transforming and generating the myriad things is the same in ancient and modern times; its principle of responding to the myriad things is therefore also unchanged from ancient to modern, while the Dao itself does not change along with them.

Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang) comments: “yue” means to measure and inspect, and “fu” means root and beginning. The meaning is that the Dao accords with the functions of the myriad things, inspects the beginnings of all things, and enables each to complete its work of generation.

Heshang Gong comments: “yue” means to receive as endowment, and “fu” means beginning. The Dao gives its own endowment to the myriad things; the myriad things thereby begin to grow and receive Qi from the Dao.

Wang Bi (Wei of the Three Kingdoms) comments: “zhong fu” means the beginning of the myriad things. The ultimate reality of the Dao cannot be described; what is called nameless is precisely its name. The myriad things all come to completion through this, and so from ancient times to the present its name does not disappear. He also holds that the beginnings of all things emerge from “non-being,” and this is the principle stated above.

Wang Pang (Northern Song) comments: the Dao constantly abides and does not change, but the beauty of the myriad things is not constant. Therefore the Dao can survey the changes of the myriad things, and the sage, precisely because he realizes the Dao’s constancy, knows that all beauties are impermanent.

Wang Pang further cites Zhuangzi: “The wondrous and marvelous again transforms into the foul and rotten; the foul and rotten again transforms into the wondrous and marvelous.” He glosses “fu” as “beauty.” The beauty of the myriad things shifts and changes and is not eternal; only the Dao constantly abides, and so it can survey them universally. The word “yue” is the same as in “yue ren duo yi” (“has seen many people”).

The author then asks: By what do I know that the beginnings of all things are like this? The commentators answer that the basis lies in the principle stated above: the Dao is nameless, and the myriad things begin from non-being.

Commentary on Chapter Twenty-One

The scripture asks: By what do I know the root of the myriad things? The answer is: all myriad things receive Qi from the Dao. “By this” means “by means of this (the Dao).”

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) comments: It is precisely because all myriad things receive the Dao that the subtle functioning of the Dao brings them into being. Heshang Gong (He) comments: The word “this” here means “now”: it means that the myriad things of today all obtain the Jing (essence) and Qi of the Dao and grow; human movement and daily life are also like this. This does not mean that I somehow infer that all things arise from “nothing”; rather, it means that by this I know it. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) comments: The Dao is constant and ever-present, while the beauty of the myriad things cannot last. The sage can see through the countless transformations of the myriad things precisely because he has realized the constancy of the Dao.

Chapter Twenty-Two: Bending, One Is Preserved

The scripture says: Bending oneself, one is instead preserved.

Emperor Xuanzong comments: By bending oneself to accord with worldly affairs, one can be preserved. Heshang Gong comments: By bending oneself, following the crowd, and not stubbornly holding to one’s own opinions, one can be preserved. Wang Bi (Wei-Jin Xuanxue thinker) comments: By not displaying one’s own keen insight, one can be preserved. Wang Pang comments: The realized person’s mind is empty and humble; he acts like water, has no attachment to external things, accords with their changes, and does not conflict with them. Therefore no one can harm him, and he constantly preserves himself. The general meaning of this chapter is akin to that of “Nourishing the Lord of Life” in the Zhuangzi.

Crooked, One Becomes Straight

The scripture says: Bending oneself, one instead becomes straight.

Emperor Xuanzong comments: By bending oneself to complete others, one instead attains straightness. Heshang Gong comments: Bend oneself and let others extend; over time one naturally becomes straight. Wang Bi comments: By not considering oneself right, one’s rightness naturally becomes evident. Wang Pang comments: Bodily bending is, in principle, straightness. One who clings to what he considers “straight” in responding to things does not know that things change without end; his “straightness” becomes “crookedness.” Only by according with the bending of things and not stubbornly holding to one’s own straightness does the principle naturally become upright in the mind. In another edition, “straight” is written as “upright.”

Low-Lying, One Is Filled

Low-lying places will collect and fill with water. Using lowliness as a metaphor, this explains that by occupying a lowly place one can instead have room to contain.

Holding fast to the De of humility, one constantly remains full: Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang) held that if one preserves the virtue of humility, one can remain full for a long time. Heshang Gong (a Han-dynasty Daoist scholar who annotated the Laozi) used low-lying ground as a metaphor: water flows toward low places, and the lower the terrain, the more water gathers there; if a person is humble and lowly, virtue naturally comes to rest in him. Wang Bi (a Wei-dynasty Xuanxue thinker) said that by not boasting of oneself, one’s achievements are instead preserved. Zhang Pang (a Northern Song commentator) took pools and marshes as an example: because they are low-lying, all waters converge in them.

What is worn becomes new: Tang Xuanzong said that if one is content with a worn, old, and weak condition, one will be renewed day by day. Heshang Gong said that by willingly accepting what is lowly and weak and by retiring behind others, one naturally wins the respect of the people under Heaven, and in time one renews oneself. Wang Bi said that by not praising oneself, one’s De can endure. Zhang Pang used the four seasons as a metaphor: without the withering of autumn and winter, there would be no flourishing of spring and summer.

Having little, one gains: Tang Xuanzong said that if one embraces and guards the “One” (the unified substance of the great Dao) without departing from it, one will not lose anything. Heshang Gong said that by being content to take little for oneself, one instead gains much. The Dao of Heaven aids the humble, and the spirits also reside in emptiness and stillness. Zhang Pang held that the Dao is hidden in the subtle and that nature exists in plainness; one who attains the Dao attains the root, so it is not a matter of having much. To realize these four matters, only one who can be single-minded and guard the “One” is able to do so.

Having much, one becomes confused: Tang Xuanzong said that much activity leads to confusion. Heshang Gong said that those with much wealth are confused by what they guard, and those with much learning are confused by the doctrines they hear. Wang Bi said this is like a tree: the more branches and leaves there are, the farther they are from the root and the fewer the roots; the fewer there are, the more one can return to the root. With much, one departs from true nature, and so it is called confusion; with little, one can attain its root, and so it is called “gaining.” Zhang Pang pointed out that this is abandoning the root and pursuing the branches, so that what one sees becomes manifold and divergent.

Therefore the sage embraces the One and becomes the model for all under Heaven: Thus the sage holds fast to the “One” and makes it the standard by which the people under Heaven are to be emulated.

The sage holds fast to the Dao (the Way) of pure unity, and thus can become the standard by which all under Heaven model themselves. (“Embracing the One” means holding fast to the undifferentiated, unified Dao; “standard” means norm and model.)

Not seeing oneself, therefore clear-sighted: One does not take one’s own perspective as the standard for viewing things; instead, one sees clearly. Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) believed that if a person does not flaunt his De (Virtue/Power), but often humbles and bends himself to respond to worldly affairs, his De naturally becomes manifest.

Not considering oneself right, therefore manifest: One does not obstinately insist on being right, and right and wrong instead become clear. Heshang Gong held that the sage does not consider himself right and criticize others, and therefore can be manifest in the world. Wang Pang (Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) held that once the mind of “I am right” is removed, one can bend oneself to accord with the nature of things, and without seeking prominence one naturally becomes prominent.

Not boasting of oneself, therefore one has merit: If one does not praise oneself, merit then accrues to all under Heaven. Heshang Gong explained that “boast” means to claim or praise for oneself; when the sage’s transforming influence of De spreads, he does not take its excellence as his own, and thus can have merit for all under Heaven. Wang Pang held that boasting of one’s own merit produces self-satisfaction and falsity; if one clings to the belief that one has merit, then...

Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Xuanzong Li Longji, who wrote a commentary on the Daodejing and is called “Ming Huang” here) says: If people can refrain from self-glorification and from claiming credit for their achievements, their achievements will naturally return to them. Heshang Gong (the legendary Han commentator on the Laozi) says: “Fa” means to boast and take credit. The sage’s De (Virtue/Power) and transforming influence spread throughout the world, yet he does not boast of their beauty and goodness; therefore he has merit for the world. Wang Pang (a Northern Song man, son of Wang Anshi) says: Claiming credit for one’s achievements arises from self-satisfaction and self-exaltation. If one understands the principle that the low-lying can instead become full, how could one be burdened by self-satisfaction and arrogance?

“He does not exalt himself; therefore he endures”: Emperor Ming says: If a person can long preserve humility and plainness and does not display himself, people will promote his strengths. Heshang Gong says: “Jin” means to be self-important and to regard oneself as noble. The sage does not consider himself noble, and therefore he can long avoid falling into danger. Wang Pang says: “Jin” means to display one’s own honors. Displaying honors leads to decline; only by being content with the worn and lowly can one remain ever new.

“It is precisely because he does not contend that no one in the world can contend with him”: Emperor Ming says: If he does not contend with the myriad things, who can contend with him? Heshang Gong says: This means that in the world, whether worthy or unworthy, no one can contend with him. Wang Pang says: Only by maintaining emptiness and openness (an inner emptiness, not self-satisfied) and being without intent toward external things—even if external things wished to lay hold of him, they could not, much less contend with him. The essential teaching of this chapter lies in forgetting the self, and so it concludes with “not contending.”

“What the ancients called ‘the bent becomes whole’—how could it be an empty saying?”: Heshang Gong says: The ancient saying “by bending and yielding one can preserve oneself” is indeed a true statement, not something false. “Qu” (bent) means to bend oneself, yield, and comply.

“Truly whole, he returns to it”: This is the concluding phrase of the original text; it means that one can truly preserve oneself whole and ultimately return to this principle.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang said: “Did the ancients have a saying, ‘to bend so as to preserve wholeness’—could it have been false? One who can truly bend and comply will surely be able to preserve the way of his own person and thereby return to the source.”

Heshang Gong (an early commentator on the Dao De Jing) said: “‘Sincerity’ means ‘reality.’ One who can bend and comply preserves his own body and returns it whole to his parents, without injury.”

Wang Pang (a Northern Song commentator) said: “What is called ‘bending’ is emptying the mind and complying with the pattern of things, following external things as they change without coming into conflict with them. The interpretations of the various commentators above all have their key point here. ‘Whole and return to it’ is like the principle by which Cook Ding (the butcher in ‘Nourishing the Lord of Life’ in the Zhuangzi) was skilled in using his knife and yet could keep it well maintained. I have privately examined the essential purport of nourishing life in this chapter: the sage does not deliberately pursue self-preservation, and yet no way of nourishing life is better than this. What is meant by ‘not displaying oneself, not considering oneself right, not boasting of oneself, not exalting oneself’ (not flaunting oneself, not assuming one is right, not bragging, not putting on airs) is not restraining oneself in order to seek preservation; rather, it comes from spontaneity, and one does so without knowing it. If one sees advantage in being bent, crooked, lowly, or worn out, and therefore deliberately acts in these ways, then this is merely the conduct of a worthy and the virtue of a scholar; with respect to the Dao it is not yet complete.”

Chapter 23 of the Dao De Jing opens with “Rare speech is natural.”

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang said: “‘Rare speech’ means ‘forgetting words.’ Not saying ‘forgetting words’ but saying ‘rare speech’ indicates that one must rely on words to clarify the Dao and cannot discard them entirely; once the Dao is understood, words are naturally forgotten, and so it is called ‘rare.’ If one can use words to comprehend the Dao and yet not become attached to words, then...”

Xiyan—“rare speech”—means speaking little and not being wordy. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang, Li Longji, who annotated the Laozi) held that Laozi did not say “forgetting words” but “rare speech” because language can be borrowed to clarify the Way and cannot be entirely discarded; once the Dao is understood, words are naturally forgotten, and so he said “rare.” If one can use language to awaken to the Dao without clinging to words, one accords with the natural Way. Heshang Gong (the legendary Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) said that “rare speech” means cherishing words, and cherishing words is precisely the natural Way. Wang Bi (a Three Kingdoms Wei xuanxue thinker) said that to listen and not hear is what is called “xi.” The text below says the Dao is “bland, without flavor”; being invisible and inaudible, only words that are without flavor and not worth hearing are the natural supreme words. Xiang Xiu (a Wei-Jin xuanxue thinker) said that “xi” has the same meaning as the preceding “listen to it and do not hear it”; “natural” means being so of itself without relying on external things. “Xi” does not join with the myriad things, does not interact with external objects, and alone transcends all phenomena, and so it is called “natural.”

The text continues: a violent wind does not blow for a whole morning, and a sudden rainstorm does not last a whole day. Emperor Xuanzong said that when wind and rain are urgent and sudden, they break and harm the myriad things; when words are impatient and rigidly attached, one loses the Dao and falls into confusion. Heshang Gong said that “whirling wind” is violent wind and “sudden rain” is torrential rain; the meaning is that what is hurried cannot last long and what is fierce cannot continue. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) said that wind and rain are formed by the interaction of Yin-Yang; whirling and suddenness indicate excessive interaction, and therefore they cannot endure.

Who, then, brings these about? Heaven and Earth. Heshang Gong says that “who” means “who”: who brings about this whirling wind and sudden rain? It is the work of Heaven and Earth. Even Heaven and Earth cannot remain long—they cannot sustain it even for a morning or an evening—so how much less can humans?

On the metaphor of “whirlwinds and torrential rain”

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (the “Minghuang” in the commentary) believed that heaven and earth, though supremely great, cannot make violent winds and torrential rain last for long; if people rush to succeed and cling to words and dogmas, they will injure the great Dao (the Way)—how then can they truly awaken to the Dao? Heshang Gong (traditionally a Han-dynasty recluse and one of the earliest commentators on the Laozi) said that heaven and earth are in themselves supremely spiritual entities, yet still cannot make whirling winds and sudden rain last a single morning, much less human affairs of impetuous haste. Wang Bi (a scholar of Wei during the Three Kingdoms period and author of the Laozi zhu, Commentary on the Laozi) pointed out that nothing violent or urgent can endure.

On “those who devote themselves to the Dao”

Emperor Xuanzong said that those who devote themselves to the Dao should not be bound by verbal teachings. Heshang Gong interpreted “cong” (to follow) as “wei” (to act), holding that people should act as the Dao does—quietly and naturally—and should not be restless and agitated like whirling winds and sudden rain.

On “identifying with the Dao, identifying with De (Virtue/Power), identifying with loss”

Emperor Xuanzong held that realizing the great Dao and forgetting words makes one identical with the Dao. Heshang Gong said that “the Dao-person” means one who loves the Dao, and “identifying with the Dao” means that all one does accords with the Dao; “the De-person” means one who loves De, and “identifying with De” means that what one does accords with De. Wang Bi held that those who devote themselves to the Dao take Wuwei (non-action) as the foundation and do not establish doctrines through verbal teaching; seeming to exist and yet not to exist, they enable the myriad things to preserve their original authenticity and become one body with the Dao. He also interpreted “obtaining” as “De” (Virtue/Power), saying that De is “fewness”; when one’s actions accord with De, one becomes one body with De. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) recorded a version in which the term “Dao-person” does not appear before “identifying with De.”

“Those who lose identify with loss”

The literal meaning is: for those who lose the Dao and De, what they do accords with “loss.”

Scripture Passage One (Commentary)

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang comments: When words are rigidly bound to doctrine, there is no way to grasp the principle within them. If one cannot grasp it, one goes astray from the Dao, and so one becomes identical with “loss.”

Heshang Gong comments: What is called “loss” means attending only to oneself and not to others. “Identical with loss” means being of the same kind as “loss.”

Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin Xuanxue scholar) comments: What is called “loss” refers to having too many entanglements. When entanglements are many, one loses one’s original nature; hence it is called “loss.” When conduct involves loss, one becomes one body with “loss”; therefore it is said, “identical with loss.”

Another note: In one edition, the character De is written as the character de, meaning “obtain.”

Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure, son of Wang Anshi, author of the Commentary on the Laozi) comments: The formation of a human being originally does not depend on external things; this is what is called “independent transformation” (duhua). Not depending on external things is originally subtle, minute, and spontaneous. But those who lose their original nature falsely posit a body as “I,” and so, in seeking the Dao, they bend themselves to conform to the Dao. In this way the Dao becomes the master, while the “I” that ought originally to be master instead becomes the Dao’s subordinate. Therefore those who seek the Dao have three grades—Dao, De, and loss—yet in the end all return to “loss.” This is because they have not realized the subtle and minute origin, but instead establish their own selves and set themselves in opposition to external things, causing the “one” to split into “two”; thus the two mutually interact and generate without cease.

Scripture Passage Two

Those who are identical with the Dao, the Dao also obtains them.

Heshang Gong comments: Those of the same kind as the Dao, the Dao also delights to receive them.

Those who are identical with De, De also obtains them.

Heshang Gong comments: Those of the same kind as De, De also delights to receive them.

Those who are identical with loss, loss also obtains them.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang comments: For those of the same kind as “loss,” “loss” also delights to make them lose (their original nature). Wang Bi comments: This means moving in accordance with what one oneself practices; therefore like responds to like.

Scripture Passage Three

When trust is insufficient,

Heshang Gong comments: When the ruler’s trustworthiness among those below is insufficient, those below will respond to the ruler with distrust.

there is distrust.

(This means that when trustworthiness is insufficient, there will be those who do not believe.)

The commentary at the end of Chapter 23 says that if people cling to words and are bound by dogma, they cannot comprehend the great Dao; this is a lack of faith in the Dao. To be the same as those who have lost the Dao and even to take joy in that loss is fundamentally to be without faith. Heshang Gong (a Han dynasty Daoist commentator) said that this is the natural principle by which things of the same kind gather together and sounds of the same pitch respond to one another, just as “clouds follow the dragon, wind follows the tiger; water flows toward the damp, fire tends toward the dry.” Wang Bi (a Xuanxue thinker of the Wei state during the Three Kingdoms) said that if those below lack faith in the Dao, how could disbelief not arise? Zhang Pang (a Northern Song commentator) said that single-mindedly pursuing strange and rare things causes one to lose the constant Dao of nature and life. If those above lack faith in the Dao, those below will inevitably lack faith as well; therefore, in cultivating oneself and governing others, one should hold fast to “the sparse” (xi)—that is, clarity and stillness, few undertakings, and no pursuit of novelty or cleverness.

One Who Stands on Tiptoe Does Not Stand Firm: To stand on tiptoe means, by extension, being eager to press forward and forcing one’s way ahead. Heshang Gong said that those who covet power, pursue fame and position, and eagerly seek glory cannot long establish themselves and practice the Dao. Wang Bi said that when things only press urgently forward, they lose their stability; hence it is said, “One who stands on tiptoe does not stand firm.”

One Who Straddles Does Not Walk: To straddle means to stride over with great steps. Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong, Li Longji) said that standing on tiptoe to gaze far and taking great strides are both for self-display and seeking reputation. Such practices ultimately cannot achieve clarity and understanding; they are like wanting to stand long on tiptoe or travel far with great strides—both are impossible. Heshang Gong said that to regard oneself as noble and place oneself above others causes the multitude to jointly reject one, making it impossible to move a single step. Zhang Pang said that this violates the normal state of the physical form and therefore loses the function of nature and life.

One Who Displays Himself Is Not Clear-Sighted: Tang Minghuang said that parading one’s talent and displaying oneself, restlessly seeking prominence, instead invites fault, and therefore one cannot be clear-sighted. Heshang Gong said that if a person admires his own appearance and believes his actions accord with the Dao, he does not realize that his form is ugly and his conduct base.

One Who Considers Himself Right Is Not Distinguished: Tang Minghuang said that considering oneself right and criticizing others makes one the object of the multitude’s resentment, and therefore one cannot be distinguished. Heshang Gong said that thinking oneself correct and rejecting others causes the multitude to jointly reject one, so that one cannot become manifest in the world.

Those who boast of themselves have no merit; those who exalt themselves do not endure.

In plain words: when people praise themselves and clutch credit in their own hands, they instead fail to attain true merit; when people are arrogant and display their abilities everywhere, they cannot establish themselves for long.

The reason lies in this: if one obstinately and arbitrarily boasts of oneself, others will not acknowledge it, and so there is no merit. Heshang Gong (the commentator “Heshang Gong,” traditionally regarded as a Han-dynasty Daoist exegete) says that if one has done something but still advertises oneself, one loses the merit and reputation one ought to have gained in the eyes of others.

Chapter Twenty-Five: “There Is Something Undifferentiated and Complete”

There is something undifferentiated and complete, born before Heaven and Earth.

In plain words: there is something that formed as an undifferentiated whole, existing long before the birth of Heaven and Earth.

The “something” here refers to the Dao. Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji, who annotated the Daodejing) says that this line is meant to explain the origin of the Dao and the arising of its name; therefore it is called “something”—it is undifferentiated and not yet divided, without form or name, yet it exists prior to Heaven and Earth.

“There is a thing, chaotically complete, born before Heaven and Earth” means that there is an integral, undifferentiated substance that existed long before the formation of Heaven and Earth. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji (referred to by the commentator as “Minghuang”), explains that the reason for saying “there is a thing” is to explain the basis on which the Dao can be named. This chaotically formed whole contains everything; tracing its process of transforming and giving birth to the ten thousand things, it was born before Heaven and Earth.

Heshang Gong (the famous Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi, abbreviated here as “He”) says that the Dao has no bodily form, yet is chaotically complete, and that the ten thousand things existed before Heaven and Earth. Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin metaphysician) says that the Dao is chaotic and indistinguishable, and that the ten thousand things rely on it for their completion, hence it is called “chaotically complete.” It is not known whose son it is, and therefore it was born before Heaven and Earth.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) says that the substance of the Dao is chaotically complete, and that compared with Heaven and Earth it is merely one thing among them. The phrase “before Heaven and Earth” is used deliberately because Laozi wanted to gather in the scattered and deluded minds of the world and make people return to their original nature. Seen from the differences among the ten thousand things, the Dao of chaotic completion is the whole; seen from the source of the Dao, even the chaotically complete thing still belongs to a differentiated form.

“Silent and empty”: Heshang Gong says that ji means soundless, and liao means empty and without form. Wang Bi says that jiliao refers to having no bodily form.

“Standing alone and unchanging”: Heshang Gong says that “standing alone” means having no counterpart or equal, and “unchanging” means constant and not changing. Wang Bi says that the Dao circulates and returns, never losing its constancy, and so it is called unchanging. Wang Pang says that the substance of the Dao of chaotic completion is eternally constant and unchanging.

“It circulates everywhere without peril”: Heshang Gong says that the Dao pervades between Heaven and Earth, entering everywhere and penetrating everywhere, and thus is never endangered. Wang Pang says that this is the function of the Dao of chaotic completion: the ten thousand things live and die through it, and it constantly governs the fate of the ten thousand things—who can harm it?

“It can be the mother of all under Heaven”: therefore, the Dao can serve as the root and source of all things under Heaven.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Emperor Xuanzong, Li Longji) comments: There is something that is undifferentiated and self-formed; its substance is still and empty, and its mysterious root is clear and perpetually tranquil. Thus it exists alone and does not change. Its function universally pervades the myriad things, circulating everywhere without peril. The myriad things rely on it to grow and reach completion, receiving its abundant nurturing grace; therefore it can serve as the mother of all things under heaven.

Heshang Gong comments: The Dao nurtures the myriad things as a mother nurtures her children. Wang Bi (a scholar of Wei in the Three Kingdoms and a commentator on the Laozi) says: The Dao circulates everywhere and reaches all places; thus it escapes peril and can preserve the great forms of the myriad things, and therefore it can serve as the mother of heaven and earth.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) says: This is the function of the undifferentiated Dao. The myriad things are born and die through it; it constantly governs the fate of the myriad things—who can put it in peril?

On the line “I do not know its name,” Wang Bi comments: A name is used to fix a form, but the undifferentiated Dao is formless and cannot be fixed; therefore it says one does not know its name. Heshang Gong says: I cannot see the Dao’s shape or appearance and do not know by what name to call it, but I see that all things arise from the Dao; therefore I provisionally call it “Dao.” Wang Bi further says: A name is used to fix a form, and a style-name is used to designate what can be spoken of. The Dao takes no thing as its model and is not produced by anything else; within the undifferentiated whole, it is the greatest designation that can be spoken.

“I forcibly name it ‘Great’”—this is the only line of original text here; it means: I force a name for it and call it “Great.”

The Great Is Called “Passing On.”

Plain-language interpretation:

“Great” is another name for Dao (the Way), referring to its boundless vastness. “Passing on” means movement and circulation. This sentence says: Dao is boundless and vast, and it ceaselessly moves and circulates.

Heshang Gong’s commentary says: The “greatness” of Dao is not like heaven, which is fixed above, nor like earth, which is fixed below; rather, it constantly moves and changes, with no fixed abode.

Wang Bi’s commentary says: “Passing on” means moving. Dao does not cling to one place; it simply circulates throughout the world with its vast fundamental body, reaching everywhere, and so it is called “passing on.”

Zhang Pang’s commentary says: Since Dao is vast, it possesses a function; it circulates and operates among the ten thousand things, and its function becomes evident.

Passing On Is Called “Going Far.”

Plain-language interpretation:

Dao moves and circulates, going farther and farther, spreading throughout the four directions.

Heshang Gong’s commentary says: “Far” means that Dao transcends the finite and runs through the infinite; Qi (vital energy) fills heaven and earth and penetrates everywhere.

Zhang Pang’s commentary says: The function of Dao reaches everywhere, so it can be said to be very far. Yet once it departs from its root, it becomes increasingly far—this is merely the state called “Huncheng” (an undifferentiated whole that forms naturally). If one has already reached the utmost of Dao, then there is no question of far or near.

Going Far Is Called “Returning.”

Plain-language interpretation:

When Dao moves to the farthest point, it returns again to the source. “Fan” means “return,” the idea of going back. This reflects the characteristic of Dao: “it circulates everywhere without cease” and moves in endless cycles.

The Dao (the Way) and De (Virtue/Power) cannot be exhausted by words in their wondrous function; even forcing a name upon them is insufficient to express them. Thus if people seek it from outside, they chase it farther and farther away; if they seek it beyond themselves, the distance becomes even greater. If one can penetrate this truth, the Dao is instead within one’s own body and mind and can be personally verified.

Heshang Gong (the Han-dynasty scholar who annotated the Laozi) says that the Dao reaches the utmost far, yet does not go beyond the myriad things; in the end it must return to the human person. Wang Bi (the Wei-Jin metaphysician) says that far means the utmost limit: the Dao pervades the myriad things and reaches everywhere, not inclining to any one place, and so it is called far; it does not shift with external things, and its resolve stands alone, and so it is called returning. The commentator Xiu says that things that are conditioned and have form will ultimately return to the realm of no affairs and no things; coming and going without end, they end and then begin again.

The Dao is great, Heaven is great, Earth is great, and the king is also great. Tang Minghuang says, explaining it in terms of greatness: those that can be ranked as “great” together with the Dao are Heaven, Earth, and the king. The greatness of Heaven lies in covering the myriad things; the greatness of Earth lies in carrying the myriad things; the greatness of the king lies in modeling himself on the way of Earth, thereby allowing the way of Heaven to be carried out—therefore he too is great. Heshang Gong says that the greatness of the Dao lies in encompassing Heaven and Earth, containing all without exception; the greatness of Heaven lies in covering all without exception; the greatness of Earth lies in carrying all without exception; the greatness of the king lies in governing all without exception. Wang Bi says that in the nature of Heaven and Earth, the human being is most honored, and the king is the ruler of human beings. Although the king does not occupy the great position, he is great for this reason as well; together with Heaven and Earth he is called one of the three greats, and so it is said, “the king is also great.” Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song) says that Heaven and Earth can embody and realize the Dao, and therefore both are great; the king’s position is below the emperor, and he is the culmination of the human way. In Laozi’s teaching, the substance of the Dao still has aspects not fully exhausted; for the present, what is essential is to fully realize human nature. The king is named for causing people to return and go to him; if he can fully realize human nature, people will submit and attach to him, just as the hundred valleys take the rivers and seas as their source. To fully realize one’s nature is to embody the Dao; this is how his greatness is displayed.

“Within the domain there are four greats”: this sentence is a summarizing statement, saying that within the universe there are four kinds of greatness.

The Four Greats refer to Dao (the Way), Heaven, Earth, and the King. Anything that can be spoken of or named is not its highest level. Wang Bi (a Three Kingdoms Wei metaphysician and commentator on the Laozi) says: When one speaks of “Dao,” one must have something on which to rely; only by having something to rely on is it called “Dao.” Seen this way, what the name “Dao” refers to is merely the greatest among things that have designations; it cannot compare with that “Great” which has no reliance and cannot be designated. Dao, Heaven, Earth, and the King all fall within the scope of the undesignated, and so it says, “Within the domain there are four greats.” Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure, son of Wang Anshi and author of a Laozi commentary) says: The substance of Dao receives a name only by relying on the myriad things; therefore it still does not depart from “within the domain.”

“And the king occupies one of them”: Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji, who once annotated the Daodejing) says: The king is the most intelligent and refined among people and the lord of the myriad people; the rise and fall of the myriad things all depend on him. Therefore, to set forth a warning, it says “the king occupies one of them,” wishing to admonish the ruler and give him something to emulate; this refers to the following text. Heshang Gong (the legendary Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) says: Within the eight extremities there are four greats, and the king occupies one of them. Wang Bi says: This speaks of the greatness of the ruler of men. Wang Pang says: Another edition has “the king occupies one place among them.”

“Humans model Earth”: Heshang Gong says: Humans should model Earth’s quietness and gentleness. By sowing they obtain the five grains; by digging they obtain sweet springs. They labor without resentment and have merit without claiming it. Wang Pang says: This means that the king can fully bring out human nature. The text again speaks of “human” here to show that kingly virtue is limited to human affairs; human nature inherently possesses kingly virtue.

“Earth models Heaven”: Heshang Gong says: Heaven is clear and tranquil, constant and unmoving; it bestows on the myriad things without seeking return, and grows the myriad things without claiming them as its own.

“Heaven models Dao”: Heshang Gong says: Dao is pure, quiet, and wuwei (non-action); it does not speak or utter words, secretly circulates Jing (essence) and Qi (vital energy), and the myriad things naturally come into being.

“Dao models Nature”: Minghuang’s annotation on this line is rather brief; its general meaning is that “human” refers to the ruler and is related to the earlier meaning of “collecting.” The original text is only this, and it is difficult to examine in detail.

The so-called “king” should first model himself on the tranquility and stability of the earth; then model himself on Heaven, which transforms and nurtures all things into growth; after the myriad things have been generated, he must further model himself on the Dao (the Way), the fundamental law of the universe and all things, being pure, quiet, and Wuwei (non-action), allowing the myriad things to evolve naturally. If the ruler can act in this way, he enables the common people also to accord with the natural disposition followed by the Dao.

Commentary by Emperor Ming of Tang (Emperor Xuanzong, Li Longji): The preceding passage is Emperor Xuanzong’s annotation.

Heshang Gong’s Commentary: The Dao endures forever and is inherently so; there is nothing it needs to model itself on.

Wang Bi’s Commentary: “Fa” means “law” or “model.” Humans do not oppose the earth, and only thus can they attain complete security and stability; this is modeling the earth. The earth does not oppose Heaven, and only thus can it fully bear all things; this is modeling Heaven. Heaven does not oppose the Dao, and only thus can it fully cover all things; this is modeling the Dao. The Dao does not oppose Naturalness (ziran), and only thus can it attain its own nature; this is modeling Naturalness. A square vessel takes its squareness, a round vessel takes its roundness; there is no violation of “Naturalness.” “Naturalness” is a term that cannot be described in words; it is an expression made only when language has reached its limit. To use wisdom is not as good as to be without knowing; to have physical form is not as good as the formless subtle image; the subtle image is not as good as the formless; to have bearing is not as good as to have no bearing. Therefore “Dao” and “fa” mutually follow one another. The Dao models Naturalness, and Heaven thereby relies on it; Heaven models the Dao, and Earth thereby takes it as its standard; Earth models Heaven, and humans thereby imitate it. This is the principle by which the ruler, as sovereign, is unified in the “One.”

Wang Pang’s Commentary: Naturalness is prior to the Dao, but it is still not the highest state of the Dao. Speaking in terms of things, these four appear to be inferred as modeling one another in sequence, but each of them does not know where its starting point lies; there is no distinction of before and after. Zhuangzi says: “Jizhen’s ‘nothing makes them so’—holding that things arise spontaneously without any agent—and Jiezi’s ‘something makes them so’—holding that things are caused by something—each speaks only of one aspect of things.” The Buddhists say: “It is neither by cause nor by condition, nor is it naturalness.” Naturalness stands above the realm of existing things and also transcends what lies below things. This formulation is set below those of Zhuangzi and the Buddhists; yet Laozi did not teach those who had not attained the Dao—he spoke in accord with the circumstances of the time, and therefore did not violate principle. If scholars are allowed to stop at “Naturalness” and take it as a final conclusion, they will depart far from principle; this must be carefully examined.

Chapter 26: Heavy Is the Root of Light: The heavy and solid is the root of the light and frivolous; calm stillness is the master of restlessness.

Because what is heavy and solid can press down and restrain what is light and frivolous, weightiness is called the root. Heshang Gong (an Eastern Han recluse and the reputed author of the Laozi commentary Heshang Gong Zhangju) holds that if a ruler lacks gravity, he loses his dignity; if one cultivates the self without stillness, one loses one’s spirit. The flowers and leaves of plants and trees are light and drifting, and so they easily wither; only when the roots are deep and solid can they survive for long. The dragon can transform because it is calm and still; the tiger meets an early death because it is restless and agitated. Wang Bi (a scholar of Wei in the Three Kingdoms period and author of the Laozi Zhu) says that the light cannot carry the heavy, and the small cannot steady the great. Thus the heavy is necessarily the root of the light, and stillness necessarily the master of restlessness.

Therefore, when the noble person travels the whole day, he does not leave his baggage train (the carts and supplies that carry provisions, a metaphor for fundamental support). Zhang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) explains that travelers value lightness and speed, but they still must rely on the baggage train to provide for themselves. If they go far from the baggage train, they will be stranded midway.

Even when amid splendid and bustling scenes, in leisurely dwelling he remains detached and is not burdened by material desires.

Minghuang’s Commentary (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji)

One who is a ruler should take gravity and stillness as the foundation. Even when dwelling in splendid palace halls, he should be content in the position he ought to occupy, remain detached from material desires, and not be moved by external things.

“How can the lord of ten thousand chariots treat his person lightly in relation to the world?”

“How can” is an exclamation, meaning “how could it be that.” The lord of ten thousand chariots refers to the Son of Heaven who possesses ten thousand chariots. This sentence asks: how can the Son of Heaven act according to his desires and behave rashly, to the point of losing the world? Heshang Gong, a Han-dynasty scholar who commented on the Laozi, believed that this sharply condemns the extravagance and self-indulgence of rulers of the time. Commentators in the line of Guo Xiang held that the world is the ruler’s root, and that one must not regard one’s own person as light or base.

“If light, one loses one’s ministers; if rash, one loses the ruler.”

When a ruler acts lightly, the hearts of the people scatter, and he thereby loses the support of his ministers. When a minister is eager for advancement and behaves frivolously, the ruler no longer trusts him, and he thereby loses the position of ruler. Heshang Gong also speaks from the perspective of self-cultivation: frivolous indulgence depletes Jing and Qi; agitation damages the Shen (spirit). Wang Bi held that lightness cannot preserve heaviness, and that losing the root leads to the loss of one’s life.

“Chapter Twenty-Seven: ‘Good Conduct’”

This is the title of Chapter 27 of the Daodejing. “Good conduct leaves no ruts or traces” uses the image of a skilled traveler who leaves no carriage tracks to explain that one who is truly skilled in action has traces wholly concealed, accords with nature, and does not make a display of himself.

Good Action Leaves No Ruts or Tracks

Tang Minghuang (that is, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji, who once annotated the Daodejing) says: Among the various principles, if one can avoid clinging to outward appearances, one’s actions will have no deliberate traces; this is why it is called “good action.” In this way the mind unites with Dao (the Way), and naturally there are no cart ruts to be found. Heshang Gong (the purported Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) says: One who is good at practicing the Dao seeks it within himself; he does not descend from his hall or go out his door, and so there are no ruts or traces. Wang Bi (a Three Kingdoms Wei metaphysician and commentator on the Laozi) says: He acts in accord with nature, without fabrication and without taking the initiative, and so things are able to arrive yet leave no trace to follow. Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure, son of Wang Anshi, author of a Laozi Commentary) says: One who embodies numinous subtlety can circulate everywhere without limit. When the sage acts only because he has no alternative, he also constantly keeps his traces from appearing in the world, fearing only that the common people might thereby alter their De (Virtue/Power). What the Zhuangzi calls “acting without traces” is precisely this meaning.

Good Speech Leaves No Flaw or Reproach

Tang Minghuang says: One who can fully understand verbal teaching is not trapped by words; he uses words to seek their meaning, and once the principle is verified he forgets the words. Thus with respect to verbal teaching there is no flaw or fault. Heshang Gong says: Good speech means selecting appropriate words and uttering them; then there is no blemish, and fault does not lie with the world. Wang Bi says: He follows the nature of things, without discrimination or fragmentation; thus there is nothing to censure, and one can find the gateway. Wang Pang says: The so-called zhiyan (“goblet words,” words that respond to circumstances and do not cling to one side) are as natural as the rising sun; words come forth without deliberate mind, so though words fill the world, in reality nothing has ever been truly said—how could there still be flaws or faults?

Good Calculation Does Not Use Counting Rods

It means: One who is good at calculation need not rely on tools such as counting rods (small wooden sticks used by the ancients for counting). This sentence follows Laozi’s “good reckoning does not use counting tallies,” referring to a person of thorough understanding who has his own measure in mind and needs no external object to assist him.

Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong) says: To understand the principle that all phenomena are originally one and without distinction, and to always guard this “One” without giving rise to other thoughts, one need not labor to employ cleverness and schemes. If it were not the case that all affairs under heaven can be brought to the point where no scheme can be applied and no form can be grasped, what would such a state amount to? This is precisely the expression of being skilled in action.

Heshang Gong says: One who is skilled at planning by means of the Dao and is single-minded in the Dao can guard the One without wavering. The matters such a person plans are few, so without needing clever stratagems, such a person naturally understands the principles of things.

Wang Bi says: Calculating according to natural principle does not require the aid of concrete images and objects.

Wang Pang, a Song dynasty scholar, says: One produces two, two produces three; extending from this, even the most refined calendrical calculation cannot exhaust it. Only by concentrating the spirit on the “One” and not falling into the various numbers is there nothing outside oneself; when things come before one’s eyes, they are immediately clear—where would one still need to resort to counting rods? Another version reads, “Good at calculating without counting rods.”

The scripture says: “One who is good at closing does not use bolts or latches, yet others cannot open it.” “Guan” is the crossbar inserted behind the door, and “jian” is the wooden peg that secures the door leaf. This sentence uses closing a door as an analogy to explain that one who attains the Dao naturally guards the root, without external bonds, and external things have no way to intrude.

Scripture Passage One: Forgetting Both Words and Deeds, the Mind Joins the Dao (the Way)

Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Minghuang) comments: If a person can forget both words and actions at the same time, not fall into external byways, not let the mind chase after outer conditions, and be free of the entanglements of arising thoughts, then even without a door bolt, who could open the door of his mind?

Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi and a Daoist commentator) of the Northern Song says: The mind is kept in a state not drawn out by external things, and the outside is shut out. Since nothing outside can enter, who can still open it? This is what the Zhouyi (Book of Changes) means by “retreat and hide in secrecy” (from the Xici, meaning to withdraw and conceal oneself deeply in the subtle and hidden). In this way, even ghosts and spirits cannot spy out its traces, much less find a way in.

One skilled at tying knots makes a knot that cannot be untied without using rope.

Emperor Ming of Tang further comments: To realize and understand true nature has its root in emptiness, stillness, and self-forgetting. If one can be empty, still, and self-forgetful, the mind becomes one with the Dao. Even without ropes binding it, how could it be untied or dispersed?

The He commentary (possibly referring to Heshang Gong) notes: Only one skilled at handling affairs through the Dao can bind his own mind. This is not like a rope that can be untied.

Wang Bi comments: Follow the natural nature of things, do not set up artificial constructs, and do not impose action; thus no bolts or ropes are needed, yet it cannot be opened or untied.

The five commentary passages above all say: “Do not fabricate, do not impose action; follow the nature of things and do not use external forms to control them.”

Wang Pang further comments: By binding the trust of all under heaven with one’s own sincerity, who can untie it?

Scripture Passage Two: The Sage Saves People and Rejects No One

Therefore the sage is always skilled at saving people.

Heshang Gong comments: The sage constantly teaches people loyalty and filial piety, wishing thereby to save people’s lives.

Thus there are no abandoned people.

Heshang Gong comments: Cause the noble and the humble each to receive proper settlement.

Wang Bi comments: The sage does not establish names, roles, and forms to constrain the myriad things, does not artificially exalt or deprecate anyone, and does not abandon anyone because of worthiness or unworthiness. He merely assists the myriad things in following their natural natures and does not rush ahead into action. Hence it is said, “There are no abandoned people.” Not exalting the worthy, the people do not contend; not prizing rare goods, the people do not steal; not displaying things that arouse desire, the people’s minds are not disordered. Constantly keeping the people’s minds free from desire and confusion—this is the state of mind of “no abandoned people.”

Scripture Passage Three: Always Skilled at Saving Things

This is a surviving fragment of a scriptural passage; its general meaning is that the sage is constantly skilled at saving the myriad things, causing each to find its proper place.

Heshang Gong says: The reason the sage teaches the common people to comply with the changes of the four seasons is to rescue the myriad things from the harm and injury they suffer.

Thus, for the sage, no thing is cast aside.

Tang Minghuang says: Therefore the sage constantly employs the teaching of these five good practices, and so no person or thing is abandoned. ○ Heshang Gong further says: The sage does not despise stone and prize fine jade; he regards them as equal. ○ Wang Pang says: The sage’s virtue is inexhaustible; he takes wondrous spirit as the root of his functioning, and therefore he can possess these five good practices. In this way he can nurture all things completely, so that the small can fulfill what is small in them and the great can fulfill what is great in them, each attaining its proper place. The five good practices reside in the sage himself, yet through other people he brings others to fulfillment; the result is that neither people nor the myriad things are abandoned. This may be called the highest virtue. In saving people, the sage does no more than not changing people’s original nature. Therefore, although he has words and actions, he leaves no trace at all; he constantly rests in “the One” and does not disturb his mind with clever calculations, so that even in closing and concluding, he is always within tolerance and ease. This is roughly the essential point of the sage’s way of saving people. The work of maintaining it lies with oneself, but in fact it is also used to save others. (One edition has the eight characters beginning “without constancy, good at saving things…” below.)

This is called “inheriting clarity” (ximing).

Tang Minghuang says: What is called “secret application” (miyong) means following it day after day. The practice of the five goods lies in forgetting and relinquishing; when one forgets without clinging, one does not advance or grasp, and so it is called “secret application.” Being able to apply it secretly, one can awaken to clarity, and so it is called “clarity.” ○ Heshang Gong says: The sage is good at saving people and saving things; this is what is meant by the great Dao of inheriting clarity. ○ Wang Pang says: “Xi” is like the xi in “yangxi,” meaning to follow and carry on. When the sage dwells in the world, he does not dare to display his own clear insight. If clear insight is exposed, things will all be revealed without remainder, and the common people will inevitably turn away from the root; this is not the way of being good at saving people. The five matters mentioned above are all “inheriting clarity.”

Therefore the good person is the teacher of the not-good person,

Heshang Gong says: The sage takes those who do good as teachers for others, using them to guide others. ○ Wang Bi says: He uses good conduct to serve as a model for others, demonstrating the Way. The five matters mentioned above are all “inheriting clarity.”

Note: At the end of the original text, the sentence “Therefore the good person is the teacher of the not-good person” appears twice, and the latter half of Wang Bi’s commentary repeats the earlier “inheriting clarity”; this is suspected to be a duplication in the base edition’s typesetting or transcription, not a translation problem. In addition, “He says” refers to Heshang Gong; “Minghuang” refers to Tang Xuanzong Li Longji (who commented on the Daodejing); “Pang” refers to Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song, author of a Laozi commentary); and “Bi” refers to Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin period metaphysician). The original text is only an excerpt of commentary, so the above reading is based solely on the given text.

Good people are the teachers of not-good people, and not-good people are the material that good people can make use of.

Heshang Gong (the famous Han dynasty commentator on Laozi) says: when good people practice goodness, the sage takes them as a model teacher for others. Wang Bi (the Wei-Jin Xuanxue scholar and commentator on Laozi) says: one brings forward good people as examples for the not-good, and therefore calls them teachers. Tang Minghuang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji, who once composed an imperial commentary on the Daodejing) says: “teacher” means to model oneself on, and “material” means to make use of. Good people can serve as objects of emulation, and not-good people can also be used and employed. Heshang Gong further says: “material” means what is used by me. If people do not do good, the sage still teaches them to turn toward goodness, so that they can be used by him. Wang Bi also says: “material” means to make use of. Good people use goodness to counteract not-goodness, using goodness to remove not-goodness; therefore not-good people are what good people make use of. Zeng Pang (a Northern Song scholar and commentator on Laozi) says: only when there are not-good people can the good person’s merit of relieving others become manifest; hence it is called “material.”

“Not to prize one’s teacher and not to love one’s material”: Heshang Gong says that if one single-mindedly prizes the teacher, one will become isolated and lose assistance. Tang Minghuang says that the deep meaning of this chapter is to teach people to forget even “forgetting.” If the distinction between teacher and material still remains, it is not yet the highest state. To prize the teacher is to cling to the outward appearance of “learning”; once the outward appearance of learning is empty, there is nothing to prize. To love the material is to cling to the outward appearance of “teaching”; since teaching too must be forgotten, one does not love the material. When both prizing and loving are forgotten, the Dao (the Way) naturally transforms the myriad things. Heshang Gong says that this means not to command others. Zeng Pang says that the sage shares good and bad fortune with the people, and so provisionally establishes the names of teacher and material, borrowing them for the virtue of doing good and saving others. In the end, the Dao is penetrating and unified—how could there still be any distinction between teacher and material? Seen in this way, it is not only that I do not love the material; I also want to make the people of the world forget me. To make the people of the world have no mind toward me—this too depends merely on these five good practices.

As for “though wise, greatly deluded”: Heshang Gong says that even if such a person considers himself wise, he is in fact greatly deluded. Wang Bi says that although one may have wisdom, if one relies on one’s wisdom and does not accord with the Dao, one will inevitably go astray.

“Though Wise, Greatly Confused” and “Essential Subtlety”: Heshang Gong’s commentary says that even when people consider themselves clever, they are in fact greatly confused. Wang Bi (the Three Kingdoms Wei commentator) holds that to possess wisdom but rely on one’s own wisdom, failing to accord with the natural principle of Dao, inevitably leads to failure; hence “though wise, greatly confused.” Wang Pang (a Northern Song commentator) further points out that the wise understand only the principles of things with form, not the wonder of the formless, and so are confused precisely at the subtle essence of Dao. Emperor Minghuang of Tang (Tang Xuanzong) says that when teacher and disciple both forget their mutual distinctions, this is “mysterious De.” Ordinary people cannot understand it and therefore regard it as great confusion. Heshang Gong adds that one who can penetrate this layer of principle understands the subtle essential way; this is “this is called essential subtlety.”

Knowing the Male and Keeping to the Female, Becoming the Stream of the World: Wang Pang says the male belongs to movement and the female to stillness; in stillness one does not depart from true nature. But merely keeping stillness is not enough; therefore the Perfected Person (zhiren) takes the female as constant while still knowing the principle of the male, attending to both. Heshang Gong explains that the male symbolizes honor and prominence, the female lowliness. Even when people know their own nobility, they should keep to lowliness, discard hardness and take up softness; then all under Heaven will return to them as water flows into a deep valley. The commentator Xiao says that the stream and valley occupy a low place and only thus can they contain and make water flow through. One who keeps to the female receives the ten thousand things with an empty, still mind and does not become stuck on things; hence “becoming the stream of the world”—this is the person who has fulfilled their nature.

Constant De Does Not Depart: Heshang Gong says that if a person can be humble and lowly like a deep stream, De will constantly abide and no longer depart from oneself. Wang Pang says “constant De” is the Dao that is stable, unchanging, and present within me; “does not depart” means to concentrate on guarding what is within one’s nature and not to seek outwardly.

Returning Again to the Infant: By keeping to the female, being humble and lowly, and maintaining constant De, one finally returns to the pure, gentle, and soft nature of an infant.

Commentary by Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang): One who knows the principle of the male and strong, yet willingly keeps to the female and soft, and through the De (Virtue/Power) of humility and lowliness causes the myriad things to return and attach themselves, is like the valley-streams of the world; then the true and constant De does not depart from his person. Embracing the Great Dao (the Way) and containing and storing harmonious Qi (vital energy), he can return to an infant-like state of purity.

Heshang Gong comments: This means causing the mind and will to return to infancy, wholly without knowing and without desire.

Wang Bi comments: The male belongs to “the first”; the female belongs to “the latter.” One who understands how to be first in the world must be willing to place himself behind others; thus the sage puts himself behind, yet is able to be in the forefront. The valley-streams do not seek out the myriad things, yet the myriad things naturally return to them; the infant does not use a calculating mind, yet accords with natural wisdom.

Zhang Pang (a Northern Song commentator) comments: The infant embraces harmony and guards the One; desires and thoughts have not yet sprouted. It preserves the true simplicity of its original nature, wholly undispersed; when De is profound to the utmost, it is no different from the state at birth. One who can be like this may be called “great.” Mencius said, “The great person does not lose the heart of the newborn child.”

On the line “Know the white, keep to the black,” Zhang Pang comments: Black is the color of the north, profound, still, and silent, difficult to describe in words. When the sage establishes all standards and norms, if he does not keep to the De of mysterious black, there will be no root. It is like the myriad things being conceived and nurtured in the dark winter and then emerging and growing in spring and summer; this is the verification.

On “being the model for the world,” Heshang Gong comments: White symbolizes the clearly exposed; black symbolizes the silent and hidden. Although a person is clear and self-aware, he should still keep to the dark and Wuwei (non-action), as if dim and unseen; only thus can he become the model for the world, and his De endure. Wang Bi comments: “Model” means pattern and standard. Zhang Pang comments: The perfected person takes the sage as the standard for the world, because the sage has realized the middle way.

On “constant De does not err,” Heshang Gong comments: When a person can become the standard for the world, De constantly abides in his person, and there is no further error or deviation. Wang Bi comments: The word wu here means error or deviation. Zhang Pang, however, holds that if this Dao is applied to affairs, its scope is indeed far-reaching and great, but there may still be deviation; therefore one should take the middle way realized by the sage as the standard.

Main Idea of the Scripture Passage

This passage is a commentary on the line in the Daodejing, “Knowing honor, keeping to disgrace.”

Heshang Gong says: If a person can serve as a model for all under Heaven, De will constantly remain in him and he will not go astray. (Here “wu” is “te,” meaning a mistake.) Wang Bi also takes “wu” to mean error or fault. Wang Pang says that a person of profound cultivation handles affairs and encounters things as the seasons naturally alternate between cold and heat, with no accumulated anger in his mind; therefore he does not go astray.

Regarding the line “returning again to Wuji (the Limitless),” Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) explains: One can keep to feminine yieldingness and pure tranquility; although one’s De is clear and manifest, one should conceal it as if it were dark and obscure. In this way one can become a pattern for all under Heaven. When De is constantly used without being violated, its function becomes inexhaustible; therefore one can “return again to Wuji.” Heshang Gong holds that if one’s De is not mistaken, one can attain long life and enduring longevity and return to the boundless realm. Wang Bi says that “Wuji” means the inexhaustible. Wang Pang further points out that “being great and transforming others is what is meant by sage” (a saying from the Mencius); the sage’s transforming influence renews daily and is inexhaustible. Thus “inexhaustible” is precisely the sage’s substance; function arises from substance and then returns to the source.

The Final Sentence of the Commentary

“The sage reaches this point” is the opening of Wang Pang’s commentary; it refers to the sage’s cultivation having reached this state. It leads into the following further explanation of “knowing honor, keeping to disgrace.”