《道德真经集注(宋太守张氏)》Vol. 4

Thus, things are sometimes diminished and thereby gain; they are increased and thereby suffer loss.

Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji, who annotated the Daodejing) says: Those who actively diminish themselves will be increased by others; those who single-mindedly seek increase will instead be diminished by others. Thus the rivers and seas, because they occupy low places, can receive the hundred streams; only the humble and soft can grasp the initiative of growth; such self-designations as “the solitary” and “the deficient” are also terms of self-humility—is this not quite fitting?

Heshang Gong (an early commentator on the Daodejing) says: Things that are raised high will collapse; those who greedily seek abundance will invite calamity.

Wang Bi (a Wei metaphysician of the Three Kingdoms period and author of the Laozi zhu) says: The myriad things have different forms, but ultimately they are unified. How is unity attained? It depends on “non-being” (wu). Only by relying on non-being can one return to the “one.” The “one” may be called “non-being,” and may also be called “the one”; how could it be expressed without relying on words? Once there are words, there is the “one”; if there is the “one” and it does not become “two,” how should this be understood? There is the “one” and also the “two”; “two” gives birth to “three”; from non-being to being, the evolution of numbers is exhausted at “three.” Beyond this step, it is no longer within the operation of the Dao (the fundamental principle of all things in the universe). Therefore, in the generation of the myriad things, I know that there is a master; although there is the form of a master, the harmonious Qi (the primordial vital energy in which Yin-Yang unite and which fills heaven and earth) is unified. The common people each have their own minds, and different states each have their own customs; where the “one” is obtained, it is the lords and kings who preside. With the “one” as master, how could this “one” be altered at will? To start from the side of multiplicity is to drift farther from the Dao; only through diminishment can one draw near; only by diminishing to the utmost can one reach the ultimate. Since it is already called the “one,” and one still has to push on to “three,” how much less can one who is fundamentally not the “one” come near the Dao? That diminishment should instead bring increase—could this be an empty saying?

Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song, who also annotated the Daodejing) says: Low-lying marshes are full and moist; towering mountain peaks are thin and lean. After noon, the sun turns toward decline; when the moon has waned to the utmost, it becomes full again. These things all belong to Yin-Yang, and the numerical principles of Yin-Yang are derived from one and two. When a principle reaches its extreme, it returns; this is so for all things. The sage understands how to accord with the times of fullness and depletion, follows the patterns of waxing and waning, and constantly keeps to humility—how could he be overbearing and aggressive and thereby invite disaster?

The original text’s phrase “what others teach” is explained by Heshang Gong as referring to the multitude teaching people to abandon weakness and seek strength, to abandon softness and seek hardness. “I too teach it” means that I also go to teach them.

Laozi says: If a ruler wishes to establish teachings and transform people, he should instruct them according to this principle of suppleness, yielding, emptiness, and quietude. Heshang Gong (the Han-dynasty scholar who annotated the Laozi) explains: My teaching of people is meant to make them discard the mind that shows off strength, discard a rigid temperament, and become gentle and compliant.

Wang Bi (a Wei of the Three Kingdoms annotator of the Laozi) explains: I do not take arrogance and coercion as essential, so that people may be compliant. The Dao models itself on spontaneity, and this embodies the most fundamental principle; to follow it brings good fortune, to oppose it brings danger. Therefore, when people teach one another, if they violate this principle they inevitably bring danger upon themselves, just as the principle I teach cannot be violated.

Tang Xuanzong Li Longji (called “Minghuang” in the commentary) explains: Arrogant, violent people contend with external things when they act; blindly seeking increase, they instead suffer loss, and external things strike them, so they do not meet a good end.

Heshang Gong further explains: “Strong and violent” refers to those who do not believe in the mysterious Dao, depart from Dao and De, do not follow the scriptures and teachings, exalt power, and indulge in force. “Not attaining their death” means being abandoned by Heaven, wounded by weapons, executed by royal law, and unable to live out their natural lifespan.

The line “I will regard it as the father of teaching” is not elaborated in the commentary to this passage.

The Daode Zhenjing Jizhu is a Song dynasty commentary edition; the selection here is from commentaries on the passage in Chapter 43 of the Daodejing, “The Softest Under Heaven.”

The scripture says: the softest thing under heaven can gallop through the hardest thing under heaven.

Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) comments that “the softest” refers to the human being’s originally pure and clear natural disposition. If one races about after worldly affairs and is stained by dusty, mundane circumstances, with desires filling one’s heart, then this natural disposition instead becomes like the hardest thing under heaven. Heshang Gong comments that “the softest” refers to water and “the hardest” to metal and stone; water can penetrate hard things and there is nowhere it cannot pass through. Wang Bi comments that Qi can enter everywhere and water can flow forth everywhere.

Regarding the line “The non-existent enters where there is no gap,” Heshang Gong comments that “the non-existent” refers to the Dao. The Dao has no bodily form, and so it can enter and exit where there is no opening and penetrate all things. Another commentator says: if there were even a minute substantial object, its movement would be obstructed—how then could it enter a place with no gap?

Heshang Gong says: “Non-being” (wu-you) refers to Dao. Dao has no form or substance; therefore it can enter and emerge from places where there is no gap, penetrating the divine and all living beings.

Xiu (the commentator) says: If even the slightest thing exists, it will create an obstruction—how then could one enter a place without any gap? To contemplate external conditions and arrive at the realm of utmost emptiness is precisely this. This is why the sage realizes “non-being” and thereby follows the myriad things.

From this we can know that the benefits of Wuwei (non-action) are real and substantial.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) says: “Non-being” means not being stained by the external conditions of the dusty world, causing the mind to be utterly without anything. “No gap” means that the nature of Dao is pure and still; its wondrous substance is undifferentiated and complete, without the slightest crack. If one is not disturbed by desires and brings both mind and external conditions to tranquility, utterly without anything, then the mind unites with Dao and can enter the realm of no gap. Therefore the sage says: “When I see body and mind as pure and still, I can unite with Dao.” From this we know that the teaching of deliberate action is not as greatly beneficial as Wuwei.

Heshang Gong says: I see that Dao acts through Wuwei, and the myriad things naturally transform and grow; therefore I know that Wuwei benefits people.

Wang Bi (the commentator) says: Empty, void, soft, and weak, it passes everywhere and nothing can exhaust it; even the softest and weakest thing cannot be broken. By extension, we know that Wuwei is beneficial.

“The Teaching Without Words”

Heshang Gong says: To model oneself on Dao without speaking, and to guide others by making oneself an example.

“The Benefits of Wuwei”

Heshang Gong says: To model oneself on Dao and practice Wuwei: in cultivating the self, it benefits the spirit; in governing the state, it benefits the myriad people, and one does not weary the spirit or become vexed.

“Few in the World Can Attain It”

Emperor Ming of Tang says: Among the various teachings in the world, few can reach this realm. Heshang Gong says: “The world” refers to the ruler; few can, like Dao, cultivate themselves and govern the state through Wuwei. Yu (the commentator) says: The teaching without words and the benefits of Wuwei cannot be conveyed through images or transmitted through words; only one who has realized “non-being” and exhausted the depths of Dao is sufficient to comprehend them—is this not also very rare?

“Chapter Forty-Four: Fame and the Self”

This is the opening of Chapter 44 of the Laozi. “Fame and the self—which is closer?” means: Fame and one’s own self, which is more intimate and more worthy of being treasured?

Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji) says: Fame is an appendage of actuality. People lose themselves in the pursuit of fame. The scripture asks, “Which is closer, fame or the self?” intending that people set aside achievements and reputation so as to preserve their original authenticity.

Heshang Gong (the Han-dynasty recluse who commented on the Laozi) says: Once fame is achieved, which is closer? He also says: Once fame is achieved, one should retire one’s body. Wang Bi (the Wei-Jin-era Xuanxue thinker and author of the Commentary on the Laozi) says: A person who exalts empty reputation and pursues high position ends up making himself distant from others.

The scripture then asks: Compared with wealth and goods, which is more precious, the body?

This passage is a commentary on Chapter 44 of the Laozi: “Which is dearer, fame or the self? Which is greater, the self or goods? Which is more harmful, gain or loss?”

Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) believed that those who pursue fame do so in order to obtain wealth and profit, but even when wealth and profit are gained, the self may be lost. Laozi asks: Which is closer, fame or the self? Which is more important, the self or goods? Which is more harmful, gain or loss? His purpose is to make people cast off greed as one might throw away jade vessels and smash precious pearls, so that they may preserve their original nature and harmony.

The commentary of Heshang Gong says that the more goods and wealth one has, the more they injure the self. Wang Bi’s commentary says that there is no limit to the pursuit of goods and wealth, while the self is daily harmed.

Another commentator, “Yu” (whose identity is unclear here), quotes the Zhuangzi: “To be content in the distinction between inner and outer, and to discern clearly the boundary between honor and disgrace.” This means that people should be self-sufficient in the distinction between inner and outer and see clearly the boundary between honor and disgrace. He points out that the inner self and external things differ in truth and falsity and are vastly separated in worth, yet people often invert them and assign lightness and heaviness to each in the wrong way. Those who do not understand this principle forget the priceless original nature of the self and only pursue external things with endless greed, believing they are gaining something, not knowing that what they take is merely dust, filth, and rot, while what is depleted and sunk is precisely the root of “that by which I am I.” Such people calculate closeness and remoteness, more and less; their folly is extreme—is it not pitiable?

From this it can be seen that only one who understands not to rely on external things and devotes himself wholly to inner cultivation can be spoken with about the Great Dao. Thus Confucius praised Yan Hui’s worth precisely because he was content in a humble lane with a single gourd of drink and a simple life. Wherein the gentleman’s cultivation lies can be known from this.

The commentator laments that the scholars of his time were not lacking in intelligence or talent, yet their minds turned with external things: they valued the external heavily and the internal lightly. Human beings’ innate spiritual clarity is originally within the heart and liver, yet they seek it in external appearances such as the face and eyes, and so they are already far from the root. Even if such people wish to discuss the highest principles of the ancients, it is merely futile effort.

The commentator holds that this saying of Laozi, though seemingly plain, is in fact the precept against which scholars should most guard and an essential task of self-cultivation; therefore he expands upon it and explains it in detail.

Commentary on Chapter Forty-Four

The question being pursued is this: which harms the self more—gaining fame, profit, and goods, or losing them? Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong, Li Longji) comments that in gaining benefit one harms oneself in the conduct of affairs. Wang Bi comments that to gain great benefit yet lose oneself—how should such harm be described? Yu (the name of a commentator; the original graph is unclear) comments that to have gain is to have possessions; having possessions, one feels them insufficient, and in order to guard what one possesses one tires the Shen (spirit) and depletes Jing (essence) and Qi (vital energy); this is a great harm.

“Fame or the self, which is closer? The self or goods, which is more?” The original text opens with this, and what follows uses phrases such as “excessive love” and “much hoarding” to introduce the discussion.

“Excessive love must lead to great expense; much hoarding must lead to heavy loss.” Heshang Gong (a Daoist commentator from the Warring States through the early Han) comments that excessive attachment to beauty consumes the spirit, and excessive attachment to goods invites disaster. What is loved is but a little, while what is lost is much, hence “great expense.” Tang Xuanzong comments that those who excessively cherish reputation labor the spirit and injure the heart—is this not great expense? Those who accumulate goods in abundance burden their persons—is this not great loss? Wang Bi comments that excessive cherishing means not communicating with external things, and excessive hoarding means not dispersing to external things; many pursue it and many attack and seize it, so the person is trapped by external things; hence “great expense and heavy loss.” Yu regards this as the ultimate principle, but worldly people fail to understand it.

“Knowing contentment, one is not disgraced; knowing when to stop, one is not endangered; thus one can endure long.” Heshang Gong comments that one who knows contentment discards profit and removes greed, and so will not suffer disgrace in one’s own person. Yu comments: my honor lies in myself—where would disgrace be? Heshang Gong also says that when one knows it is time to stop, wealth and profit do not entangle body and mind, sounds and colors do not confuse the ears and eyes, and the body will not fall into danger. Yu comments: not seeking outwardly, therefore one can always be stable. Tang Xuanzong comments that the contented person does not excessively cherish, and the one who knows stopping does not hoard much; since there is no disgrace or danger, naturally one can endure long. Heshang Gong also says that if people can know contentment and know stopping, blessings and emoluments are in themselves; for those cultivating the body, the spirit is not labored; for those governing the state, the people are not disturbed; therefore one can endure long.

This chapter uses paired metaphors to explain the function of the “Great Dao (the Way)”: the most complete achievement appears deficient, yet its function never declines; the fullest state appears empty, yet its function is inexhaustible; the most upright principle appears bent; the most brilliant skill appears clumsy.

Heshang Gong (traditionally a Han-dynasty Daoist commentator on the Laozi) believed that “great completeness” refers to a ruler whose Dao and De (Virtue/Power) have reached perfect completion. He “effaces his name and conceals his reputation,” hiding his fame and not seeking prominence, so that he appears somewhat incomplete; but with such an attitude, there will be no time of decline. “Great fullness” refers to a ruler abundant in blessings and emoluments, who is wealthy and noble yet not arrogant, affluent yet not extravagant; therefore his function will not be exhausted.

Wang Bi (a Three Kingdoms Wei metaphysician and commentator on the Laozi) explained that a person whose cultivation has reached completeness often appears somewhat lacking, because only humility can receive benefit; therefore his function has no time of distress or decline. A person of great fullness is abundant yet can give according to circumstances, without stinginess or self-importance, and so appears empty and humble.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Li Longji, who wrote an imperial commentary on the Laozi and is referred to as “Minghuang” in the commentary text) said that when salary and rank are abundant, one should constantly preserve emptiness and humility, be frugal and not waste wealth, so that what one uses is never lacking. Regarding “great straightness appears bent,” he held that it is upright and does not turn aside, and therefore appears bent. Another commentator, Xiu, said that a person who is truly upright in principle can bend and adapt to circumstances, does not claim uprightness for himself, and so others cannot perceive his uprightness.

The phrase “the greatest skill appears clumsy” means that truly brilliant skill does not display itself outwardly but instead appears clumsy.

The most exquisite skill appears instead clumsy, and the most eloquent person speaks as if inarticulate. Agitation can overcome cold, and clarity and stillness can overcome heat; clarity and stillness, non-action—these are the fundamental principle for governing the world.

Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong, Li Longji) comments: Skill does not go beyond one’s proper station, and so it appears clumsy. Heshang Gong (a recluse traditionally regarded as a Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) says: “Great skill” refers to those who are extremely proficient in talent and technique, but who never display their abilities, and so they seem clumsy. Wang Bi (a Wei-dynasty metaphysician of the Three Kingdoms period who commented on the Laozi) says: The greatly skilled person follows nature in completing vessels and does not create other strange methods, and so outwardly he is clumsy. Another commentator, Yu, says: One follows the nature of things and lets them naturally take form, so that outwardly there is no trace of human artifice; this is the highest skill. Carving various images—is this not precisely proof of this principle?

Regarding “great eloquence seems inarticulate,” Tang Minghuang says: One does not use ornate words to adorn shallow doctrines, and so one appears dull-tongued. Heshang Gong says: One who is truly eloquent has abundant wisdom and no doubts, and so speaks little. Wang Bi says: The greatly eloquent person speaks in accordance with the actual situation of things and does not deliberately fabricate anything of his own, and so he seems poor at speech. Yu says: If one uses ornate rhetoric to depict the myriad things, only then does the name “eloquence” arise; the ultimate principle is originally simple, and so it appears inarticulate in speech.

Regarding “agitation overcomes cold, stillness overcomes heat,” Heshang Gong explains: “Overcome” means “extreme.” In spring and summer, yang qi is agitated and rises upward, and the myriad things flourish; but once it passes the extreme, it turns to cold, and cold causes plants to wither and die. This warns people not to be rigid, fierce, and impetuous. In autumn and winter, the myriad things are still and hidden beneath the earth; when stillness reaches its extreme, it turns to warmth, and warmth is precisely the root of life. Tang Minghuang says: Agitation can overcome cold, with cold meaning harshness and pressing; clarity and stillness can overcome heat, with heat meaning mild warmth.

In sum, the whole passage says: clarity and stillness, non-action—this is the fundamental and correct Way of the world.

When the world has the Dao (the Way), they turn back the warhorses to fertilize the fields.

When the world is at peace and the ruler practices the upright Dao, warfare ceases; the warhorses are sent back to plow for people and to fertilize the fields.

Key points of the commentary:

Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang) held that a ruler who has the Dao civilizes the world through governance by Wuwei (non-action); the common people no longer contend with one another, and so hostilities stop and the fields and gardens can be cultivated.

He (Heshang Gong) explains that “manure” means manuring the fields, that is, applying fertilizer and cultivating. He further extends this passage to self-cultivation: remove excess yang Jing (essence) within the body—the Qi (vital energy) of desire—in order to nourish oneself.

Bi (Wang Bi) believed that when the Dao prevails, everyone knows contentment and knows when to stop, does not seek outwardly, and each cultivates his or her inner self; therefore warhorses are used only for tending the fields.

Yu’s annotation explains this from the two aspects of governing the world and self-cultivation: when the world is governed by the Dao, the myriad things each follow their own nature; there is no contention or pursuit, and only one’s proper work remains to be cultivated.

When the world lacks the Dao,

in contrast to “having the Dao,” this refers to the world losing the upright Dao, the ruler being without the Dao, and society falling into disorder, so that wars and turmoil arise frequently.

Warhorses are born in the outskirts: Heshang Gong says this refers to a ruler who lacks the Dao. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji (Minghuang), notes: when the world lacks the Dao, the ruler indulges his passions and desires and attacks and seizes on all sides, so warhorses breed in the countryside and borderlands. Heshang Gong further says that when war does not cease, warhorses multiply in the wild and for a long time cannot return. Wang Bi (Bi) says that human desires are never satisfied; if one does not cultivate the inner mind but seeks only outward, then warhorses are born in the outskirts. The commentator Yu says that “outskirts” refers to places close to the city.

No guilt is greater than what is desirable: Emperor Xuanzong says that when the mind sees something worth coveting, guilt is great. Heshang Gong says this refers to greed for beautiful women and sensual beauty. The commentator Yu says that what is called “desirable” is what people regard as good. Once a reputation for goodness is established, people move further and further from the Dao, and disputes arise. Thus even if there is no obvious fault, once greedy desire arises in the mind, guilt is in fact already present.

No calamity is greater than not knowing contentment: Emperor Xuanzong says that when seeking and taking do not cease, calamity is great. Yu says that to seek outward without satisfaction is to lose one’s original nature and invite disaster.

No fault is greater than desiring to obtain: Emperor Xuanzong says that among disasters and faults, none is greater than desire; and when all that is desired can be obtained, the more one obtains, the deeper the calamity—hence it is called “fault.” Heshang Gong says that coveting others’ goods brings conflict and punishment. Yu says that when each pursues what he himself can get, it invites the resentment of the multitude.

Thus the contentment of knowing contentment is constant contentment: Heshang Gong says this means guarding the root of true nature. Emperor Xuanzong says that external sufficiency is not contentment; inner sufficiency is true contentment. If the mind can know contentment, that satisfaction can be constant. Heshang Gong further says this refers to the absence of a greedy mind. Yu says that when each fulfills his own proper share, there is nothing lacking.

Without going out the door, one knows the world (chapter 47): Heshang Gong says that the sage does not step outside the door, yet knows the affairs of the world. This means the sage can understand the world by examining the root of things, without having to travel personally.

Without going out the door, one can know the world; without peering through the window, one can understand the Dao of Heaven.

Heshang Gong (Master on the River) holds that the sage can know the world without going out because he can infer the bodies of others from his own body and infer other families from his own family, and thereby see clearly the conditions of the world.

Tang Minghuang (that is, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji) explains that when the ruler lets his robes hang down and folds his hands, accords with nature, and practices Wuwei (non-action), he does not issue decrees beyond the door, yet he understands the principles of governing the world. When human affairs are harmonious, heavenly phenomena accordingly proceed smoothly, so there is no need to exert effort in peering; the Dao of Heaven can naturally be known.

Heshang Gong also says that the Dao of Heaven and the Dao of humanity are the same; Heaven and humanity communicate, and Jing (essence) and Qi (vital energy) interpenetrate. When the ruler is clear and quiet, the Qi of Heaven naturally becomes upright; when the ruler has excessive desires, the Qi of Heaven becomes turbid and disordered. Good and ill fortune, benefit and harm, all depend on people themselves.

Wang Bi (a Dark Learning, or xuanxue, scholar of the Three Kingdoms period who annotated the Laozi) says that affairs have their root and the myriad things have their master; though the paths are different, their destination is the same; though thoughts are of a hundred kinds, they point to one principle. The Dao has its constant great principle, and principle has its fundamental outline. Grasp the Dao of antiquity, and one can use it to steer the present; situated in the present age, one can thereby understand the source of antiquity. Therefore, without going out the door or peering through the window, one can know the world.

Another commentator (given in the original as “Yu”) says that the myriad things under Heaven are numerous and complex, and the Dao of Heaven is subtle; their crux is the same as human nature. Only one who fully realizes his nature, even with eyes closed and ears stopped, has no principle that he does not penetrate. If one must first see things and only then recognize them, and only after recognition counts it as knowing, then one has grasped only the forms of myriad differences while being blind to the unified fundamental principle.

From this it is clear that so-called seeing, hearing, and knowing are merely peripheral functions of the ears and eyes, not the subtle essentials deep in the mind. Those who consider themselves learned do not know that what they know is extremely limited; those who consider themselves wise are foolish to the extreme.

The last sentence means: the farther one travels, the less one knows.

"If one cannot practice Wuwei (non-action), then even if the orders one issues reach ever farther, one's knowledge of the Dao (the Way) of ordering the world will be ever less."

Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) says: If one cannot practice Wuwei, then even if decrees are promulgated ever more widely, one's understanding of the Dao of governing the world is instead the less.

Heshang Gong (the Daoist commentator traditionally dated to the Han dynasty) says: This means leaving one's own home to observe another's home, leaving oneself to observe another's person; the farther what one observes extends, the less one sees.

Wang Bi (the Three Kingdoms Wei metaphysician and author of the Laozi Commentary) says: One does not apply effort to oneself but seeks it in the multitude. The Dao cannot be seen, heard, or grasped. If one truly understands it, there is no need to go out the door; if one does not understand it, the farther one goes, the more confused one becomes.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and author of a Laozi Commentary) says: The principle of the Limitless (Wuji) is wholly contained within a single mote of dust. When subtle deliberative thoughts do not arise, the myriad conditions are already manifest. Is the key to learning the Dao not precisely here? Yet those people travel far in search of it, already ignorant of the root. The farther they go, the less they know—is this not exactly so?

"Therefore the sage does not travel yet knows,"

Emperor Ming says: The sage does not go out the door, and so it is said, "he does not travel." The sage practices Wuwei, causing customs to be simple and pure, and thus he can know the Dao of governing the world.

Heshang Gong says: The sage need not ascend to Heaven or enter the deep abyss, yet he can know Heaven and Earth; it is through the mind that he comprehends them.

"He does not see yet names,"

Emperor Ming says: The sage does not peek outside the window, and so it is said, "he does not see." Because humans are in harmony with Heaven, it can be called Great Peace.

Heshang Gong says: When those above love the Dao, those below follow and love De (Virtue/Power); when those above love martial force, those below follow and love force. The sage extends from the small to the great and examines the outside from within.

Wang Bi says: Having grasped the ultimate principle of things, although he does not travel, he can infer them; having recognized the root of things, although he does not see them personally, he can arrive at the principles of right and wrong and name them.

Wang Pang says: One who exhausts the patterns of things and comprehends the root can already accord with this. As for the realm in which one realizes the infinite and the inexhaustible, penetrates the four quarters, and has all the myriad transformations fully before his eyes—that is even more wondrous; what need is there to speak of it?

This passage first states that those who can "do nothing and yet things accomplish themselves" are already sufficient to reach this state. As for those who realize the great Dao, penetrate the infinite, and reach everywhere, who can see all four quarters and perceive without obstruction, with the myriad things' countless transformations all present before their eyes—that is even more mysterious, and need not be elaborated here.

"Not acting yet accomplishing" means that through non-action things naturally reach completion.

Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji) commented: He does not teach by means of words, and the world is naturally transformed and brought to completion. Heshang Gong commented: When the ruler takes no action, the subordinate officials have no troublesome affairs; every household is well-off, and the myriad things naturally transform and grow. Wang Bi commented: Understand the nature of the myriad things and simply follow it; thus, though one does not deliberately act, the myriad things naturally accomplish themselves. Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song) commented: When did Heaven ever speak? The four seasons run as usual, and the hundred things grow as usual; one who realizes the great Dao merely models himself on the way of Heaven.

Chapter 48 is titled "Learning increases daily." Heshang Gong noted that "learning" refers to the study of government, education, rites, and music, and "increasing daily" means that desires and embellishments increase day by day. Wang Bi noted that it means constantly improving one's abilities and adding to what one studies and practices. Another commentary says that when people exhaustively investigate principles, pursuing things and comprehending their principles, this is originally for the sake of seeking their own true nature, not for the sake of broad learning. Therefore it is no harm for learning to increase daily; but when one reaches the point of exhausting principles, one must take "decrease" as "increase."

"Practicing the Dao decreases daily" means that cultivating the Dao requires day-by-day decrease—subtracting external contrivance and fixation.

Minghuang (Tang Xuanzong) comments: Those who study increase their knowledge and experience every day; those who seek the Dao (the Way) decrease their merits and practices every day. Increasing knowledge is the gradual path of study; decreasing merits and practices is the gateway to realizing the Dao. Therefore one must use increase to accumulate merit and virtue, and then forget that merit and virtue; only then can one embody the great Dao.

Heshang Gong comments: “Dao” refers to the Dao of nature, and “daily decrease” means that desires and embellishments are reduced day by day. Wang Bi comments: One must strive to return to emptiness and nothingness. Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure) comments: After one understands the affairs of the world, one sees that all things have flaws; there is no need to deliberately decrease them, for what one possesses will also gradually dissipate. Observing the heavenly Dao, increase and decrease generate one another; this, too, is the constant reality of all things. “Decreasing and again decreasing” means that after desires are removed, they are removed again, so that they can be gradually exhausted. When one reaches ultimate emptiness, even the state of “emptiness” does not count as true “being”; then the extent of one’s decrease can be imagined.

“Arriving at Wuwei (non-action)”: Heshang Gong comments that one should be tranquil and bland like an infant, without deliberate contrivance.

“Wuwei yet nothing is not done”: Minghuang comments that students accumulate merit and practice, while those who seek the Dao must forget the very thought of decrease. Even after they have decreased their merit and practice, if the mind still holds the thought of wanting to decrease, they should forget this thought as well; then they can reach the plain, tranquil, and peaceful realm of Wuwei. It is like a bright mirror reflecting all phenomena, with nothing to which it does not respond; therefore it is said that nothing is not done. Heshang Gong comments that when desires are cut off and De (Virtue/Power) is united with the Dao, there is nothing not bestowed and nothing not done. Wang Bi comments that wherever there is action there is deficiency; therefore only Wuwei can leave nothing undone. Wang Pang comments that only one who has realized the utmost of emptiness can give rise to the ten thousand transformations and respond inexhaustibly. How could this be like those who cling biasedly to one corner, remain stagnated in dark stillness, and stand stiffly like withered wood?

“Therefore, those who take the world always do so through no-affairs”: Minghuang comments that Wuwei and no-affairs are the naturalness of the heavenly Dao. This sentence means that those skilled in governing the world always take not stirring up affairs and not disturbing the people as their principle.

It is insufficient to obtain the world.

Tang Minghuang says: Taking purposeful action will tax the spirit and consume effort; taxing the spirit and consuming effort will impoverish the people’s livelihood, and therefore one is insufficient to obtain the world. Heshang Gong says: Once one delights in stirring up affairs, governmental orders and moral instruction become cumbersome, and the common people cannot be at peace; therefore one is insufficient to govern the world. Wang Bi says: Having lost the root, one will tax the spirit and consume effort, and further impoverish the people’s livelihood; therefore one is insufficient to obtain the world. Heshang Gong says again, as before. Wang Bi says: The root has been lost indeed. Xiu, one of the commentators, says: When there is purposeful action, the mind becomes attached; when the mind is attached, the common people will also each harbor private intentions. Even if one wishes to obtain the world, one only grows farther and farther away from it. Investigating the main purport of this chapter, it is roughly saying: non-meddling is the highest realm of the Dao and De, and also the highest principle for governing the world. Those who pursue learning reduce their private desires day by day, until they arrive at Wuwei (non-action); only then can they accord with this.

Chapter Forty-Nine: The Sage Has No Constant Mind

This chapter is taken from Chapter 49 of the Laozi. The first two lines of the original text are “The sage has no constant mind; he takes the mind of the common people as his mind,” meaning that the sage has no fixed private mind but takes the wishes of the common people as his own wishes.

Heshang Gong says: The sage emphasizes transformation and renewal, truly achieving compliance and accord, as if he had no private mind at all.

Tang Minghuang says: The sage’s mind is moved by external things and thus responds; the response arises at the moment of contact, and therefore it is said, “he has no constant mind.” Although the mind has no fixed form, it remains in a state of following along and complying, as if it had no mind of its own—this is the same as Heshang Gong’s words.

“He takes the mind of the common people as his mind”: the sage takes the wishes of the common people as his own wishes.

The sage’s mind responds when touched by external things, and after responding it changes accordingly; therefore the sage has no fixed, unchanging mind. Although the mind has no fixed standard, the sage’s mind is devoted to teaching and guiding people toward goodness, and so he constantly takes the hearts of the people as his own heart.

Minghuang (Tang Minghuang, that is, Emperor Xuanzong, Li Longji) says: The sage’s mind is still and unmoving, fully reveals the original nature, and realizes the realm of true emptiness; whatever he thinks or does arises in accordance with things. Just as the nature of fire pervades all quarters but depends on fuel to manifest its function, so the sage clings to nothing, yet can supply inexhaustibly. The Book (that is, the Shangshu) says, “It comes from the intelligence of my people.”

To the good I am also good. To those who are good, I am good to them. Heshang Gong (traditionally a Han-dynasty Daoist scholar who annotated the Laozi) says: When the people do good, the sage follows them and treats them with goodness.

To the ungood I am also good. To those who are not good, I also am good to them. Heshang Gong says: Although among the people there are those who are not good, the sage through teaching makes them turn toward goodness. Wang Bi (a man of Wei during the Three Kingdoms period who annotated the Laozi) says: If one accords with the functioning of each person’s original nature, goodness will not be lost. Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure, son of Wang Anshi, who also annotated the Laozi) says: Good and evil arise from deluded views, and deluded views in turn arise from selfish mind. If one can transcend selfishness and accord with the Great Dao, then even if the eye does not clearly distinguish good and evil, the mind harbors no thought of discrimination. Thus the sage follows conventional feelings and provisionally establishes standards of blame and praise, but inwardly knows that good and evil are not ultimately real marks. Therefore, toward the ungood person, he is neither pitying nor angry; he simply does not perceive him as different.

Goodness is attained. Heshang Gong says: The people are transformed by virtue and turn toward goodness, and the sage thereby attains goodness. Wang Bi says: The sage rejects no one. Wang Pang says: Goodness that forgets the distinction between good and evil is true goodness.

Those who are trustworthy, I trust. To those who keep faith, I extend trust. Heshang Gong says: When the people keep faith, the sage follows them and trusts them.

Those who are untrustworthy, I also trust. To those who do not keep faith, I also extend trust. Heshang Gong says: When the people do not keep faith, the sage through teaching makes them keep faith. Wang Pang says: Although the ten thousand dharmas are all different, in essence they are the same true reality; trust and distrust both arise from selfish mind.

Trust is attained. In this way, the sage gains the trust of the people.

The sage has no fixed and unchanging mind but takes the minds of the people as his mind; this is the meaning of chapter 49 of the Daodejing. The following are the commentators’ explanations.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) says: Toward those who are sincere, trustworthy, and do good, I accord with their goodness and trustworthiness in dealing with them; toward those who are not good and not trustworthy, I likewise use goodness and trustworthiness to teach and transform them, so that the people are moved by my De (Virtue/Power) and thereby return to goodness and trustworthiness. Heshang Gong (author of an ancient Han-dynasty commentary on the Daodejing) says: Because the people are changed through transformation by De, the sage takes trustworthiness as the foundation. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) says: Knowing that all appearances are illusory, one can regard the not-good as the same as the good; knowing that all appearances are also real, one can regard the untrustworthy as the same as the trustworthy. One should recognize the real within the illusory and the illusory within the real; this is precisely where the sage’s wisdom differs from that of ordinary people.

As for the line “The sage in the world is anxious and cautious,” Emperor Xuanzong explains: When the sage governs the world and guides the people, he constantly applies his mind with trembling caution, so that the people’s De becomes good and trustworthy. The sage’s mind is settled and still; the transformation of his De is bright and complete. He shares one mind with the people, all of them thinking for the sake of the world; therefore it is said that for the world he makes his mind a single undifferentiated whole. Heshang Gong says: The sage dwells in the world constantly harboring caution and fear; even when wealthy and honored, he does not dare to be arrogant or extravagant.

As for the phrase “for the world he makes his mind undifferentiated,” Heshang Gong says: For the sake of the people of the world, the sage makes his mind simple and undifferentiated, appearing as if ignorant and not discerning. Wang Pang says: “Anxious and cautious” means fearful and careful. The sage’s original substance is empty, and he does not cling to anything, yet when responding to worldly affairs, he never dares to fail to maintain caution at all times, because once there is any action, even the sage does not dare to be careless. The sage takes the minds of the people of the world as his mind, and therefore can establish various laws and institutions; the people of the world take the sage’s mind as their mind, and therefore can return to the great Dao (the Way). The mind is capable of awareness and discrimination, but the sage strives to make people return to non-knowing; therefore it is called “hunxin” (the undifferentiated mind).

The meaning of the original text: When the sage governs the world, his mind is restrained and he does not reveal his sharp edges. This line has a variant reading: “diedie” is written as “xixi,” and “xixi” means a restrained or withdrawn appearance; both readings make sense. Another version has “hun qi xin,” meaning to make the heart-mind simple and undifferentiated, so that it does not distinguish right from wrong or cleverness from clumsiness.

The meaning of the commentary: Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang) held that the common people, transformed by the sage’s De, turned toward goodness, and therefore all fixed their eyes and ears on the sage, observing and listening to his words and deeds. Heshang Gong (the legendary recluse who commented on the Laozi) explained “zhu” as “yong,” meaning that the people all used their own eyes and ears to watch and listen on behalf of the sage. Wang Bi (a Wei-dynasty Xuanxue thinker and commentator on the Laozi) said instead that the people each exercised their own intelligence. The commentator’s explanation of “xiu” is that the people looked up to the sage and emulated him.

“The sage treats them all as children”: The sage treats the common people as one treats infants, causing them to preserve their purity and innocence and not be stained by worldly sophistication.

Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang) comments: The sage keeps the people in his thoughts as a loving mother keeps her children in hers, and so he looks upon all the people as upon infants, caring for them without making harsh demands. Heshang Gong says: The sage loves the people as he loves the newborn babe (the infant just born), nurturing them without expecting repayment. Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin metaphysician) says: He wishes to make the people harmonious and free of desire, pure and innocent like an infant.

Heaven and Earth each have their place. The sage accomplishes his work by relying on human counsel and the aid of spiritual clarity, while the people each bring their talents into play: those with capacity are employed, those with aptitude are selected; great capacity brings great accomplishment, high aptitude brings noble station. The myriad things each have their root, and affairs each have their supervisor. In this way, even if the beads hanging from the emperor’s ceremonial crown veil his eyes, he will not be deluded; even if the jade plugs in his crown block his ears, he will not grieve at being slighted. Why then exhaust one’s own cleverness in deliberately prying into the true circumstances of the people?

If one looks at things with a scrutinizing eye, things will respond with the same scrutiny; if one looks at things with distrust, things will respond with distrust. The hearts of people in the world are inherently different, and those who respond dare not set themselves apart, so no one is willing to truthfully disclose the actual situation. Thus no harm is greater than a ruler’s misuse of his own cleverness.

If one competes with others in cleverness, they will argue with you; if one competes with them in force, they will fight with you. If wisdom does not arise from the people themselves, yet one insists on standing in the arena of argument, one will fall into embarrassment; if strength does not arise from the people, yet one stands in the arena of conflict, one will fall into danger. There is no way to keep people from using cunning, nor to keep them from applying their intelligence on their own behalf. Thus one is pitting the strength of a single person against thousands upon thousands.

If one further multiplies legal nets, multiplies punishments, blocks the people’s paths, and harasses their secluded dwellings, then the myriad things lose their natural spontaneity, and the people lose the hands and feet by which they live, like birds startled above and fish thrown into confusion below. Therefore, when the sage deals with the world, he is dim and indistinct, without deliberate mind; for the world he keeps his heart whole and undifferentiated, and in his intentions he neither favors nor rejects. He does not peer at them, and so the people have no need to hide; he makes no demands, and so the people have nothing they must respond to. With nothing to hide and nothing to answer, everyone can put aside pretense and fully express their true feelings.

If people can follow what they are capable of, are not forced to do what they cannot, and are not made to abandon their strengths to do their weaknesses, then those who speak speak what they know, and those who act do what they can. The people each keep their attention on their own ears and eyes, and the sage simply regards them all as infants.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure) says: The common people, in their ignorance, often speak and act in ways that do not conform to principle. The sage, out of compassion, guides them, as parents treat a newborn child, following their intentions and temper without any heart of resentment. If not one who has realized the great Dao (the Way), forgotten external things, and is benevolent like Heaven and Earth, who could do this?

Emerging from life and entering death: from birth to death, people are always within the transformations of Yin-Yang. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) says: To understand the principle is “emerging from life”; to be deluded and attached is “entering death.” This is the outline of this chapter.

Heshang Gong (He) says: “Emerging from life” means that desires are dispersed outward from the five viscera (the five inner organs), so that the hun-soul is at peace and the po-soul is still; thus one attains life. “Entering death” means that desires invade the chest, causing the spirit to be worn out and confused; thus one moves toward death.

Wang Bi (Bi) says: Emerging from life is heading toward the place of life; entering death is heading toward the place of death.

Xiu says: All those drawn along by the workings of Yin-Yang transformation are like this, because they deludedly cling to the thought of “life.”

The followers of life labor and are deluded, and therefore die: those who on the path of life vainly exhaust their spirits and become confused will move toward death.

Those who are companions of life are three in ten; those who are companions of death are three in ten: Tang Xuanzong says that, generally speaking, among sentient beings those who can accord with the natural patterns of life and peacefully nourish life are only about three in ten; those who can accord with the principle of death are likewise so. Heshang Gong says that the “thirteen” here refers to the nine apertures plus the four passes (the joints of the four limbs). To be able to keep the eyes from looking recklessly, the ears from listening recklessly, the nose from smelling recklessly, the mouth from speaking recklessly, the tongue from tasting recklessly, the hands from grasping recklessly, the feet from walking recklessly, and Jing and Qi from being recklessly depleted—this is the path of life; the opposite is the path of death. Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song) says: Among those in the world who cultivate the Dao, some, seeing Yang Qi restless, recklessly act by relying on abundant Yang Qi; others, seeing Yin Qi still, confine themselves to withered dryness. Neither is the correct path of Dao and De; rather, these are people who make companions of death.

In people’s life, moving toward the place of death in their actions is also three in ten: in daily life, those whose every action leads them toward the place of death also amount to three-tenths.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Xuanzong, Li Longji) comments: If people value their own lives excessively and single-mindedly use rich flavors and luxury to nourish them, they instead harm life. Once the mind clings to this life, action readily moves toward the place of death. In this way, the principle of survival is already lost, and the principle of death is also impaired. Of such people, roughly three out of ten.

Heshang Gong (a Daoist of the Han dynasty who annotated the Laozi) says: People rush about seeking life, but as a result move toward the place of death; three out of ten are like this.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) says: Excessive eating and drinking lose the normal principle of nourishing life, so all actions harm one’s nature. Among the people under heaven, apart from ignorant common folk, some become “guardians of the Dao” for the sake of cultivating the Dao (clinging to the forms of cultivation), while others do evil out of greed; all of them cling to their own existence, and so inevitably become entangled in birth and death.

“Then what is the cause of this?”

Heshang Gong explains: This asks why action leads to the place of death.

The answer is: The cause lies in people taking survival too seriously.

Emperor Ming of Tang further explains: Here a question is posed: why does action lead to the place of death? It is precisely because the mind seeking life is too strong and this life is valued too much. Heshang Gong says: The reason they move toward death is that they take the business of seeking livelihood and survival too seriously, violate the great Dao, contravene natural nature, act recklessly, and lose proper order. Wang Pang says: The perfected person (one who has attained the Dao) does not know what death is, nor what life is; therefore such a person neither dies nor lives, and so it is said, “They have never died, and have never lived.” Those who are biased toward Yin-Yang and keep company with birth and death, and those who pursue desires, do evil, and move toward death, are roughly divided into three kinds, each with different views. Tracing the root of their losing the great Dao and still not escaping birth and death, it is all because they falsely cling to their own lives and overvalue this life.

Someone asks: Those who cultivate the Dao and reduce their bodies to withered dryness—are they not also taking life too seriously?

The answer: That by which I am “I” is originally unborn and undying, clear and constant; one need only stop deluded thoughts, and that is enough. But those people cling to their own views and instead make the body withered. Therefore, although their aspiration tends toward emptiness and stillness, once they fixate on this aspiration, there is still the clinging to an “I,” and this is precisely the deepest clinging.

This passage roughly says that one who is skilled at nourishing life (shesheng, that is, conserving and protecting life) can walk on land without encountering fierce beasts such as rhinoceroses and tigers (si, which in ancient texts refers to a rhinoceros-like beast), and when entering an army need not wear armor or carry weapons. Heshang Gong’s commentary explains that this is because such a person naturally keeps harm at a distance, so calamity has no way to encroach; and because he does not delight in war and does not regard killing as an accomplishment. Therefore the rhinoceros has nowhere to thrust its horn, the tiger has nowhere to use its claws, and the blade has nowhere to pierce.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) comments: One who is skilled at protecting life has a mind that is clear and tranquil, without reckless thoughts, so external things cannot harm him. He travels by land without seeking to meet fierce beasts and enters the army without seeking to wear armor, because he never thinks of harming external things, and external things therefore have no intention of harming him; thus the horns and claws of rhinoceroses and tigers and blades have nowhere to act. Heshang Gong also says: For one who nourishes life, tigers and rhinoceroses cannot injure him, and weapons have no way to reach him.

Asked “why is this so?” Heshang Gong answers: It is because in him there is no “death ground.” Death ground means a peril from which certain death is inevitable, that is, a place of fatal danger.

Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) asked: Why is it that when walking in mountains and forests one does not encounter rhinoceroses and tigers, and when placed amid military ranks one is not harmed by armor and weapons? The answer: This is because such a person complies with the transformations of nature and has no selfish intentions; he does not regard death as death. Thus external things cannot harm his life, and so he is said to have “no ground of death” (wu si di). Heshang Gong, the Han-dynasty scholar who annotated the Laozi, says: This is because he does not fall into that “three-tenths ground of death,” and is guarded by divine spirits, so external things do not dare to harm him.

Wang Bi, the Three Kingdoms scholar who annotated the Laozi, explains: “Three out of ten” means three parts out of ten. Those who accord with the Dao of life and preserve life to the utmost still make up only three tenths; those who head toward the path of death and are wholly immersed in death to the utmost also make up only three tenths. Yet people of the world are too eager for life and instead place themselves in a ground of no life. One who is skilled at nourishing life does not make “life” an object of deliberate pursuit, and therefore has no ground of death. Among weapons, the most harmful are the dagger-axe and spear; among fierce beasts, the most harmful are the rhinoceros and tiger. To make blades have no place to display their edge and beasts no place to use claws or horns precisely shows that such a person does not let desires burden him. How then could there still be any ground of death for him?

Vipers and eels—yuan and shan, snake- and eel-like creatures that dwell in burrows or water—regard the deep abyss as shallow and dig their holes there; hawks and gulls regard the high mountains as low and build their nests on the summits. The bird hunter’s silk-weighted arrow cannot reach them, and fishing nets cannot get to them; one may say they occupy no ground of death. Yet in the end they fall into a ground of no life because they greedily eat bait—is this not because their craving for survival is too heavy? Therefore, when external things are not made to depart from their nature through pursuit, nor damaged in their true nature through excessive carving, then even entering military ranks one will not be harmed, and walking on land one will not be attacked. The infant can serve as a model precisely because its purity and sincerity are precious.

Zhang Pang, a Northern Song scholar, says: The so-called “no ground of death” is because such a person does not cling to life. That place of no birth is clear, calm, enduring, and eternally present, yet it does not regard itself as life; therefore it has never died and has never been born. When cultivation of the Dao reaches this realm, although the physical form may undergo transformation and replacement, the Shen (spirit) never changes—how then could there still be death? This is what the Central Land calls the sacred and holy person, and what the West calls the Buddha. Such a person transforms without fixed constancy; water and fire cannot burn or wet him, blades and axes cannot harm him. Meeting emptiness, he is empty; meeting solidity, he is solid. In coming and going there is nothing through which he does not pass. Even if external things wished to harm him, they would have no way to begin, much less actually harm him.

Someone asked: If this is so, why is it called “nourishing life” (shesheng)? The answer: Those of a slightly lower grade are still constrained by birth and death, and therefore the practice of shesheng must reach this realm before life can endure forever. From this perspective, it is even more wondrous than “one whose De is thick” (han de zhi hou zhe), that is, a person of profound virtue.

Dao (the Way) gives them life

The Dao is the root of the universe and brings forth the myriad things. Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji) comments that when this subtle root, the Dao, moves once, it sends down a harmonious Qi (vital energy); Heshang Gong (the famous Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) says that the Dao gives birth to and nurtures the myriad things.

De (Virtue/Power) nourishes them

De is the embodiment and function of the Dao in the myriad things. Heshang Gong says that De is connected with the “One,” and that the “One” disperses primordial Qi to nourish the myriad things; Minghuang says that the myriad things thereby grow and are nourished, and the various kinds of life thereby multiply.

Things give them form

The myriad things each have bodily form. Minghuang says that Qian (Heaven) presides over knowing and Kun (Earth) presides over acting; when the two are paired, the shapes and positions of the myriad things become manifest. Heshang Gong says that the “One” establishes images for the myriad things.

Force completes them

Force (shi) is the condition that the operation of the myriad things presents. Minghuang says that the forces of cold and heat each bring the myriad things to completion. Heshang Gong says that the “One” creates the forces of cold and heat, enabling the myriad things to be completed.

Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin Xuanxue thinker) unfolds his commentary step by step: the myriad things first have life, and only afterward are nourished; after being nourished they have form, and only after having form do they reach completion. How are they given life? Through the Dao. How are they nourished? Through De. How are they given form? Through the things themselves. How are they completed? Through force. Precisely because each has that on which it relies, no thing fails to take form and no thing fails to reach completion. The reason the myriad things are born and the reason achievements are accomplished both have their origin, and none does not come from the Dao. When traced to the ultimate point, this is “setting one’s mind on the Dao.” Following what each relies on, each therefore has its own way.

Xiu (the commentator) says: These four are all Dao. Because each attains its own Dao, it is simply called “De”; De is nothing more than nourishment. Yet within nourishment, when each attains what it attains, a bodily form comes into being—that is “thing.” Once things possess bodily form, near and far mutually draw upon and use one another, hard and soft mutually blend, and each relies on its force to complete its condition. Thus De is the differentiation of Dao, things are the instruments and functions of De, and force is the principle and order of things. Once Dao and De are understood, form and force are not difficult to comprehend, and there is no difficulty in responding to things.

Therefore none of the myriad things fails to honor the Dao and value De

Therefore none among the myriad things fails to honor the Dao and value De.

General Explanation: The Dao (the Way) is the fundamental order of the universe, and De (Virtue/Power) is the nature that the myriad things receive from the Dao. The myriad things grow according to Dao and De, and so people honor the Dao and value De.

Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong) says: The myriad things rely on Dao and De to be generated and nourished, and therefore they honor them.

Heshang Gong says: What Dao and De do exhausts every merit, and thus they are revered.

Wang Bi says: The Dao is the source from which the myriad things arise, and De is the nature that the myriad things obtain. Only by following the Dao can one obtain De, and so one cannot but lose something; honoring the Dao brings no harm, and so the Dao cannot but be valued.

Xiu says: The Dao is honored while De is lower; De is prized while things are base. What is honored is like a ruler or father; what is prized is like gold and jade. This is the difference between being “honored” and being “prized.”

The reason the Dao is honored and De is prized is not that anyone confers this on them; it is always naturally so.

The character jue here appears in the editions of Emperor Ming and Wang Bi as jue, meaning the conferral of rank and mandate.

Emperor Ming says: The honor and value of Dao and De do not depend on conferred rank and mandate. It is only because their merit in transforming, generating, and completing the myriad things covers all things and endures that they naturally appear honored and valued.

Heshang Gong says: The Dao is one and issues no orders, yet it can attract the myriad things. It is naturally so, like a shadow following a form or an echo arriving in response to a sound.

Wang Pang says: To receive a mandate from Heaven is to become the Son of Heaven; to receive a mandate from the Son of Heaven is to become a feudal lord. Whenever one receives a command, the one who issues it can lower one’s status. Only the Dao is prior to the myriad things; no one can confer a command upon it or restrain it, and therefore it is always natural.

Therefore, the Dao gives birth to the myriad things, and De nourishes them, causing them to grow, be nurtured, reach completion, mature, be cared for, and be sheltered.

Emperor Ming says: Therefore among people there are none who do not honor the Dao and value De.

Heshang Gong says: In relation to the myriad things, the Dao does not merely give them birth; it further causes them to grow, mature, be sheltered and nurtured, and preserves their nature and life. When a ruler governs the state and cultivates his person, he should also be like this.

Wang Bi says: This means causing the myriad things to complete their substance, each to receive shelter, and their bodies to suffer no harm.

Wang Pang’s commentary: Another edition has “De nourishes them” at this point.

The Dao gives birth to the myriad things but does not take them as its own. Heshang Gong says: The Dao gives birth to the myriad things without taking them as its own and without using them to seek private gain.

The Dao acts in the myriad things but does not rely on its merit. Heshang Gong says: In the Dao’s action, it does not expect repayment. Wang Bi says: This is “acting without possessing”; it acts but does not claim merit.

It rears and grows them but does not dominate them; this is called the mysterious De.

The Dao nourishes and grows all things, yet it does not cut them down or claim them for its own use. This is its deep and subtle De (Virtue/Power).

All under heaven has a beginning, and it is taken as the mother of all under heaven.

“Beginning” refers to the Qi of harmonious blending—the primal Qi at the first arising of chaos, empty and quiescent yet full. This wondrous Qi transforms and nurtures all things, and therefore it can serve as the mother of all things under heaven. Heshang Gong holds that “beginning” is the Dao, and that the Dao is the mother of all things under heaven. Wang Bi’s commentary says that one who is good at beginning is good at nurturing; thus when all under heaven has a beginning, it can serve as the mother of all under heaven. Wang Pang’s commentary points out that “mother” and “beginning” are originally one and the same body; because it generates without cease, it is simply called “mother.”

Having attained the mother, one thereby knows the children.

Since all things have received the nourishment of the harmonious Qi, they each take shape and possess their own bodies; and all these things are the “children” born of the harmonious Qi. Heshang Gong holds that “child” refers to “the One”—that is, once one has recognized the Dao, one should go on to recognize “the One” (the integral unity of the Dao). Wang Pang’s commentary says that all things come forth from the Dao, and the Dao is their mother; therefore all things are the children of the Dao. Once one attains the Dao, the principles of all things need not be distinguished one by one—they are naturally understood.

This passage comes from chapter 52 of the Laozi and discusses the cultivation practice of guarding the root and withdrawing the senses. The “child” is a metaphor for things and principles at the branch ends, while the “mother” is a metaphor for the root, the great Dao (the Way), and the Qi of harmonious balance.

Knowing the Child and Guarding the Mother, One Remains Free from Danger Throughout Life

Since one has recognized the “child,” one should turn back and guard the “mother.” Heshanggong (a Han-dynasty recluse who annotated the Laozi, whose commentary circulated widely) holds that since one knows the “One” (that is, the Dao), one should uphold the great Dao and return to Wuwei (non-action). Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure, son of Wang Anshi, and author of a Laozi commentary) further says that although the perfected person exhaustively investigates things and principles, he knows that things and principles fundamentally have no fixed, unchanging substance. Thus even when he knows them, he does not pursue them and depart from the great Dao. This is what is meant by “returning to guard the mother.”

Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, who personally annotated the Laozi) says that since one knows that one’s own person is the “child” born of the Qi of harmonious balance, one should guard this subtle Qi and not let it disperse; in this way one will be free from danger throughout life. Heshanggong adds that one will not fall into danger. Wang Bi (a Wei figure of the Three Kingdoms period, whose Laozi commentary was enormously influential) points out that the mother is the root and the child is the branch; one should use the root to understand the branch, and must not turn away from the root to pursue the branch.

Wang Pang also says that after seeing principle, if one merely pursues it without returning to the source, reckless action will invite danger and lead one farther and farther from the Dao. Therefore the “child” must guard the “mother” if one is to remain free from danger for long.

Blocking the Apertures and Closing the Gates

Heshanggong says that “Dui” refers to the eyes, so one should keep the gaze from looking recklessly; “gate” refers to the mouth, so one should keep speech from speaking recklessly.

Wang Bi says that the Dui is the aperture through which desires arise, and the gate is the passage through which desires emerge.

Wang Pang explains that “Dui” means “delight.” When a person feels delight, the bodily form opens outward; hence it is called Dui, and external things enter accordingly. The reason one delights in external things and opens the bodily form is that one fails to guard one’s Dao and recklessly covets the beauty of things and principles. The “gate” is where the spirit goes out: when one sees things and principles outside, the bodily form opens to receive them, and then one projects the spirit outward to become entangled with them; from this, a myriad of tangled threads begins. Therefore one should block the Dui and close the gate, constantly guarding the mother.

Chapter 52 of the Daodejing, “Block the openings, close the doors, and to the end of one’s days one will not toil,” is the starting point of this commentary. “Dui” refers to the apertures of the human body, here chiefly the portals through which the ears, eyes, and other senses open onto the outside world.

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) comments: “Dui” means fondness, delight. The eyes delight in beautiful forms, the ears delight in sounds, and the six roots—eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind, the sensory faculties commonly listed in Buddhist and Daoist contexts—each have their preferences. If one indulges them, misfortune is invited, and so they must be blocked. If one does not indulge the greedy attachments of the six roots, the door of misfortune closes, and therefore one will not suffer hardship throughout life.

Heshang Gong comments: A person should close the eyes and not look randomly, shut the mouth and not speak randomly; thus for a whole lifetime one will not be worn out. Wang Bi (Bi, a Xuanxue scholar of the Three Kingdoms period) comments: With no entanglements from external affairs, one can remain at ease forever, and so throughout life one does not toil. Wang Pang (Pang, a Northern Song scholar) comments: Block the senses and close the doorways, and then use inner guarding to respond to external things; one can then handle myriad transformations, while the functioning of mind and spirit still has room to spare.

As for the line “Open the openings, further one’s affairs, and to the end of one’s days one cannot be saved,” Emperor Xuanzong comments: To throw open the six roots, indulge seeing and hearing, and go on to fulfill one’s greedy affairs means that misfortune will be constant, and so throughout life there is no way to be saved. Heshang Gong comments: Disorder and calamity are formed from this. Wang Bi comments: If one does not block its source but instead goes on to complete its affairs, then even for a lifetime there can be no remedy. Wang Pang comments: Once the apertures open, external things pour in, and one must further expend mind and spirit to accomplish these affairs; thus one pursues external things from within. Once caught in this current, who could save one?

“Seeing the small is called clarity.” Emperor Xuanzong comments: If a person can see clearly in small and subtle matters and accordingly correct his conduct, he may be called wise. Heshang Gong comments: When the sprouts of disorder have not yet stirred and its signs have not yet appeared, to see them clearly in their smallness—this is clarity. Wang Pang comments: One who guards the Great Dao sees what is refined and subtle; one who pursues external principles knows what is broad and extensive.

Guarding Softness Is Called Strength: To maintain a posture of softness and weakness is, rather, to deserve the name of strength.

Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji, who once annotated the Laozi) explains: By guarding softness and weakness, others cannot bully you; this is true strength. Heshang Gong (the legendary hermit said to have annotated the Laozi) says: By guarding softness and weakness, a person becomes stronger day by day. Wang Bi (a Wei scholar of the Three Kingdoms period and author of the Laozi zhu) says: The efficacy of governing the state does not lie in great noise and display. Seeing the great, one is instead easily confused; seeing the small, one can be clear. Persisting in hardness and strength is instead not strength; guarding softness and weakness is true strength. Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song, who also annotated the Laozi) says: Softness is the root. If one relies on the hard yang Qi (vital energy) to flaunt strength, one will chase after external things without knowing how to return. Only by guarding softness and weakness can one overcome external things without being harmed.

Using Its Light, Returning Again to Its Clarity: Heshang Gong says: Turn the light of the eyes outward to observe the advantages and harms of the times. Wang Bi says: Make the great Dao (the Way) manifest, thereby removing the people’s confusion and obscurity.

Tang Minghuang says: Seeing the small enables clear discernment; guarding softness enables strength. If one relies on one’s own cleverness and flaunts forceful strength, one will lose the principle of guarding softness and seeing the small. Therefore one should turn the light outward for use and then return to the inner clarity of guarding within; only thus can one long be without the entanglement of ceaseless involvement. Heshang Gong says: One should turn the light back to shine within and not allow the spirit (Shen) to leak outward. Wang Bi says: Do not be excessively clear-sighted. Wang Pang uses fire as a metaphor: Fire fills the void and gives light, and relies on firewood to take form; when its illuminating use is finished, it returns again to the void. It does not originally manifest itself; it only borrows firewood to display itself. The sage’s light likewise appears only by borrowing external things. Since external things are impermanent, the illumination changes accordingly; thus, although he responds to the myriad things inexhaustibly, his fundamental substance is not thereby depleted. If not for a person of the utmost spirit in the world, who could achieve this?

Not Leaving Calamity to the Body: Heshang Gong says: By looking inward and preserving the spirit, there will be no loss through outward leakage.

This Is Called Following the Constant: This is called according with the constant natural Dao.

Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong) comments: “Yi” means “yu.” To be able to gather the mind and spirit and guard inner brightness means one will not bring disaster upon oneself; this is secretly applying the Dao of true constancy, the eternal and unchanging Great Dao.

Heshang Gong comments: One who can do this is cultivating the constant Dao.

Wang Bi comments: This is the constant nature of the Dao.

Wang Pang, a Northern Song scholar, comments: If one clings to this “brightness” as one’s own, the thought of “I” arises. Once the “notion of self” (woxiang) is established, all things become sources of calamity; that is why it says one should understand the principle stated above, “in the end without calamity.” Those who turn away from this Dao are all dharmas of arising and perishing; only by realizing this principle can one attain eternal abiding. “Xi” means realizing this Dao without displaying it outwardly.

Chapter 53: “Shi wo jieran you zhi, xing yu dadao” — “If I had even a little knowledge, I would walk on the Great Dao.” Heshang Gong comments: “Jie” means “great.” Laozi was concerned that the rulers of his time did not practice the Great Dao, so he posited a situation: if I could have a little knowledge and make clear judgments in government affairs, I would walk on the Great Dao and personally practice the teaching of Wuwei.

“Wei shi shi wei” is merely a fragment; as far as the extant text goes, it means that what is most feared is taking the path of purposeful action and deliberate contrivance.

Laozi says: If I had some insight and regarded myself as extraordinary, wishing to promote the great Dao, then that would no longer accord with the Dao. Thus it is precisely deliberate, purposeful action that must be guarded against most.

Heshang Gong comments: “Wei” means “only” or “alone”; one must be especially wary of deliberate action that turns away from the original intent of the Dao. To reward good people, I fear, may encourage people to feign goodness; to seek to win the trust of loyal ministers, I fear, may bring forth deceitful men who pretend to be loyal.

Wang Bi comments: This means that if I could be upright and insightful, and govern the world by the great Dao, then only deliberate action would be something to fear.

Wang Pang comments: Even those who have only a little insight into the Dao but still act in accord with the great Dao are wary of human contrivance—how much more those who believe they have great insight! The way of the perfected person does not let branches harm the root. When human contrivances flourish outwardly, the root becomes empty within.

The great Dao is very level,

Heshang Gong comments: “Yi” means level and easy.

Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang, Li Longji) comments: The great Dao is level and easy to walk, but because people possess cleverness and cunning and their affairs are many, their desiring minds pursue shortcuts, just as travelers prefer crooked bypaths. The harms of crooked bypaths are explained in detail below.

Heshang Gong comments: “Jing” means crooked and depraved, not level and upright. The great Dao is extremely level, yet the common people prefer to walk wrong paths.

Wang Bi comments: The great Dao is broad, level, and upright, yet the people still abandon it and do not walk it; they prefer crooked paths. How much more would this be so if one also deliberately acted to block the middle of the great Dao? Therefore it is said, “The great Dao is very level, but the people prefer bypaths.”

Wang Pang comments: Walking crooked paths seeks only momentary quickness and obvious advantage. Those who lose their way in the great Dao and delight in deliberate action all do so because they use only short-range cleverness and lack long-term planning.

The court is very well ordered,

Tang Xuanzong comments: Revering the worthy and boasting of talent and wisdom gives rise to cunning and hypocrisy. “Chu” means to govern or put in order.

Heshang Gong comments: High terraces and pavilions; the palaces are built in splendid beauty.

Wang Bi comments: “Chao” refers to palaces and chambers; “chu” means neat and beautiful.

The court is adorned with utmost splendor, yet the fields lie barren and uncultivated, and the granaries are empty with no reserves. Rulers devote their energy to embellishing appearances and pursuing fleeting vanity, while neglecting agriculture, the root.

They wear embroidered and gorgeous garments, carry sharp swords at their waists, are fastidious about food and exhaust every delicacy, and yet have surplus wealth piled up. Such extravagance is sustained by exploiting the common people, making them like robbers, and yet they boast of it before others. Conduct of this kind violates the natural Dao (the Way).

Tang Xuanzong Li Longji (Tang Minghuang) comments that this is because the people idle about and neglect farming; luxurious practices such as carving and embroidery also harm the interests of artisans and the people’s livelihood. Heshang Gong (traditionally a Han-dynasty Daoist scholar who annotated the Laozi) points out that when farming is neglected and the fields are left uncultivated, the Five Grains are damaged and the state has no reserves. Wang Bi (a Xuanxue scholar of Wei during the Three Kingdoms period) holds that the more the court is adorned, the more the fields become barren and the granaries empty; when one aspect is out of balance, all kinds of calamities arise in its wake. Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and son of Wang Anshi) argues that well-managed agricultural affairs and full granaries are the foundation of the state; to care only for the court’s momentary splendor while ignoring that the foundation has already been exhausted—how could that be a lasting way? This is precisely a case of discarding the root and pursuing the branch.

End of the commentary on Chapter 53: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) believed that when people rely on their own cleverness and act recklessly, they instead produce harm. To act as if stealing and still boast of oneself—this “robber’s boast” (daokua) is not in accord with the Dao and can only make one sigh. Heshang Gong (the Han-dynasty recluse who annotated the Laozi) held that a ruler who acts in this way turns away from the Dao, and “ye zai” is an expression of lament. Wang Bi (a Wei scholar of the Three Kingdoms period) held that whatever is obtained not by the proper Dao is deviant, and deviant is theft; to boast without following the proper Dao is the robber’s boast; to be honored without following the proper Dao is to usurp a position. Zhang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) held that a thief steals temporary glory, while a boaster displays outward ornaments. One who cultivates the Dao should deeply plant the root and firmly guard the source, so that it is inexhaustible—why seek external empty adornment?

Chapter 54: What Is Well Established Cannot Be Uprooted

The Jing passage “What is well established is not uprooted; what is well embraced does not slip away; descendants through this perform sacrifices without cease” (bao is usually read as chuo, meaning “to stop,” that is, the sacrifices do not cease) means roughly: those who are good at establishing the state and themselves through the Dao have firm foundations and cannot be uprooted; those who are good at embracing the people and maintaining the spirit through the Dao do not scatter or lose them; if descendants follow this, the sacrifices can continue through generations without being cut off.

As for “establish” and “embrace”: Heshang Gong takes “establish” as setting up and “embrace” as guarding the spirit; Zhang Pang interprets “establish” as “the center” and “embrace” as “guarding the One.” Wang Bi explained that one first secures the root and then attends to the branches, so it cannot be pulled up; one does not prize multiplicity but lets each fulfill its capacity, so it cannot be lost.

The commentary of Xuanzong (Minghuang) says: When a ruler establishes himself firmly through the Dao and De and embraces all under Heaven, his achievements benefit later generations, and the people love him as they cherished the Duke of Shao, who governed from beneath the sweet pear tree—how much more so his descendants? The ancestors of emperors had merit, and the former kings in the ancestral temple had De. Thus the rise of Zhou began with Houji (the Zhou ancestor skilled in agriculture) and was completed by Kings Wen and Wu. When the people of Zhou offered sacrifice, at the suburban sacrifice to Heaven Houji was associated with the offering, and in the ancestral temple King Wen was sacrificed to. Therefore Zhou passed down thirty generations and lasted seven hundred years; the suburban and ancestral sacrifices to Houji and King Wen were never discontinued.

Heshang Gong says: If descendants cultivate the Dao in this way, they can live long and endure, generation after generation, and the sacrifices in the ancestral temple of their forebears will never be cut off. Li Bi says: When descendants transmit this Dao to serve their ancestors, the sacrifices will not be interrupted.

Su Pang (a Song dynasty figure) says: The sage’s cultivation of himself and governance of others lies in “establishing the center and embracing the One” (holding fast to the central upright way and embracing the pure, single source). This is the fundamental standard of all things and teachings; though Heaven and Earth may come to an end, this standard cannot change. Therefore the sage can transmit his norms and laws endlessly, his merit and De spread throughout the four seas, the hearts of all under Heaven turn toward him, and his grace extends to descendants.

The following passage discusses the levels of cultivating the Dao. Cultivated in oneself, De becomes true and pure. Heshang Gong adds that this refers to cultivating the Dao and nourishing the body, cherishing the primordial Qi, and nurturing Jing and Shen, thereby increasing longevity. Only when De reaches this stage can one be called a Zhenren (a person who has attained the Dao).

Cultivated in the family, De becomes abundant and beautiful. Xuanzong’s commentary says that when the whole family cultivates the Dao, their De becomes even more excellent and full. Heshang Gong says that cultivation in the family means fathers are kind and sons filial, elder brothers are friendly and younger brothers respectful, husbands are trustworthy and wives chaste; with De like this, surplus blessings (the felicity accumulated from good deeds) extend to later descendants. Li Bi summarizes: extending from oneself to others, when cultivated in oneself De is true; when cultivated in the family De is abundant; if cultivation is not abandoned, the De one bestows becomes vast and profound.

The final sentence, “Cultivated in the village, its De becomes long,” means that when the cultivation of the Dao is extended to the village, De can be transmitted and endure for a long time.

This passage discusses how cultivating the Dao proceeds from near to far, extending from oneself to the family, village, state, and all under Heaven; one’s De (Virtue/Power) likewise expands from small to great and from near to far.

Cultivating in the village, one’s De becomes enduring. Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) says: When everyone in a village cultivates the Dao, the transformative influence of De can be transmitted enduringly. Heshang Gong (the famous Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) explains: To cultivate the Dao in the village, one should respect elders, cherish the young, and instruct the ignorant and uncouth. With De such as this, there is no one who is not sheltered.

Cultivating in the state, one’s De becomes abundant. Emperor Ming of Tang says: When everyone in a state cultivates the Dao, the transformative influence of De becomes rich and full. Heshang Gong says: To cultivate the Dao in the state, the ruler keeps faith, ministers are loyal, benevolence and righteousness arise naturally, ritual and music arise naturally, and government affairs are fair and without selfishness. With De such as this, popular customs become honest and generous.

Cultivating in all under Heaven, one’s De becomes universal. Emperor Ming of Tang says: If everyone under Heaven cultivates the Dao, the exercise of De’s transformative influence becomes all-encompassing. Heshang Gong says: If the ruler cultivates the Dao throughout all under Heaven, he can transform the people without issuing orders and govern without deliberate teaching; those below follow those above like a shadow following a form or an echo responding to a sound. With De such as this, it is vast and universal. Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure, son of Wang Anshi, who also commented on the Laozi) adds: Extending the method of self-cultivation beyond oneself, first there is sufficiency, then endurance; endurance, then abundance; abundance, then universality.

Observe the self through the self, the family through the family, the village through the village, the state through the state... This means using the standard of cultivating the Dao to compare and examine circumstances at different levels. By observing the uncultivated self through the cultivated self, one can see which survives and which perishes; by observing the family through the method of self-cultivation, a family that can be harmonious will have a family way that is more than sufficient; by observing the village through the method of village cultivation, a village that can be well ordered will be long stable; the same principle applies to observing the state through the state—observing a state that cultivates the Dao through contrast with one that does not.

Note: In the original text, the passage “Observe the world by the world” appears twice; the same commentary from “Emperor Minghuang says” through “are also all like the way of humans” appears consecutively in duplicate. Below, it is transcribed and interpreted in the original order, without addition or deletion.

Observe the state by the method of cultivating the state; those who can be diligent and frugal will be abundant.

Emperor Minghuang of Tang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji, who once annotated the Daodejing) says: If one observes other states by the well-cultivated way of governing a state, those that can be diligent and frugal will become rich and sufficient.

Heshang Gong (author of an early commentary on the Daodejing and a commentator in the Daoist tradition) says: Use states that cultivate the Dao to observe states that do not cultivate the Dao.

Wang Bi (a Wei-Jin era Xuanxue scholar and author of the Commentary on the Laozi) says: The circumstances of all states are like this.

Observe the world by the world.

Observe the world by the principle of the world.

Observe the world by the method of cultivating the world; those able to practice Wuwei (non-action) will have their virtue become universal.

Emperor Minghuang says: If one observes the world by the method of cultivating the world, those who can accord with nature and refrain from artificial action will have their virtuous influence extend universally.

Heshang Gong says: Use the ruler who cultivates the Dao to observe rulers who do not cultivate the Dao.

Wang Bi says: Use the minds of the people of the world to observe the Dao of the world. The world has only one Dao; whether favorable or adverse, auspicious or inauspicious, it is the same Dao of the world.

Observe the world by the method of cultivating the world; those able to practice Wuwei will have their virtue become universal. ... are also all like the way of humans.

(This passage is identical to the preceding passage; the original text repeats it.)

The annotations by Emperor Minghuang, Heshang Gong, and Wang Bi are the same as above. Wang Bi continues: The favorable and adverse, auspicious and inauspicious aspects of the Dao of the world are also all like the principles of humans.

Zhang Pang (nephew of Wang Anshi of the Northern Song and an annotator of the Laozi) says: When the sage faces the myriad things, he exhausts the utmost of principle without mixing in selfish intentions or petty cleverness, and so there is nothing he cannot handle. Therefore, in cultivating himself, he takes the principle of the whole body as his model; if he can fully realize the principle of the whole body, the body is governed. Extending from this, in governing a family he takes the heart of the family as his heart; in governing a district he takes the district’s standards and laws as his norm. In this way, the things he encounters become ever broader, and his handling of them becomes ever more effortless. The Book of Documents says: Heaven’s intelligence and discernment come from the people’s intelligence and discernment. The sage simply accords with the Dao of Heaven.

By what do I know that the world is so?

By what do I know that the circumstances of the world are like this?

By this.

It is by this principle (that is, as stated above, observing oneself by the method of cultivating oneself).

Emperor Minghuang says: Extending the method of observing oneself as above to observe others is sufficient.

Heshang Gong says: Laozi’s meaning is: By what do I know that states in the world that cultivate the Dao flourish and those that turn away from the Dao perish? It is by observing according to these five matters (referring to the five standards of observation listed above) that I know.

Wang Bi says: This is the principle stated above. It means: By what do I know the circumstances of the world? One need only reflect on oneself to know; there is no need to seek outward. This is what is meant by “without going out the door, one knows the world.” Wang Bi repeats this sentence; the original text does likewise.

Zhang Pang says: What the sage holds is only one Dao, with no other doctrine; therefore the basis by which he “knows” all comes from this Dao.

Summary of the Commentary: The core theme of this passage is “observe the body by the body, the family by the family, the state by the state, and the world by the world”—that is, from near to far, from oneself to others, from the small to the great. The basis for understanding the world lies in turning back to seek within oneself, what is called “without going out the door, one knows the world.”

When De (Virtue/Power) Is Deep, It Is Like a Newborn Infant

This chapter speaks of a person whose inner De is extremely deep and whose conduct is as pure as that of an infant. Heshang Gong’s commentary says that such a person can receive the protection of spiritual beings and long preserve deep De, like parents caring for an infant. Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji) also held that the “perfected person” (the one who has reached the highest level of cultivation) acts with the plain naturalness of a newborn child.

Wang Pang, a Northern Song scholar, further explained: Human De is originally not thin; it becomes thin because of the pull of desires and deliberations. If one can preserve one’s innate true nature and not let external things deplete the inner spirit, then pure and harmonious Qi (chunqi) will accumulate within the body, and the human Dao (rendao) will become full; one can then reach the realm of “greatness.” For such a person, it would be no wonder even to tame tigers and leopards or subdue ghosts and spirits.

Someone asked: Why can the newborn infant not do these things? Wang Pang replied: Preserving pure Qi is not something that one person’s body can accomplish alone. Worldly people in degenerate times, though they have the outward form of a newborn, have long since lost their original truth; how could the people of the world understand these principles?

Poisonous Insects Do Not Sting, Fierce Beasts Do Not Seize, Birds of Prey Do Not Strike

Heshang Gong’s commentary: Bees, fireflies, snakes, and vipers (poisonous snakes) will not sting people. This line means that for a person of deep De, poisonous insects do not sting, fierce beasts do not pounce, and birds of prey do not strike.

The wondrous quality of the Ultimate Person (Zhiren) lies in that external things cannot harm him. He has no mind to harm external things, and so there is no room in him for poisonous insects to sting him or fierce beasts to strike him. This is the expression of the Ultimate Person’s containing De (Virtue/Power) within.

(Heshang Gong says: The newborn infant is simply the baby. It does not harm external things, and external things do not harm it. Therefore in an age of Great Peace, everyone harbors a heart of benevolence and love; even thorny things return to their original nature, and poisonous insects do not harm people.)

(Wang Bi says: The newborn infant has no greed or desire and does not encroach on any thing, and so poisonous insects do not encroach on it. One who contains De deeply does not encroach on external things, and external things have no way to damage his wholeness.)

(Zhang Pang says: Preserving the pure and thick Qi (vital energy) is enough to accomplish this. I have formerly thought about it: the reason the myriad things harm one another is that their Qi has suffered some damage. Human beings are the most honored among the myriad things and receive the most harmonious Qi; the reason they are disturbed by external things is that they have lost their normal state. Thus Yin-Yang finds harmony in the Qi of harmonious balance. As long as one guards the harmonious balance of true Qi, how could external things harm him? Yet this is still the De of the Great Person, not yet the realm of the sage.)

Bones weak and sinews soft, yet the grasp is firm: Heshang Gong says: The infant’s bones and sinews are weak and soft, yet it can grasp things very tightly, because its mind is focused and does not wander. Wang Bi says: Precisely because it is weak and soft, its holding is instead firm.

Not yet knowing the union of female and male, yet □ stirs: “Female and male” refers to female and male, here meaning the affair between man and woman. The infant does not yet understand the union of man and woman, yet its Yang Qi naturally becomes full and rises. Wang Bi says: “Zuo” means to grow. Because no external thing damages the body, it can be preserved and grow. This means that for one who contains De deeply, external things cannot damage his De or alter his true nature; being weak and soft and not contending, he therefore is not broken. This is all the same principle.

The utmost of Jing (essence): Jing refers to Jing-Qi and original Qi. This means that Jing-Qi is full to the utmost.

The newborn infant (chizi) does not understand the union of male and female, yet its genital organ will stir by itself; this is because the jing and qi within its body are full and abundant.

Wang Pang explains further: this stirring is not provoked by external feelings of attraction, but arises in accord with the natural operation of original qi (yuanqi), and is not produced by conscious intention. If the eyes outwardly pursue sensual sights and sounds while the mind within is scattered and self-indulgent, then jing and qi will be exhausted and life will be harmed—how, then, could one preserve it for long? There is no greater calamity in the world than this, and it is what those who study should guard against most.

The scripture says that though the infant cries all day, its throat does not become hoarse; this is the utmost harmony of original qi. Wang Bi’s commentary says that the infant has no mind of contention or desire, and so even if it cries aloud all day it will not become hoarse. (In Wang Bi’s edition, the character “sha” is written as “yi”; the meanings are close, both referring to hoarseness.)

The infant’s bones are soft and weak, its sinews supple, yet its clenched fist is firm. It does not yet understand the union of Yin-Yang, yet within its body lies the root of primordial Qi (yuanqi, vital energy). Its hands and feet move because its Jing (essence) and Qi are pure to the utmost. It cries and wails all day, yet its throat does not grow hoarse, because the Qi of pure harmony has reached its utmost—this is how the infant preserves harmonious Qi.

Some commentators say that an infant cries from morning to night while its voice remains unchanged because the harmonious Qi within it is abundant.

Another commentator quotes Mencius: “Nourish it with upright Qi and do not harm it, and it will fill the space between Heaven and Earth.” This Qi is called “vast” in Heaven and Earth and “harmonious” in the human body; the names differ, but it is in fact the same primordial Qi. If a person’s mind and Qi entangle and disturb each other, confusing the order of things and losing their normal state, and even injuring the body and dying as a result, it is not that their natural endowment is different; it is that they have not used the right method to preserve it.

A person complete in Dao (the Way) and De (Virtue/Power), though the body comes into contact with external things, keeps the inner mind calm and settled throughout. Thus even when primordial Qi is employed, it moves naturally; there is movement, but one is not burdened by movement. Who can disturb someone who guards this mellow primordial Qi? Therefore, even when entering prime adulthood and old age, such a person does not lose the state of an infant. The legendary Guangchengzi cultivated himself for one thousand two hundred years, yet his bodily form did not age; the principle lies precisely here.

The character sha is related in meaning to xia, summer. Summer is the season when the Heavenly harmonious Qi disperses. When an infant cries, its throat does not become hoarse because the harmonious Qi has no stagnation. Another edition writes yi, referring to the yi of exhaling breath; this interpretation also makes sense.

To understand the principle of harmony is called “Chang” (the constant, unchanging law).

To be able, like an infant, to firmly guard the soft and yielding nature—this is the cultivation of one who understands the Constant Dao.

Heshang Gong says: If a person can understand the principle of harmonious Qi’s softness and weakness and apply it to things beneficial to others, then that person knows the constant principle of the Dao.

Wang Bi says: All things take harmony as their constant state; therefore, if one understands harmony, one can grasp the Constant.

Wang Pang says: “The constancy of returning to destiny” refers to realizing the softness and weakness of harmonious Qi (returning to destiny, fuming, is the state of returning to the original source of life); “the constancy of knowing harmony” refers to guarding original Qi. If one can know and guard the Qi, one may be said to be approaching returning to destiny, but one has not yet truly attained it. These two points are precisely the root of why sages become sages and worthies become worthies; there is no other path besides this. Ancient scholars all set out from here. Later, when the great Dao declined, scholars pursued branch tips and forgot the root, and only then did learning begin to have side branches that deviated from this Dao. What is called the Constant means that human nature has a definite measure. If one can fully develop one’s nature, one can be distinguished from external things and not be changed by them; therefore it is called the Constant. Anything outside one’s nature is false and delusive, and none of it can be called the Constant.

Knowing the Constant Is Called Clarity:

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang says: Guarding harmony and softness and understanding the Constant Dao is called “clarity,” that is, clear and penetrating understanding.

Heshang Gong says: If a person can know the constant course of the Dao, then that person can penetrate the profound and mysterious principle; this is “clarity.”

Wang Bi says: Not deviating because of hunger and fullness, cold and heat—this is the Constant. Not being deluded by things with form and being able to see the source of things is called “clarity.”

Wang Pang says: Those who do not understand the Constant Dao, even if they have petty cleverness in observing things, only conform to branch tips. Only those who understand the Constant Dao accord with the root; only this can be called “clarity.”

Increasing Life Is Called a Portent:

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang says: “Xiang” is an omen of good or ill fortune. If people do not know to guard the Constant but greedily seek to increase life beyond their allotted measure, they instead push themselves toward death; this is what is called an “ominous portent.”

Heshang Gong says: “Xiang” means increase. “Increasing life” means single-mindedly wishing for one’s life to continually increase.

Xiang (Portent)

Xiang is a portent of good or ill fortune. Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang) comments: If people do not know how to maintain the constant Dao, but instead single-mindedly pursue prolonging life and extending their years while overstepping their proper station, they push themselves toward the place of death. This is the dangerous “Xiang.”

Heshang Gong (the legendary Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi) interprets “Xiang” as “growth,” meaning that people wish to make life grow without limit through artificial means, and so day and night they recklessly add nourishment; the body instead becomes increasingly “grown large,” that is, excessive.

Wang Bi (a Xuanxue thinker of the Three Kingdoms period) says: Life cannot be prolonged by augmentation; to force augmentation turns it into an abnormal monstrosity.

Zhang Pang (a Northern Song scholar and disciple of Wang Anshi) says: A person’s vital mechanism is already sufficient, lacking nothing. If one nourishes it harmoniously in accordance with the proper Dao, it has already reached its utmost; to deliberately add more instead creates a superfluous encumbrance. What is called “Xiang” is simply something contrary to the normal condition.

When the Mind Commands the Qi, This Is Called “Strength”

Tang Xuanzong comments: The mind has distinctions of right and wrong; Qi originally has no distinctions. If the mind is used to command Qi, one becomes a person of “qiangliang,” that is, one who flaunts strength and violence.

Heshang Gong comments: The mind should be single-minded and peaceful; Qi should be full within and soft and compliant. If the mind recklessly interferes, harmonious Qi dissipates from the body, and the physical form becomes rigid and hard.

Wang Bi comments: The mind should not command Qi; to command it makes it hard and strong.

Zhang Pang comments: If the mind commands Qi, Qi in turn commands the mind; mind and Qi drive each other, the natural harmony is destroyed, and the true primal source is damaged. A person’s innate endowment cannot be increased or decreased; augmentation or depletion is contrary to natural principle. Mencius warned against “pulling up seedlings to help them grow,” and Laozi also discussed “benefiting life” and “commanding Qi”; their intent in all cases is to preserve the pure and abundant Qi intact. The “strength” here is not the strength of self-conquest that restrains the self, but the strength of qiangliang, that is, a brash and overbearing display of force.

When Things Reach Their Prime, They Age; This Is Called Being Contrary to the Dao

Heshang Gong comments: When the myriad things flourish to the utmost, they move toward withering and aging. Withering and aging are not in accord with the Dao.

Zhang Pang comments: People have their prime and their decline; these are changes of physical form. But if one speaks of the fixed measure of one’s proper allotment, it is constant and unchanging. Those who lose their original nature have their physical form transform with things, and their mind and spirit shift along with them. Therefore, to seek only prime flourishing and not know how to maintain constancy is to be out of accord with the Dao.

The chapter “Those Who Know Do Not Speak” (Daodejing, chapter 56) says in these lines: truly wise people do not love grandiloquent talk, because too many words easily lead one away from the Dao (the Way).

“Those who know do not speak; those who speak do not know” is the core of the whole passage. One who understands the Dao does not readily open his mouth, while one who loves argument may not truly understand. Heshang Gong held that the wise person focuses on putting things into practice rather than on empty talk. Wang Bi regarded this as following the natural course and not artificially contriving words. Wang Pang pointed out that if one still needs to rely on speech to express it, this shows that one has not yet truly understood the Dao.

In “block its openings, close its doors,” “openings” (dui) refers to the mouth aperture and, more broadly, to the places through which the senses go in and out; “doors” refers to the gates through which desires go out. The commentary of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Minghuang) says that “knowing” means awakening and “speaking” means disputation. A person of thorough awakening has no fond attachment or clinging toward worldly things, nor does he wallow in or become stuck on words; hence it says to block the mouth aperture. Heshang Gong cites the proverb “a team of four horses cannot overtake the tongue,” reminding that much speech invites disaster; he also says one should cut off desires at their source. Wang Pang says that doing so enables the spirit to remain whole and undivided, not scattered.

In “blunt its sharpness,” “sharpness” refers to the edge and aggressive energy; “blunt its sharpness” means to restrain and withdraw one’s edge so that it is not exposed and one does not show off strength.

This passage discusses “Xuantong” (Mysterious Sameness), the state of being fused into oneness with the mysterious Dao.

The scripture first speaks of the method of cultivation. When desires are blazing and sharp edges are exposed, one should remember that the Dao is Wuwei (non-action), and use this to blunt and restrain them. When disputes become tangled, one should also resolve them through the Dao of Wuwei. Even if one has unique insight, one should withdraw one’s radiance, so that sharpness does not dazzle or disturb others. Dwelling together with the dust and customs of the world, one neither advertises oneself nor sets oneself apart. To act in this way is called “Xuantong.”

Heshang Gong (the legendary Han dynasty commentator on the Laozi) holds in his commentary that “Xuan” means Heaven, and that if a person can act in this way, he is of the same Dao as Heaven. He also says: do not take honor as joy, and when standing alone do not grieve over isolation. The body does not crave wealth and nobility, the mouth does not crave the five flavors, and one’s aspiration is clear, quiet, and without desire, bearing no resentment toward others.

Wang Bi (the Three Kingdoms Wei scholar of Xuanxue) points out that if one is neither especially exalted nor especially lowly, the myriad things will not contend with or shame one another.

Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure, son of Wang Anshi) says that one who truly understands the principle conducts himself in the world in precisely this way: he does not establish a self to oppose external things, and therefore external things have no means by which to possess him.

The commentary of Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang) explains that the person of Xuantong has no selfish mind, and so others cannot become intimate with him, nor can they become distant from him; he loves all people broadly, and so others cannot distance themselves from him; he is without desire, and so others cannot profit from him; he does not contend, and so others have no way to harm him.

This passage comes from chapter 56 of the Daodejing and concerns the person who embodies the Dao (the Way), who has transcended the distinctions between benefit and harm, honor and lowliness. The Collected Commentaries on the Daode Zhenjing is a compilation of annotated editions; the commentators below are Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, Li Longji (referred to as “Minghuang”), Heshang Gong of the Han dynasty, who annotated Laozi (referred to as “He”), Wang Bi of the Three Kingdoms (“Bi”), and Wang Pang of the Northern Song (“Pang”).

One cannot benefit them, nor can one harm them: Those who embody the Dao have no desires within, so external things have no way to lure them with benefit. Heshang Gong says: when the body does not covet wealth and honor and the mouth does not seek the five flavors, naturally there is no profit to be gained. Moreover, because such a person does not contend with others, there is no way to injure him with misfortune. Heshang Gong says: he does not contend for profit with the powerful and noble, nor contend in Qi (vital energy) with the brave. Wang Bi says: whoever can be lured by profit can also be harmed.

One cannot honor them, nor can one demean them: Those who embody the Dao do not reckon the rise and fall of the world’s ways. Heshang Gong says: he does not become a ruler in a chaotic age, nor occupy the position of a benighted ruler, and so he is not honored. Emperor Xuanzong says: his mind is like something washed clean, without a speck of dust or dregs, and so no one can treat him with contempt. Heshang Gong also says: he is not arrogant because he holds power, nor bent because his aspirations fail. Wang Bi says: whoever can be honored can also be demeaned.

Therefore they are valued by the world: Emperor Xuanzong says: he realizes the great Dao without obstruction, forgets words and penetrates the principles of things; sharp edges and disturbances are all dissolved, and he harmonizes his light with the dust and the mundane without distinguishing self and other. He neither calculates close and distant relations nor discusses noble and base, and so he becomes the most honorable person in the world. Heshang Gong says: his virtue being like this, the Son of Heaven cannot make him a subject, the feudal lords cannot subdue him; he floats and sinks with the age, accommodates his body and avoids harm, and is therefore valued by the world. Wang Bi says: there is nothing that can surpass him. Wang Pang says: “not speaking” does not mean keeping something secret and not revealing it; it means that there is truly nothing to say, because he does not see a single dharma. Not seeing a single dharma, he can drive the myriad things without being enslaved by them. Such a person no one can enfeoff with rank, yet he is constantly respected.

At the end: “Govern the state with correctness” is the chapter title of chapter 57; after it only fragmentary lines remain. Heshang Gong’s words are roughly: because he can drive the myriad things without being driven by them, although he has no rank or enfeoffment, he is constantly revered.

The scriptural text first cites Heshang Gong's commentary: the term “yi” means “to bring to” or “cause to arrive.” Heaven wishes to cause upright people to govern the state. Wang Pang (son of Wang Anshi) comments: the key to governing the state lies in fully following the correct principle of the Great Dao, without allowing personal cleverness to be mixed in.

“Deploying troops by qi”: Heshang Gong notes that “qi” means deceit or treachery. Heaven causes deceitful people to employ troops. Wang Pang comments: weapons are not originally implements that accord with the Great Dao, yet even the sage cannot completely discard them. They simply must not be treated as a constant method; therefore it says, “deploy troops by qi.”

“Taking the world by having no affairs”: Tang Xuanzong (Minghuang) comments: in governing the world, what is valued is wuwei. If one governs by means of governmental orders and moral instruction, or employs troops by deceitful arts, neither accords with the Dao. Only by having no affairs and practicing wuwei can one take the world. These three sentences are the outline of the entire chapter. Heshang Gong comments: cause the person of no affairs and wuwei to obtain the world and become its ruler. Wang Bi (the Three Kingdoms Wei scholar) comments: governing by the Dao brings peace to the state; governing by orthodox laws and measures causes extraordinary and deceptive military affairs to arise. Only one who can have no affairs can take the world. The previous chapter says, “Those who take the world constantly do so by having no affairs”; once there are affairs, one is no longer sufficient to take the world. Therefore, governing by the proper way is insufficient to take the world, and so one cannot but use deceitful means in military affairs. Generally, governing by the Dao honors the root and stops the branches; governing by the orthodox establishes laws and institutions to work on the branches. When the root is not established and the branches are shallow, the people have nowhere to rely, and only then does one reach the point of using extraordinary troops. Wang Pang further comments: governing by the proper Dao, the world naturally submits—why again resort to military affairs? The world is a sacred vessel; only one who practices wuwei can possess it. Hence the following explains this point.

“How do I know it is so? By this.” Tang Xuanzong comments: “by this” refers to the principles stated below. Heshang Gong comments: “this” means “now”; Laozi is saying, by what do I know that the way of Heaven is like this? I know it by what is seen today.

“When the world has many taboos, the people become ever poorer.” Taboos refers to the various prohibitions and restrictions established by the court. The more prohibitions there are in the world, the poorer the people become instead.

Excerpt from Chapter 57 of the Dao De Jing (according to the commentary texts collected in Collected Commentaries on the Dao De Zhen Jing)

Governing the state through government measures, every action multiplies taboos; the people lose their occupations, and so they are made ever poorer. (The scriptural passage is omitted.) Governing the state with cumbersome and harsh decrees, setting many prohibitions at every turn, leaves the common people unable to secure their livelihoods, and thus they become poorer and poorer.

The Minghuang commentary (Tang Xuanzong, Li Longji): If governing the state sets too many taboos, the people lose their means of livelihood, and therefore become increasingly poor.

The He commentary (Heshang Gong): “The world” refers to the ruler. “Taboos” means guardings and prohibitions. When laws and decrees are cumbersome, the people become still poorer.

The Pang commentary (Wang Pang, Northern Song): When prohibitions are established for everything, the people are harassed and lose their livelihoods; this is precisely the beginning of calamity and disorder.

When the people have many sharp tools, the state becomes ever more benighted.

The Minghuang commentary: “Sharp tools” refers to power tactics. If the ruler takes power tactics as principal and does not treat people with honesty, ministers respond with deceit, and the state therefore becomes more disordered.

The He commentary: “Sharp tools” means authority. If the common people grasp too much power, their eyes are dazzled and their ears are blocked; superior and inferior no longer feel close, and the state thus becomes disordered.

The Bi commentary (Wang Bi, Three Kingdoms Wei): “Sharp tools” are the instruments people use to seek private profit. If the common people are overbearing, the state will weaken.

The Pang commentary: Once there are sharp tools, crafty intentions arise. Once crafty intentions arise, ministers become difficult to fathom, and the state therefore becomes disordered.

When people often rely on cunning, strange things multiply. (There is no commentary on this line in the original.) If people rely on cunning, all kinds of bizarre affairs and opportunistic goods will emerge endlessly.

Summary of the whole passage: The scriptural text holds that when decrees are harsh and numerous and rulers are fond of power tactics, the people will treat one another with cunning and deceit; society loses order and livelihood declines. Those who govern should reduce prohibitions and treat the people honestly, rather than managing them through crafty minds and methods.

This passage comes from Chapter 57 of the Daodejing. The following interprets the commentaries of various schools in sequence.

Commentary preceding the scriptural passage “As laws and decrees are increasingly promulgated, thieves and robbers become numerous”

Tang Xuanzong Li Longji (referred to in the commentary as “Minghuang”) held that if a ruler places excessive value on cunning and strategic intelligence and cannot preserve a plain and simple nature, then his ministers will follow him in pursuing luxury and splendor, and ingenious, extravagant, and decadent objects will consequently proliferate.

Heshang Gong (referred to in the commentary as “He”) says that “the people” here refers to the feudal lords who rule a region. If they make much use of cleverness and cunning, carving palaces and adorning clothing, then strange and extraordinary things will arise. Ministers and subordinates imitate their ruler, decorating utensils with gold and jade and competing in displays of brocade and brilliant colors, becoming more serious day by day.

Wang Bi (referred to in the commentary as “Bi”) says that when the common people have much cleverness, fraud and trickery arise, and evil deeds arise along with them.

Wang Pang of the Northern Song (son of Wang Anshi, referred to in the commentary as “Pang”) says that in remote antiquity the utensils and implements of the common people were crude and plain; in later ages customs declined, the making of implements became increasingly refined, clever ideas increased day by day, customs became ever more corrupt, and all kinds of anomalous things therefore became more and more numerous. (In another edition, the character li is written zhang here.)

Annotations on the scriptural passage “As laws and decrees are increasingly promulgated, thieves and robbers become numerous”

Tang Xuanzong believed that once the Way of governance through Wuwei (non-action) had been lost, laws and decrees became increasingly strict and explicit; people exploited loopholes in the law and committed crimes and offenses, all becoming thieves and robbers—how could they fail to be numerous?

Heshang Gong says that “fa wu” means “good things,” referring to precious and beautiful objects. When such things multiply greatly and are displayed in the world, agricultural work is neglected, and people suffer hunger and cold; therefore thieves and robbers increase.

Wang Bi says that the establishment of correct laws was originally intended to stop evil, but the result was the production of strange and crafty schemes; using numerous prohibitions to make people ashamed of poverty only made the common people poorer instead. Sharp implements were originally meant to strengthen the state, yet the state became increasingly benighted and chaotic. In every case this is abandoning the root and pursuing the branches, replacing treatment of the root with treatment of symptoms, and only thus does such a result come about.

Annotations on the scriptural passage “Therefore the sage says”

Heshang Gong says that this introduces what follows, namely the sage’s words below.

Annotations on the scriptural passage “I practice Wuwei, and the people naturally transform themselves”

Heshang Gong says that the sage is saying: I cultivate the great Dao (the Way) and comply with the heavenly Dao; I do not arbitrarily alter governmental orders, and the people naturally transform and reach fulfillment.

Wang Pang says that when the ruler practices Wuwei, he himself can remain constant; when the ruler is constant, the people likewise become constant, and so they can naturally transform. This further elaborates the meaning of “sharp implements” above.

Annotations on the scriptural passage “I love stillness, and the people naturally become upright and transformed”

This is another saying of the sage, meaning: I love clarity and stillness, and the people naturally become upright; they are naturally transformed.

Heshang Gong’s commentary explains: The sage means, “I cultivate the Great Dao and comply with the Heavenly Dao; I do not make separate alterations to institutions, nor do I recklessly contrive. The common people are thus subtly transformed and naturally brought to completion.” Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) further explains: If one does not act recklessly, things can maintain their original constancy (“embodying constancy”). When the ruler guards constancy, the people also guard constancy, and so they can be naturally transformed and nurtured. This continues the meaning of “sharp instruments” in the preceding text.

“I love quietude, and the people of themselves become upright”: Heshang Gong says the sage means, “I delight in purity and stillness, issue no commands, and add no excessive instruction; the people of themselves all become honest and upright.” Wang Pang says, “To delight in quietude is to be able to recover one’s original nature (‘recovering nature,’ that is, returning to one’s true innate nature). When the ruler recovers his original nature, the people likewise recover their innate nature, and so they naturally become upright.” This expounds the meaning of “thieves and bandits” in the preceding text.

“I have no affairs, and the people of themselves become wealthy”: Heshang Gong says, “I do not order the people about or arbitrarily conscript them for corvée labor; the people can then settle their minds in their own occupations, and therefore all naturally become prosperous.” Wang Pang says, “Through Wuwei (non-action) and loving quietude, one can remain without affairs; the people can then let their livelihoods proceed smoothly—where would there be any need for many prohibitions?”

“I am without desire, and the people of themselves become simple”: When the ruler has no greed or desire, the people naturally return to plain simplicity.

This chapter is Chapter 58 of the Daodejing, and its opening two lines are “When the government is muddled and dull, the people are simple and honest.” The “He” in the commentary refers to Heshang Gong, the legendary Han-dynasty commentator on the Laozi. The commentary says: When governance and moral instruction are generous and broad, they appear muddled and dim, as though lacking sufficient clarity and discernment.

This passage comes from the Daoist commentary Daode Zhenjing Jizhu (Collected Commentaries on the True Scripture of the Dao and De), attributed to a Song-dynasty prefect surnamed Zhang. The following is a plain-language reading.

Passage 1: Governance, edification, and popular customs

Emperor Ming (Tang Xuanzong) says: When political orders and edification are unassuming and silent, acting through Wuwei (non-action) yet generous and broad, the people will follow and become honest and simple. Heshang Gong says: Because governance and edification are generous, the people are simple, honest, and live in closeness and harmony. Wang Bi says: One who is good at governing does not display traces, does not set up names and categories, and does not multiply affairs; he merely acts quietly and obscurely, and in the end attains great order. Hence it is said, “Its government is dull and undifferentiated.” Among the people there is no contention; they are generous and simple. Hence it is said, “Its people are pure and simple.”

Passage 2: Harsh scrutiny in governance and popular customs

“Its government is sharply scrutinizing”: Heshang Gong says that orders are urgent and harsh; before a person’s words have left his mouth, the verdict is already sounding in his ears. Wang Pang says that “scrutinizing” describes over-governance.

“Its people are deficient and damaged”: Tang Xuanzong’s commentary says that when orders are harsh and pressing, the people respond to them and therefore become deficient and worn out. Heshang Gong says that when orders are urgent, the people cannot live in peace and daily become distressed and haggard. Wang Bi says that establishing penal names and strictly clarifying rewards and punishments in order to inspect treachery and falsity is what is meant by “scrutinizing”; when things are finely distinguished and analyzed, the people harbor a competitive mind, and this is what is meant by “its people are deficient and damaged.” Wang Pang explains “deficient” as damage to a vessel or object—that is, incomplete.

Passage 3: Misfortune and blessing leaning on each other

“Misfortune is what blessing leans on”: Heshang Gong says “leans on” means to rely on or depend on. Misfortune arises because of blessing; if after meeting misfortune a person can repent, blame himself, cultivate good conduct, and follow the great Dao, then misfortune departs and blessing comes.

“Blessing is where misfortune lies hidden”: Heshang Gong says misfortune is concealed within blessing. When people obtain blessing, they become arrogant and self-indulgent; then blessing is lost and misfortune arrives.

“Who knows its ultimate point?” Tang Xuanzong says “leans on” means to rely on and “lies hidden” means to be concealed. The preceding text says that when government is broad and dull, people of the world take this as a sign that there is no political order, yet the people are instead simple and honest—this is the principle that misfortune arises from blessing. (The final sentence of the original is defective; here one can only interpret according to the surviving text.)

Brief summary: The core of this chapter is that lenient Wuwei government makes popular customs honest and simple, while harsh and vexatious government leaves the people distressed; misfortune and blessing depend on and transform into one another. People should remain vigilant in times of peace, cultivate themselves and practice the Dao, and not become arrogant because of blessing.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Emperor Xuanzong, Li Longji) commented: “Yi” means to rely on, and “fu” means to lie hidden. When governmental orders are lenient and indistinct, the people may instead feel that administration lacks order, and yet the people thereby become honest and simple—this is where misfortune becomes the support of fortune. When governmental orders are sharply scrutinizing and severe, the people may instead feel that administration is well ordered, and yet the people thereby become cunning and degenerate—this is where fortune hides misfortune within it.

Heshang Gong said: Misfortune and fortune generate each other; who can know where their end lies?

Wang Pang (a Northern Song scholar) said: The ten thousand things are all pervaded by the same Qi. The movement of Qi goes back and forth in cycles, ending and beginning again, shifting and changing like flowing water without exhaustion; therefore misfortune and fortune alternate like the turning of the four seasons. The sage understands this principle, and so in action values moderation and does not do anything to excess. Those who practice sharp and strict government wish to uphold the upright way, prohibit the extraordinary, stop the ominous and evil, and promote good governance, believing that in this way they can bring complete fortune to the world; they do not know that the extraordinary and the upright generate each other, and that the ominous and the good alternate and change. Single-mindedly seeking fortune, they do not know that when fortune reaches its extreme it turns into misfortune. Therefore Zhuang Zhou used the muddled parable of “between capability and incapability” to illustrate the principle. Extending this to the governing of the state, it probably lies in the measure between sharp discernment and lack of sharp discernment. Thus the saying “its government is muddled” roughly means what was said above: such government seems unable to distinguish good from evil, right from wrong; therefore when a petty clever person sees it, he may feel displeased. The meaning of this line is the same as “How vast! It has no end,” because the principle in Zhuangzi of equalizing “wei” and “a” is consistent with the principle of misfortune and fortune here.

The scriptural phrase “Is there no upright standard?” comes from Daodejing chapter 58: “When its government is muddled, its people are simple and honest; when its government is sharp and scrutinizing, its people are cunning and deficient. Misfortune—fortune leans on it; fortune—misfortune lies hidden within it. Who knows their ultimate point? Is there no upright standard? The upright turns again into the extraordinary; the good turns again into the ominous.” This sentence means: Is there truly no fixed standard? “Zheng” refers to the upright way, the norm; “xie” here is a modal particle, equivalent to the question particle “ma.”

The passage comes from chapter 58 of the Daodejing: “It has no fixed correctness; the correct turns back into the strange, goodness turns back into the monstrous; people’s confusion has indeed lasted long.” The following interprets it sentence by sentence according to the commentaries.

On “It has no fixed correctness,” the two words “no fixed correctness” are understood differently by various commentators. Heshang Gong, the famous Han dynasty commentator on the Laozi, takes “no” simply as “not”: if the ruler himself is not upright, the state cannot be preserved. Zhang Pang, a Northern Song scholar, holds that when good governance reaches its utmost, there is no fixed standard of correctness to put forward and no penalty to specify; the people, being simple and unadorned, are naturally transformed. He also points out that circumstances constantly shift, and people often take what they regard as right at the time to be “correct,” not realizing that “correctness” cannot be held fixed. Thus those who speak of “no fixed correctness” have also made “no fixed correctness” into a fixed standard. The particle xie in the text is an interrogative particle, indicating that “no fixed correctness” is not to be asserted absolutely.

On “the correct turns back into the strange,” Heshang Gong says that “the strange” means fraud. When the ruler is not upright, even subjects who uphold correctness will be affected by what is practiced above and become fraudulent. Wang Bi, a Wei scholar of the Three Kingdoms period, says that if one governs the state by the correct Dao (the Way), one will then turn to using extraordinary stratagems in warfare, and so the correct again becomes the strange.

On “goodness turns back into the monstrous,” Tang Xuanzong—that is, Minghuang, the Brilliant Emperor—says: at the extreme of misfortune and fortune, is there then no correct Dao? It is only that the multitude are deluded and attached, taking the correct way for trickery and good conduct for a monstrous anomaly. Misfortune and fortune depend on and lie hidden within each other, so that it appears as though there were no correct Dao. Wang Bi says that setting up good conduct to harmonize the myriad things gives rise to the abuses of falsehood borrowing the name of goodness and of flattery and wickedness.

On “people’s confusion has indeed lasted long,” Tang Xuanzong says that taking the correct for the strange and goodness for the monstrous—such inversion and delusion—has continued for a very long time.

The overall meaning is that the commentators are all speaking of one and the same principle: correctness and strangeness, goodness and monstrosity, are originally interdependent and mutually transforming; to cling to one side instead leads one into confusion.

Thus the sage is square but does not cut

Heshang Gong says: The sage conducts himself squarely, wishing thereby to serve as a model and guide for his subjects, not to use squareness to wound or sever others. Wang Bi says: He uses squareness to guide the myriad things and to remove what is evil among them, but does not use squareness to cut the myriad things—this is what is meant by “the greatest square has no corners.” Wang Pang says: “The greatest square has no corners” means a seamless whole. If there are cutting edges and corners, then boundaries are drawn between oneself and the myriad things.

Pure but not injurious

In the editions of Emperor Ming of Tang (Emperor Xuanzong) and Wang Bi, this character is “harm,” not “severity.” Heshang Gong says: The sage is pure and upright, wishing thereby to transform the people, not to injure them. People today are not like this: they only care about rectifying themselves, but they injure others. Wang Bi says: “Kang” means clean and upright; “chuang” means harm. By the way of purity he makes the people clean and causes them to remove defilement, but does not use the name of purity to injure the myriad things. Wang Pang says: Although there are edges, they do not become sharp enough to wound people. One edition takes “severity” as “defilement”; this is incorrect.

Straight but not unrestrained

“Straight” means upright; “unrestrained” means indulgence, wanton display. This sentence means: conduct is upright, yet one does not indulge or act recklessly.

On “Straight but Not Unrestrained, Bright but Not Dazzling”

Heshang Gong (Han dynasty commentator on the Laozi) says that si (“unrestrained”) means stretching out or making conspicuous. The sage is upright by nature, yet he can bend himself and accord with others, not stretching out his own uprightness.

Wang Bi (Three Kingdoms Wei metaphysician) says: The sage guides the myriad things with uprightness, causing people to remove bias and crookedness, rather than using rigid straightness to agitate and collide with the myriad things. This is what Laozi means by “great straightness seems bent”: the most upright person appears, on the contrary, as if bent.

Wang Pang (Northern Song scholar) says: To be bluntly straightforward in every way and to display one’s sharp edges is merely to have the outward appearance of “straightness.” True great straightness that accords with principle requires knowing how to bend and adapt, following the nature of things.

Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang) comments: The sage is skilled at transforming others through teaching. He does not cut away others’ edges in order to display his own squareness, does not set up oddities out of nowhere to display his own purity, does not stretch out others’ straight paths to display his own uprightness, and does not show off others’ brightness to display his own clear insight. When he has cultivated himself well, the world will naturally be moved and transformed.

“Bright but not dazzling” means: although the sage has the wisdom to see through things, he often appears dim and unclear, not using this brightness to show off or confuse others. Wang Bi says: One uses light to illuminate where people are deluded, not to search out what others have hidden. This is what Laozi means by “the bright Dao seems dim”: one who truly penetrates the great Dao appears, on the contrary, as if confused. Wang Pang says: To use brightness to pierce the eyes and overwhelm others is called “dazzling.” If one can withdraw one’s own radiance and return to original clarity, how would one use radiance to harm others?

On “Governing People and Serving Heaven” (Chapter 59)

“Governing people,” Heshang Gong explains, means the ruler governing the people. In “serving Heaven,” “serving” (shi) means “using”; it refers to the ruler’s duty to follow the Heavenly Dao and accord with the cycling of the four seasons.

“Nothing is better than se” means: there is nothing better than “se” (sparing, frugality, cherishing). Emperor Xuanzong of Tang comments: If a ruler wishes to govern the people and accord with the Heavenly Dao, the best means is to reduce expenditure and cherish the people’s strength and resources, so that the granaries are full; then the people will understand ritual propriety.

Tang Minghuang said: “Se” means cherishing. If a ruler wishes to fulfill the Way of governing the people and serving Heaven, nothing is better than cherishing the people’s strength and material resources, so that the granaries are full, the common people know ritual propriety and observe integrity, and the agricultural work of the four seasons is not harmed; then Heaven will send down auspiciousness. When the people’s hearts are harmonious and compliant, one can govern the people; when one obtains Heaven’s protection, one can serve Heaven.

Heshang Gong said: “Se” means frugality. One who governs the state should cherish the people’s wealth and not pursue luxury; one who cultivates body and mind should cherish Jing (essence) and Qi (vital energy) and not indulge in idleness and pleasure.

Wang Bi said: “Nothing is better than” simply means “nothing surpasses it.” “Se” is like a farmer tilling a field: he must remove weeds and other intruding plants so that the field is neat and uniform. One preserves the natural condition of things, does not rush toward success, and removes the causes of neglect and disease. In this way, above one receives Heaven’s mandate and below one pacifies the people; nothing is better than this.

Wang Pang said: Governing others lies in rectifying oneself; serving the Way of Heaven lies in fully developing one’s nature. The two come down to a single principle. To nourish and preserve the Shen (spirit), not allowing outward dissipation to injure what is within, is “se.” Human original truth fills Heaven, Earth, and the six directions; there is nowhere it is not present, and yet one ultimately feels insufficiency because one acts with excessive recklessness and rash self-assertion. Only through “se” can one completely preserve the nature received from Heaven and avoid wasting energy on reckless action. In this way, what remains unfulfilled in one’s nature, and what remains unrectified in oneself? Mencius said: “To fully realize one’s heart and know one’s nature is to serve the Way of Heaven.” Generally, to preserve the original mandate received from Heaven is to accord with the heart of Heaven. The nature that others and I receive is the same; if I truly preserve it, the multitude will surely respond, so what difficulty is there in governing the world?

The scriptural text says, “It is only through se that one returns early”: precisely because one can cherish and gather in, not dissipating the spirit, one can return early to the source and return to the Dao (the Way) and original truth.

"Only by being sparing is one said to submit early": In governing the people and serving the Dao of Heaven, nothing is better than frugality and restraint. (Sparsing means frugality, restraint, and not expending mental energy or material resources.) Tang Minghuang (Emperor Xuanzong of Tang) commented: What is used to gather people's hearts? It is goods and property. If one can be frugal and love the people, then people from all four quarters will come carrying bundles on their backs, supporting the old and leading the young, to attach themselves and early submit to their ruler. (Fu means to serve.) Heshang Gong (the Han-dynasty recluse who annotated the Laozi; the "He" here refers to him) said: "Early" means "first"; "fu" means "De." One who cherishes the people's strength and values Jing and Qi can attain the Dao of Heaven before others. Wang Bi (the Three Kingdoms-era scholar who annotated the Laozi) interpreted "return" (fu) as "constancy," that is, returning to the constant Dao. Wang Pang (a Northern Song figure and son of Wang Anshi) said: When movement reaches its extreme, it returns to stillness; but then the road back to the root is long. Only the sparing person is not extravagant in expenditure and is not far from original nature; therefore "returning to stillness" comes early. Some editions have the character fu as "submit" rather than "return"; the meanings are connected.

"Early return is called the repeated accumulation of De": Tang Minghuang said: To be able to restrain and moderate oneself is to have De; the people attach themselves to a person of De and early serve their ruler, so it is called "repeated accumulation of De." Heshang Gong said: To attain the great Dao is to accumulate De repeatedly within oneself. Wang Bi said: Only by thickly accumulating De and not rushing toward success can one cause people to return early to their constancy; therefore it is said, "Early return is called the repeated accumulation of De." Wang Pang said: When De is not dissipated outward, it accumulates within; accumulated within, it is inexhaustible; such accumulation is layer upon layer.

"With repeated accumulation of De, nothing cannot be overcome": Tang Minghuang said: When the sage accumulates De, all within the Four Seas turn to benevolence, and there is nothing that cannot be subdued. (Ke means "able.") Heshang Gong said: Ke means "to overcome." If one heavily accumulates De in oneself, one succeeds everywhere. Wang Pang said: One who fully realizes his nature can give birth to Heaven and Earth and preside over creation; what among the myriad things can he not do?

"If nothing is not overcome, no one knows its limit": Tang Minghuang said: When a ruler's De can control all and reaches everywhere without limit, people in all four directions do not know its boundaries. Heshang Gong said: Overcoming all, no one can know the exhaustion of his De. Wang Bi said: Dao overcomes all, and no one can know its limit.

Emperor Ming of Tang (Tang Minghuang, i.e. Emperor Xuanzong Li Longji, who also commented on the Laozi) says: if a ruler’s De has reached the stage where there is nothing it cannot subdue and nothing it cannot control, then his prestige and transformative teaching reach everywhere, so the people of the four quarters cannot fathom their limits.

Heshang Gong (traditionally a Han dynasty hermit who commented on the Daodejing) then goes on to say “wu bu” (“nothing is not”); the text breaks off at this point, so it can only be understood up to here.