《山海经》Vol. 1

People who read the Classic of Mountains and Seas often find its accounts exaggerated and far-fetched, full of strange and fantastic things, and so they tend to doubt it. I will try to discuss the matter. Zhuangzi once said that what people find hardest to understand is precisely what they do not understand. I believe this describes the experience of reading the Classic of Mountains and Seas.

Heaven and Earth are vast, and the myriad things are abundant. Yin-Yang Qi rises and mingles, while things take forms of every kind. Jing and Qi mingle and interweave, naturally surging and transforming. Wandering souls and strange spirits may also take shape through mountains and rivers, trees and rocks. How could all these transformations ever be fully described? In the end, the myriad changes are all manifestations of the same process of Qi transformation in different things. People may find something strange without understanding why it is strange; they may find something ordinary without knowing why it is ordinary. Why is this so? Things do not call themselves strange. People find them strange only by comparing them with what they have seen and heard. What we call strange arises in the human mind, not in the things themselves.

Thus, a northern tribesman—called a Hu in ancient times—who sees cloth from the Central Plains might mistake it for hemp fiber, while a Yue person who sees woolen fabric might be astonished by its fleece. People are familiar with what they see often and regard what they seldom see as strange; this is a common prejudice. Here are a few examples. Yang Fire is said to arise from icy water, and Yin mice are said to be born in hot mountains, yet those who debate matters according to common opinion do not find these claims strange. But as soon as they hear of things recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas, they find them all strange. They fail to wonder at what ought to seem strange, yet make a great fuss over what may not be strange at all. If we do not treat what may be untrue as certain, or insist that what may not be strange must be strange, we can understand that matters cannot always be judged by ordinary experience.

Consult the Bamboo Annals of Ji County, an ancient history written on bamboo slips unearthed in Ji County, and the Biography of King Mu: they record that King Mu of Zhou traveled west, met the Queen Mother of the West, an immortal being of legend, and exchanged jade discs, silk, and brocade sashes with her. King Mu hosted the Queen Mother at the Jade Pool, and the two composed poems in response to one another, their verses rich in meaning. Afterward, King Mu climbed Kunlun Mountain, visited Xuanyuan Palace, gazed toward Zhong Mountain, and viewed the treasures of ancient rulers. He carved an inscription on the Queen Mother’s mountain and left his traces in the Dark Garden. He also brought back to the Central Plains fine trees, unusual flowers, rare birds, strange beasts, precious jades and vessels, as well as treasures such as golden ointment and silver lamps, to cultivate and keep.

King Mu rode in a chariot drawn by eight fine steeds, driven by Zaofu, with Benrong serving as the chariot’s right-hand guard. He raced for thousands of miles and traveled among the famous mountains and rivers of every quarter, climbing and crossing wherever he went. To the east, he climbed the Hall of the Great Man; to the west, he attended a banquet at the Queen Mother’s abode; to the south, he crossed a bridge made of giant turtles and crocodilians; and to the north, he traversed a land covered in feathers. Only after indulging in these pleasures did he return to his homeland.

The Records of the Grand Historian also recounts that King Mu acquired the fine steeds Daoli, Lu’er, and Hualiu, and had Zaofu drive him west on an inspection tour. After meeting the Queen Mother of the West, he was so delighted that he forgot to return. This matches the account in the Bamboo Annals. The Zuo Commentary says that King Mu wanted to give free rein to his desires, leaving the tracks of his chariot and horses throughout the realm. The Bamboo Annals’ account of his westward journey and meeting with the Queen Mother of the West accords with this.

Yet learned scholars such as Qiao Zhou were unwilling to believe these accounts. They considered them inconsistent with historical facts and therefore dismissed them as absurd. When Sima Qian wrote the “Treatise on Dayuan,” he too said that after Zhang Qian’s mission to Daxia, people searched for the source of the Yellow River—but who had ever seen the so-called Kunlun Mountain? As for the strange creatures recorded in the “Basic Annals” and the Classic of Mountains and Seas, he said he dared not speak of them. This is truly regrettable. Had the Bamboo Annals not happened to be unearthed a thousand years later, serving as corroboration for us today, the accounts in the Classic of Mountains and Seas would likely have been discarded long ago.

Dongfang Shuo knew the name of the bird called Bifang; Liu Zizheng, or Liu Xiang, identified the corpse of Dao Xie; Wang Qi visited the two-faced people; and people from overseas once obtained the clothing of the long-armed people. Though these events took place in a distant past, specific cases correspond to them. Alas, perhaps this may somewhat dispel the confusion of the many.

Sagely rulers investigate the workings of creation in order to understand the transformations of the myriad things. They observe the forms of things so they can respond to all manner of unusual phenomena. They see into what is hidden and subtle, remain undeceived, and examine its true nature with care. How could wondrous things remain entirely concealed?

This book’s records span seven ages and were passed down over three thousand years. It was given attention for a time during the Han dynasty, then soon set aside. Many of the mountains, rivers, names, and locations in it differ from those of today, while the teachings and explanations passed down from master to disciple have been lost. The book is therefore on the verge of vanishing. Fearing that its records would be lost, I have written annotations for it: clarifying difficult passages, removing textual confusion, explaining its profound intent, and identifying the subjects it connects. I hope that scattered texts will not be lost, that its strange accounts will continue to circulate, that later generations will not forget the traces left by Yu the Great as he controlled the floods, and that they will learn of the distant lands in every direction.

A small bird flying among the trees cannot measure the force with which the great Peng soars into the sky. Nor can the carefree swimming of a fish in a tiny pool tell us how a red dragon leaps. The celestial court of Jun Heaven is beyond the reach of ordinary musicians; a ford without boats is not a crossing that a dark ox spirit can make. Unless one is broad-minded and widely learned, it is difficult to discuss the meaning of the Classic of Mountains and Seas. May those who are discerning and learned examine it closely.

The table of contents of the Classic of Mountains and Seas comprises eighteen scrolls.

The original text contains 30,919 characters, and the commentaries contain 20,350, for a total of 51,269 characters.

Scroll One, “Classic of the Southern Mountains”: 3,547 characters in the original text and 2,107 in the commentary.

Scroll Two, “Classic of the Western Mountains”: 5,672 characters in the original text and 3,202 in the commentary.

Scroll Three, “Classic of the Northern Mountains”: 5,746 characters in the original text and 2,382 in the commentary.

Scroll Four, “Classic of the Eastern Mountains”: 2,040 characters in the original text and 375 in the commentary.

Scroll Five, “Classic of the Central Mountains”: 4,718 characters in the original text and 3,485 in the commentary. Before the table of contents, the commentary for the “Classic of the Central Mountains” is also listed as containing 3,202 characters.

Scroll Six, “Classic of the Southern Regions Beyond the Seas”: 511 characters in the original text and 622 in the commentary.

Scroll Seven, “Classic of the Western Regions Beyond the Seas”: 537 characters in the original text and 452 in the commentary.

Scroll Eight, “Classic of the Northern Regions Beyond the Seas”: 584 characters in the original text and 493 in the commentary.

Scroll Nine, “Classic of the Eastern Regions Beyond the Seas”: 442 characters in the original text and 595 in the commentary.

Scroll Ten, “Classic of the Southern Regions Within the Seas”: 364 characters in the original text and 709 in the commentary.

Scroll Eleven, “Classic of the Western Regions Within the Seas”: 439 characters in the original text and 695 in the commentary.

Scroll Twelve, “Classic of the Northern Regions Within the Seas”: 594 characters in the original text and 495 in the commentary.

Scroll Thirteen, “Classic of the Eastern Regions Within the Seas”: 624 characters in the original text and 1,495 in the commentary.

The character count for Scroll Twelve, “Classic of the Northern Regions Within the Seas,” is listed again later, along with the title of Scroll Thirteen, “Classic of the Eastern Regions Within the Seas.”

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East is the fourteenth scroll. Its main text contains 624 characters, and its annotations contain 1,495.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: South is the fifteenth scroll. Its main text contains 864 characters, and its annotations contain 813.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: West is the sixteenth scroll. Its main text contains 972 characters, and its annotations contain 598.

The Classic of the Great Wilderness: North is the seventeenth scroll. Its main text contains 1,282 characters, and its annotations contain 1,203.

The Classic of the Regions Within the Seas is the eighteenth scroll. Its main text contains 1,056 characters, and its annotations contain 767.

A separate record for the eighteenth scroll, the Classic of the Regions Within the Seas, gives 1,111 characters for the main text and 967 for the annotations. The source copies of the Classic of the Regions Within the Seas and the Classics of the Great Wilderness have both been submitted to the court.

The Attendant-in-Chief, Commandant of the Carriages, and Grandee of the Imperial Secretariat, your servant Liu Xiu, oversaw the collation of the palace library’s texts and reported: “Upon collation…”

When Liu Xiu, a court attendant, Commandant of the Imperial Carriage, and Grandee of the Imperial Household, supervised the collation of the imperial archives, he said: “The Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing), collated by Wang, an officer in the Court of the Imperial Sacrifices, originally comprised thirty-two chapters. It has now been revised and arranged as eighteen chapters.

“The events recorded in the surviving Classic of Mountains and Seas took place during the time of Tang Yao and Yu Shun. In those days, floods spread far and wide, submerging the Central Plain. People lost their homes and struggled to survive among the hills, or lived in trees. Gun failed to control the waters, so Emperor Yao ordered Yu to continue the work. Yu traveled by four kinds of conveyance, cutting away trees along the mountains and surveying the high peaks and great rivers. He probably worked with Bo Yi to drive away birds and beasts, make offerings to the mountains and rivers, identify plants and trees, and distinguish the soils and waters of different regions. The Four Peaks assisted Yu as he traveled in every direction, reaching places rarely visited by people and difficult to access by boat or carriage.

“They surveyed the mountains in the five regions of the Central Plain and marked out the seas in the four directions. They recorded the precious treasures and strange things found in each place, as well as the local waters and soils, plants and trees, birds and beasts, and insects. They also noted where qilin and phoenixes alighted, where auspicious signs appeared and vanished, and the distant lands beyond the four seas, whose peoples had different customs. Yu divided the land into nine provinces and assigned tribute according to what each region produced. Bo Yi and the others distinguished the qualities and merits of all kinds of things, and recorded their findings in the Classic of Mountains and Seas. These are the deeds of worthy men and sage kings, clearly preserved in ancient writings. The account is plain and clear, and rests on credible evidence.

“During the reign of Emperor Wu the Filial, someone presented an unusual bird. The emperor offered it all kinds of food, but it would eat nothing. When Dongfang Shuo saw it, he named the bird and said what it should eat. In every case, he proved right. The emperor asked how he knew, and Dongfang Shuo replied that the relevant information was recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas.

“During the reign of Emperor Xuan the Filial, someone struck a stone called a pan stone in Shang Commandery. The stone sank, revealing a stone chamber. Inside was a man whose hands were bound behind his back and who wore shackles. At the time, my father, Liu Xiang, served as an Admonition Grandee. He said that the man was the minister of Erfu. The emperor asked how he had recognized him, and Liu Xiang likewise said that he knew from the Classic of Mountains and Seas. The book says: ‘Erfu killed Yayu, so the Heavenly Emperor imprisoned him on Shushu Mountain, shackling his right foot and binding his hands behind his back.’ The emperor was greatly astonished.

“From then on, most officials at court considered the Classic of Mountains and Seas extraordinary. Writers and eminent scholars also read and studied it. They believed that reading this book made it possible to examine auspicious signs and strange marvels, and to learn the customs and legends of distant lands and foreign peoples. The Book of Changes says that, though the world is full of many different ideas, this need not lead to confusion. Would a learned scholar who reads the Classic of Mountains and Seas really be misled by its accounts? I, Liu Xiu, respectfully submit this book, at the risk of my life.”

The Classic of the Southern Mountains records that the first mountain in the southern range is called Mount Shou. The range begins with Mount Zhaoyao, which stands near the Western Sea, in the area of Mount Fu in Shu. Its southern side at the western end borders the Western Sea.

Many cassia trees grow on Mount Zhaoyao. Their leaves resemble loquat leaves, more than two feet long and several inches wide, with a pungent taste. Their white flowers grow in clusters on the peaks. They remain green through winter and summer, and no other trees grow nearby. The Spring and Autumn Annals of Lü also mentions “the cassia of Zhaoyao.” The mountain also produces much gold and jade.

A plant grows on the mountain that resembles chives and bears blue-green flowers. It is called Zhuyu, though some texts write its name as “Guicha.” Eating it prevents hunger.

Another tree on the mountain resembles the paper mulberry and has black-grained wood. Commentators say that the paper mulberry is also called the “Gu tree,” a name given because its fruit resembles grains of millet. The tree’s flowers shine in every direction. To explain how such flowers give off a fiery glow, commentators cite the red blossoms of Ruomu, which illuminate the ground.

A tree called Migù grows on the mountain. Wearing a piece of it prevents one from getting lost.

A beast also lives on the mountain. It resembles a macaque and has white ears. Commentators say that the Yu resembles a macaque but is larger, with red eyes and a long tail; many still live in the mountains south of the Yangtze. They also point out that some people who did not recognize this beast mistakenly wrote “ox” for “Yu” and depicted it as an ox. Others drew it as a monkey. Neither depiction is accurate.

Another beast is called Xingxing, a creature of legend. It crawls close to the ground but can run upright like a human. Eating its flesh makes people good runners. Commentators consider the Xingxing a kind of Yu beast, resembling an ape and crossing its feet when it crawls. Jing Fang’s Book of Changes contains a similar account.

A river rises from Mount Lili□ and flows west into the sea. Many Yùpèi are found in it, though their form is unknown. Wearing one prevents scars and parasitic ailments from leaving marks on the body.

Three hundred li farther east is a mountain called Tangting Mountain; in some versions, “Tang” is written “Chang.” Many yan trees grow on the mountain. Yan is also called lian. Their fruit resembles the su fruit, is red, and can be eaten; yan is pronounced “shǎn.” Many white apes also live there. The apes mentioned here resemble macaques, but have longer arms and legs and move nimbly. Their fur is black or yellow, and their cries are mournful. The mountain contains abundant water-jade, that is, crystal. The “Shanglin Rhapsody” says that water-jade lies piled along the slopes. Chi Songzi, a legendary immortal, once consumed water-jade; an account of this appears in the “Biographies of Immortals.” The mountain also produces abundant gold.

Three hundred and eighty li farther east is a mountain called Yuanyi Mountain. Many unusual beasts live there, and many unusual fish swim in its waters. Here, “unusual” refers to creatures with strange and uncommon appearances. The ancient book Shizi records that King Xu Yan loved strange things: he once dived into deep water to catch a strange fish, entered the mountains to capture strange beasts, and displayed them in his courtyard. The mountain contains abundant white jade and many vipers. Their coloring resembles the patterns of multicolored silk ribbons, and they have needles on their noses. The largest weigh more than a hundred jin. They are also called “reversed-nose” snakes. The character chong (“creature”) is an ancient form of hui (“venomous snake”). The mountain is also home to many strange snakes and trees, whose trunks cannot be climbed.

A further 170 li east lies Niuyang Mountain. South of the mountain there is abundant red metal, meaning copper; to the north there is abundant white metal, meaning silver. The Erya records the same usage: the south side of a mountain is called “yang,” and the north side “yin.”

A wild beast lives on the mountain. It resembles a horse, with a white head, tiger-like markings, and a red tail. Its cry sounds like a person singing. It is called the lushu. Wearing its hide or tail is said to promote the continuation of one’s descendants.

The Guai River rises on this mountain and flows east into the Xianyi River. Many black turtles live in its waters. They resemble ordinary turtles, but have black heads and sharp, snake-like tails. They are called xuangui. Their cries sound like wood snapping. Wearing one is said to prevent deafness and cure illness.

A further 300 li east lies Di Mountain. Water is plentiful there, but the mountain has no vegetation. A fish lives there that resembles an ox and dwells on land. It has a snake-like tail and wings growing from its flanks. Its cry sounds like an ox’s bellow. This fish is called the lu. It lies dormant in winter and is active in summer. The claim that it “dies” means that while dormant it is completely insensible, as if dead. Eating it is said to prevent illnesses such as swelling.

A further 400 li east lies Danyuan Mountain. Water is plentiful there, but the mountain has no vegetation. It rises steeply, with sheer slopes that cannot be climbed. A wild beast lives there that resembles a civet, with long fur. It is called the lei. Eating it is said to prevent illnesses such as swelling.

Four hundred li farther east is Dan Yuan Mountain (Dan is pronounced “chan”). It has abundant water but no plants or trees. Its slopes are high, steep, and impossible to climb. A beast lives on the mountain that resembles a wildcat and has long fur. It is called Lei, though some versions call it Pei Mao or Fa. It can change itself from male to female and back again. Eating its flesh prevents people from feeling jealousy. The Zhuangzi also says that Lei can change between male and female. The wild boar known today is likewise said to be able to change sex on its own.

Three hundred li farther east is Ji Mountain. Jade is plentiful on its southern side, while its northern side has many unusual trees. A beast lives on the mountain that resembles a sheep, with nine tails, four ears, and eyes on its back. It is called Boyi (pronounced “boshi”). Wearing its fur prevents fear. There is also a bird on the mountain that resembles a chicken and has three heads, six eyes, six legs, and three wings. Its name is marked by two missing characters in the original. Eating its flesh prevents drowsiness.

Three li farther east is Qingqiu Mountain. There is also a Qingqiu kingdom beyond the seas. The Shuijing mentions that the Shanglin Fu recounts an autumn hunt at Qingqiu. Jade is plentiful on the mountain’s southern side, and blue minerals are abundant on its northern side. A beast lives there that resembles a fox and has nine tails: the nine-tailed fox. Its cry sounds like a baby’s, and it can eat people. Eating its flesh, however, protects against gu poison. Some say that “gu” here means poisonous gu. Another account says that eating its flesh can ward off demonic influences.

A bird also lives on the mountain. It resembles a dove and cries like a person shouting reproachfully. It is called Guanguan, though some versions write its name as “Guangu” followed by a missing character. Wearing it prevents confusion. The Ying River rises here and flows south into the Jiyi Marsh. The river contains many Chi Ru (pronounced “ru”), creatures that resemble fish but have human faces and cry like mandarin ducks. Eating their flesh prevents scabies; another version says it prevents illness.

Another 350 li to the east lies Mount Jiwei. The mountain’s far end reaches the Eastern Sea, where there are many sand and stones. A beast lives on the mountain, crouching by the shore. It has the body of a fish and a human face, and its cry sounds like that of a mandarin duck. Eating its flesh prevents scabies.

The Fang River rises on the mountain and flows south into the Xiao River. The water contains much white jade.

From Mount Zhaoyao to Mount Jiwei, this range comprises ten mountains and extends 2,950 li in all. The mountain spirits all have bird bodies and dragon heads. To sacrifice to them, one should choose livestock of a single, pure color and bury a half-scepter-shaped jade tablet in the ground. The ritual rice offering, called xu, is clean rice. A jade disc should also be placed on the altar, which is covered with a mat woven from white thatching grass.

The second southern range described in the Second Classic of the Southern Mountains begins at Jushan; the name Ju is pronounced like “square.” Jushan lies near Liuhuang Mountain to the west. From its north side, one can see Zhubi Mountain, and from its east side, Changyou Mountain. These are all mountain names.

The Ying River rises on Jushan and flows southwest into the Chishui River. It contains much white jade. The Master Shi says that jade is found where a river’s bends form square shapes, while pearls are found where they form circles. The mountain also produces abundant cinnabar grains: fine particles of cinnabar about the size of millet.

There is a beast on the mountain that looks like a small pig, with hoofed feet and claws. Its cry sounds like a dog barking. It is called Lili. When it appears, many people in the area are conscripted for construction work.

There is also a bird on the mountain that looks like a chi, a kind of bird of prey, but has human hands and feet shaped like human hands. Its cry sounds like “bi.” Its name is hard to make out; some call it Ya, pronounced like “zhu,” apparently naming it after its call. When it appears, many people in the area are exiled. Here, “release” means exile; some versions instead write the character for “send out.”

Farther southeast, 450 li away, is Changyou Mountain. It has no vegetation or water sources, yet there is much water on the mountain. A beast there looks like an ape and has four ears. It is called Changyou, and the mountain is named after it. Its cry sounds like a person groaning. When it appears, the local commanderies and counties suffer severe floods.

Farther east, 340 li away, is Yaoguang Mountain. There is much jade on its southern side and much gold on its northern side. A beast on the mountain looks like a person and has a ridge of pig bristles on its back. It lives in caves and hibernates in winter. It is called Huaguo, pronounced approximately “huai.” Its cry sounds like wood being chopped. When it appears, the local people are subjected to large-scale conscripted labor; another account says that unrest breaks out in the area.

Three hundred and fifty li farther east lies Mount Yu. Today, there is a Mount Yu southwest of Zhuxi County in Donghai Commandery, said to be the place where Gun, the legendary ancient flood controller, was exiled. Yet the distances do not match, so the two mountains seem unlikely to be the same. Many streams flow below Mount Yu, and it often rains on the mountain. It has no vegetation and is home to many pit vipers, a kind of venomous snake.

Three hundred and seventy li farther east lies Mount Qufu. “Qu” is pronounced qu in qun. The mountain has no vegetation, but contains abundant metals and jade.

Four hundred li farther east lies Mount Gouxian. The mountain has no vegetation, but contains abundant metals and jade. Today, this mountain is said to lie south of Yuyao County and north of Gouzhang County in Kuaiji Commandery; according to tradition, both counties took their names from it. The account appears in Zhang’s Gazetteer of Lands.

Five hundred li farther east lies Mount Fuyu. From here, one can look north toward Jüqu, which is today Lake Tai, southwest of Wuxian County. The Book of Documents calls Lake Tai Zhenze. Looking east, one can see the Zhupi River. A beast lives on the mountain with the shape of a tiger and the tail of an ox. Its cry sounds like a dog’s bark, and it is called Fu. It eats people. The Tiao River rises at the northern foot of Mount Fuyu and flows north into Jüqu. Its waters contain many ci fish. These fish are long and slender, with flat bodies and elongated heads; the largest are more than a chi long. They are now abundant in Lake Tai, where they are also called knife fish. “Ci” is pronounced chan-qi.

Five hundred li farther east lies Mount Cheng. It has four sides and rises in three tiers, like layers of earth piled up to form an altar; the word cheng can also mean “layered.” The mountain contains abundant gold and jade, and its lower slopes yield much green mineral ore. The Zhuo River rises on the mountain and flows south into the Heshao River. “Heshao” is pronounced hu-shao; some versions write duo instead, as they do below. The river contains much gold. Today, a river in Yongchang Commandery yields grains of gold in its sand as fine as the seeds of barnyard millet. The Master Shi says, “Clear water produces gold.” Wang Ying also records this.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Kuaiji. The mountain has a square, regular shape on all sides. Today it lies south of Shanyin County in Kuaiji Commandery. On the mountain are Yu’s tomb, said to be the burial place of the Great Yu, and a well. The mountain is rich in gold and jade; below it are many fu stones. Fu stone is also called “fudie stone.” It looks like jade and is now found around Linxiang in Changsha. It has a red base color with white veins, and its blue-green coloring is indistinct. The Shao River rises here, flows south, and empties into the Jue River, pronounced “juan.”

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Yi. It has no vegetation and is covered with sand and stone. Some versions write the Jue River as the Sun River. It rises here, flows south, and empties into the Lietu.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Pugou, also written in some versions as Mount Xi. The mountain is rich in gold and jade, and below it are many plants and trees. There are no birds or beasts, and no water.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Xianyin. It has no vegetation and no water.

Four hundred li farther east is Mount Xun, also written in some versions as Mount Xun. The southern side is rich in gold, and the northern side in jade. A creature lives on the mountain that resembles a sheep but has no mouth. It cannot be killed, because it was born naturally, endowed with the Qi of Heaven and Earth. Its name is written with a missing character and may be pronounced “huan” or “huan.” The Xun River, pronounced “xun,” rises here, flows south, and empties into the Guan Marsh, pronounced “e.” The marsh contains many biluo.

Four hundred li farther east is Mount Moshao. The mountain is rich in catalpa and nanmu trees. A commentary says that shen means mountain catalpa. Gou is a kind of large tree whose leaves resemble those of the mulberry; today it is written “nan” and pronounced “nan.” The Erya identifies this tree as nan. Below the mountain are many thorny wolfberries. These are goji berries, which are red. The Pang River, with the same pronunciation as the “pang” in “pangtuo,” rises here, flows east, and empties into the sea.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Quwu. It has no vegetation and is covered with sand and stone. The Lu River rises here, flows south, and empties into the Pang River.

Five hundred li farther east lies Mount Lu Wu. It has no vegetation, but is rich in metal ores and stone. The Zegeng River rises here and flows south into the Pang River. In its waters lives a beast called the Gu Diao, a legendary creature whose name is written as “Zuan” in some versions. It looks like an osprey but has horns, and its cry sounds like a baby’s wail. It feeds on people.

Five hundred li farther east lies Mount Qi Wu. It has no vegetation and many stones suitable for the bases of game boards, but no jade. The mountain lies east of the sea, from where Mount Qiu can be seen. Its light appears and vanishes, as though it were a place where divine radiance lies hidden and glimmers. It is also where the sun pauses in its course—the place where its shadows converge.

The mountains recorded in “The Second Classic of the Southern Mountains,” from Mount Ju to Mount Qi Wu, number seventeen and stretch for 7,200 li. Their mountain gods all have dragon bodies and crow heads. In their rites, a jade disc is buried in the ground, the fine rice offered to the gods is made from rice, and the offerings are prepared somewhat generously.

“The Third Classic of the Southern Mountains” records seventeen mountains, from Mount Ju to Mount Qi Wu, stretching for 7,200 li. Their mountain gods all have dragon bodies and crow heads. In their rites, a jade disc is buried in the ground, the fine rice is made from rice, and the offerings are somewhat generous.

The southern mountain range recorded in “The Third Classic of the Southern Mountains” begins with Mount Tian Yu. Many streams flow below the mountain, making it impossible to climb.

Another five hundred li east lies Prayer Crossing Mountain. The mountain holds much gold and jade, while its lower slopes are home to many rhinoceroses and si (a kind of wild ox). The rhinoceros resembles a water buffalo, with a pig’s head, a broad mouth, feet like an elephant’s with three toes, and a large belly. Its body is black, and it has three horns: one on the crown of its head, one on its forehead, and one on its nose. The nose horn is smaller and does not shed, since it wears down as the animal gnaws at things. Rhinoceroses like to eat meat, and bloody saliva often dribbles from their mouths.

The si also resembles a water buffalo. It is blue-green, has two horns, and weighs as much as three thousand jin. Many elephants live here, too. Elephants are the largest of the beasts, with very long trunks; the largest tusks are ten zhang long. Elephants are jealous by nature and will not raise calves sired by other males.

A bird on the mountain resembles a wild goose and is called Qu Ru. It looks like a small wild duck, with its feet set near its tail. It has a white head, three feet—though some versions say three hands—and a human face. Its cry sounds like it is calling out its own name.

The Hen River rises here and flows south into the sea. In its waters lives a creature called the Tiger Flood Dragon, a kind of flood dragon. It looks like a snake and has four legs, a fish’s body, and a snake’s tail. Its cry sounds like that of a mandarin duck. Eating its flesh can prevent bodily swelling and also treat hemorrhoids.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Danxue. The mountain contains abundant gold and jade. The Dan River rises here and flows south into the Bohai Sea. “Bohai Sea” here refers to a body of water named in ancient geographical records. Its coastline is indented, with many headlands.

There is a bird in the mountain shaped like a chicken, with five colors and patterned markings on its body. It is called the Fenghuang. The markings on its head symbolize De (Virtue); those on its wings symbolize righteousness; those on its back symbolize ritual propriety; those on its chest symbolize benevolence; and those on its belly symbolize trustworthiness. This bird eats and drinks in harmony with its nature, sings on its own, and dances on its own. When it appears, all under Heaven will be at peace.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Fashuang. The mountain has no plants or trees, but abundant water and many white gibbons. The Fan River rises here and flows south into the Bohai Sea.

Four hundred li farther east lies the eastern end of Mount Mao. South of the mountain is a valley called Yuyi Valley, also written as “Sui” in some versions. Many strange birds live here. The Guangya records that the names of several birds in the original text are now illegible; it later also mentions the yuju and sparrow among the strange birds. The gentle southern wind begins here; this wind is called the Kaifeng.

Four hundred li farther east lies the seashore.

Four hundred li farther east is the head of Mount Fei. The mountain contains abundant gold and jade but has no water. Many pit vipers, or venomous snakes, live at its foot.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Yangjia. The mountain has no plants or trees, but abundant water.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Guanxiang. The mountain has many trees but no grass. Many strange birds live there, but no wild beasts. Another version gives the mountain’s name as “□husheshan,” with one character now illegible.

Five hundred li farther east lies Mount Jishan. There is much metal on the mountain and much danque, a red mineral pigment, below it. Some also call danque “qu,” meaning red pigment; another account says that qu is the finest cinnabar, as stated in the Book of Documents. Here, qu is pronounced like the “huo” in chihuo, “inchworm.” The Heishui River flows out of the mountain and south into the sea. In it lives a fish called the zhuan fish; zhuan is pronounced like the “tuan” in tuanshan, “round fan.” It resembles a crucian carp, has hair on its back, and sounds like a piglet. When it appears, a great drought will strike the world.

Four hundred li farther east lies Mount Lingqiu. The Heishui River flows out of the mountain and south into the sea. In it lives the zhuan fish, which resembles a crucian carp, has hair on its back, and sounds like a piglet. When it appears, a great drought will strike the world.

Four hundred li farther east lies Mount Lingqiu. No plants grow on the mountain, but there are many fires. On its southern side is a valley called the Valley of High Noon, from which the tiaofeng wind blows. Tiaofeng is the northeast wind. An ancient book says that when the tiaofeng arrives, people imprisoned for minor offenses should be released, and those who have overstayed, or failed to return after their leave, should be urged to do so. A bird in the mountain resembles an owl and has a human face, four eyes, and ears. It is called Xian, pronounced like the “yu” in yule, “amusement.” Its cry sounds as if it is calling its own name. When it appears, a great drought will strike the world.

Three hundred and seventy li farther east lies Mount Lunzhe. Lun is pronounced like the “lun” in lunshuo, “discussion,” though some pronounce it “Lun” with a different tone. There is much metal and jade on the mountain, and much blue-green mineral below it. A tree in the mountain resembles a gu tree, with red-grained wood. Its sap is like lacquer and tastes like malt syrup. Eating its fruit keeps one from feeling hungry and dispels fatigue. It is called bai □, and is also written “Gaosu.” Gaosu is another name for bai □, according to the Guangya; it is pronounced like the “gao” in gaoyang, “lamb.” It can be used to dye jade and bring out its luster.

Five hundred and eighty li farther east lies Mount Yugao. The mountain is home to many strange beasts and great snakes. It also has a tree called bai □, also known as Gaosu. Gaosu is another name for bai □, according to the Guangya; it is pronounced like the “gao” in gaoyang, “lamb,” and can be used to dye jade and bring out its luster.

Five hundred and eighty li farther east lies Mount Nanyu. Gold and jade abound on the mountain, and many streams flow at its foot. A cave in the mountain fills with water in spring, releases it in summer, and closes in winter. The Zuo River rises here and flows southeast into the sea. The mountain is home to the fenghuang and the yuanchu, both birds of the phoenix kind.

The mountain range described in the Third Classic of the Southern Mountains stretches from Mount Tianyu to Mount Nanyu. It comprises fourteen mountains extending for 6,530 li. The spirits of these mountains all have dragon bodies and human faces. To sacrifice to them, people offer a white dog and perform a prayer ritual. The sacrificial rice is made from a grain called xu.

This is the account of the southern mountain ranges. The southern mountains number forty, large and small, and extend for 16,380 li.

Illustrations and Eulogies of the Classic of the Southern Mountains

Cassia Tree

The cassia tree grows in the remote southern lands, its branches and leaves thick and luxuriant, its blossoms opening on high ridges. Its flowers shine brilliantly, standing fresh and graceful even in frost. Its fragrance surpasses that of a hundred herbs, and its abundant branches and upright trunk rise like clouds.

Migu

A strange tree grows there on Mount Zhaoyao. Its flowers shimmer with shifting light and shine upward into the sky. Wear it on your person, and you will not lose your way; it seems to conceal a wondrous spiritual sign.

Xingxing

The xingxing, a legendary beast resembling a monkey, can run, stand upright, and move on all fours. Rang wood can increase strength, and shaoxin can sharpen the eyes; feilain makes one’s steps swift. But what could there be to eat in the flesh of the xingxing?

Water Jade

Water jade, a legendary precious stone, is bathed in the gleam of water and casts a dim light into deep pools. Red Pine Master took it and shed his mortal form, rising on clouds of smoke. He breathed in and out the Six Qi, ascending and descending through the Nine Heavens.

White Ape

The white ape was a master of skill. Yang Youji raised his bow, preparing to shoot. The white ape cried out, as though a spirit had already foreseen that the arrow would strike. His archery was exquisite, and he hit his mark again and again in an endless cycle, wondrous beyond words.

Lushu

The lushu is a beast shaped like a horse, with tiger stripes on its body. It raises its head and cries out, then strides on strong legs and leaps into the herd. Wear its hide, and your descendants will flourish in great numbers.

Lu

There is a fish called the lu, though it does not live in water. It resembles an ox, with bird wings and a snake’s tail. It appears and vanishes at will, as though keeping pace with the transformations of life and death.

Lei

This creature combines the features of two kinds of animals in a single body. It draws directly on its own nature and needs no implements. A woman who wears it will not feel jealousy.

Boshe

The Boshe resembles a sheep, but its eyes are on its back. It looks strange, yet on closer examination there is nothing particularly strange about it. To avoid being frightened, one can wear its hide.

Zhutu Grass, Whirling Turtle, and □□ Fish

Zhutu is an auspicious grass; eating it prevents hunger. The Whirling Turtle has a crow-like head and a snake-like tail. The □□ Fish has six legs and three wings, like those of a pheasant.

Guan Guan Bird and Chiru

The Guan Guan Bird’s cry sounds like a person scolding someone, and it looks like a spotted dove. Wearing it helps one discern what is confusing; it comes from Qingqiu. The Chiru is an animal with a fish’s body and a human head.

Zhu Crow

A comet sweeps across the sky, a whale dies amid the waves; when the Zhu Bird cries in a city, worthy men are banished. These are elusive omens, impossible to describe fully in words.

Huaiguo

When the Huaiguo appears, military service will be imposed. It manifests in response to the state of government and will not appear if the world is not in turmoil. When peace reigns throughout the land, it vanishes from sight.

Changyou and the Boar

The Changyou has four ears and looks like a monkey. It is an omen of flooding: when it appears, the waters will overflow. The boar-tiger has a pig’s body and an ox’s tail.

Mount Kuaiji

Yu the Great’s ancestors summoned their ministers to an assembly at Mount Kuaiji. Those who showed disrespect at the assembly were punished, and the giant was killed. The Jade Tablet recorded the deeds of the Xia dynasty, while the Dark Stone engraved the achievements of the Qin dynasty.

Huan There is a creature without a mouth called “Huan.” No evil Qi can enter it, and its body has no openings. It embodies the state in which all things follow their own course when principle reaches its ultimate fulfillment.

Rhinoceros

The rhinoceros has a head broad and solid as a wall, and a body with the build of an ox. It has three horns, each growing from a different part of its body. It blows through its nose to stir up wind; its force is mighty and fills the space around it.

Xi

The Xi is a powerful beast, like a dark blue ox. It has immense strength and can even set itself on fire because of its hide. Its skin can be used for military equipment, while its horn serves as an ornament or for ritual use.

Elephant and Xi

The elephant is sturdy in build, its force mighty and filling the space around it.

The Xi.

The si (a legendary rhinoceros-like beast) is a powerful animal, shaped like a blue-black ox. Its strength is immense, enough to overturn all things; after it dies, its hide can be burned as fuel. Its hide can be used to make weapons and armor, while its horn helps to display civil virtue.

The elephant has a massive body and an unusual appearance. Its meat is equivalent to that of ten oxen, yet its eyes are smaller than a pig’s. Seen from afar, its head seems like its tail; as it walks, it looks like a moving hill.

The zuandiao has horns and cries like a baby. The quyu has three hands and resembles the jiao, a kind of waterbird. The hujiao has a fish’s body and a snake’s tail.

The phoenix, chief of birds, embodies eight symbols in its body and five virtues in the patterns of its feathers. Its arrival on outstretched wings is an auspicious sign that a wise and enlightened ruler is on the throne.

The plant called yu grows in the Yusui Valley. Its ears can be woven into mats.

In the Yusui Valley, warm spring breezes gather among the valleys. When spring passes, the heat arrives with Zhurong, the god of fire. People fan themselves to disperse the stifling heat.

The yong bird roosts in the woods, while the zhuan fish lives in deep water. Both are regarded as omens of impending drought, a calamity that may spread across the world. Such omens are difficult to discern directly and can only be worked out through subtle calculations.

The juice of the white □ is like malt syrup. Eating it makes it possible to go without grains while still enjoying a pleasant taste. One can also roam freely without tiring, until one’s lifespan comes to its natural end.

End of Volume One of the Classic of Mountains and Seas.

End of Volume One of the Classic of Mountains and Seas.

1. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan Chenggeng’s collated edition: “Paper is made from tree bark. Can says that gu is also called gou. It is called gu because its fruit resembles grains of millet.”

2. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “Its light shines upon the ground.”

3. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “The Yu resembles a macaque, but is larger, with red eyes and a long tail. It is still commonly found in the mountains of Jiangnan today.”

4. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “Its name is written ‘Yu,’ with a character resembling ‘ox’; in illustrations, it is also drawn in the shape of an ox.”

5. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “Shengsheng is a kind of Yu beast.”

6. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “It crawls with its body low, its feet crossing one another; it belongs to this same kind.”

7. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “Jia is a kind of parasitic disease.”

8. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “The Hui has a curved tail.”

9. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “The disease cannot be cured. Another edition reads ‘di.’”

10. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “Three hundred li to the east lies Mount Di.”

11. The original text is missing here. The passage has been restored from Tan’s collated edition: “A dog harnessed to a plow.”

12. “Pig’s head, storehouse, mouth” has been restored in Tan’s edition as “Pig’s head, storehouse, foot.”

13. “Likes to eat [missing text] mouth” has been restored in Tan’s edition as “Likes to eat thorns,” meaning that it likes to eat thorny plants.

14. “[Missing text] peng” has been restored in Tan’s edition as “Duo-li and Zhe-peng,” the names of two kinds of birds.

The Western Mountains Classic records that the first mountain in the Huashan range is called Qianlai Mountain. It has many pine trees, and many xishi stones at its foot. Scrubbing the body with these stones can remove dirt. A beast called the xianyang lives in the mountains. It resembles a sheep and has a horse’s tail. The ancients said that the Great Yuezhi kingdom had a large sheep shaped like a donkey, also with a horse’s tail. The Erya calls a sheep six chi tall a “xian”; this refers to the same beast. Its fat can treat dry, cracked skin.

Forty-five li to the west is Songguo Mountain. The Huo River rises there and flows north into the Wei River; the water is rich in copper. A bird called the wuqu lives in the mountains. It resembles a pheasant, with a black body and red feet, and can be used to treat broken, peeling skin.

Sixty li farther west is Taihua Mountain, also known as Mount Hua, the Western Peak. It lies southwest of Huayin County in Hongnong Commandery, in what is now Huayin. Its sheer sides look as if they had been cut, and its four faces are square; the mountain is steep and precipitous. It stands five thousand ren high—one ren being about eight chi—and is ten li across. The Jade Maiden Mingxing lives on the mountain, holding a vessel of jade nectar. Legend says that anyone who climbs the mountain and drinks the nectar will become an immortal, but the paths are treacherous and difficult to traverse. The ancient text Poems Containing the Spirit Mist says that no birds or beasts live on the mountain.

A snake called the feifeng lives there. It has six legs and four wings. When it appears, a severe drought strikes the land. During the reign of King Tang of Shang, one of these snakes appeared at the foot of Yang Mountain. Another snake, called the feiyi, also lives in the mountains. Guo Pu suspected that it might be the same snake as the feifeng.

Eighty li farther west lies Lesser Mount Hua, also known as Mount Shaohua. The mountain has many thorn trees and goji shrubs, and among its wild animals are many “□ oxen.” Today, the mountains around Huayin have many wild cattle and goats, some weighing as much as a thousand jin. The oxen mentioned here are this kind. “□” is pronounced “zuo kou.” The mountain’s northern side has many lithophone stones, which can be used to make musical instruments. Its southern side produces a kind of jade called “□fu.” Exactly what kind of jade this is remains unclear; the name is pronounced “□fu.”

The mountain has many red jing birds, a kind of pheasant. They have patterned chests and bellies, red crests, golden backs, yellow heads, green tails, and red markings on their bodies. Their plumage is vivid. The character “jing” is also written “bi” or “bie,” and is pronounced “zuo bi.” These birds are said to ward off fires.

The mountain also has a fragrant herb called bili, pronounced “bi li.” It looks like black fern, grows on stones, and can also climb trees. Black fern growing on a roof is called “xie xie,” while it is called “yuan yi” when growing on a wall. Eating bili can relieve heart pain.

Eighty li farther west lies Mount Fuyu. Its southern side has much copper, and its northern side much iron. A tree on the mountain is called wenjing. Its fruit resembles dates, and eating it can cure deafness. The mountain also has a plant shaped like a mallow, with red flowers and yellow fruit. The fruit resembles a baby’s tongue; eating it keeps a person from becoming confused.

The Fuyu River rises here and flows north into the Wei River. The mountain’s wild animals are mostly cong long, which resemble sheep and have red manes. Among the birds are many min birds, pronounced “min.” They resemble kingfishers and have red beaks. Kingfishers resemble swallows and have deep blue-green plumage. Min birds can ward off fires, and keeping them is said to prevent fires.

Farther west, sixty li away, lies Mount Shicui. A tree called “zha zha” grows abundantly on the mountain. Its trunk stands about thirty zhang tall and has no branches. Its leaves are large and round, its branch tips fork, and its fruit is enclosed in a husk. As the bark grows upward, it forms a ridge at each new layer; these ridges can be twisted into rope. The tree is also called “pin lu.” An old text gives its pronunciation as “ma _ zhi _.”

The mountain’s grasses are mostly thin and blade-like, resembling chives. They bear white flowers and black fruit. Eating them is said to cure scabies.

The southern slope of Mount Shicui yields abundant “fu” jade, while the northern slope has much copper. The Guan River flows out of the mountain and runs north into the Yu River. The water contains moving ochre, or red earth. Smearing it on cattle and horses is said to keep them from getting sick. People today also apply cinnabar to ox horns, saying it wards off evil and misfortune. Some versions write the character for “horse” as “horn.”

Farther west, seventy li away, lies Mount Ying. The mountain has abundant niu and jiang trees. The niu resembles the di tree, but has finer leaves; it is also called tu jiang. “Niu” is pronounced “niu.” The wood of the jiang tree can be used to make wheel spokes; “jiang” is pronounced “jiang.” The northern slope has much iron, while the southern slope yields abundant red gold. The Yu River flows out of the mountain and runs north into the Zhao River; “zhao” is pronounced “shao.”

The Yu River contains many fish called “bang.” The word is pronounced like the “bang” in “bang ge.” The fish resembles a soft-shelled turtle and calls like a sheep. The southern slope of the mountain yields abundant arrow bamboo. Hanzhong Commandery today produces a kind of bamboo called “mei”: its joints are thick and long, and its roots grow deep. Its shoots emerge underground in winter, and people dig them up to eat. “Mei” is pronounced “mei.”

The mountain also has many “niu” and qiang sheep. A bird lives there that resembles a quail, with a yellow body and red beak. It is called feiyi. Eating this bird is said to cure epidemic disease; some accounts say it can cure malignant sores. In old texts, “li” means epidemic disease, though some interpret it as malignant sores.

Another fifty-two li westward is Zhushan. The mountain is covered with many tall trees whose branches grow straight upward. Much iron is found on its northern side. A plant called huangguan grows there. It resembles the chinaberry tree, with leaves like hemp, white flowers, and red fruit the color of ocher, tinged purple. Boiling it in water for bathing can cure scabies and reduce swelling. The Zhu River rises here and flows north into the Wei River. The southern slopes have abundant bamboo and arrow bamboo, and also produce bluish jade. The Dan River likewise rises here and flows southeast into the Luo River. Its waters contain many water jades, as well as an animal called the “human fish,” which resembles a □ fish and has four legs.

Another animal lives on the mountain. It resembles a pig, has white fur, and is as large as a hairpin; the tips of its fur are black. It is called the haozhi, a kind of porcupine. A few thick, long bristles grow on either side of its thighs, and it can shoot its back’s bristles at things. It also reproduces by mating on its own. It is also called the huanzhu; in some places it is known as the jiazhu, and in the Wu and Chu regions as the luanzhu. All are kinds of pig.

Another 120 li westward is Fushan. Many pan trees grow on the mountain. Their roots and leaves are covered with thorns that can easily injure people, which is how the mountain got its name. Wood-boring insects live in the trees. A plant called xuncao also grows there. Its leaves resemble hemp, its stem is square, and it bears red flowers and black fruit. Its fragrance resembles that of miwu, an aromatic herb. Wearing this plant can ward off epidemics.

Seventy li farther west lies Mount Yuci (the character yu in its name is pronounced “yu,” as in you). The Qi River rises here. Today, the Qi River rises in Mount Qi and flows north into the Wei River. The mountain is thick with yu trees and gui trees; yu is a kind of tree called bairui (the character yu is pronounced “yu,” as in *domain”). Below the mountain are many arrow bamboos. Red copper is abundant on its northern side, and yingyuan jade on its southern side. The name yingyuan jade is also written in other ways, including duan, gen, and mai. These may be copying errors, and the precise meanings of the characters can no longer be established.

A beast lives on the mountain that resembles a macaque. It has long arms and is skilled at throwing things, and is called Xiao. It also appears in the Weihuan Painting, where it looks like a macaque throwing something. The mountain is also home to a bird resembling an owl, with a human face and only one foot, called Tuofei. This bird appears in winter and lies dormant in summer. Its meat is said to protect those who eat it from fear of thunder and lightning. Wearing its feathers is also said to make a person unafraid of heavenly thunder. Its name is sometimes written as Zai.

A hundred and fifty li farther west lies Mount Shi. No plants or trees grow on it. The Zhu River (sometimes written Sui) rises here and flows north into the Wei River. The river contains much water jade.

A hundred and seventy li farther west lies Mount Nan, where cinnabar grains are plentiful. The Dan River rises here and flows north into the Wei River. The mountain is home to many fierce leopards. A fierce leopard resembles a bear but is smaller, with light-colored, glossy fur. It can eat snakes as well as copper and iron, and is found in Shu. The character bao is sometimes written as hu. Most of the birds on the mountain are shijiu, a bird resembling a cuckoo; another account identifies it as a peng or crane. The character jiu is sometimes written as qiu.

A hundred and eighty li farther west lies Mount Dashi. The mountain has many gu trees and oak trees; the latter are also called li trees. Below it are many niu trees and gui trees. Silver is abundant on its northern side, and white jade on its southern side. The Cen River (pronounced “qian”) rises here and flows north into the Wei River. The Qing River also rises here and flows south into the Han River. The Qing River also rises at Black Mountain, north of Xiuwu County in Henei Commandery.

At the end of the original text, the Cen and Qing rivers are mentioned again, but the passage is repetitive and the sentences are incomplete. It can only be made out that the Cen River flows north into the Wei River and the Qing River flows south into the Han River.

Three hundred and twenty li farther west stands Mount Banzhong. It is now south of Daoxian County in Wudu Commandery. The character bo is pronounced like “bo” in “wave.” The Han River rises here and flows southeast into the Mian River. By the time it reaches Anlu County in Jiangxia, this stretch of water is also called the Mian River. The Xiao River also rises here and flows north into the Tang River; some versions call it the Yang River.

The mountain has many peach branches and gouduan, a plant related to the peach. Its beasts include many rhinoceroses, wild oxen, bears, and brown bears. The brown bear resembles a bear, has yellowish-white fur, and is fierce and rather clumsy. It can climb trees. Among the birds are many white han and red bie. The white han is the white zhuo, also called the zhuo pheasant or white pheasant.

A plant on the mountain has leaves like those of hui, an aromatic herb in the orchid family. Some accounts say hui means xun leaves, but that is incorrect. Its root resembles balloonflower root, and it has black flowers but bears no fruit. It is called gurong; gu is pronounced like “bone.” The Erya: Explaining Plants says that a plant which flowers but bears no fruit is called gu. Eating this plant makes people infertile.

Three hundred and fifty li farther west stands Mount Tiandi. The mountain has many nan trees, while its lower slopes have many jian grass and hui grass; jian is a kind of cogon grass. A beast on the mountain looks like a dog and is called Xi, though some versions call it Gu. Some versions also write Xi as Yi. Mats made from its hide can protect against poison and harmful spells.

There is also a bird on the mountain that resembles a quail. It has black markings on its body and red feathers beneath its head, and is called Li. The character li is pronounced like the li in “gravel.” Eating this bird can cure hemorrhoids.

A plant on the mountain resembles mallow and smells like miwu. It is called Duheng and is an aromatic herb. Carrying it makes horses run faster; some accounts say that horses who come across it will run at a brisk pace. Eating this plant can cure goiter, a condition involving swelling of the neck.

Three hundred and eighty li to the southwest lies Mount Gaotu. A plant called qiang grows on the mountain; the character for qiang is also written huang or kui. The Qiang River rises here and flows west into the Zhuzi River. The Tu River also rises here and flows south into the Jihuo River.

The southern slope of Mount Gaotu has abundant cinnabar and millet, while the northern slope has much silver and gold. Many cassia trees grow on the mountain. There is a white stone in the mountain called yushi, which can poison and kill rats; people still use it to kill rats today. The character yu is pronounced like “yu.” Silkworms that eat this stone, according to the original account, grow plump and strong. Another plant grows on the mountain: it resembles gaoba, is yellow, and is an aromatic herb. Its leaves look like those of the mallow, with reddish undersides. It is called wutiao and can also poison and kill rats.

A beast in the mountain resembles a deer. It has a white tail, hooves like a horse’s, and two forelegs like human hands. It has four horns and is called juoru. The original text gives its pronunciation with the phrase “weijue zhi ying.” There is also a bird resembling a chi, a kind of owl, with human feet. It is called shusi. Eating its meat can cure wasting disease; some versions say it can cure epilepsy.

Another one hundred and eighty li to the west lies Mount Huang. There is also a Mount Huang in Huaili County of Shiping Commandery today, where a palace once stood, built by Emperor Hui of Han; this is probably not the Mount Huang described here. There are no grasses or trees on this mountain, but bamboo and arrow bamboo are plentiful. The Pan River rises here and flows west into the Chi River, which contains much jade. Pan is pronounced like the character pan in the phrase “mei mu pan,” meaning “beautiful eyes glance sideways.”

A beast in the mountain resembles an ox. It has blue-black fur, large eyes, and is called □. Another bird resembles an owl, with blue feathers, a red beak, and a tongue like a human’s; it can speak and is called ying□. The ying□ has a tongue like a child’s, and two toes pointing forward and two backward. Birds of this kind are also found around Funan. Their feathers may have a faint mix of five colors, or be entirely red or white, and they are about the size of geese.

Another two hundred li to the west lies Mount Cui. Many □nan trees grow on the mountain, while bamboo and arrow bamboo are abundant below. The southern slope has much gold and jade; the northern slope has many yak and musk deer. The ling resembles a sheep, with large horns. It likes fine grasses and often roams among the cliffs. The musk deer resembles a small deer and has a smaller body; it gives off a fragrant scent. Most of the birds on the mountain are lei, pronounced like “lei.” They resemble magpies and are red and black, with two heads and four feet. They can be used to ward off fire.

Two hundred and fifty li farther west lies Mount Gui (pronounced “Wei”). A beast called the chun lives here. It resembles a small muntjac and has a fragrant scent. Most of the birds on the mountain are lei: they look like magpies, have red-and-black feathers, two heads, and four feet. They are said to ward off fires.

Two hundred and fifty li farther west, another mountain is also recorded as Mount Gui. It stands near the Western Sea. No plants or trees grow on it, but jade is abundant. The Qi River (written as the Sui River in some versions) rises here and flows west into the sea. Its waters contain many stones with colorful markings and much gold. The colored stones include realgar, kongqing, and green jade, and cinnabar grains are also plentiful.

The mountain range recorded at the beginning of the Western Mountain Classic extends from Mount Qianlai to Mount Gui. It consists of nineteen mountains and stretches for 2,957 li. Mount Hua is an important site for offering sacrifices to the spirits along this range. Sacrifices at Mount Hua require a grand offering of an ox, a sheep, and a pig. To sacrifice to the spirit of Mount Yu, one must use candles, observe a hundred days of purification, and prepare one hundred sacrificial animals of a single color. One hundred pieces of yu jade are laid out on the offering mat, along with one hundred cups of heated wine, while one hundred gui jade tablets and bi jade disks are arranged around them. For sacrifices at the other seventeen mountains, the offerings must be sheep with pure-colored coats and sound bodies. One must also prepare the ash of plants and trees used for candles, and white mats edged with silk of different colors, with colored patterns arranged according to rank.

The first mountain recorded at the beginning of the Second Western Mountain Classic is Mount Qian (pronounced “Qian”). It has abundant copper on its summit and abundant jade at its base. Most of the trees on the mountain are niu and jiang trees.

A further two hundred li to the west lies Mount Tai, also written in some versions as “Qinmaozhi Mountain.” Gold is abundant on its southern slopes, and iron on its northern slopes. The Yu River rises in the mountain and flows east into the Yellow River. Its waters contain many patterned jades, jade marked with colored veins. Some versions write the name as “Jian,” pronounced “lian.” The river also teems with white snakes and water chi, legendary dragonlike creatures that dwell in water.

A further one hundred and seventy li to the west lies Mount Shuli. Gold is abundant on the mountain, silver below it, and most of its trees are niu and jiang.

A further one hundred and seventy li to the west lies another mountain also called Mount Shuli. Gold is abundant on the mountain, silver below it, and most of its trees are niu and jiang. Parrots are common among its birds. The Chu River rises in the mountain and flows south into the Wei River. Its waters contain many white pearls. It is said that the flat marshes of Shu Commandery also produce blue-green pearls today. The Shizi says, “Pearls form where water twists and turns.”

A further one hundred and fifty li to the west lies a high mountain. Silver is abundant on the mountain, while below it are blue-green jade and realgar. In the third year of the Daxing era of the Jin dynasty, a landslide occurred in Gaoping Commandery, and several thousand jin of realgar were found at the site. The mountain has many trees and herbs, including abundant bamboo. The Jing River rises in the mountain and flows east into the Wei River. Today, the Jing River rises at Mount Jingtou, west of Kongdingchao County, and joins the Wei River at Gaoling County in Jingzhao. The mountain also produces much stone suitable for making chime stones; the “floating chime stones from the banks of the Si River” mentioned in the Shangshu are this kind. Blue-green jade is found there as well.

Three hundred li to the southwest lies Mount Nüchuang. Red copper is abundant on its southern slopes, and stone nie—a mineral mentioned in ancient texts and identified in old commentaries as alum stone—is common on its northern slopes. The people of Chu call it “nie stone,” while those of Qin call it “yu nie.” The Bencao Jing also calls it “stone nie.” Tigers are common among the mountain’s beasts.

Three hundred li farther southwest lies Mount Nuchuang. There is much red copper on its southern side and much stone nie, that is, alum stone, on its northern side. People in Chu call it nie stone, while people in Qin call it yu nie; the Herbal Classic also calls it stone nie. The mountain is home to many tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, and wild oxen, as well as a bird resembling a long-tailed pheasant, with five-colored markings on its body. It is called the luan bird, and its appearance brings peace to the world. An old account says that the luan bird resembles a chicken and is an auspicious creature. During the reign of King Cheng of Zhou, the Western Rong presented a luan bird as tribute.

Two hundred li farther west lies Mount Longshou. There is much gold on its southern side and much iron on its northern side. The Tiao River rises here and flows southeast into the Jing River; its waters contain much fine jade.

Two hundred li farther west lies Mount Lutai, now located in Shang Commandery. The mountain has much white jade, and its lower slopes have much silver. It is home to many oxen of the kind recorded in the text, qian sheep, and white hao; hao refers to the badger pig. There is also a bird on the mountain that resembles a rooster but has a human face. It is called the fuxi. Its name is said to come from its own cry, and its appearance foretells warfare.

Two hundred li farther southwest lies Mount Niaowei. Its southern side has many stones suitable for making chime stones, while its northern side has many sandalwood and paper mulberry trees; paper mulberry is also called valley tree. The mountain is also home to many nuchuang, though what this refers to is unclear. The Wuwei River rises here and flows west into the Red River; its waters contain much cinnabar gravel.

Farther west, the mountain’s northern side has many sandalwood and paper mulberry trees; paper mulberry is also called valley tree. The mountain is home to many nuchuang, though what this refers to is unclear. The Wuwei River rises here and flows west into the Red River; its waters contain much cinnabar gravel.

Four hundred li farther west lies Mount Xiaoci. The mountain has much white jade, and its lower slopes have much red copper. It is home to a beast resembling a gibbon, with a white head and red feet, called Zhuyan. Its appearance brings large-scale warfare. Another account says that its appearance brings warfare in six places; yet another says it causes warfare.

Three hundred li farther west lies Mount Daci. Its southern side has much e, a very white, earth-like mineral; e is pronounced “e.” Its northern side has much green jade, and it is home to many oxen of the kind recorded in the text and antelopes.

Four hundred li farther west lies Mount Xunwu. It has no grasses or trees, but contains much metal and jade.

Another four hundred li west lies Diyang Mountain (where “di” is pronounced “zhi”). Many jimu trees, paper mulberries, and yuzhang trees grow on the mountain. Jimu trees resemble pines; their branches are thorny and their wood grain is fine. “Ji” in jimu is pronounced “ji.” Yuzhang trees are tall and resemble Chinese catalpas. Their leaves stay green in both winter and summer, and their species becomes identifiable only after seven years of growth. The mountain is home to many rhinoceroses, si (female rhinoceroses as described in ancient texts), tigers, dogs, and □ cattle. “Zhuo” in zhuo is pronounced “zhiyaofan.”

Another two hundred and fifty li west lies Mount Zhongshou. Many □fu jades are found on the mountain, and many sandalwood trees, paper mulberries, □, dogs, and □ cattle are found below. “Zhuo” in zhuo is pronounced “zhiyaofan.”

Another two hundred and fifty li west lies another Mount Zhongshou. Many □fu jades are found on the mountain, and many sandalwood trees, paper mulberries, and gold are found below. The mountain is home to many rhinoceroses and si.

Another five hundred li west lies Mount Huangren. The mountain has abundant gold and jade, while below it grows much green realgar, also called orpiment. Another account identifies it as a mineral of the kongqing and zengqing type. The Huang River rises here and flows west into the Chi River. The Huang River contains much dan su (red mineral sand).

Another three hundred li west lies Mount Zhonghuang. The mountain has abundant gold, and many huitang plants grow below. These belong to the tongtang group of plants. Some versions write “gao” instead of “hui.”

Another three hundred and fifty li west lies Mount Xihuang. The south side of the mountain has much gold, and the north side much iron. The mountain is home to many milu and □ cattle. Milu are deer resembling small cattle.

Another three hundred and fifty li west lies Mount Lai. Many sandalwood trees and paper mulberries grow on the mountain. It is also home to many luoluo birds, which eat people. Ancient texts do not clearly identify what kind of bird the luoluo is.

The second range of the Western Mountains in the second classic of the West, in the Classic of the Western Mountains, extends from Mount Qian to Mount Lai. It contains seventeen mountains and stretches for 4,140 li. Ten gods live there, all with human faces and horse bodies. Seven others have human faces and ox bodies, four legs, and one arm; they walk leaning on staffs. These gods are called the “gods of flying beasts.”

To worship these gods, one uses a minor sacrificial offering of sheep and pigs, with a mat woven from white sweet rush as the altar covering. Each of the ten gods is offered a rooster. The text says “qian, but no grain,” though it is unclear what kind of ritual vessel “qian” refers to here. Some versions instead read “offer prayers without grain,” meaning that no rice is used in the ritual. The sacrificial chickens are multicolored.

The first mountain in the third range of the Western Mountains is called Mount Chongwu, south of the Yellow River. From its summit, one can see Mount Zhongzhui to the north, the Marsh of Duozhi to the south, and the hill where the Lord hunts beasts to the west. To the east lies a deep pool whose name is partly missing.

A tree grows on the mountain with round leaves, white flower bases, red blossoms, and black-grained wood. Its fruit resembles that of the trifoliate orange; eating it is said to benefit one’s descendants.

The mountain is also home to a beast resembling a macaque. Its arms are patterned, its coat is spotted like a leopard’s, and it is as fierce as a tiger. It is skilled at throwing things and is called Jufu, though some versions call it Kuafu.

There is also a bird shaped like a wild duck, but with only one wing and one eye. Two birds must pair up to fly. It is called Manman, also known as the paired-wing bird. Its feathers alternate between blue-green and red, and it can fly only with a mate. Whenever it appears, great floods occur throughout the world.

Three hundred li northwest of Mount Changsha lies the source of the You River. The You River flows north and empties into another body of water also called the You. The character You is pronounced “you,” meaning “dark,” as in the color of the water. The mountain has no vegetation, but produces abundant green orpiment.

Three hundred and seventy li farther northwest lies Mount Buzhou. This mountain has a gap in it, and its ridges do not form a complete circuit; this is how it got its name. The Buzhou wind, which blows from the northwest, rises here. To the north, one can see Mount Zhupi, with Mount Yuechong at its foot. To the east lies You Marsh, also known as Pu Marsh or Puchang Sea. According to legend, the waters of the Yellow River sink underground there.

After emerging from the Kunlun Mountains in Henan, the Yellow River flows underground as far as the Congling Mountains. It then reappears within the territory of the kingdom of Khotan, divides into several branches, and later converges and flows east into You Marsh. There it sinks underground again, then emerges to the south at Mount Jishi, becoming a river within China. You Marsh is about three or four hundred li across. Its surface is calm, and its water level does not change between winter and summer. It lies more than three hundred li from Yumen Pass. The ancients regarded this place as the source where the Yellow River reappears, and said that the river had flowed underground. The phrase “hūnhūn pāopāo” describes the sound of water surging and bubbling up.

You Marsh is home to a delicious fruit shaped like a peach, with leaves like those of a jujube tree. It has yellow flowers and red calyxes. Eating it keeps a person from becoming tired.

Four hundred and twenty li farther northwest lies Mount Mi, pronounced “mi.” The mountain grows many dan trees. Their leaves are round, their stems red, and their flowers yellow; their fruit is red and tastes like malt syrup. Eating this fruit prevents hunger.

Travel another 420 li northwest, and you reach Mount Mi (pronounced “Mi”). Many cinnabar trees grow on the mountain. Their leaves are round, their stems red, their flowers yellow, and their fruit red as well; it tastes like malt sugar. Eating it keeps hunger at bay. The Dan River rises here and flows west into Ji Marsh. According to legend, Ji Marsh was where the deity Hou Ji, the legendary god of agriculture, drowned, and it was named for him. The mountain contains abundant white jade, as well as jade essence, a legendary jade liquid. At its source, the water churns and surges, and the jade liquid wells up from within.

The Jade Edition of the River Chart says that Mount Shaoshi has white jade essence, and that drinking it once makes one immortal. What is described here is similar. Legend says the Yellow Emperor ate jade essence and then ascended to heaven on a dragon at Ding Lake, leaving behind his dragon’s shed skin, as though he had cast off his bodily form. Black jade also grows within the jade essence. People used the liquid to irrigate the cinnabar trees; after five years, their colors became vivid and their flavor grew fragrant.

The Yellow Emperor also took the jade bloom of Mount Mi—that is, the essence of jade—and cast it on the southern side of Mount Zhong as seed for growing jade. Among these stones, jin and yu are the finest varieties of beautiful jade, hard and compact in texture, with grains like millet. Jade is lustrous and warm to the touch, and its five colors shine in combination. Tradition says its hues resemble a cockscomb, steamed millet, congealed fat, thick lacquer, and other things. Jade can reconcile firmness and gentleness, embodying the nine virtues of jade. In sacrifices, people use jade to seek the protection of Heaven, Earth, and the spirits. A gentleman wearing jade can ward off ill fortune. Today, a kind of diamond is also found abroad. Though it belongs to the class of stones, it looks like shining metal and can be used to engrave jade. Foreigners wear it to ward off evil influences, a belief much like the one described here.

From Mount Mi to Mount Zhong is 460 li, and the entire route passes through marshes. The area is home to many sound birds, strange beasts, and unusual fish, all creatures of uncommon kinds.

Another 420 li to the northwest stands Mount Zhong. Zhong’s son is named Gu. Here, “son” is also a title used in the names of deities, meaning that Gu is the son of the deity of Mount Zhong. Accounts of such spirits can be found in the Qishu chapter of the Guicang, an ancient text on the Changes. It says that they have human faces and dragon bodies. The Qishu also records: “The son of Mount Li has green feathers, eight faces, and a body like a horse’s.” His appearance is similar.

Gu and Qin Pi—a deity whose name is pronounced “Pi”—killed Bao Jiang to the south of Mount Kunlun. Some versions write “Zu Jiang” instead of “Bao Jiang.” The Celestial Emperor then killed them east of Mount Zhong, at a place whose name is written “□” and pronounced “Yaoya.”

After Qin Pi died, he transformed into a great e—a bird of prey similar to an eagle. It resembles an eagle, with black markings, a white head, a red beak, and tiger-like claws. Its cry sounds like that of the morning e. The morning e is also a kind of bird of prey; the name probably means an e that calls at dawn. The Shuoyuan, an ancient collection of miscellaneous sayings, says: “A barking dog is hung up, with a morning duck beside it.” When this bird appears, a great battle will follow.

Gu, too, transformed into a jun bird, pronounced “Jun.” It resembles a chi, a bird of prey, with red feet, a straight beak, yellow markings, and a white head. Its cry sounds like that of a swan. When it appears, the area will suffer a severe drought.

The Biography of King Mu records that Mount Zhong was also called “Zuochun”—the name simply shares the same pronunciation. King Mu of Zhou traveled north, passed the mountain, and gazed in every direction. He said, “Mount Zhong is the highest mountain under heaven, where all the beasts gather and birds make their nests. Red leopards, white tigers, white crows, and blue eagles live there, hunting dogs and sheep, wild boars, and deer.” King Mu explored Mount Zhong for five days, then carved an inscription on Mount Xuanpu to leave for posterity.

A further 180 li to the west lies Mount Taiqi. The Guan River rises here and flows west into the Moving Sands. The mountain is home to many wenyao fish—strange fish from ancient legend. The name is pronounced like “yao.” They resemble carp, with fish bodies and bird wings. Their bodies bear blue markings, their heads are white, and their mouths are red. They are often seen in the Western Sea, but also swim as far as the Eastern Sea, and can fly at night.

The wenyao fish call like the luan chicken, a legendary bird whose exact identity is unclear and which may also have been an ancient name for a particular kind of bird. Their calls are sometimes described in terms of music. Their flesh tastes sour and sweet, and eating it can cure madness. When wenyao fish appear, the world will enjoy a great harvest. “Abundant harvest” means that the crops have ripened and come in plentifully. The Han Feizi says, “the autumn of a bountiful year.”

Another 320 li to the west lies Mount Huaijiang. The Qiushi River rises here and flows north into the You River. The river holds many yingmu, a kind of spiral shellfish. The mountain has abundant blue realgar and also contains langgan stone, gold, and jade. Langgan is a pearl-like stone; “to contain” here means to conceal or bury. Langgan is pronounced “langgan.”

The southern side of Mount Huaijiang has abundant cinnabar grains, while the northern side has plentiful gold and silver with vivid colors. This is the Heavenly Emperor’s Garden of the Plain, also known as the Dark Garden (Xuanpu), the legendary garden of the Heavenly Emperor. The Traditions of King Mu says that King Mu of Zhou once carved an inscription on a stone in the Dark Garden to record his achievements and virtue, much as Qin Shi Huang and Emperor Wu of Han later carved stones to commemorate theirs.

The mountain is governed by the spirit Yingzhao. Here, “to govern” means to be in charge. Yingzhao has a horse’s body and a human face, tiger markings, and wings on its back; it travels in all directions. Its cry sounds like “liu” or “zhou,” though the precise pronunciation and meaning are unknown. Looking south toward Mount Kunlun, one sees light blazing like fire and vapor billowing vigorously. Looking west toward the Great Marsh, one sees the place where Hou Ji, the legendary god of agriculture, lived in seclusion and transformed into a deity. Another passage mentions “riding the tail of the Winnowing Basket”; the meaning of the damaged text there cannot be determined with certainty.

The mountain has abundant jade. To the north stands a shaking tree, on which grows the Ru tree. The shaking tree is a great tree, while the Ru tree is a wondrous, numinous kind of great tree. The Discourses of the States also mentions the shaking tree.

Looking north toward Mount Zhupi, one sees the mountain spirit Huaigui Lilun dwelling there, as well as eagles and hawks, a kind of bird of prey. The Traditions of King Mu says that Mount Zhong has white crows and blue eagles, birds of similar kinds.

Looking east, one can see Mount Heng rising in successive tiers. “Four tiers” means that the mountain’s slopes overlap. The Youqiong Gui, or “Ghosts of Youqiong,” live in the mountain, each group dwelling on one of its four sides. “Youqiong” is the collective name for these ghosts. There is also the Yin River, whose water is clear and flows with a sound described as “luoluo.”

A kind of heavenly spirit lives in the mountain. It resembles an ox, with eight legs, two heads, and a horse’s tail. Its cry sounds like “bohuang,” though the precise referent is unknown. When it appears, war breaks out in the region.

Four hundred li to the southwest lies Kunlun Mound, the earthly capital of the Celestial Emperor. The Traditions of King Mu records that on a day of the Xinyou cycle, the Son of Heaven ascended Kunlun Mound to view the Yellow Emperor’s palace. He also heaped earth over Fenglong’s tomb, making a mound to pass the story down to later generations. Kunlun Mountain is ruled by the spirit Lu Wu, also called Jian Wu. The Zhuangzi says that after attaining the Dao, Jian Wu lived in the great mountains. Lu Wu has the body of a tiger, nine tails, a human face, and tiger claws. He governs the nine regions of heaven and oversees the seasons and affairs of the Celestial Emperor’s gardens.

On Kunlun Mound lives a beast shaped like a sheep but with four horns, called the Tulao. It eats people. There is also a bird shaped like a bee and as large as a mandarin duck, called the Qinyuan. If it stings a bird or beast, the creature dies; if it stings a tree, the tree withers. Another bird, the Chun, oversees the Celestial Emperor’s clothing and various implements. Some accounts say instead that it oversees the Celestial Emperor’s affairs.

A tree also grows on the mountain that resembles a wild pear. It bears yellow flowers and red fruit. The fruit tastes like a plum but has no stone, and is called shatang. People say it makes one unafraid of water: after eating it, one cannot drown. The Lüshi Chunqiu also praises the delicious fruit of the shatang. Older accounts mention that people carved boats from shatang wood and sailed in them for pleasure on the open sea.

A plant grows on the mountain whose name is damaged in the text, with its pronunciation given as “pin.” It resembles mallow and tastes like scallion; eating it dispels fatigue. The Lüshi Chunqiu also praises this delicious vegetable produced on Kunlun.

Water issues from the northeastern corner of Kunlun Mound, flows south, then east into Mount Wuda. The Red River issues from the southeastern corner and flows southeast into the waters of Fantian. Fantian is also a mountain, where the Red River runs dry. The Traditions of King Mu says that the Son of Heaven once lodged near Kunlun, on the north bank of the Red River. “Yang” refers to the northern bank of a river.

The Yang River issues from the northwestern corner of Kunlun Mound and flows southwest into the waters of Choutu. Choutu is also a mountain; these places are all in the far south. The Traditions of King Mu records that the Son of Heaven once crossed the Yang River. The Black River also issues from Kunlun’s northwestern corner and flows west to Mount Dayu. The Traditions of King Mu further records that the Son of Heaven enfeoffed the Long-armed people on the riverbank west of the Black River, on Kunlun’s Mount Honglu, and appointed them chief ritual officiants of the Zhou royal house.

The Kunlun region is home to many strange birds and beasts, including nine-headed beasts and six-headed birds.

Three hundred and seventy li farther west lies Mount Leyou. The Tao River rises here and flows west into Marsh Jize, where white jade is abundant. The water is home to many fish called yu. They resemble snakes, have four legs, and feed on fish.

Traveling another four hundred li west along the waterway brings you to the Flowing Sands. After a further two hundred li, you reach Mount Yingmu. The mountain is governed by the spirit Changcheng. Changcheng is one of the nine kinds of De (Virtue) energy in Heaven, and this mountain was brought forth by the energy of the Nine Virtues. Changcheng looks human, has leopard markings and a tail. Jade is plentiful on the mountain, while blue-green stone is plentiful at its foot, but there is no water.

Three hundred and fifty li farther west is Mount Yu, where the Queen Mother of the West lives. The mountain is rich in jade, which is how it got its name. The Traditions of King Mu calls it “Mount of the Many Jades,” describing its rivers and terrain as level, without hazards, open in every direction, and properly ordered. It was the place where, according to the ancient emperors, the classics were kept. Few plants grow on the mountain, and there are no birds or beasts.

King Mu of Zhou once mined jade here and brought back three cartloads of jade slabs, various jade objects and ornaments, and ten thousand pieces of jade. Two pieces of jade together were called a “ke”; half a piece was called a “zhi.”

The Queen Mother of the West looks human, but has a leopard’s tail and tiger’s teeth. She is skilled at shrill cries, has tousled hair, and wears a jade “sheng,” an ancient kind of hair ornament. She governs calamities sent down from Heaven, epidemics, and the “Five Afflictions”—ominous forces associated with punishment and slaughter.

The Traditions of King Mu records that on the jiazi day, King Mu paid a formal visit to the Queen Mother of the West, carrying a jade tablet and a white jade disk as gifts. He also presented one hundred bolts of cotton cloth and three hundred bolts of dark blue fabric. The Queen Mother bowed twice and accepted the gifts. On the yichou day, King Mu held a banquet for her beside the Jasper Pool. She sang to him: “White clouds drift across the sky; mountains rise from the earth. The road is long, and rivers and mountains lie between us. May you live forever and come again.”

King Mu replied: “I will return east and govern the states of Huaxia, bringing peace and fair distribution to the people. When I see you again, I will surely return to your home within three years.”

The Queen Mother sang again: “My ancestral home is in the west; I dwell in my own place, among herds of tigers and leopards, with crows and magpies for company. Heaven’s decree is set and cannot be changed: I am the daughter of the Celestial Emperor. People of this world, I must leave you again. The sheng and reed pipes play, and my thoughts drift freely. All people in this world look up to Heaven’s decree.”

King Mu then departed and climbed Mount Yan, also called Mount Yanzi. He carved an account of his journey into the rock, planted a locust tree as a marker, and named the place “Mountain of the Queen Mother of the West.” The Bamboo Annals records that in the fifty-seventh year of King Mu’s reign, the Queen Mother of the West came to pay court and was received at the Zhaogong Palace. During the time of Emperor Shun, she also sent an envoy to present jade rings; the related account appears in the Book of Rites: Three Court Audiences.

Two unusual creatures are also recorded here. One is a beast shaped like a dog, with leopard spots and horns like a bull’s; some accounts say its horns resemble a sheep’s. It is called a “jiao,” and its cry sounds like a dog barking. When it appears, the state will have abundant harvests. In the tenth year of the Taikang era of the Jin dynasty, a similar beast was captured in Fuyi County, Shaoling. It had leopard spots and two horns, but no forelegs. Some people identified it as a jiao, though the author doubts that it was the same creature.

The other is a bird shaped like a pheasant, with red feathers. It is called a “shengyu,” eats fish, and makes a sound like “lu.” When it appears, the state will suffer a great flood.

Four hundred and eighty li farther west lies Xuanyuan Hill. No plants or trees grow on the mountain. The Yellow Emperor once lived here. He married a woman of the Xiling clan, named Chi, also known as Shengyu, whose surname was Ting. She ate fish, and the sound she made resembled the pronunciation of the character lu, though its meaning is unclear. When she appeared, a great flood would strike the land where she was.

Four hundred and eighty li farther west lies Xuanyuan Hill. No plants or trees grow on the mountain. The Yellow Emperor once lived here; he married a woman of the Xiling clan, and the hill was named Xuanyuan Hill for this reason. The Xun River, with Xun pronounced like “xun” in “inquire,” rises here and flows south into the Black River. Its waters contain abundant cinnabar grains and blue realgar.

Three hundred li farther west lies Jishi Mountain. At its foot is a stone gate, where the waters of the Yellow River spill over the mountain pass and flow west. The word mao means to cover or overflow. Jishi Mountain lies in Qiang territory, southwest of Hemen Pass in Jincheng. The Yellow River emerges through the mountain pass and flows east into the lands within the frontier. The mountain abounds in all kinds of things. The Book of the Rivers quotes the Classic of Mountains and Seas, saying that Jishi Mountain lies east of Denglin Mountain and is where the Yellow River flows in.

Two hundred li farther west lies Changliu Mountain, where the White Emperor Shaohao—an ancient legendary ruler, also known as the Lord of Golden Heaven—resides. The beasts on the mountain all have patterned tails, and the birds all have patterned heads. The mountain is rich in patterned jade and is the palace of the deity Yuan, Kui. Kui, pronounced “Kui,” governs the “returning light”: after the sun sets and its light disappears in the west, it shines back from the east. She oversees and monitors this phenomenon.

Two hundred and eighty li farther west lies Zhangyi Mountain. No plants or trees grow on the mountain, which is rich in jade such as yao and bi. The things found here are most strange, and many are unusual. In the mountain lives a beast that looks like…

Two hundred and eighty li farther west lies another Zhangyi Mountain. No plants or trees grow on the mountain, which is rich in jade such as yao and bi. Many things here are strange. One beast on the mountain is called the Zheng. It resembles a red leopard, has five tails and one horn, and sounds like stone being struck. There is also a bird called the Bifang. It resembles a crane and has only one leg. Its body bears red markings, its feathers are blue, and its beak is white. It cries out with its own distinctive call. When it appears, strange fires often break out in the region.

Three hundred li farther west lies Yin Mountain. The Zhuoyu River rises here and flows south into Fan Marsh. The water contains many beautifully patterned shells belonging to the “koukoukou” class, which is also mentioned in the Erya. A wild beast lives in the mountain. It resembles a civet, though some versions say it resembles a leopard. It has a white head and is called the Heavenly Dog. Its cry sounds like “liuliu,” though some versions give it as “maomao.” It is said to ward off evil spirits.

Two hundred li farther west lies Fu Ti Mountain. The character “ti” is pronounced “yang.” The mountain has many “ge,” while its foothills contain much gold and jade. The spirit Jiangyi is said to live here. Strange winds, rain, and clouds often rise from this mountain.

Two hundred and twenty li farther west lies Sanwei Mountain, now in Dunhuang Commandery. The Book of Documents says, “The Sanmiao were banished to Sanwei,” referring to this mountain.

Three Azure Birds live on Sanwei Mountain, whose perimeter is about one hundred li. They are divine birds that gather food for the Queen Mother of the West, and they also spend their time resting and roaming on the mountain. The Bamboo Annals records that King Mu of Zhou traveled west on an expedition and once reached the place where the Azure Birds stayed. A beast on the mountain resembles an ox. It is entirely white, has four horns, and its coat looks like a rain cape. A rain cape is a garment made of grass used for protection from rain. The beast is called “ao,” and it eats people. The mountain is also home to a bird with one head and three bodies, shaped like “...”; it is called the Chi. It resembles an eagle, has black markings and a red neck, and when it stands it cries “luo.” Passages such as “fu shou ze si, fu ben ze ku” are out of order in the surviving versions, and the original text also has missing characters, so here they can only be explained on the basis of the text that remains.

One hundred and ninety li farther west lies Kui Mountain. It has much jade but no ordinary stone. The spirit Qitong lives here. Qitong is Laotong, the son of Zhuanxu. The sounds he makes often resemble those of bells and stone chimes. Many coiled and heaped-up snakes live at the foot of the mountain.

Westward, another 350 li brings you to Mount Tian. The mountain contains abundant metals and jade, and also produces blue realgar. The Ying River rises here and flows southwest into Tang Valley.

A spirit lives on the mountain. It looks like a yellow sack, its color as red as cinnabar flame. Its body is yellow, while its divine radiance is red. It has six feet and four wings, and is utterly chaotic in form, with no features; yet it knows how to sing and dance. This is Di Jiang. The scripture goes on to say that when the body is incomplete, the spirit can instead manifest naturally; when vital essence and Qi are bright yet invisible, they can quietly connect with the workings of things. Perhaps this refers to Di Jiang. Zhuangzi’s story of Hundun, the central emperor, who dies after Shu and Hu bore seven openings into him, may likewise use this figure to convey an idea.

Westward, another 290 li brings you to Mount You. The character “you” is pronounced like the “you” in “dark.” The spirit Mu Shou lives on this mountain. It is also a Metal deity, associated with metal and the Metal phase of the Five Phases. It has a human face, tiger claws, and a white tail, and holds coins in its hand; these descriptions appear in the Outer Traditions. The mountain contains much “yingduan jade,” though exactly what this refers to is unclear. Its southern side produces abundant fine jades such as jin and yu, while its northern side has plentiful blue realgar.

From this mountain, looking west, one can see where the sun sets. The scene at sunset is circular: the sun itself is round, so the scene that appears as it sets is also circular. It is governed here by the spirit Hong Guang, but no description of its appearance has been recorded.

Traveling west along the water for one hundred li, one reaches Mount Yiwang, also written in some versions as “Mount Tucui.” The mountain has no trees or other plants, but is rich in metal ores and jade. A beast lives here that resembles a raccoon dog. It has one eye and three tails and is called Huan (pronounced “huan”). Its cries sound as though it can produce a hundred different voices. Some accounts take “hundred voices” to be the name of a particular thing, though what it refers to remains uncertain. Wearing or ingesting this beast can ward off evil influences; ingesting it can also cure miasmic illness, a disease found in damp, hot mountain and forest regions.

A bird also lives on the mountain. It resembles an ordinary bird but has three heads and six tails. It likes to laugh and is called Qi□, with the final character missing. Ingesting it can prevent troubling dreams and ward off evil influences. The Book of Zhou says that “yan” means dreaming; some versions write the word as “mi,” meaning that the eyes are blurred.

The mountain range described in the third section of the Western Mountains runs from Mount Chongwu to Mount Yiwang. It comprises twenty-three mountains and stretches for 6,744 li. The mountain deities all have the bodies of sheep and human faces. To sacrifice to them, one should bury a piece of auspicious jade, a fine jade used in ritual, decorated with colored patterns. The Master of the Corpse says that auspicious jade can also refer to a great turtle. The refined grain used in the sacrifice is millet.

The first mountain in the range described in the fourth section of the Western Mountains is Mount Yin. It is rich in grain and has no rocks. Among its plants are mao and fan. Mao is a plant resembling mallow; fan is a green plant, similar to sedge but much taller. The Yin River rises here and flows west into the Luo River.

Fifty li farther north is Mount Lao, where this plant grows abundantly. Another plant on the mountain, called eryi, can be used to dye things purple. The Ruo River rises at Mount Lao and flows west into the Luo River.

Fifty li farther west is Mount Bafu. The Er River rises here and flows west into the Luo River. Its waters contain abundant cibi, a purple jade.

Another 170 li north is Mount Shen. Many gu trees grow on the mountain, while the slopes below have abundant niu and gui trees. Gold and jade are plentiful on the sunny side. The Qu River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River.

Another 200 li north is Mount Niao. The mountain has many mulberry trees, and the slopes below have many paper mulberry trees. Iron is abundant on the shady side, and jade on the sunny side. The Ru River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River.

Another 120 li north is Mount Shangshen. No plants grow on the mountain, and its waters flow east into the Yellow River.

Another 200 li north is another Mount Niao. The mountain has many mulberry trees, and the slopes below have many paper mulberry trees. Iron is abundant on the shady side, and jade on the sunny side. The Ru River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River.

Another 120 li north is another Mount Shangshen. No plants grow on the mountain, but it has many large rocks. The slopes below have many hazel trees and ku trees. The hazel bears fruit like chestnuts, but smaller and delicious; ku wood can be used to make arrow shafts. Many white deer live in the mountain, and among the birds, danghu are most numerous. They resemble pheasants and fly by means of the long beard beneath their necks. Eating one prevents blurred vision. The Tang River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River.

Another 180 li north is Mount Zhu-ci. The Zhu-ci River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River. The mountain has many trees but no grasses. Birds and beasts do not dwell here, but snakes are plentiful.

Another 180 li north is Mount Hao. The mountain has many lacquer trees and chu trees. Among its plants are abundant baizhi, fragrant herbs, and chuanxiong, also called jiangli. The mountain also has many ling stones, whose name and pronunciation are unclear. The Duan River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River.

Another 220 li north is a mountain. The surviving text begins with the character “zhi” and repeats the earlier passage about baizhi, fragrant herbs, chuanxiong, ling stones, and the Duan River.

Two hundred and twenty li farther north lies Mount Yu (pronounced “Yu”). There is much iron on its northern slopes and much copper on its southern slopes. White wolves and white tigers are common on the mountain. The Outer Account records that King Mu of Zhou campaigned against the Quanrong and obtained four white wolves and four white tigers. The tigers were called “Biao□.” The birds here include many white pheasants and white di; some versions instead write “white cui.” The Sheng River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River.

Two hundred and fifty li farther west lies Mount Baiyu. Pines and cypresses grow abundantly on the mountain, while oaks and sandalwood trees grow abundantly below; the oak is also called the zuo tree. The mountain is home to many □ oxen and qian sheep, and its birds include many owls. The owl resembles a turtledove and has blue-green feathers. The Luo River rises on the mountain’s southern side and flows east into the Wei River. The Jia River rises on its northern side and flows east into the Sheng River.

Three hundred li farther northwest lies Mount Shenshou. No plants or trees grow on the mountain, and snow remains there in every season. The Shen River rises on the mountain and disappears underground after reaching its foot. White jade is abundant here.

Fifty-five li farther west lies Mount Jinggu. Some versions omit the word “mountain.” The Jing River rises here. Some believe it is the present-day Jing River, though this has not been established. The Jing River flows southeast into the Wei River. White metal and white jade are abundant here.

One hundred and twenty li farther west lies Mount Gang. The mountain has abundant firewood and much □fu jade. The Gang River rises here and flows north into the Wei River. Many divine □ live here. The □ is also a kind of demon called chihui; some versions write □ instead. It has a human face and an animal’s body, with only one foot and one hand, and its cry sounds like “qin.” “Qin” may also be a phonetic loan for the character “yin.”

Two hundred li farther west is the end of the Mount Gang range. The Luo River rises here and flows north into the Yellow River. The water is home to many manman, creatures with the body of a rat and the head of a turtle, whose cries sound like a dog’s bark.

Three hundred and fifty li farther west lies Mount Yingdi. Lacquer trees grow abundantly on the mountain, while gold and jade are plentiful below. All the birds and beasts on the mountain are white. The Wo River rises here. Some versions write the character Wo as □.

Continuing westward for another 350 li, one comes to Mount Yingdi. The mountain has many lacquer trees, and its lower slopes hold abundant metals and jade. All the birds and beasts in the mountain are white. The Wo River rises here and flows north into Lingyang Marsh. The marsh is home to many Ranwei fish, with the body of a fish, the head of a snake, six legs, and eyes like a horse’s ears. Eating their flesh keeps one from having trouble sleeping and can also ward off evil forces.

Continuing westward for another 300 li, one comes to Mount Zhongqu. The mountain’s southern slope has abundant jade, while its northern slope has abundant realgar, white jade, and gold. A beast lives in the mountain that resembles a horse, with a white body, a black tail, and a single horn on its head. Its teeth and claws are like a tiger’s, and its cry sounds like a drumbeat. It is called the Bo. It eats tigers and leopards. The Erya records that the Bo has a horn and claws like a tiger’s. Ancient hunting scenes also depict the Bo. Keeping one can protect against injury from weapons.

Another creature in the mountain is a tree resembling a wild pear. It has round leaves and bears red fruit about the size of a quince. This tree is called the xiang tree. Eating its fruit can increase one’s strength. The Shizi says, “Those who eat the fruits of trees are mostly benevolent.” This river is called the Ruoshui and belongs to the same river system.

Continuing westward for another 260 li, one comes to Mount Bang. A beast lives on the mountain that resembles an ox and has bristles like a hedgehog’s. It is called Qiongqi, and its shape also resembles a mastiff. It eats people. Some say it resembles a tiger, is covered in hedgehog bristles, and has wings. The Inscription says, “The beast called Qiongqi is hideous in appearance. It chases away demons, and none can escape; for this reason it is also known as the Divine Dog.”

The Meng River rises on Mount Bang and flows south into the Yang River. Its waters contain many yellow shellfish, as well as another kind of shellfish, a crustacean whose interior resembles a tadpole, with only a head and tail. The river also contains Ying fish, with a fish’s body and a crow’s wings. Its cry sounds like a mandarin duck. When it appears, a great flood strikes the region.

Two hundred and twenty li farther west lies Bird-and-Mouse-Same-Hole Mountain. Today, this mountain is southwest of Shouyang County in Longxi. A kind of bird and a kind of mouse live together in one burrow there. The bird is called “□,” and the mouse “□.” The mouse resembles a house mouse but has a short tail; the bird resembles a swallow and is yellow. They dig a hole several feet deep in the ground. The mouse lives inside, while the bird stays outside, and the two dwell together. The Commentary on the Book of Documents by Kong says they are a male and female pair; the Geographical Record by Zhang says they have no distinction between male and female. There are many white tigers and white jade on the mountain.

The Wei River rises on this mountain and flows east into the Yellow River. It emerges from the mountain’s eastern side and joins the Yellow River at Huayin County in Hongnong Commandery. The Wei contains many sao fish, which resemble zu fish and also bream. They are large fish, with mouths beneath their necks and bodies covered in overlapping plates of armor. Whenever sao fish move, major warfare breaks out in the region. The Lan River rises on the mountain’s western side and flows west into the Han River. Its waters contain many fish called “□□.” They resemble an upside-down diao, an ancient cooking vessel, and have black heads, fish fins, and fish tails. Their calls sound like stone chimes. They can produce pearls and jade; this may also refer to shellfish that produce pearls.

Three hundred and sixty li farther southwest lies Mount Yanzi. Legend says the sun enters this mountain when it sets, and it is also mentioned in “Li Sao.” There are many cinnabar trees on the mountain. Their leaves resemble those of millet trees, and their fruit is as large as a melon…

Three hundred and sixty li southwest from Yin Mountain lies Mount Yanzi, said to be where the sun sets. This mountain is also mentioned in the Li Sao. The pronunciation of both characters in “Yanzi” includes the sound yan.

The mountain has many dan trees. Their leaves resemble those of grain plants, and their fruit is as large as a melon, with red skin and black markings. Eating the fruit can cure dan disease, a kind of fever, and also protect against fire. Turtles are plentiful on the southern side of the mountain, and jade on the northern side. The Tiao River, also written as the Ruo River in some versions, rises here and flows west into the sea. The Great Account of Yu records that the Wei-pan River rises on Mount Yanzi. The mountain also has many di and li, stones used for grinding: the finer kind is called di, and the coarser kind li.

A beast lives on the mountain with the body of a horse, the wings of a crow, a human face, and a snake’s tail. It likes to lift people into the air, so it is called Shuhu.

Another creature on the mountain is a bird shaped like an owl, with a human face, the body of a macaque, and a dog’s tail. Its call sounds like it is saying its own name. The scripture gives differing descriptions of its body and call, perhaps because of copying errors or omissions. When this bird appears, a severe drought strikes the region.

From Yin Mountain to Mount Yanzi, this section of the Western Mountains Classic records nineteen mountains, covering a total of 3,680 li. In offering rites to these mountains, one should pray with a white chicken, offer rice, and spread a mat of white cogongrass.

The Western Mountains Classic records seventy-seven mountains in all, spanning a total of 17,510 li.

Illustrated Verses on the Western Mountains Classic

Qian Sheep

The sheep produced in Yuezhi are exceptionally wild in temperament. It stands six chi tall, and its tail is as red as a horse. How can one confirm what this sheep looks like? The Erya contains a relevant description.

Mount Taihua

Huayue—Mount Taihua, or Mount Hua—is wondrous and precipitous, with sheer sides like cliffs. A goddess lives there and can drink jade nectar. Who can reach her? One must ride in a dragon-drawn carriage and wear garments like clouds and rosy mists.

Feiyi Snake

The Feiyi snake is a strange beast that brings disaster. When it beats its wings on Mount Yang, it foretells drought and scorching heat. After people perform a rainmaking rite in the mulberry grove, it soon disappears.

At the end, the text lists the names “□qu, red egret, black-patterned stalk tree, and min bird,” without providing enough explanation to determine what they refer to.

Qu has already eliminated calamity. The red turtle can ward off fire, and wenjing can cure deafness; these are all beneficial things. The min bird can also ward off disaster, though it is very small.

Flowing Ochre

Beneath the sand lie deposits of ochre through which water flows, and there are also places where ochre is transported. Use dry wood to seek iron ore, searching downstream along the current. The juanniu can cure grave illnesses; people gather it at the altar to the Soil God.

Haozhi

The haozhi is a beast with stiff bristles. Its bristles resemble clusters of sharp spikes and shoot out when it is provoked. Its body has both male and female characteristics, and it can reproduce on its own.

Huangguan Grass, the Feiyi Bird, and the Xiao Beast

Huangguan grass can cure illnesses contracted while bathing, and its fruit is ochre-red. The feiyi bird resembles a quail; eating its meat can dispel epidemic disease. The xiao beast has very long arms and likes to throw things.

Tuo□

There is a bird with a human face and only one leg, which stands on one foot. Its habits run counter to the seasons: it appears in winter and hides in summer. Carrying one of its feathers can protect against lightning.

Peach Branch

Peach branch is a fine bamboo that grows in twisted coils among tombs. Its groves are dense and deep, with spreading, luxuriant branches and leaves. The bamboo can be woven into a dan, a container for food, to make a comfortable bed; it can also be made into a walking stick to help people walk.

Duheng

The xingxing runs after people, while duheng grass can make horses run. There is reason behind how things work, and external things can also be used to help. A horse’s running is set in motion through resonance, so it does not necessarily need a driver to urge it on.

Gurong Grass, the Bianxi Beast, and the Li Bird

There is a tree that flowers but bears no fruit, called jingrong. The bianxi beast resembles a dog; its hide can ward off evil influences and gu poison. The li bird has black markings on its body and red feathers atop its head; it can cure hidden hemorrhoids, an ailment concealed within the body. The ying□ is a clever bird with blue feathers and a red beak.

Yushi Stone

The vital energies received by all things differ, as do their forms and subtle patterns. Yushi stone can kill mice; silkworms that eat it grow plump and strong. Though the natures of things may differ, at root they still share something in common.

The ying□ wisdom bird lives in the forest and pecks at mulberry trees with its beak. It has four toes set apart and supports its body with its beak when it walks. It brings a net upon itself and, once trapped, sits there in lonely gloom.

The Shusi Bird, the □ Beast, and the Leili Bird

The Shusi’s feet resemble a person’s, and its shape is like an owl’s. The □ Beast has large eyes. There is also a bird called the Lei. The Leili Bird has two heads and four feet; in flight, it looks like two birds flying side by side.

The Luan Bird

The Luan Bird flies over Nüchuang Mountain, while the phoenix appears at Danxue Mountain. They beat their wings and answer one another, thus responding to people who are sagely and virtuous. The music of striking stones and singing is made all the more beautiful by this.

The Huixuan Bird and the Zhuya Beast

When the Fuxi Bird and the Zhuya Beast appear, they foretell that war is about to begin. Things with different forms can nonetheless bring about the same omen; the principle behind this is not without basis. Yet the workings of this natural resonance are difficult to understand.

The Manman Birds

The Manman are birds that share a wing. They look like wild ducks, with feathers patterned in blue and red. Though they are said to form a single whole, each has its own body; only their Qi is connected. They stretch out their necks and, when apart, look like wild ducks, but in flight they join wings and unite.

Cinnabar Wood and Jade Nectar

Cinnabar Wood shines brightly, and Jade Nectar—the legendary liquid jade—wells forth in a steady stream. After the Yellow Emperor, Xuanyuan, drank the Jade Nectar, he climbed onto the back of a dragon. He then rose serenely into the heavens and departed, while his ministers below wept and cried out in grief.

Jingyu Jade

Among the treasures of Zhong Mountain is fine jade. Its radiance shimmers, like a rainbow among the clouds. A noble person wears it as a symbol of virtue, warding off evil and avoiding wrongdoing.

Drum, Son of Zhong Mountain, and Qin□

Qin□ and Drum killed Zujiang. The Heavenly Emperor therefore put them to death east of Kunlun Mountain. After they died, both became strange creatures, and they spread their wings and flew in the same way.

The Yao Fish

When the Yao appears, cities and towns become prosperous and flourishing. Called the Yao, it travels between two seas, spreading its wings and soaring high in the sky. Its flesh is especially delicious, and people praise it without end.

The Spirit Yingzhao

Yingzhao rules over Huaijiang Mountain. It roams across the four seas, beating its wings as it dances among the clouds. This mountain is in fact the Heavenly Emperor’s garden, also known as Xuanpu.

The Yaomu Tree

The Yaomu is a numinous tree, and the Ruomu also grows there. Its roots lie in layers, its branches and trunk tower high, and its radiance shines in every direction. Legend says that whoever eats its fruit becomes spirit-like and gains a place among the immortals.

Kunlun Mound

The mound of Kunlun Mountain.

The Yaomu Tree

The Yao tree is a tree of the spirits, and the Ruomu grows here. Its roots overlap in layer upon layer, and its branches and trunk rise high, their flowing radiance illuminating all around. Whoever eats its fruit gains wondrous powers of transformation, and a name of honor is entered in the register of immortals.

Kunlun Peak

Kunlun Mountain is where the essence of the moon gathers and the numinous energy of the Water Spirit collects. It is the earthly capital of the Heavenly Emperor and the home of the Queen Mother of the West. Its peaks tower at the center of the world, so it is called the “Pillar of Heaven.”

The Spirit Luwu

Shoulder-Wu attained the Dao through the One—the source of all things in Daoist thought—and therefore dwells on Kunlun Mountain. He stands facing the Spirit of Enlightenment and guards the gates of the Heavenly Emperor’s palace. He breathes in and out numinous energy, his presence majestic and his spirit vigorous.

The Tulous Beast and the Qinyuan Bird

The Tulous devours people. It has four horns and looks like a sheep. The Qinyuan resembles a bee but is as large as a mandarin duck; whatever it touches dies, for its body bears formidable stingers.

Shatang

Where can one find the Shatang tree? Make its fruit into dragon elixir, and one can sail across the vast sea, journeying far in ease and leisure. For now, roam freely and let the waves carry you wherever they will.

The Quail, Shatang Fruit, and □ Grass

The divine beast in charge of the Heavenly Emperor’s clothing is called the Quail. The fruit of the Shatang is especially precious. There is also a strange vegetable called □.

The Spirit Changcheng

The vital energies of the nine virtues gathered and gave birth to the Spirit Changcheng. He has a human body and a leopard’s tail, and his expression is composed. Marvelous things naturally remain hidden from view, beyond the power of ordinary people to describe.

The Queen Mother of the West

The Queen Mother of the West is the daughter of the Heavenly Emperor. She wears her hair loose and has a tiger-like face. King Mu of Zhou visited her with gifts, and the two exchanged poems and enjoyed one another’s company. The deeper matters between them are difficult to recount in full.

Jishi

The source of the Yellow River lies in Jishi Mountain. Xia Hou—that is, Yu the Great—once controlled the waters here and cleared a channel for the river, whose waves surge between the stone gates. The mountain abounds in rare treasures, rivaling the marvels of Kunlun.

The White Emperor Shaohao

Shaohao is the White Emperor of the West, known as the Golden Heaven. The palace of the Kui clan is also on this mountain. Shaohao governs the setting sun, and so the shadows here are circular.

Zheng

Zhang’e Mountain is a dwelling place of strange beasts. One is shaped like a leopard, and the colors on its body…

Mount Zhang’e is home to all kinds of strange creatures. One beast looks like a leopard, with a scarlet body, five tails, and a single horn. Its cry sounds like stones striking together.

Bifang

The Bifang bears red markings, displaying the vital essence of fire. During droughts, it flies high, beating its wings and shining in the sunlight. When it descends, it brings calamity, and the fires it sets do not burn in the ordinary way.

Patterned Shells

In ancient times, people used tortoise shells and seashells as currency. Shells were priced according to their colors, patterns, and size. The rules of exchange were simple, clear, and easy to follow; breaking them brought no excessive penalty.

Heavenly Dog

In the land of Qian, hemp does not grow tall, and the Heavenly Dog is not large either. Though small in form, it can ward off calamity and dispel harm. Its power depends on whether it is worn.

Three Blue-Green Birds

There is a mountain called Mount Sanwei, where blue-green birds appear. They travel back and forth to Mount Kunlun and serve as attendant spirits to the Queen Mother of the West. King Mu of Zhou once led an expedition west and came to this region.

Jiangyi, the Aowu Beast, and the Bird

Jiangyi is a place where these strange beasts dwell, with wind and clouds hidden there. One creature, called Aowu, has fur like a rain cape. Another bird has only one head, but a body that combines two different forms.

Divine Qitong

Divine Qitong was the son of Zhuanxu. He inherited his father’s post and served as the Fire Official, responsible for fire governance. His voice rang with force, like the sound of bells and stone chimes. He lived on Mount Gui, where numinous energy flourished.

Dijiang

Dijiang’s form is undifferentiated and chaotic, yet its divine nature reaches in all directions. Its innate illumination manifests without relying on ears to hear sound. If one must give it a name, it is called Dijiang.

The Huan Beast and the Qitu Bird

The Qitu has three heads, and the Huan beast has three tails. Both can ward off ill omens, dispel misfortune, and avert disaster. A noble person who wears them will not meet with bad luck.

Danghu

Birds fly with their wings, but the Danghu flies with its whiskers. It has cast aside many useless things and needs only a little force to fly with ease. This is like a wheel, whose turning depends entirely on its axle: true usefulness often comes from what seems useless.

White Wolf

The swift white wolf appears only when the world is governed by the Dao. In response to an auspicious age, it changes its form, carrying a numinous hook in its mouth. It follows only those who possess De. It appeared at the end of the Yin dynasty and appeared again in the Zhou dynasty.

White Tiger

The tiger known as Han□ is both benevolent and mighty, with a white body and vivid markings. In response to an age of De, it becomes tame and stays at the borders of our realm.

Bo

Bo is an extraordinary beast of the horse kind, outstanding among livestock. It bounds into the air, its long mane streaming as it raises its head and neighs like rolling thunder. Its strength and presence are formidable, and nothing can subdue it. It can also devour fierce tigers and ward off the calamities of war. Another account says it has a tiger’s might as well as a gentle, benevolent nature. Its coat is pure white, marked with vivid patterns; it responds to virtue and can be tamed. When it comes to the frontier, it can bring peace to relations there.

Manman is a strange, supernatural creature with a human face, a rat’s body, a turtle’s head, and only one leg. Its cry sounds like someone murmuring softly. Its eyes resemble a horse’s, as do its ears. It feeds on and dispels uncanny transformations.

Xiang wood resembles linked timber. Tradition says that taking it for a long time enables a person to uproot trees and move mountains, greatly increasing their strength and extending their lifespan.

On Bird-and-Rat Dwelling in the Same Cave Mountain live two different kinds of creatures that share one home. They gather together without distinguishing between themselves: one kind walks, the other flies. It is difficult to explain by ordinary reasoning how creatures of different kinds can live together.

□pifei fish is shaped like an overturned pot, with jade and pearls concealed inside its body. Though it contains such treasures, it does not store them up; instead, it expels them through its tail opening, a legendary aperture through which water drains away. At times it happens to accord with the Great Dao, and so it is called a strange fish.

Red wood grows around the Xiaopan area. Its fruit is shaped like a melon and tastes sweet with a touch of sourness. It can cure illness and ward off fire, making it as effective as the prized cassia and orchid.

Qiongqi is shaped like an ox and covered in stiff, hedgehog-like bristles. Luoyu fish lives in the Meng River but resembles neither a fish nor a bird. Shuhu is a wild beast that embraces anyone it sees.

All things in the world respond to one another, and some signs are hard to explain. When a strong warrior draws a sword, his force surges as if a white rainbow were rising. The Sao fish lies hidden in the depths of an abyss; once it appears, everyone in the city is overcome with fear.