《山海经》Vol. 2

Once the water surges out of the abyss, the people of the city will be terrified and uneasy.

End of Volume Two of the Classic of Mountains and Seas.

The Northern Mountains section begins at Mount Danhu. The mountain has many ji trees. The peach trees resemble elms, and their wood can be burned to make ash for fertilizing fields. This kind of tree grows in Shu. The character “ji” is pronounced like “ji” in “several.” The mountain also has many hua plants. The Feng River rises here and flows west into the You River. The Feng River contains many bi stones and patterned stones.

Two hundred and fifty li farther north lies Mount Qiuru. The mountain has abundant copper, and jade is plentiful below it. There is no vegetation. The Hua River rises here and flows west into the Zhupi River, which rises on Mount Zhupi. The Hua River contains many hua fish, also called □ fish. They resemble eels and have red backs. The □ fish resembles a snake; its cry sounds like the word shan, like wood being struck together, or like the sound people make when they push against one another. The character wu is pronounced like the wu in wuzi. Eating this fish can remove warts, growths on the skin. The river also contains many water horses. They resemble horses, with patterned forelegs and ox tails. Here, “arm” means foreleg. The Rites of Zhou records that a horse with a black back and patterned forelegs was called lü. In the fourth year of the Yuanshou era under Emperor Wu of Han, a horse appeared in the Wujia River in Dunhuang and was regarded as an auspicious omen; it was probably this kind of creature. The water horse cries out like a person calling.

Three hundred li farther north lies Mount Dai. Jade is plentiful on the mountain, and blue-green stone below it. In the mountain lives a beast resembling a horse, with a single horn on its head and scale-like markings on the horn. It is called □shu, pronounced huan, and can ward off fire. The mountain is also home to a bird resembling a crow, with five-colored feathers and red markings, called qiq□. These birds are both male and female in one body. Eating one prevents jaundice and abscesses on the skin or in the flesh. The Peng River rises on Mount Dai and flows west into the Bihu River. The Peng River contains many tiao fish, pronounced you. This fish resembles a chicken, with red feathers, three tails, six feet, and four heads. Its cry sounds like a magpie’s. Eating it can dispel sorrow.

Four hundred li farther north lies Mount Qiaoming. The Qiao River rises here and flows west into the Yellow River. Its waters are home to many heluo fish, each with one head and ten bodies, whose cries sound like dogs barking. Eating one can cure sores and boils.

A beast lives on the mountain. It resembles a pig and has stiff red bristles. The “pig” here refers to a porcupine; the character hao is pronounced like wan. This beast cries “liuliu” and is called the Menghuai. It can ward off harmful, baleful qi and is also depicted in images meant to protect against evil. Mount Qiaoming has no grasses or trees, but produces large quantities of blue realgar. Another account says that it yields blue-green jade.

Three hundred and fifty li farther north lies Mount Ruliuliu. The Menghuai lives on the mountain. It cries “liuliu,” can ward off harmful, baleful qi, and is also depicted in images meant to protect against evil. The mountain has no grasses or trees, but produces large quantities of blue realgar. Another account says that it yields blue-green jade.

Three hundred and fifty li farther north lies Mount Zhuoguang. The Xiao River rises here and flows west into the Yellow River. Its waters are home to many xixi fish; the character xi is pronounced similarly to the zhe in kuazhe. They resemble magpies but have ten wings, with scales growing at the tips of the wings. Their cries also sound like magpies. They can ward off two kinds of fire calamity, and eating one prevents the illness known as dan, a type of fever. The mountain has many pines and cypresses, while its lower slopes have many trees whose names are missing from the text, as well as jiang trees. Among the mountain’s beasts, antelopes are common; among its birds, fan birds are common. Exactly what kind of bird the fan bird is remains unclear. Some say it is an owl; its name is pronounced fan.

Three hundred and eighty li farther north lies Mount Guo. The mountain has many lacquer trees, while its lower slopes have many paulownias and ju trees. The paulownia is the familiar paulownia tree. The ju is a kind of kui tree whose knots swell into large lumps; its wood can be made into walking sticks. Ju is pronounced qu. The southern side of the mountain has much jade, and the northern side much iron. The Yi River rises here and flows west into the Yellow River. Camels are common among the mountain’s beasts. They have humps of flesh on their backs, travel well through shifting sands, can cover three hundred li in a day, carry as much as a thousand jin, and can locate springs. Among the mountain’s birds, yu birds are common. They resemble mice but have bird’s wings, and their cries sound like sheep. They can ward off the calamities of war.

Four hundred li farther north, one reaches the northern end of Mount Guo. The mountain has much jade and no sand or gravel. The Yu River rises here and flows west into the Yellow River. Its waters are home to many patterned shellfish.

A further two hundred li north lies Mount Danxun. The mountain is rich in chinaberry and cypress trees, and its grasses include abundant Chinese chives and xie, a garlic-like vegetable. These are all wild mountain greens. The Erya, an ancient work on the interpretation of words, records their names. The mountain also yields large quantities of red mineral pigment. The Xun River rises here and flows west into the Tang River.

A beast lives on the mountain that looks like a mouse but has a rabbit’s head and a muntjac’s body. Its call resembles that of a haodog, a kind of dog mentioned in ancient books. It can fly using its tail, though another account says it flies with its whiskers. The beast is called the Ershu. Eating its flesh prevents abdominal bloating; in the ancient text, the word for “bloating” is represented by a missing character. Its flesh can also ward off all kinds of poison.

A further two hundred and eighty li north lies Mount Shizhe. The mountain has no vegetation and produces much precious jade. The Ci River rises here and flows west into the Yellow River. A beast lives on the mountain that looks like a leopard, with a patterned forehead and a white body. It is called Mengji. It runs swiftly and is skilled at lying in wait; its call is its own name.

A further one hundred and ten li north lies Mount Bianchun, also called Mount Chun in some texts. The mountain is rich in scallions, mallow, Chinese chives, and wild scallions. Wild scallions are also called ge and have large leaves. Peach and plum trees also grow here. The mountain peach is also called chitao. Its fruit is small, and the pit does not readily separate from the flesh. The Gang River rises here and flows west into Youze Marsh.

A beast lives on the mountain that looks like a macaque, has patterned markings, and likes to laugh. When it sees a person, it lies down as though pretending to sleep. In one place, the scripture gives the beast’s name as “Youyan”; another version writes it as “Yan,” pronounced “e.” Its call is its own name.

A further two hundred li north lies Mount Manlian; the two syllables in “Manlian” are pronounced alike. The mountain has no vegetation. A beast lives there that looks like a macaque, with a mane and an ox’s tail. Its arms are patterned, and its feet are hooves like a horse’s. When it sees a person, it cries out. It is called Zuzi, and its call is its own name.

A bird also lives on the mountain. It looks like a female pheasant but has a human face. When it sees a person, it leaps about. It is called Songsī, and its call is its own name. The Jinhan River rises here and flows west into Youze Marsh. The water contains abundant lodestone, which can be used to attract iron. The Guanzi, a pre-Qin text, says: “Where there is lodestone above, there is copper below, and it can be mined.”

Another 180 li north lies Mount Danzhang. No plants or trees grow on the mountain. It is home to a beast that resembles a leopard, with a long tail, a human head, ox ears, and only one eye. It is called Zhujian, a creature of legend. Its cry sounds like an ox’s bellow, and it is known for roaring loudly. When it walks, it bites its own tail; when it stops, it coils its tail around itself.

The mountain is also home to a bird resembling a pheasant, with markings on its head, white wings, and yellow feet. It is called Baiye, a legendary bird whose name is pronounced like “night.” Eating its flesh can cure a sore throat. The word yi means “throat”; the Guliang Commentary says that when the throat is so narrow that even a grain of rice cannot be swallowed, it is called yi. People in the Wu region still call the throat yi. This bird’s flesh can also cure madness. The Li River rises here and flows south into the Gang River.

Another 320 li north lies Mount Guanti. It has many chinaberry and paper mulberry trees, while its lower slopes have abundant shifting sands and whetstones. A beast lives on the mountain that resembles an ox, has a white tail, and cries like a person calling out. It is called Nafu, a creature of legend.

There is also a bird here resembling a female pheasant, with a human face. It hops about when it sees people. Called Songs, this legendary bird cries out its own name. The Jianghan River rises here and flows west into Youze, a lake. The water contains many lodestones, which can be used to attract iron. The Guanzi says that wherever lodestone occurs on a mountain, there must be copper ore beneath it.

Another 200 li north lies Mount Panhou. It has many pine and cypress trees, while its lower slopes have abundant hazel and hazel-leaved hornbeam. The mountain’s southern slope is rich in jade, and its northern slope has much iron. A beast lives on the mountain that resembles an ox and has tufts of hair around its joints. It is called the mao ox, a long-haired kind of ox. Today, mao oxen have long hair on their backs, knees, and tails. The Bian River rises here and flows south into Lize.

Traveling another 230 li north, one comes to Little Xian Mountain. No plants grow on the mountain, and snow lies there in both winter and summer.

Traveling another 280 li north, one comes to Great Xian Mountain. No plants grow on the mountain, but there are many jade stones at its foot. Its slopes are impossible to climb on all four sides. A kind of snake lives on the mountain called the Long Snake. Its bristles resemble a wild boar’s. Some say it is a hundred xun long. There is now a kind of snake called the locust snake, colored like a band woven from mugwort, with patterns on its body and bristles like a pig’s between the markings. Perhaps it belongs to this same class of snakes. Long Snakes are also found on Chang Mountain, though their form differs from the one described here. Its cry sounds like the clacking of a wooden rattle, like the sound of someone walking at night and striking a wooden clapper. Some say snow lies on Great Xian Mountain even in summer.

Traveling another 320 li north, one comes to Dunhong Mountain. Nan trees grow abundantly on the mountain, and zi grass grows abundantly at its foot. The Dunhong River rises in the mountain and flows west into Youze Marsh. Youze Marsh lies at the northeastern corner of Kunlun, where the Yellow River has its source. The water teems with red salmon. The fish called salmon here is also known by another name, “houyi,” pronounced much like “gui.” Many rhinoceroses and yaks live in the mountain; some texts write “pu ox” instead. The meaning of the pu ox mentioned in the Li Sao and the Questions of Heaven remains unclear. Many corpse doves also live on the mountain.

Traveling another 200 li north, one comes to Lesser Xian Mountain. No plants grow on the mountain, but there are many blue-green jade stones. A beast lives there with the shape of an ox, a red body, a human face, and horse hooves. It is called Yayü. Its cry resembles a baby’s wail, and it eats people. The Dun River rises in the mountain and flows east into the Yanmen River. The Yanmen River originates in the area around Yanmen Mountain. Its waters teem with a kind of fish whose name and pronunciation are uncertain; some texts write “pu.” Eating this fish is fatal.

Another 200 li farther north lies Yufa Mountain. The Huai Marsh River rises here and flows northeast into Great Marsh. Its waters teem with saoyu, also called zaoyu. They resemble carp but have chicken feet; eating them can cure warts. There is a beast that looks like a dog and has a human face. It is skilled at throwing things, and when it sees people, it laughs. It is called Shanchang. It runs as fast as the wind and speaks very rapidly. When it appears, great winds sweep across the land.

Another 200 li farther north lies North Peak Mountain. It has many gen trees, thorn trees, and gang trees—that is, trees such as sandalwood and cudrania. In the mountains lives a beast called Zhuhuai. It looks like an ox, with four horns, humanlike eyes, and pig ears. Its cry sounds like the call of a wild goose, and it eats people. The Zhuhuai River rises here and flows west into the Xiao River. Its waters teem with yiyu, also called zhiyu. They have fishlike bodies and doglike heads, and their cries sound like those of infants. Today, the sea has fish such as the tiger deer fish and the hai-si, or sea pig. Their bodies are like fish, while their heads resemble those of tigers, deer, and pigs respectively; these are probably related kinds. Eating these fish can cure madness.

Another 180 li farther north lies Hunxi Mountain. It has no plants or trees, but much copper and jade. The Xiao River rises here and flows northwest into the sea. A snake lives in the mountains with one head, two bodies, and four feet. It is called Fei□; when it appears, the country suffers a great drought. The Guanzi says that this is the spirit of dried-up water, called □. It has one head and two bodies, looks like a snake, and is eight chi long. If people call its name, they can make it go and catch fish and turtles. This snake probably belongs to the same kind.

Another 50 li farther north lies North Danshan Mountain. It has no plants or trees, but many onions and garlic chives grow there.

Another 100 li farther north lies Xiongcha Mountain. It has no plants or trees, but many horses. They are all wild horses, resembling ordinary horses but smaller in build.

Another 180 li farther north lies North Xianshan Mountain. It has many horses. The Xian River rises here and flows northwest into the Tuwo River. In the second year of the Yuanshou era under Emperor Wu of Han, a horse was once seen emerging from the Xuwo River.

A further 170 li north lies Mount Di. The mountain’s name is also written with the ancient character “yao.” There are many horses on the mountain. One kind of beast that lives there resembles a leopard, has markings on its head, and is called yao (pronounced “me”). The Di River rises here and flows east into Lake Tai, where many dragon turtles live.

The northern mountain range described in the Northern Classic of Mountains begins at Mount Danhu and ends at Mount Di. It comprises twenty-five mountains stretching for 5,490 li. The mountain gods all have human faces and serpent bodies. To sacrifice to them, a rooster is used as an offering and buried together with the other offerings. The ritual jade is a gui, an ancient jade ceremonial object, which is also buried underground; no rice is offered. In other words, no rice is presented during the sacrifice: only livestock and jade objects are buried. North of these mountains, people eat food raw and do not cook it over fire.

The second northern mountain range recorded in the Northern Classic of Mountains begins on the east bank of the Yellow River. Its first mountain stands beside the Fen River, with its back to the river. It is called Mount Guancen and is now Mount Xiurong, north of the former Fenyang County in Taiyuan Commandery. “Cen” is pronounced “cen.” The mountain has no trees but is covered in grass, and jade is abundant at its foot. The Fen River rises here and flows west into the Yellow River, joining it westward north of Fenyang County.

A further 250 li north lies Mount Shaoyang. The mountain has abundant jade, and its lower slopes contain much red silver, the essence of silver. The Suan River rises here and flows east into the Fen River. Its waters contain much high-quality ochre. The Guanzi says, “Where ochre is found on a mountain, iron lies beneath it.”

Fifty li farther north is Xian Yong Mountain. It now lies west of Jinyang County and is called Jiweng Mountain. “Yong” is pronounced like “weng.” The mountain is rich in jade, while its foothills are rich in copper. Most of the wild animals there are lümi. Also called yu, the lü resembles a donkey, has split hooves, and bears horns like an antelope; it is also known as the mountain donkey. The Book of Zhou records that Beitang once offered the lü as tribute, and it is also mentioned in the “Village Archery Ceremony.”

The birds on the mountain include many white di and white □, the latter being the white zhuo; “zhuo” is pronounced close to “yu liu qie.” The Jin River rises here and flows southeast into the Fen River, passing south of Jinyang before joining the Fen farther east. The Jin River contains many ci fish, which resemble tiao fish and have red scales. The young fish are called tiao. Their cry sounds like someone scolding, and eating them does not make a person arrogant. Some versions write the relevant character as “sao,” meaning something foul-smelling.

Two hundred li farther north is Fox-Qi Mountain. It has no trees or grass and produces abundant blue-green jade. The Sheng River rises here and flows northeast into the Fen River. Its waters contain much dark-green jade.

Three hundred and fifty li farther north is White Sand Mountain. It is broad and rounded, extending three hundred li in every direction. It is entirely sandy, with no trees or grass and no birds or beasts. The Wei River rises on the mountain, flows underground, then wells up from the summit and pools at its foot. The area produces abundant white jade.

Forty li farther north is Ershi Mountain. It has no trees or grass, and no water.

Three hundred and eighty li farther north is Wild Mountain. It has no trees or grass, and snow lies there in both winter and summer. The Kuang River rises here and flows west into the Fu River. Its waters contain much fine jade.

Three hundred and eighty li farther north is Zhuyu Mountain. The mountain is rich in copper and jade, while its lower slopes have many pine and cypress trees. The Zhuyu River rises here and flows east into the Mao River.

Three hundred and fifty li farther north is Duntou Mountain. It is rich in gold and jade, but has no trees or grass. The Mao River rises here and flows east into Qiong Marsh. Its waters contain many strange beasts called “□ma.” “□” is pronounced “bo.” They have ox tails, white bodies, and a single horn, and their cry sounds like a person shouting.

Traveling another 350 li north, one comes to Mount Gouwu. The mountain is rich in jade, and a river flows east into Qiong Marsh. In the marsh lives a beast called the “□-horse,” pronounced “bo.” It has the tail of an ox, a white body, and a single horn on its head. Its cry sounds like a person calling out.

Traveling another 350 li north, one comes again to Mount Gouwu. The mountain is rich in jade, and there is much copper at its foot. A beast lives there with the body of a sheep and the face of a person. Its eyes are beneath its armpits, its teeth are like a tiger’s, and its claws are like a person’s. Its cry sounds like a baby’s. It is called the Paoxiao, a legendary man-eating monster, and it eats people. It is extremely greedy: if it does not finish eating someone, it turns around and attacks itself. Its image was once cast on a tripod in the Xia dynasty. The Taotie described in the Zuo Tradition is this same beast. The first character of Paoxiao is pronounced “pao.”

Traveling another 300 li north, one comes to Mount Beixiao. The mountain has no rocks; its southern slope is rich in green jade, and its northern slope in jade. A beast lives there shaped like a tiger, with a white body, a dog’s head, a horse’s tail, and a pig’s bristles. It is called Duyu, pronounced “gu.” The mountain is also home to a bird shaped like an ordinary bird but with a human face. Its name is missing a character in the original, and its pronunciation is given as “Banmao”; some versions instead write “Xia.” It flies at night and hides by day, and belongs to the jiao□ kind of bird. Eating it can cure heatstroke, that is, internal heat. The Cen River rises here and flows east into Kou Marsh.

Traveling another 350 li north, one comes to Mount Liangqu. The mountain has no plants or trees, but many metal ores. The Yuxiu River rises here and flows east into Choumen. Many jiju beasts live on the mountain. They are shaped like porcupines, with red bristles, and make a sound like piglets. The mountain is also home to a bird shaped like Kuafu—some versions write “Jufu”—with four wings, one eye, and a dog’s tail. It is called Xiao and cries like a magpie. Eating it can cure abdominal pain and stop diarrhea.

Traveling another 400 li north, one comes to Mount Guguan. The mountain has no plants or trees, and snow remains there in both winter and summer.

Three hundred and eighty li farther north lies Huguan Mountain. Jade is plentiful on its southern slopes, while green jade is plentiful on its northern slopes; horses are also found there in abundance. Huguan River rises here and flows east into the sea. Its waters are full of a kind of fish also written as “eel.” A tree grows on the mountain with leaves like those of the willow and red-grained wood.

Farther north, traveling five hundred li by water and crossing three hundred li of shifting sand, one comes to Huan Mountain. Gold and jade are plentiful on the mountain, where three mulberry trees grow. These trees have no branches; their leaves resemble willow leaves, and their wood has red grain.

Farther north, traveling five hundred li by water and crossing three hundred li of shifting sand, one comes to Huan Mountain. Gold and jade are plentiful on the mountain, where three mulberry trees grow. These trees have no branches and rise to a height of one hundred ren, an ancient unit of length. Various kinds of fruit trees also grow there. Many strange snakes live at the foot of the mountain.

Three hundred li farther north lies Dunti Mountain. It has no vegetation, but gold and jade are plentiful there. The mountain range reaches the Northern Sea.

The mountain range recorded in the “Second Classic of the Northern Mountains” runs from Guancen Mountain to Dunti Mountain. It comprises seventeen mountains and extends for a total of 5,690 li. The mountain spirits all have snake bodies and human faces. To sacrifice to them, one should use a rooster and a pig as offerings and bury the offerings in the ground. One should also present a bi disc and a gui tablet, both jade objects used in ancient sacrifices, but there is no need to provide polished rice. When jade is placed in the mountain as an offering to the spirits, it is not buried.

The first mountain recorded in the “Third Classic of the Northern Mountains” is Taihang Mountain. It lies northwest of Yewang County in present-day Hanoi Commandery. The character “xing” is pronounced “hu-gang” according to an ancient system of phonetic notation. The mountain range begins at Guishan Mountain. Gold and jade are found on the mountain, and green jade lies at its foot.

A beast on Taihang Mountain resembles an antelope. It has four horns, a horse-like tail, and spurs on its feet—hard projections at the backs of its legs. It is called “(name missing).” It is skilled at circling and spinning as it dances. Its cry sounds as though it is calling its own name.

A bird also lives on the mountain. It resembles a magpie, with a white body, a red tail, and six feet. It is called “(name missing),” pronounced “ben.” This bird is easily startled, and its call sounds like a shout. Here, “xiao” means “to call out.” People in the Wu region still use the word this way; it is pronounced “hu-jiao” according to the ancient system of phonetic notation.

Two hundred li farther northeast lies Mount Longhou. It has no grasses or trees, but yields abundant gold and jade. Juejue River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River. The water is home to many human-fish, shaped like □ fish, with four legs and cries like an infant. They are described in the Classic of the Mountains. Some say the human-fish is the salamander, an amphibian commonly known as the “baby fish.” It resembles a catfish, has four legs, and cries like a child. Today, some people also call catfish “□,” pronounced “ti.” Eating this fish is said to prevent illnesses such as dementia.

Two hundred li farther northeast lies Mount Macheng. It has many patterned stones, and its northern side yields abundant gold and jade. A beast lives on the mountain, shaped like a white dog with a black head. When it sees a person, it takes flight. It is said to have fleshy wings and to fly freely. It is called the Heavenly Horse, and its cry sounds as though it is calling its own name.

A bird also lives on the mountain. It resembles an ordinary bird, with a white head, blue-green body, and yellow feet. It is called quju (a bird name, pronounced “quju,” also written as “wu”). Its cry sounds as though it is calling its own name. Eating its flesh prevents hunger. Its cry can also cure a condition called “yu,” though the meaning of “yu” is not made clear. Some believe “yu” means “wu,” referring to confusion of the mind or disordered behavior.

Seventy li farther northeast lies Mount Xian. Jade is found on the mountain, copper is abundant below, and the mountain has many pine and cypress trees. Among the grasses, there is much zi grass, a plant used to make purple dye. Tiaojian River rises here and flows southwest into Long Marsh. The water contains many “qi-suan,” which take three years to form, though what they are is not specified. Eating them is said to cure li disease, a highly contagious illness.

Two hundred li farther northeast lies Mount Tianchi. It has no grasses or trees, but has many patterned stones. A beast lives there, shaped like a rabbit with a mouse’s head. It flies using the fur on its back, its body pointing upward as it flies. It is called the flying mouse. Mian River rises here, flows underground to the foot of the mountain, and pools beneath it. The mountain has much yellow loess.

Three hundred li farther east lies Mount Yang. It has much jade, while gold and copper are abundant below. A beast lives on the mountain, shaped like an ox...

Three hundred li farther east lies Yang Mountain. It abounds in jade on its upper slopes and in gold and copper below. A beast lives there that resembles an ox, with a red tail and a fleshy growth on its neck shaped like a hook. It is called Linghu, and its cry sounds like its name. Eating its flesh can cure madness. There is also a bird that resembles a female pheasant and has five-colored markings. It is both male and female, and is called Xiangshe; its cry, too, sounds like its name.

The Liu River rises on Yang Mountain and flows south into the Yellow River. A fish lives in it whose written name is missing; its pronunciation is “chan.” It resembles a crucian carp, with a fish’s head but a disorderly, uneven body. Eating it can stop vomiting.

Three hundred and fifty li farther east lies Benwen Mountain. It abounds in green jade on its upper slopes and in yellow chalk and nie stone, a mineral used as a dye, below.

One hundred li farther north lies Wangwu Mountain, now located north of Dongyuan County in Hedong Commandery. The Book of Documents records: “We reached Wangwu.” The mountain has many rocks. A river whose written name is missing rises there; its pronunciation is “nian.” It flows northwest into Great Marsh. The Treatise on Geography in the Book of Han records that Wangwu Mountain is the source of the Shen River. The name Shen is close in pronunciation to the “Yan River” mentioned in the text, so they may be the same river. The Yan River is the Ji River.

Three hundred li farther northeast lies Jiao Mountain. It has much jade and no rock. The Jiao River rises there and flows west into the Yellow River. This river dries up in winter and flows only in summer, so it is called the Dry River. Today, Dry River Mouth lies northeast of Wenxi County in Hedong Commandery, which is why the area is called Dry River Hamlet. Only the old riverbed remains there; it no longer holds water.

There are two more mountains in the area around Jiao Mountain. One of them, about three hundred paces in circumference, is called Fawan Mountain. It contains gold and jade.

Three hundred li farther south lies Jing Mountain. From its southern side one can see Yanfan Marsh, also known as the Salt Lake, and Yishi County; a character is missing from the original here. To the north one can see Shao Marsh. The mountain has abundant plants and shu-mo, as well as gold and jade.

Further south, three hundred li away, lies Mount Jing. From its southern slope, one can see the Salt Merchants’ Marsh, which is also called the Salt Lake. … Yishi County, or …. To the north, one can see the Lesser Marsh. The mountain grows many kinds of plants, including one called shumo. Its root resembles a sheep’s hoof and can be eaten. Shu is pronounced either shu or yu. People in the Jiangnan region now call it simply shu, pronounced with a light tone, though the tone varies somewhat in speech. The plant also grows many Qin peppers. Their fruit resembles Sichuan peppercorns, and their leaves are small. The mountain’s northern slope has abundant ochre, while its southern slope has much jade. A bird on the mountain looks like a snake and has four wings, six eyes, and three feet. It is called Suanyu and cries as though calling out its own name. Its appearance foretells disaster in the region. Another account says that eating it prevents drunkenness.

Three hundred and twenty li farther southeast lies Mount Mengmen. The Master of the Corpse says, “Before Dragon Gate was opened and the Lüliang gorge was cut through, the Yellow River flowed over Mount Mengmen. Its waters surged in a flood, ran upstream, and overflowed the high hills, submerging them. This was called the great flood.” The Record of King Mu’s Travels says, “Climb Mount Mengmen to the north, and the nine branches of the river can be seen, their waters clear.” The mountain has abundant blue-green jade and gold; below it are plentiful yellow clay and black mineral pigment.

Three hundred and twenty li farther southeast lies Mount Ping. The Ping River rises on the mountain, then sinks beneath it. The area produces fine jade.

Three hundred li farther east lies Mount Jing. It contains fine jade and grows many lacquer trees and bamboo. The mountain’s southern slope has red copper; its northern slope has dark …, a black whetstone. The Master of the Corpse says, “Add dark yellow whetstone.” Feathers do not come in only one color. … is pronounced like xiao in zhuxiao. The Gao River rises here and flows south into the Yellow River.

Two hundred li farther east lies Mount Chongwei. The mountain has abundant gold and jade; below it grow many bamboo plants and green-blue stones. The Dan River rises here and flows south into the Yellow River. The Bo River also rises here. The Master of Huainan says that the Bo River rises at Mount Xianyu, then flows southeast into the Yellow Marsh.

Three hundred li farther east is Pengpi Mountain. The mountain has no vegetation and produces abundant gold and jade; many streams rise at its foot. The Zaolin River begins here and flows southeast into the Yellow River.

Three hundred li farther east is another Pengpi Mountain. The mountain has no vegetation and produces abundant gold and jade; many streams rise at its foot. The Zaolin River begins here and flows southeast into the Yellow River. The Fei River also rises here and flows south into the Chuang River. The Fei River is home to many Feiyi snakes.

One hundred and eighty li farther east lies Mount Xiaohou. The Mingzhang River begins here and flows south into Huangze. A bird lives on the mountain that resembles an ordinary bird and has white markings on its body. It is called the Guque. Eating its flesh prevents the ailments known as zhuo and yong. Other classical texts give variant forms and pronunciations for this passage.

Three hundred and seventy li farther east lies Mount Taitou. The Gong River begins here and flows south into the Hu Chi, an ancient river. The mountain produces abundant gold and jade, and many bamboos and arrow bamboos grow at its foot.

Two hundred li farther northeast lies Mount Xuanyuan. Copper is abundant on the mountain, and many bamboos grow at its foot.

Two hundred li farther northeast lies another Mount Xuanyuan. Copper is abundant on the mountain, and many bamboos grow at its foot. A bird lives there that resembles an owl, has a white head, and is called the Yellow Bird. It calls out on its own; eating its flesh prevents jealousy.

Two hundred li farther north lies Mount Yeli, in the area of Nie County in Shangdang Commandery. Many pines and cypresses grow on the mountain, and it also produces gold and jade. The Qin River begins here, flows south into the Yellow River, and eventually joins it northeast of Xingyang County. Another account says that the Qin River rises at Mount Yangtou in Guyuan County. On the mountain’s eastern side is a forest called the Cinnabar Forest. The Danlin River begins there and flows south into the Yellow River. The Yinghou River also begins there and flows north into the Si River.

Three hundred li east is Mount Juru. The Book of Songs says, “The low, marshy land beside the Fen River.” The mountain has no plants or trees, but it does contain gold and jade. The Qi River and the Yin River both rise here and flow south into the Yellow River. The Yinghou River also rises here and flows north into the Si River.

Three hundred li east is Mount Juru. The Book of Songs says, “The low, marshy land beside the Fen River.” The mountain has no plants or trees, but it does contain gold and jade. The Qi River rises here; Qi is pronounced like qi, “it.” It flows south into the Yellow River. Today, the Qi River rises at Mount Dahao in Longlü County, Jiyu Commandery. It flows east through He Nei County, then turns south and becomes the Baigou.

Three hundred li farther north is Mount Shenjun. Jun is pronounced like the jun in “round granary,” meaning a circular grain storehouse. The mountain has patterned stones, and white snakes and flying insects live below it. The Huang River rises here and flows east into the Huan River. The Huan River rises northeast of Linlü County in Jiyu Commandery and joins the Qing River at Changle in Wei Commandery. Huan is pronounced like wan, “pill.” The Fu River also rises here and flows east into the Ou River. Today, the Fu River rises at Mount Fukou west of Linshui County. It passes northwest of Ye City and joins the Zhang River at Lieren County. Its water is hot.

Two hundred li farther north is Mount Fajiu, now located west of Changzi County in Shangdang Commandery. Many zhe trees grow on the mountain. There is a bird in the mountain that looks like a bird, has patterned markings on its head, a white beak, and red feet. It is called Jingwei, and its cry sounds like its own name. The Zhang River rises here. Zhang, as in the Zhuo Zhang River, is pronounced like zhang, “chapter,” and the river flows east into the Yellow River. Some say instead that the Zhang River rises at Mount Lugu in Changzi County, flows east to Ye City, and joins the Qing Zhang River.

The Jingwei bird was the youngest daughter of the Flame Emperor, named Nüwa. The Flame Emperor was also known as Shennong. Nüwa went to play in the Eastern Sea, drowned, and never returned; she then transformed into the Jingwei bird. She often carries wood and stones from the Western Mountains in her beak, hoping to fill in the Eastern Sea. Yan means “to fill in” and is pronounced like yin, “cause.”

A further 120 li to the northeast lies Shao Mountain. Today it is within Zhan County, Leping Commandery; in the past, Zhan County belonged to Shangdang Commandery. The mountain contains gold and jade, and copper is found at its foot. The Qingzhang River rises here and flows east into the Zhuozhang River. It rises in the Great Rope Valley of Shao Mountain and joins the Zhuozhang River after flowing past Baogong settlement, south of Wu’an County. Another account says that the Qingzhang River flows northeast to Yicheng, where it joins the Yellow River.

A further 200 li to the northeast lies Xi Mountain. Jade is abundant on the mountain, and grindstone—stone used for sharpening knives and other implements—is abundant at its foot. The Niushou River rises here and flows east into the Fu River.

A further 200 li to the north lies Jing Mountain, which contains fine jade. The Jing River rises here and flows southeast into Hai Marsh.

A further 100 li to the north lies Tishou Mountain. It contains jade and many stones, but no stream rises there. The water between the mountains flows east into the Fu River.

A further 200 li to the north lies another Jing Mountain, which contains fine jade. The Jing River rises here and flows southeast into Hai Marsh.

A further 100 li to the north lies another Tishou Mountain. It contains jade and many stones, but no stream rises there.

A further 100 li to the north lies Xiu Mountain. It contains jade and green-blue stone, and most of its trees are xunwood, a type of timber whose name was traditionally read as “xun.” Among the mountain plants are peonies and chuanxiong, an aromatic herb of the lovage family. Peony is also called xinyi and is likewise an aromatic herb. The Wei River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River. Its waters contain the hu fish, which resembles the dian fish but is larger and white. Another aquatic animal is shaped like a small green frog. Some say that “huoshuai” is simply the name of this animal.

A further 120 li to the north lies Song Mountain. The Yang River rises here and flows northeast into the Yellow River.

A further 120 li north is Mount Dunyu. There are no plants or trees on the mountain, but it has gold and jade. The Jie River flows from its southern side and eastward into the Tailu River. The Tailu River mentioned here is probably Guangping Marsh, north of present-day Julu. The Zhi River flows from the mountain’s northern side and eastward into the Peng River. In today’s geography, the Pai River rises in Qiongquan Valley, west of Zhongqiu County, flows east into Tangyang County, and eventually joins the Zhang River. The Huai River also rises here, flowing east into Zhi Marsh.

A further 170 li north is Mount Zhe. There is gold and jade on its southern side, and iron on its northern side. The Liju River flows from the mountain and northward into the Wei River.

A further 300 li north is Mount Weilong. The mountain has green jade, with gold on its southern side and iron on its northern side. The Fei River flows from the mountain and eastward into Gao Marsh. Gao Marsh contains a stone called gaoshi, though exactly what this refers to is unclear. The word may instead be read as “lei”; some versions write it as “lei” meaning a mound. “Kuilei” describes a large stone, but it may also be the name of a particular kind of stone. The Changtie River flows from the mountain and northward into Great Marsh.

A further 180 li north is Mount Baima. Its southern side has abundant stone and jade, while its northern side has abundant iron and also much red copper. The Muma River flows from the mountain and northeastward into the Huchi River, an ancient river.

A further 200 li north is Mount Kongsang. There are no plants or trees on the mountain, and snow lies there in both winter and summer. The Kongsang River rises here and flows east into the Huchi River. A mountain of the same name appeared earlier; this may be the same mountain.

A further 300 li north is Mount Taixi. There are no plants or trees on the mountain, but it has abundant gold and jade. A beast lives on the mountain that resembles a sheep.

Three hundred li farther north is Mount Taixi. It has no plants or trees, but produces large quantities of gold and jade. There is a beast on the mountain shaped like a sheep, with one horn and one eye set behind its ear. Its name is missing a character in the source; it is pronounced like “dong.” Its cry is the same as the sound of its name.

The Mochi River rises on this mountain. Today, the Huchi River rises at Mount Wufu, south of Lucheng County in Yanmen Commandery, and flows east into the Lou River. “Lou” is pronounced like the word for a tower. The Yenu River rises on the southern slope of Mount Taixi and flows south into the Qin River. “Ye” is pronounced like the “yi” in “yize.”

Three hundred li farther north is Mount Shi, which contains abundant gold and jade. The Huohuo River rises there and flows east into the Huchi River. “Huo” is pronounced like the “huo” in “chihuo,” the name for a measuring worm. The Xianyu River also rises here and flows south into the Huchi River.

Two hundred li farther north is Mount Tongrong. The Gaoxu River rises there and flows east into the Louye River.

Three hundred li farther north is Mount Gaoshi. The Zi River rises there and flows south into the Huchi River. “Zi” is pronounced like “ci.” Many trees on the mountain belong to a species whose name is missing a character in the source; among the grasses, the species called “tiao” is most common. The Kou River also rises here and flows east into the Yellow River. It passes south of Boling County, then turns northeast and flows into the Yi River. “Kou” is pronounced like “kou” in “bandit.”

Three hundred li farther north is Mount Lu, which produces fine jade in abundance. The Zheng River rises there; some versions call it the Tan River. It flows east into the Yellow River.

Two hundred li farther north is Mount Yi. “Yi” is pronounced like “qi.” The Ban River rises there. “Ban” is pronounced like “pan,” and the river flows east into the Yellow River.

One hundred and twenty li farther north is Mount Yan, which produces abundant yingstone. Yingstone is a kind of stone resembling jade, with colored patterns on its surface that look like bands encircling jade; it is also known as Yan stone. The Yan River rises on the mountain and flows east into the Yellow River.

Traveling another five hundred li north, then five hundred li by water, brings you to Mount Rao. There are no plants or trees here, but the mountain yields abundant fine jade, including yaoyu and biyu. Most of its animals are camels, and most of its birds are liu. The original text does not make clear what kind of bird the liu is; another interpretation identifies it as the xiuliu, a kind of owl. The Liguo River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River. In it lives a fish called the shiyu; eating one is fatal. The original text also marks this passage as “uncertain,” and some versions write “ni” instead of “shi” in the fish’s name.

Traveling another four hundred li north brings you to Mount Qian. No plants or trees grow on the mountain. Its southern slope has gold and jade, and its northern slope has iron, but there is no water. A wild animal lives on the mountain that resembles an ox but has three legs. It is called the yuan, and its cry sounds as though it is calling its own name.

Traveling another five hundred li north brings you to Mount Lun. The Lun River rises in the mountain and flows east into the Yellow River. A wild animal lives there that resembles a sika deer. Its tail has an opening like a river channel, and it is called Xiongjiu.

Traveling another five hundred li north brings you to Mount Jieshi. The Book of Waterways records that it is also called Mount Linlun and that it now lies in the water south of Jieshi County in Liaoxi. Another account places it by the sea at Licheng County in Youbeiping. The Sheng River rises here and flows east into the Yellow River. Its waters contain many puyi fish, though the original text does not say what kind of fish these are. The mountain has jade, and its lower slopes yield abundant green jade.

Traveling another five hundred li north by water brings you to Mount Yanmen, where no plants or trees grow. Mount Yanmen is also called Northern Ridge. It is named for being a place where the wild geese of Xiyu appear, and lies north of Gaoliu.

Traveling another four hundred li north by water brings you to Great Marsh. In the marsh stands a mountain called Mount Didu, which extends a hundred li in every direction. No plants or trees grow on it, but it has jade and metal ores.

Farther north, five hundred li away, lies Mount Chunyu Mufeng. To the north, one can see Mount Jihao, where the wind is like □. The character □ describes a fierce wind; it is pronounced “li.” Some say it refers to a whirlwind. To the west, one can see Mount Youdu, where the Yu River rises. The Yu River is the Black River. A great serpent lives on the mountain. It has a red head and a white body, and its call sounds like an ox. Whenever it appears, the region suffers a severe drought.

The mountain range recorded in the Third Classic of the Northern Mountains extends from Mount Taihang to Mount Ganwufeng. It comprises forty-six mountains and stretches for twelve thousand three hundred and fifty li. Among the mountain spirits here, twenty are depicted with horse bodies and human faces. At their sacrifices, a bundle of algae and fragrant herbs used for offerings is buried in the ground. The algae is pondweed, and the herb is a kind of orchid. It is blue-green in color and pronounced like “chang.” Another fourteen mountain spirits are depicted with pig bodies and jade ornaments. Jade is used in their sacrifices, but is not buried in the ground. Ten more are depicted with pig bodies, eight legs, and snake tails. At their sacrifices, a jade bi—a round jade disk—is buried in the ground.

In all, there are forty-four mountain spirits. They are all offered sacrificial grain called xusu, and none of these sacrifices uses cooked food.

The mountain ranges recorded in this classic comprise eighty-seven mountains and stretch for twenty-three thousand two hundred and thirty li.

Illustrated Eulogies of the Northern Mountains

Water Horse

The Horse Sovereign is formed from the vital essence of the dragon, and therefore belongs among the creatures of the water. The fine horses of the Wo River are both uncanny and auspicious. In ancient times, the Xia ruler, the Xia Hou, also possessed such a divine horse.

Tiao Fish

Nothing is more grievous than drought and harmony, harm and safety, and sorrow. The Book of Songs praises the daylily, while Mount Dai is home to the tiao fish. The image of Mount Dai lies scattered in the mountain valley; people may as well wander here and enjoy the scenery.

□shu Beast, Qiq□ Bird, and Heluo Fish

A beast called □shu can make flames die down. There is also a bird that transforms itself, called Qiq□. The Heluo fish has one head and ten bodies.

Menghuai

Menghuai resembles a huan, a kind of small wild pig, and has red bristles. It is counted among the strange beasts that frighten off ferocious creatures, and can ward away evil influences. This is the result of one kind of Qi counteracting another; people cannot see the traces of this transformation.

Xixi Fish

When it beats its wings, a bird called the “□shu” takes flight. Another kind of bird can transform and come into being on its own; it is called the “qí□.” There is also a fish with one head and ten bodies, called the Heluo Fish.

Menghuai

The Menghuai resembles a pig and has coarse red bristles. It is classed among auspicious creatures and is said to drive away evil influences. This is an effect of opposing vital energies, though bystanders cannot see the signs of it.

Xixi Fish

When the Xixi Fish beats its wings, all ten wings flutter together. Its call sounds like a magpie’s, and scales grow at the tips of its wings. It is known as a strange fish; eating it can ward off fires.

Camel

The camel is an unusual beast of burden, with fleshy humps on its back. It can travel swiftly across shifting sands, showing its ability to cross dangerous terrain. It can also detect the location of springs unseen—a truly alert creature.

Ershu

The Ershu can tread on the ground with its feet and also fly through the air on its wings. With its tail raised, it tumbles along in flight, a strange sight. Its fur is useful for warding off all kinds of poison.

Youlei

The Youlei has a low, sunken forehead and resembles a monkey. It can make a dull-witted person clever. When it encounters something, it laughs; when it sees someone, it pretends to be asleep. It is good at petty tricks, but in the end it still gets beaten.

Yuniao, Mengji, and Zizi Beast

The Yuniao resembles a mouse but has wings, and its call sounds like a sheep’s. The Mengji resembles a leopard and sometimes leans against things, looking unsteady. When it sees people, it cries out loudly; hence it is called Zizi.

Jiaoniao

The Jiaoniao’s feathers resemble those of a female pheasant. It flies in flocks, swooping down; in flight, it seems to cover the sun, and when it settles, it can blanket the fields. Its meat can be used to test the effects of needles and stone probes, without any need for additional tonification or purgation. Needles and stone probes were ancient medical instruments used for acupuncture and needling.

Zhujian Beast, White Crane, and Songsu Bird

The Zhujian is skilled at roaring and walks with its tail in its mouth. Among the white crane and the Songsu bird, the Songsu resembles a pheasant. When it sees people, it leaps about, and the markings on its head look like embroidery.

Magnetite

Magnetite attracts iron, while tortoiseshell attracts mustard seeds. All things resonate with one another in ways that cannot be seen, and destinies also correspond in the unseen realm. Things sometimes attract one another in unexpected ways.

Yak

The yak can serve as military supplies, and its long hair is especially valuable. Its hair is often used on banners and war drums as a sign of the army. The source of calamity is not always the meat of the ox; sometimes its hair, too, can bring trouble.

Long Snake

The Long Snake is a hundred xun in length, with a tangled mane. No bird or beast escapes being swallowed by it. It is the most vicious of creatures and the fiercest of poisonous beings.

The pelts of these strange creatures can be used to make objects that attract and summon.

Long Serpent

The Long Serpent is a hundred xun in length, with a tangled mane like a clump of weeds. No bird or beast escapes being swallowed by it. It is a supremely vicious monster with a deadly poison.

Shan

Shan is an animal capable of subduing wild beasts. When it sees people, it plays with them joyfully. Gentle by nature, it likes to throw things, and runs as swiftly as an arrow. It is formed from the vital essence of Heaven and Earth; when it appears, winds arise.

Yayu, Zhuhuai, □ Fish, and Feiyi Snake

Yayu and Zhuhuai are both monsters that harm people. The □ Fish resembles a sheep and has black markings on its body. The Feiyi Snake has one head and two bodies.

Ci Fish

Sunlight shines, the day’s colors shimmer; the earth snake appears, and night falls. The Ci Fish is small, yet eating it leaves one without hunger. All things respond in their own ways and each has a different effect.

Paoxiao

Paoxiao is gluttonous, with its eyes beneath its armpits. When it eats people, it does not consume them entirely, and even turns around to bite itself. Casting its image onto a ritual vessel signifies that it is an ill-omened creature.

You, Lü, □ Horse, and Du □

One beast resembles a leopard and has densely patterned markings. Lü is skilled at leaping across precipitous terrain. The □ Horse has only one horn; Du □ resembles a tiger and has a horse’s tail.

□□

There is a bird that can be used to ward off heat, called □□. As day gives way to night, it hides during the day and appears only at night. What matters is that things can be put to use; why insist on seeking rare birds such as the luan and the swan?

Juji, Shouniao, and Three-Sang

Juji resembles a pig and cries like a tiger. Shou has red fur, four wings, and one eye. Three-Sang is a tree without branches that grows only upward.

□ Beast

The □ Beast has four horns and spurs on its horse-like tail. After roaming through the mountains, it returns to them, leaping across precipitous terrain. Its appearance is strange, and as it moves, it seems to spin and dance.

Heavenly Horse

Dragons travel on clouds, and flying serpents move through mist, yet neither compares to the Heavenly Horse, which soars naturally through the air. It follows an ordered course, as though secretly guided by the mysteries of Heaven and Earth.

Quju and Qianju

Quju resembles a bird, with a blue body and yellow feet. Eating it prevents hunger and can be used for bigu (reducing or stopping food intake through cultivation or ingestion). Its internal organs are especially precious and can be paired with cinnabar wood.

Flying Squirrel

Some birds fly by using their tails; others can soar through the air with the help of long beards. Flying squirrels beat their wings and rise lightly into the sky. Though they have no mouths, they seem able to make sounds; in their movements, they rely entirely on spiritual forces.

One kind of bird looks like a snake; another resembles a pheasant and can reproduce. There is also a fish with a snake’s head and a pig’s body.

Suan Yu

On Mount Jingshan lives a bird with an unusual appearance. It looks like a snake and has two feet and four wings. When it appears, people in the towns become terrified. Eating its flesh prevents drunkenness.

Gu □ and Yellow Bird

Eating the flesh of a Gu □ bird prevents dizziness. There is also a yellow bird whose call sounds as if it is calling its own name. When a woman wears its feathers and fur, her original temperament and moral character change.

Jingwei

After the daughter of the Yan Emperor died, she became the bird Jingwei. She sank into the Eastern Sea, and her spirit traveled westward, yet she continued to carry wood and pebbles in her beak and cast them into the waves.

There is an animal shaped like a sheep, with its eyes behind its ears and its orifices on its tail, called Pi Jiu. On Mount Youdu lives a great snake whose sound resembles the bellowing of an ox.

End of Volume Three of the Classic of Mountains and Seas.

Volume Four of the Classic of Mountains and Seas

Commentary by Guo Pu.

Eastern Mountains Classic

The Eastern Mountains Classic records that the first mountain in the Eastern Mountain range is called Mount Su □. To its north lies Mount Qianmei. The Shi River rises there and flows east and then north into the sea. The river contains many Yongyong fish, shaped like plough oxen, marked with tiger-like patterns, and sounding like pigs.

The text then mentions another mountain whose name is missing. The Shi River flows from it east and then north into the sea. The river also contains many Yongyong fish, shaped like plough oxen, marked with tiger-like patterns, and sounding like pigs.

Three hundred li farther south is Mount Lei, with “Lei” pronounced like “lěi.” Jade is found on the mountain, and gold below it. The Hu River rises here and flows east into the Shi River. The Hu River is home to many “living teachers,” that is, tadpoles. The Erya calls tadpoles “living easterners.”

Three hundred li farther south is Mount Xunzhuang. It has abundant gold and jade, and many blue-green stones below. A beast lives in the mountain that looks like a dog and has six legs. It is called Congcong, and its cry sounds as though it is calling its own name. There is also a bird that looks like a chicken and has fur like a mouse. It is called the “□mouse,” pronounced “zī.” When this bird appears, a great drought will strike the area. The Gen River rises here—“Gen” is pronounced like “zhǐ”—and flows north into the Hu River. The Gen River contains many zhen fish, which look like minnows and have needle-like mouths. Zhen fish are found in the Eastern Sea, and now also in the rivers of Jiangdong. Eating this fish can prevent epidemic diseases.

Three hundred li farther south is Mount Boqi. It has no vegetation and no water.

Three hundred li farther south is Mount Fantiao. It has no vegetation and much sand. The Jian River rises here—“Jian” is pronounced like the “jian” in “diminish”—and flows north into the sea. The Jian River contains many gan fish, also called yellow-cheek fish; “gan” is pronounced like “gǎn.”

Four hundred li farther south is Mount Gu’er. It has many lacquer trees, and many mulberry and zhe trees below. The Gu’er River rises here and flows north into the sea. Its waters contain many xian fish.

Four hundred li farther south is Mount Gaoshi. It has much jade and many needle stones below. Needle stones can be made into whetstones for sharpening needles, and can also be used to treat yong swellings—that is, painful sores and inflammation. The Zhusheng River rises here and flows east into the Ze River. Its waters contain much gold and jade.

Three hundred li farther south is Mount Yue. It has many mulberry trees and many chu trees below. The Luan River rises here—“Luan” is pronounced like “lì”—and flows east into the Ze River. Its waters contain much gold and jade.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Cai. There are no plants or trees on the mountain, and abundant water below it. The mountain is home to many fish called “Kan□wu”; the exact species has not yet been identified. The character in “Kan□wu” is pronounced like the character xu. There is also a wild beast on the mountain, shaped like the legendary giant Kuafu and covered in bristly hair. Its cry sounds like a person calling out. When it appears, great floods occur throughout the land.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Du. The mountain has abundant gold and jade, and many fine stones below. The Motu River rises here and flows southeast into the Mian River. The river is home to many creatures called “□□,” pronounced “tiaorong.” They resemble yellow snakes, have fish fins, and glow as they move in and out of the water. Wherever they appear, a great drought occurs.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Yan. A river here flows southeast into the Mian River. It is home to many creatures called “□□,” pronounced “tiaorong.” They resemble yellow snakes, have fish fins, and glow as they move in and out of the water. Wherever they appear, a great drought occurs.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Tai, also known as Dai Zong, the Eastern Peak. An attached commentary to the classic says that Mount Tai lies northwest of present-day Mount Tai □gao County; from its base to its summit is forty-eight li and three hundred paces. The mountain has abundant jade, and much gold below. A beast lives there that resembles a pig and has pearls on its body. It is called “Tongtong”; the “tong” in its name is pronounced like the character tong in “yintong.” It cries out its own name. The Huan River rises here and flows east into the Yangtze, though some versions say it flows into the sea. The Huan River contains many water-jade stones.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Zhu. It borders the Yangtze, though some versions say it is near the riverbank. There are no plants or trees on the mountain, but it has many fine jades such as yao and bi. The Ji River rises here and flows southeast into the Qutan River. The river contains many ciying.

The first section of the Eastern Mountains Classic, from Mount Su□ to Mount Zhu, describes twelve mountains, which are rich in yao and bi. The Ji River rises here and flows southeast into the Qutan River, where many ciying are found.

The mountains recorded in the first section of the Eastern Mountains Classic, from Mount Su□ to Mount Zhu, number twelve and extend for 3,600 li. The mountain deities all have human bodies and dragon heads. For the sacrifice, a dog is offered as the victim in prayer; in the rite at the “□” place, a fish is used. During the sacrifice, blood is smeared on the victim as a mark of the offering. The commentary cites the Gongyang Commentary, saying that perhaps the victim’s nose is struck in order to “□du.” The “du” in “□du” is pronounced like the character er in “diaoyu.”

The starting point of the eastern mountain range recorded in the Second Classic of the East is called Mount Kongsang. It produces wood suitable for making zithers and se (long zithers), as also mentioned in the Rites of Zhou. Its northern side lies near the Shi River; to the east, one can see Ju Wu, to the south, Sha Ling, and to the west, Min Marsh.

A wild beast lives on the mountain. It resembles an ox, has tiger stripes, and makes a sound like “qin,” though some records give it as “yin.” It is called Lingling, and its cry seems to call out its own name. When it appears, great floods strike the realm.

Six hundred li farther south lies Mount Caoxi. Its lower slopes have many valleys but no water, and are home to many birds and beasts.

Four hundred li farther southwest is Mount Yigao. The mountain is rich in metals and jade, while its lower slopes have abundant chalk, a kind of white earth. Fenggao River rises here and flows east into Jinv River. Its waters contain many shen and yao: shen is a kind of freshwater clam, and yao is also a kind of clam.

Farther south, after traveling five hundred li by water and crossing three hundred li of shifting sands, one reaches the foot of Mount Ge. There are no plants or trees here; the ground is covered with grinding stones, both coarse and fine, used for sharpening knives and grinding other tools.

Three hundred and eighty li farther south is the summit of Mount Ge. There are no plants or trees here. Li River flows out of the mountain and east into Yu Marsh. Its waters contain many pearl softshell turtles. They resemble lungs, have eyes and six legs, and bear pearls on their bodies. Their flesh tastes both sour and sweet, and eating it prevents one from contracting li disease, a seasonal epidemic. The Lüshi Chunqiu says that this fish in the Li River is called zhubie. It has six legs and pearls on its body, and its flesh is delicious.

Three hundred and eighty li farther south lies Mount Yuye. The mountain grows many catalpa trees and nanmu trees; at its foot grow many thorn bushes and goji trees. The Zayu River rises here and flows east into the Huang River. In the mountain there is a beast shaped like a rabbit, with a bird’s beak, owl-like eyes, and a snake’s tail. When it sees a person, it pretends to sleep and feigns death. This beast is called the qiuyu, a legendary strange creature; “qiuyu” is pronounced “qiuyu.” It makes a sound on its own. When it appears, locusts ravage the crops.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Dufu. The mountain has no plants or trees, but there is abundant water.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Geng. The mountain has no plants or trees, but has many water jades, a kind of jade produced in water, also classified as water jade, and many large snakes. In the mountain there is a beast shaped like a fox but with fish fins, called the zhuru, a legendary strange creature; its name is pronounced “ru.” It makes a sound on its own. When it appears, a frightening calamity befalls the local state.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Luqi. The mountain has no plants or trees, only much sand and stone. The Sha River rises here and flows south into the Cen River. The Sha River has many birds called the lih, pronounced “li.” They are shaped like mandarin ducks but have human feet, and make a sound on their own. When they appear, the local state undertakes major construction projects. A note explains that today’s pelican also has feet somewhat like human feet.

Three hundred and eighty li farther south lies Mount Gushe. The mountain has no plants or trees, but has abundant water.

Farther south, after traveling three hundred li by water and crossing a hundred li of shifting sands, lies North Mount Gushe. The mountain has no plants or trees, but has many stones.

Three hundred li farther south lies South Mount Gushe. The mountain has no plants or trees, but has abundant water.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Bi. The mountain has no plants or trees, but has many large snakes and much blue-green jade.

Another five hundred li south lies Mount Goushi. The mountain has no vegetation, but is rich in metal and jade. The Yuan River rises here and flows east into Shaze Marsh. Another account gives the mountain’s name as Mount Xiashi.

Another three hundred li south lies Mount Gufeng. The mountain has no vegetation, but is rich in metal and jade. A beast lives there that looks like a fox and has wings. Its cry resembles the call of a wild goose. It is called Bibi (pronounced “bi”). Whenever it appears, a great drought follows across the land.

Another five hundred li south lies Mount Fuli. The mountain is rich in metal and jade, and its lower slopes have many needle stones—stone needles used in ancient times to treat illness. A beast lives there that looks like a fox, with nine tails, nine heads, and the claws of a tiger. It is called Longzhi (pronounced “longzhi”). Its cry resembles a baby’s, and it eats people.

Another five hundred li south lies Mount □ (the name is missing from the original; its pronunciation is given as “yi zhen fan”). The mountain’s southern side lies near the □ River, and from it one can look east toward lakes and marshes. A beast lives there that looks like a horse, with a sheep’s head, four horns, and an ox’s tail. Its cry resembles a dog’s howl. It is called Youyou (pronounced “you”). Whenever it appears, cunning people become numerous in that country. Here, “cunning” means crafty. A bird also lives on the mountain. It looks like a “liang,” has a rat-like tail, and is skilled at climbing trees. It is called Xiegou. Whenever it appears, epidemics become common in that country.

The mountain range recorded in “The Second Classic of the Eastern Mountains” begins at Mount Kongsang and ends at Mount □. It comprises seventeen mountains and stretches for a total of 6,640 li. The gods of these mountains all have animal bodies and human faces, and wear horn ornaments on their heads. Mi is an animal of the deer family, and its horns are called ge (pronounced “ge”). To sacrifice to these mountain gods, one uses a chicken as an offering. To ask the gods to protect an infant, one buries a jade disk in the earth as an offering.

The mountain range recorded in “The Third Classic of the Eastern Mountains” begins at Mount Shihu, from which one can look north toward Mount □ (pronounced “xiang”). The mountain is rich in metal and jade, and its lower slopes have many thorny trees like sour jujubes. A beast lives there that looks like a moose, with fish-like eyes. It is called Wanyu (pronounced “wan”). It makes a cry that sounds as if it is calling its own name.

Farther south, after traveling eight hundred li by water, lies Mount Qi. Many peach and plum trees grow on the mountain, and tigers are numerous there.

Traveling another five hundred li south along the waterway brings you to Mount Zhugou. The mountain has no trees or other plants and is covered with sand and rocks. A strange beast called the Shuahu lives there. It resembles a deer, but has fishlike eyes. Its cry sounds like its own name, “Shuahu,” pronounced something like “Wan.”

Traveling another eight hundred li south along the waterway brings you to Mount Qi. The mountain has many peach and plum trees, and many tigers.

Traveling another five hundred li south along the waterway brings you to another Mount Zhugou. The mountain has no trees or other plants and is covered with sand and rocks. It extends for a hundred li all around and is home to many meiyu fish, also called weiyu, pronounced something like “Wei.”

Traveling another seven hundred li south along the waterway brings you to Mount Zhongfu. The mountain has no trees or other plants and is covered with sand.

Traveling another thousand li east along the waterway brings you to Mount Hushe. The mountain has no trees or other plants and is covered with sand and rocks.

Traveling another seven hundred li south along the waterway brings you to Mount Mengzi. The mountain has many catalpa, paulownia, peach, and plum trees, as well as many herbs such as junpu. A plant whose name cannot be identified is also recorded here; its pronunciation is approximated as “Xuan zhi □.” The mountain is home to many deer and extends for a hundred li all around. A stream called the Biyang River rises on the mountain. Its waters contain many zhan and wei fish. The wei fish is a sturgeon. It resembles the zhan fish, but has a longer snout and no scales. It is also known by the name “□qiu” and is called the huang fish as well.

Farther south, this mountain extends for a hundred li all around. The Biyang River rises on the mountain, and its waters contain many zhan and wei fish. The wei fish is a sturgeon. It resembles the zhan fish, but has a longer snout and no scales. It is also known by the name “□qiu” and is called the huang fish as well.

Traveling another five hundred li south along the waterway takes you across the White Flowing Sands. After another five hundred li, you reach Mount Qizhong. “Qi” is pronounced something like “Qi.” The mountain extends for two hundred li all around and has no trees or other plants. A great snake lives there, and the mountain contains much jade. On the mountain is a body of water forty li around, fed by water that wells up from underground. In present-day Fenyin County in Hedong, there is a spring called Fenshui whose source lies underground; its waters surge up as if boiling, and its depth cannot be measured. This resembles the feature described here. The body of water is called Shenze, or Deep Marsh, and contains many xigui turtles. A xigui is a large turtle with a patterned shell, like a hawksbill turtle’s but thinner. “Xi” is pronounced something like “Yi zhi ji.” The water also contains a fish shaped like a carp, but with six legs and a bird’s tail. It is called the gege fish, pronounced something like “Ge.” Its cry sounds like its own name.

There is a deep-water marsh here, home to many xi turtles (large sea turtles). Xi turtles have very pointed mouths and are a kind of large turtle. Their shells are patterned like those of hawksbill turtles, but thinner. “Xi” is pronounced like “yi,” and “zui” like “zhi.” The water is also home to a fish that looks like a carp but has six legs and a birdlike tail. It is called the gege fish, and its cry sounds like it is calling its own name. “Ge” is pronounced like “ha.”

Continue south by water for another nine hundred li to Mount Minyu. “Min” is pronounced like “min.” The mountain grows many kinds of plants and trees, and contains abundant gold, jade, and ochre. A beast on the mountain looks like an ox, with a horse’s tail. It is called Jingjing, and its cry sounds like it is calling its own name.

Continue south by water for another five hundred li, cross three hundred li of shifting sand, and arrive at Mount Wugao. Looking south, one can see the Young Sea, also called the Lesser Sea. The Huainanzi says that the great landmass in the east is called the Lesser Sea. Looking east, one can see the Fusang tree. Mount Wugao is bare of plants and trees, and the winds there are strong. The mountain is about a hundred li around.

The “Third Classic of the Eastern Mountains” records nine mountains, from Mount Shihu to Mount Wugao, stretching across a total of six thousand nine hundred li. The mountain gods all have human bodies and ram’s horns. To make offerings to these gods, one should use a ram and offer millet. When the gods appear, they bring wind, rain, and floods.

The first mountain recorded at the beginning of the “Fourth Classic of the Eastern Mountains” is called Mount Beihao, near the North Sea. A tree grows on the mountain that looks like a poplar. It has red flowers and bears fruit like dates, but without pits. The fruit tastes sweet and sour, and eating it can prevent malaria. A river rises on the mountain and flows northeast into the sea.

A beast on the mountain looks like a wolf, with a red head and mouse-like eyes. Its cry sounds like a pig’s, and it is called Heju. “He” is pronounced like “ge,” and “ju” like “zhi.” It eats people. The mountain is also home to a bird that looks like a chicken, with a white head, mouse-like feet, and tiger-like claws. It is called Qi, pronounced like “qi.” This bird also eats people.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Maoshan, where no plants or trees grow. The Cangti River rises here, and its waters sound like a pig’s squeal. A kind of fish lives in the river called the xieju; it eats people. On the mountain is a bird shaped like a chicken, with a white head, feet like a rat’s, and claws like a tiger’s. It is called the qi (pronounced “qi”), and it too eats people.

Three hundred li farther south lies Mount Maoshan, where no plants or trees grow. The Cangti River rises here and flows west into the Zhan River. The river is full of qiu fish (pronounced “qiu”; a kind of fish, though an old commentary suggests it may refer to a loach). They look like carp but have large heads. Eating them prevents warts, raised growths on the skin.

Three hundred and twenty li farther south lies Mount Dongshi. The mountain has abundant blue-green jade. One kind of tree resembles a poplar. Its grain is red, and its sap looks like blood, but it bears no fruit. It is called qi (pronounced “qi”). Applying its sap to a horse can tame it and make it gentle and docile. The Ci River rises here and flows northeast into the sea. Its waters hold many beautiful shellfish and many ci fish, which look like crucian carp but have one head and ten bodies. They smell like miwu, an aromatic herb known in ancient times. Eating these fish prevents the loss of qi; an old commentary interprets this as meaning they prevent flatulence.

Three hundred li farther southeast lies Mount Nüzheng. The mountain has no plants, trees, or stones. The Gao River rises here and flows west into the Ge River. The river is full of bo fish, which resemble sturgeon, a large freshwater fish, and have only one eye. Their cry sounds like a person retching. When they appear, a great drought will strike the world.

Two hundred li farther southeast lies Mount Qin. The mountain has abundant metal and jade, but no stone. The Shi River rises here and flows north into Gaize. Its waters are full of qiu fish and patterned shellfish. In the mountain lives a beast shaped like a pig, with tusks, called dangkang. It cries out “dangkang,” and when it appears, the world will enjoy a great harvest.

Again, two hundred li to the southeast lies Mount Zitong. The Zitong River rises here and flows west into Yuru Marsh. The water is home to many □ fish, pronounced “hua.” They have fish-shaped bodies and bird wings. When they enter or leave the water, their bodies glow, and their cries sound like those of mandarin ducks. Their appearance foretells a great drought throughout the world.

Another two hundred li to the northeast is Mount Shan. The mountain contains much gold and jade. A beast there has the shape of a pig, a human face, a yellow body, and a red tail. It is called Heyu, pronounced “yu.” Its cry sounds like a baby crying. It eats both people and insects and snakes. Its appearance foretells a great flood throughout the world.

Another two hundred li to the east is Mount Da. The mountain contains much gold and jade, as well as zhen trees, or privet, whose leaves do not fall in winter. A beast there has the shape of an ox, a white head, one eye, and a snake’s tail. It is called Fei, pronounced like the “fei” in “feicui” (jade). Wherever it passes by water, the water dries up; wherever it crosses grassland, the grass withers. Its appearance brings a great plague upon the world. This account says that it carries an aura of calamity.

An inscription reads: “The name Fei may sound harmless, yet everywhere it passes is left drained and desolate. It is more deadly than poison from the zhen bird or pestilence. All creatures fear it and hope it will go far away.” The Gou River rises on Mount Da and flows north into the Lao River. The water is home to many qiu fish.

The mountains recorded in the “Fourth Classic of the Eastern Mountains” extend from Mount Beihao to Mount Da. There are eight mountains in all, stretching for a total of 1,720 li.

The foregoing records the mountains and rivers of the “Eastern Classic”: forty-six mountains in all, extending for a total of 18,860 li.

“Illustrated Verses on the Eastern Mountain Classic”

Yongyong fish, Congcong beast, □ mouse

The Yongyong fish cries like an ox’s bellow mixed with a tiger’s roar, and its body is mottled. The Congcong beast looks like a dog and has six legs. The □ mouse looks like a chicken; its appearance brings drought.

Xiū □

The Xiū □ looks like a snake and shines when it spreads its wings. It rides the waves as it leaps along, appearing and disappearing among the Jiang and Xiang Rivers. Its appearance foretells a dry year and is an omen of fire.

Tongtong.

A clam can hold a pearl, but a beast cannot. When a Tongtong appears, drought follows and water sources dry up.

The Xiufu□, a strange beast whose name is incomplete, is shaped like a snake. When it beats its wings, it scatters light. Riding the waves, it rises into the air and vanishes far away. It appears around the Yangtze and Xiang rivers. Its coming foretells a dry year and is an omen of fire.

Tongtong

A clam can hold a pearl, but a beast cannot. The Tongtong looks like a pig, with a rough, ungainly appearance, and carries the power to bring calamity. Misfortune does not come from nowhere; people often bring it upon themselves.

Kan□ fish and Lingling beast

The Kan□ fish and the Lingling beast differ in appearance, yet they foretell the same omen. When they appear, great floods come and the world is submerged. Calamity does not descend without cause; it also accords with prophecies that foretell disasters and anomalies.

Zhubie fish

The Zhubie is a delicious fish that lives in water and resembles a floating lung. Its body embodies the Three Powers of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity, yet its value as a commodity brings it to a violent end. If it is useful in so many ways, how can it protect itself?

Armadillo

When the armadillo sees a person, it pretends to be asleep. It responds to the Qi of disaster and anomaly; when it appears, people suffer harm and their lifespans are shortened. Could it itself have brought about these calamities? In the end, they can only be attributed to Heaven’s will.

Lili beast and □hu bird

The Lili and the □hu either fly or lie low. They are omens associated with earth: when they appear, people begin building and undertaking construction projects. Such strange beasts also appeared in the land of Qin during the building of the Great Wall.

Zhunu

The Zhunu is not especially strange, yet when it appears, the people of the city are all struck with fear. The responses of the myriad things do not always have a clear and certain cause; destiny has a part in them. Whatever happens has its conditions; nothing occurs without reason.

Bibi, Longchi beast, and Xiegou bird

The Bibi resembles a fox and has wings, but cannot fly. The Longchi has nine tails and tiger’s claws. The Xiegou resembles a wild duck; when it appears, the people suffer grief.

Youyou

The key to governing a state is to find worthy people. A state’s downfall, too, cannot be blamed on one person alone. The appearance of the Youyou is a response arising in the unseen; who can discern its cause?

Xigui turtle

The water stretches forty li across, and currents surge up from its depths. A numinous turtle lives there, swishing its tail and breathing calmly. Inspired by it, Zhuangzi cast his fishing line, scorning the powerful.

Yuanhu, Jingjing beast, and Gégé fish

The Yuanhu resembles a deer, but has the eyes of a fish. The Jingjing looks like an ox and uses its tail to identify things. The Gégé hides beneath the water, in a place whose depths cannot be fathomed.

Heju beast and Qi sparrow

The xieju is a cunning beast, and the qi sparrow is a fierce bird. Some have bodies like wolves, others have claws like tigers. So why resort to arms? It is enough to soothe and govern them by reasonable means.

Qi Wood

When the juice of qi wood is rubbed onto a horse, the horse becomes strong and gentle, a fine steed. There is no need to trouble Sun Yang (Bole), the horse judge; the horse will naturally become tame and well trained. This method has no fixed form, and within it, subtle principles are at work.

Zi Fish and Bo Fish

There is a fish with ten markings on its body and an unpleasant smell like that of miwu grass. Eating it harmonizes and comforts the body, and prevents Qi from stagnating and draining downward. When the bo fish leaps from the deep, it is a sign that disaster is approaching.

Heyu

The heyu has a pig’s body and a human face. It is greedy and savage by nature, and eats without even chewing. It is the spirit of utmost Yin Qi; its appearance brings heavy rain.

Dang Kang Beast and □ Fish

The dang kang resembles a pig, and its appearance foretells a good harvest. The □ fish has the wings of a bird and glimmers as it flies. When the two appear together, they bring different omens: one foretells disaster, the other good fortune.

Fei

The fei is a beast that brings disaster. It walks on its heels and carries a potent poisonous Qi. Wherever it passes, the waters dry up and the forests wither. This is the nature of the Qi it was born with; its body gathers this destructive force.

This concludes Book Four of the Classic of Mountains and Seas.

In the received edition, Book Five of the Classic of Mountains and Seas has a commentary by Guo Pu. This book is “The Central Mountains Classic.” It records that the first mountain in the Boshan range is called Mount Ganzao. The Gong River rises there and flows west into the Yellow River. The mountain has many niu trees. At its foot grows a kind of plant with stems like mallow and leaves like apricot leaves; some editions say its leaves resemble those of the ku tree.

The Classic of the Central Mountains (Zhongshan Jing) records that the first mountain in the Baoshan range is Mount Ganzhao. The Gong River rises there and flows west into the Yellow River. The mountain has many niu trees. At its foot grows a plant with a root like a sunflower and leaves like apricot leaves; some versions read “ku leaves.” It bears yellow flowers and podlike fruit, and is called “□.” It can treat conditions of mental clouding and confusion.

There is also a wild animal in the mountain, shaped like a field mouse and marked with patterns on its forehead. Its name contains a missing character and may be read as “hui.” Another form of its name is pronounced “na,” while some versions write “bear.” Eating its meat can cure goiter, a swelling of the neck.

Twenty li farther east is Mount Li’er. The mountain has many jiang and li trees. The li tree has a square stem and round leaves. Its leaves are yellow and downy, and its fruit resembles that of the chinaberry tree. Its seeds are about the size of a finger, white, and sticky; they can be used to wash clothes. It is said that eating the fruit of this tree helps people remember things.

Fifteen li farther east is Mount Quzhu, where bamboo grows abundantly. The Quzhu River flows out of the mountain and south into the Yellow River. Its waters contain many hao fish, shaped like weever fish; the weever fish in turn resembles a sturgeon. The hao fish has a red mouth and tail, and red markings on its body. It is said to cure white ringworm.

Thirty-five li farther east is Mount Conglong. The mountain has many large valleys and produces abundant white chalk, dark green mineral pigment, and yellow chalk, all mineral pigments of different colors.

Fifteen li farther east is Mount Wo, pronounced “wo.” Its sunny slopes have abundant red copper, while its shady slopes have abundant iron.

Seventy li farther east is Mount Tuohu. A plant grows on the mountain with leaves like sunflower leaves, red flowers, and podlike fruit. Its pods resemble “□ pods”; some compare them to the pods of the soapberry tree. The plant is called zhichu and can treat the condition known as shu. Eating it is said to prevent people from waking in fright or suffering nightmares during sleep.

Twenty li farther east is Mount Jinxing, where tianying grows in abundance. Tianying resembles dragon bone and is said to treat skin swellings such as acne.

Seventy li farther east lies Mount Taiwei. In the mountain is a valley called Owl Valley, where iron ore is plentiful. (Some versions omit the word “valley.”)

Fifteen li farther east lies Mount Jianggu, which yields abundant red copper. (Some versions read “Mount Tangu.”)

One hundred and twenty li farther east lies Mount Wulin. Many plants called jian grow there; these are also known as jian grass.

Thirty li farther north lies Mount Niushou. Today there is also a Mount Niushou southwest of Chang’an, with wan on its slopes and water at its foot, but it is uncertain whether this is the mountain described here. A plant in the mountain is called ghost grass. Its leaves resemble those of the sunflower, its stem is red, and its flower spikes resemble grain seedlings. Eating it dispels sorrow. The Lao River rises in the mountain and flows west into Mount Niushou… (The original repeats the earlier description of Mount Niushou here.) The Lao River flows west into the Qing River. The name of this river sounds like “Lunzha zhi Zhi.” The water contains many flying fish, shaped like crucian carp. Eating them can cure hemorrhoids and diarrhea.

Forty li farther north lies Mount Huo. Today there are mountains called Mount Huo in Pingyang’s Yong’an County, Lujiang’s Ji County, Jin’an’s Luojiang County, and Gong County in Henan. Clearly, Mount Huo is not the only mountain with “Huo” in its name. According to the explanation in the Erya, when a large mountain encircles a smaller one, it is called huo. Grain trees grow abundantly on the mountain. There is an animal shaped like a civet, with a white tail and a mane, called naonao. Keeping one dispels sorrow. The text means that it is to be raised; the pronunciation of “raise” is given by the fanqie spelling “pu zhu.”

Fifty-two li farther north lies Mount Hegu, where yanjì thorns are plentiful. What exactly yanjì refers to is unknown; its pronunciation is given as “zhan.”

Thirty-five li farther north lies Mount Yin, also called Mount Xian. The mountain has whetstones (stones used for grinding things) and patterned stones. The Shao River rises there, and its waters contain many diaotang plants. Diaotang has leaves like those of the elm, but square in shape, and fruit resembling red beans. Eating it can cure deafness.

Four hundred li farther northeast lies Mount Gudeng…

Four hundred li farther northeast lies Gudeng Mountain, rich in red copper. A plant called rong grass grows there. Its leaves resemble willow leaves, and its roots are shaped like eggs. Eating it can cure wind disorders.

The first range in the Boshan mountain system stretches from Ganzao Mountain to Gudeng Mountain. It comprises fifteen mountains and extends for a total of 6,670 li. The Li’er clan presides over the sacrifices to these mountains. The offerings must include a complete grand sacrifice of an ox, a sheep, and a pig, together with suspended fine jade. The term “suspending” refers to a rite for sacrificing to mountain spirits, as explained in the Erya.

At each of the remaining thirteen mountains, the offering is one sheep. A ritual vessel made of mulberry wood is suspended and then buried underground, and no polished rice is offered. A mulberry-wood tablet is a spirit tablet made from mulberry wood, representing the deity during the sacrifice. Its base is square, its top is tapered, and it has a hole through the middle; it is then decorated with metal. In other words, a spirit tablet is made for the sacrifice and adorned with gold and silver. The Gongyang Commentary says, “The tablet used in the Yu sacrifice is made of mulberry wood.” Some editions write “king” in place of “tablet.”

The Second Classic of the Central Mountains records that the first mountain in the Jishan range is Huizhu Mountain. Many mulberry trees grow there, and the mountain is home to many lu deer and musk deer; among its birds is the he. The he resembles a pheasant, with patterned, blue-green plumage. It is fierce by nature and fights to the death. The name he is pronounced “yi,” and this bird is found in the Shangdang region.

Two hundred li farther southwest lies Fashi Mountain. There is much gold and jade on the mountain, and many whetstones and sharpening stones at its foot. The Jiyu River rises there and flows down into the Yi River.

Three hundred li farther west lies Hao Mountain. It has much gold and jade, but no vegetation.

Three hundred li farther west lies Xian Mountain. It has much gold and jade, but no vegetation. The Xian River rises there and flows north into the Yi River. Many singing snakes live on the mountain. They look like snakes but have four wings, and their cries sound like the chime stones. When singing snakes appear, the region suffers a great drought.

Three hundred li farther west lies Yang Mountain. It has many rocks but no vegetation. The Yang River rises there and flows north into the Yi River. Many transforming snakes live on the mountain. They have human faces, jackal bodies, and birds’ wings; they crawl like snakes and cry out like people loudly berating someone. When transforming snakes appear, the region suffers a great flood.

Another two hundred li west lies Kunwu Mountain, where there is much red copper. It is said that one kind, called “ming copper,” is as red as fire. Knives made from it could cut jade as easily as mud. During the reign of King Mu of Zhou, the Western Rong presented some of this copper as tribute. The Kunwu sword mentioned in the Shizi was made from it. The Yuejue shu records that when Mount Chijin split open, tin was exposed, and when the Ruo’ye Valley dried up, steel was exposed. Ouyezi used these materials to forge the “Tongou sword.” A bronze sword measuring three chi and five cun was unearthed from an ancient tomb in Jixun Commandery and later came to be known as the Ganjiang sword. The text also cites this as evidence that ancient weapons were generally made by mixing tin with copper, rather than from iron.

In the mountains lives a creature shaped like a beast carrying a load, with a horn on its head and a cry like a person wailing. It is called longchi. A creature called longchi was also described earlier; it may be the same kind. Eating its flesh prevents nightmares from disturbing you.

Another 120 li west lies Jianyin [character unclear] Mountain. The Jian River rises here and flows north into the Yi River. The mountain has much gold and jade, while its lower slopes contain many blue and yellow minerals. A tree grows there resembling a wild pear, with red leaves. It is called mang grass, pronounced like “forget,” and can be used to poison fish.

Another 150 li west lies Dusu Mountain. It has no vegetation, but plenty of water.

Another two hundred li west lies Manqu Mountain. It has much “jinyu” and many bamboo arrows on its lower slopes. The Yi River rises here and flows east into the Luo River. According to the commentary, the Yi River today rises at Mount Xiong’er in Lu County, Shangluo, flows northeast, and joins the Luo River at Luoyang County in Henan.

A creature called mafu lives in the mountains. It has a human face and a tiger’s body, cries like an infant, and eats people.

The original text also includes a repeated passage describing Dusu and Manqu Mountains and mang grass.

The first range of the Jishan mountain system stretches from Huizhu Mountain to Manqu Mountain. It contains nine mountains and extends for 1,670 li. The mountain spirits have human faces and bird bodies. For their rituals, offerings are made of bird and animal feathers, selected according to their color. A piece of fine jade is also offered by casting it into the water; polished rice is not used.

The Third Classic of the Central Mountains records that the first mountain in the Pianshan range is called Ao’an Mountain. Some versions give its name as Xianfu, with fu pronounced “bei.” The mountain’s southern side yields much of a kind of jade called “□fu,” while its northern side has deposits of ochre and gold. The spirit Xunchi lives here. The mountain often produces fine jade and sometimes a stone called zuoshi. Looking north, one can see Helin, which resembles something called qian and something called ju. The commentators say that qian and ju are both names of trees, though their precise referents are unknown. Qian is pronounced “qian.”

A wild beast on the mountain resembles a white deer and has four horns. It is called fuzhu. Whenever it appears, the region is struck by a great flood.

Ten li farther east lies Qingyao Mountain, said to be the hidden capital of the Celestial Emperor. To the north, one can see the winding reaches of the Yellow River. They stretch for a thousand li, and whenever a fuzhu appears there, the region is struck by a great flood.

Ten li farther east lies Mount Qingyao, the hidden capital of the Celestial Emperor and his deep, secluded dwelling. From the mountain, one can look north and see the winding course of the Yellow River. The river stretches for a thousand li, curving in some places and running straight in others. Many birds here are called “jia birds.” What exactly these birds are is unknown. Some say the character jia should be read as jia, meaning “goose.”

Looking south, one can see Danzhu, a small island in the water. Dan is pronounced chan. Legend says that Gun, Yu the Great’s father, once transformed into a yellow bear at Feather Abyss; now he is also said to be here. This suggests that beings capable of changing their form might transform anywhere. The mountain is also home to many pu lei and pu lu. Pu lei are snails. The Erya says that pu lu are caterpillars of the geometer moth.

Mount Qingyao is governed by the spirit Wuluo. Wuluo looks human, with leopard markings, a slender waist, and white teeth; some accounts say the spirit has a human head. Wuluo wears an ornament called a ju through the ears. A ju is an object made of gold or silver, though its precise form is unknown. Wuluo’s cry sounds like the clear chime of jade pendants striking one another.

This mountain is suitable for women to live on. The Zhen River, pronounced zhen, rises here and flows north into the Yellow River. In the water lives a bird called yao, whose name sounds like the yao in yaotiao, meaning “graceful.” It resembles a wild duck, with a blue body, red eyes, and a red tail. Eating its flesh is said to aid in having children.

There is also a plant on the mountain that resembles jian, a kind of sedge. It has a square stem, yellow flowers, and red fruit. Its roots resemble gaoben and geb en, both fragrant medicinal herbs. This plant is called xun grass; some versions call it bao grass. Taking it is said to make a person’s appearance more beautiful.

Ten li farther east is Mount Gui, pronounced wei. The mountain bears delicious dates, and on its northern slope is a kind of jade called □fu. The Zhenghui River rises here and flows north into the Yellow River. Many flying fish live in it. They look like pigs and have red markings on their bodies. Eating these fish is said to make a person unafraid of thunder; they can also be used to ward off weapons.

Forty li to the east lies Mount Yisu. The mountain yields abundant gold and jade, and many Manju trees grow at its foot. At this point, the original text notes “unclear,” indicating that the relevant details are unknown. The Yongyong River (Yong is pronounced like “rong”) rises in the mountain and flows north into the Yellow River. Its waters contain many yellow shells.

Another twenty li to the east lies Mount He. No plants or trees grow on the mountain, but it has abundant fine jade, including varieties such as yao and bi. This is the Yellow River’s “Nine Confluences”: nine streams meet here, hence the name. The mountain winds and bends through five successive curves. The original text later repeats its account of Mount He and adds that nine streams rise in the mountain, join together, and flow north into the Yellow River; the water contains much gray-green jade.

The auspicious spirit Taifeng, who governs the vital force of mountains and rivers, presides over the mountain. Taifeng looks like a human and has a tiger’s tail; the original text has variant readings concerning the tail. Taifeng likes to dwell south of Mount Fu, and its body shines when it comes and goes. According to legend, Taifeng can move the forces of Heaven and Earth and bring clouds and rain. A later passage tells of a summer storm, a darkened sky, and Kong Jia losing his way, but much of the surviving text is damaged and difficult to follow.

The Mount Fu range extends from Mount Ao’an to Mount He and comprises five mountains stretching over 440 li. To sacrifice to Taifeng, Xunchi, and Wuluo, one uses a ram for each, breaks its bones as part of the rite, and also offers fine jade. For the other two spirits, one uses a rooster, burying it in the ground; the grain used in the sacrifice is taken as described in the text.

The “Fourth Classic of the Central Mountains” records that the first mountain in the Mount Li range (Li is pronounced like “li” in “fox”) is Mount Luti. The mountain yields abundant jade, and gold is plentiful at its foot. The Gan River rises in the mountain and flows north into the Luo River. Its waters contain many ling stones; the original text does not clearly explain what these are, and some versions read “tu stones” instead.

Fifty li farther west lies Fushao Mountain. The mountain produces ruan stone in great abundance; its name is pronounced like the word for “soft.” Ruan stone is also found today in the Yanmen Mountains. It is white like ice, with half of the stone’s interior tinged red. A beast in the mountains resembles a raccoon dog, but has human-like eyes. It is called Yin, a name pronounced like “silver”; it is also written Mi. The Hao River rises here and flows north into the Luo River. It contains many ruan stones, a kind of jade. Some say this stone is also produced in the water.

One hundred and twenty li farther west lies Li Mountain. The southern slopes produce abundant jade, while the northern slopes abound in mugwort-like plants. A beast in the mountains resembles an ox, with a dark blue body. Its cry sounds like a baby’s wail, and it eats people. It is called Xiqu. The Yongyong River rises here and flows south into the Yi River. Another beast in the mountains is called Xie, pronounced like the “xie” in Cangjie. It resembles a Nuru dog but is covered in scales, and its hair stands like a mane along its back.

Two hundred li farther west lies Jiwei Mountain. The mountain produces abundant grain and Xu stone, and also yields plentiful Fuyu jade.

Two hundred and fifty li farther west lies Qi Mountain. The mountain produces abundant jade, and its foothills produce copper. The Taodiao River rises here and flows north into the Luo River. Many Qian sheep live in its waters. A tree in the mountains resembles the Chinese toon, with leaves like those of the paulownia. It bears pods and is called Ba; it can be used to poison fish. Ba is also written Ai.

Two hundred li farther west lies Baibian Mountain. The mountain produces abundant gold and jade, while its foothills produce blue realgar.

Three hundred li farther west lies Bear-Ear Mountain. Today it is south of Shangluo County. The mountain has many lacquer trees, and its lower slopes have many. The Fuhào River rises here and flows west into the Luo River. Its waters contain many water-jade minerals and fish that resemble humans. A plant on the mountain resembles perilla and bears red flowers. It is called “ting ”; some also read its name as “tingning” or “dingning.” This plant can poison fish.

Three hundred li farther west lies Zhuang Mountain. The mountain has many patterned stones, and its lower slopes have many bamboo arrows (a kind of slender bamboo) and bamboo. The mountain’s animals include many oxen and Qian sheep (a kind of sheep). Among its birds are many red jing. Jing is pronounced “bi” and refers to the Chinese pheasant, a kind of pheasant.

Three hundred and fifty li farther west lies Huanju Mountain. The Luo River rises here and flows northeast into the Xuanhu River. Its waters contain many things resembling horse intestines. Both mountains lie in the Luo River region. Today the Luo River rises at Zhongling Mountain in Shangluo County. The “Xuanhu Luo River bend” mentioned in the River Chart refers to this area.

The Lishan mountain range, from Luti Mountain to Xuanhu Mountain, comprises nine mountains stretching for a total of 1,670 li. The mountain spirits all have human faces and animal bodies. To sacrifice to these spirits, offer a white chicken; pray without offering grain. Adorn the chicken with colored ornaments.

The Central Classic of the Fifth Mountain Range records that the first mountain in the Boshan range is Gou Chuang Mountain, also written as Gou Lin Mountain in some versions. The mountain has no plants or trees and is covered in strange stones that resemble jade. The Book says that “qiansong” is a kind of strange stone.

Three hundred li east lies Shou Mountain. Its northern slopes have many chestnut and oak trees, and among the plants there is much yuan.

Three hundred li farther east lies Mount Shou. Its northern slopes have many valley trees and oaks, and its grasses include a plant called “□yuan.” The “□” is a kind of thistle that grows in the mountains; Yuanhua, a medicinal herb, is also common here. The southern slopes yield a jade called “□fu,” and are thick with locust trees. North of the mountain is a valley called Jigu Valley, where many □ birds live. Their cries sound like the character dai in qiandai (a clamp). These birds resemble owls and have three eyes and ears; their calls sound like the character lu. Eating their flesh can cure “dian” disease. No further details about them are recorded.

Three hundred li farther east is Mount Xianzhu. The pronunciation of “zhu” is like the zhu in jinzhu. The mountain has no vegetation and yields abundant patterned stone.

Three hundred li farther east is Mount Conglong. The mountain has no vegetation and yields abundant □ stone. What kind of stone this is cannot be determined.

Five hundred li to the northeast is Mount Tiaogu. The mountain has many locust and paulownia trees, and its grasses include peonies and □dong. The Classic of Materia Medica says that □dong is also called “mandong.” Today, the name “Fumen” is commonly written as “er.”

Ten li farther north is Mount Chao. Its northern slopes yield many blue-green jade stones; on its southern slopes is a well that holds water in winter but dries up in summer.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Chenghou. The mountain has many toon trees, which resemble Ailanthus and have wood suited to making chariot shafts. People in the Wu region pronounce “chun” like the chun in chunche (“chariot”); some say it is pronounced like the you in youche (“light chariot”). The mountain’s grasses include peng grass.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Chaoge. Its valleys contain much fine white clay.

Five hundred li farther east is Mount Huai. Its valleys contain much gold and tin.

Ten li farther east is Mount Li. The mountain has many locust trees, and its southern slopes yield much jade.

Ten li farther east is Mount Kou. The mountain yields much blue-green jade, and its wild animals are mostly jing, a creature resembling a deer but smaller, with black fur. The Shi River rises here and flows south into the Luo River; it contains many fine jades.

Ten li farther east is Mount Liangyu. The mountain has many valley trees and oaks, and no stone. The Yu River rises on its northern slope and flows north into the Yellow River; the Ru River rises on its southern slope and flows southeast into the Luo River.

Continuing southeast for ten li, one comes to Mount Guwei. The mountain abounds in whetstones—stones used for sharpening knives—and red copper. Longyu River rises there and flows southeast into the Luo River.

Continuing northeast for twenty li, one comes to Mount Sheng. The mountain abounds in shengu trees, oak trees, and thorny shrubs. Among its plants are shuyu, a kind of yam, fragrant grasses such as hui, and kou tuo grass. Kou tuo grass grows in the south and reaches about one zhang in height. It resembles a lotus leaf, with a pith-filled stem that is pure white. People transplant it into gardens and water it every day, cultivating it until it grows into a tree. Huangsu River rises on the mountain and flows north into the Yellow River. It contains many xuan jade, a stone inferior to jade. Sun Qing says, “He does not know to wear the xuan-yao pearl.” The character xuan is pronounced “xuan.”

Continuing east for twelve li, one comes to Mount Yangxu. The mountain is rich in metal ores, and its foot borders the Xuandu River. The River Chart records: Cang Jie accompanied the ruler on a southern inspection tour. He climbed Mount Yangxu and came to the point where the Xuandu and Luo Rivers meet. A numinous tortoise emerged from these waters bearing a written text on its back, its shell marked with red and blue patterns, and presented the text to Cang Jie.

From Mount Goulin to Mount Yangxu, there are sixteen mountains in all, a total distance of two thousand nine hundred li.

From Mount Goulin to Mount Yangxu, the head of the Baoshan mountain range, there are sixteen mountains in all, stretching for 2,982 li. Mount Sheng is where the mountain spirit dwells. Its sacrifice requires the three animals—a cow, a sheep, and a pig—as a grand offering, with auspicious jade used to adorn the offerings.

The sacrifice at Mount Shoushan requires black animals, along with the full set of offerings for a grand sacrifice. Grain sprouts are fermented to make sweet wine. Drums and music accompany the rite: people beat the drums and dance, and a jade bi is offered as a sacrifice. Shishui is where Heaven and Earth meet and where the celestial gods take their dwelling. The sacrifice calls for fine, well-fattened animals: a black dog is placed above, a hen below, and a ewe is slaughtered, with its blood offered in the rite. The offerings are also adorned with auspicious jade and colored silk. Food is presented to the gods, and the zhu, the person conducting the ritual, invites them to partake.

The Sixth Classic of the Central Mountains records that the first mountain in the Gaodi mountain range is called Mount Pingfeng. From its summit, one can look south toward the Yi and Luo rivers, and east toward Mount Gucheng. Mount Gucheng lies west of Gucheng County in Jibei. The Yellow Rock Elder once lived in a stone chamber at the foot of the mountain. Zhang Liang went there to obtain the Military Strategies of the Grand Duke, and later was buried alongside the Yellow Rock Elder on the mountain.

Mount Pingfeng has no vegetation or water, and is rich in sand and stone. A spirit lives there, shaped like a person but with two heads. It is called Jiaochong and is the leader of stinging insects—creatures that wound people with their stings. In reality, the mountain is a place where bees gather and make honey.

To sacrifice to Jiaochong, a rooster is used in a rite to avert calamity and drive away harmful influences, but the bird is not killed.

Ten li to the west lies Mount Gaodi. It has no vegetation and is rich in metal ores and jade.

Ten li farther west lies Mount Gui. Its northern side yields many □fu jades. A valley on the mountain’s western side is called Gu Valley, where willows and paper mulberry trees grow in abundance. A bird in the valley resembles a pheasant and has a long tail. Its feathers are red as cinnabar flame, and its beak is blue. It is called the ling□ bird. Its cry sounds as if it were calling its own name. Wearing its feathers can keep people from having nightmares in their sleep. Jiaoshang Water rises on the southern side of Mount Gui and flows south into the Luo River. Yusui Water rises on the northern side and flows north into Gu Water.

Thirty li farther west lies Mount Zhanzhu. Its southern side yields much gold, and its northern side has many patterned stones. Xie Water rises in the mountain and flows southeast into the Luo River. Shao Water rises on the northern side and flows east into Gu Water.

Thirty li farther west lies Mount Louzhuo. It has no vegetation and yields much gold and jade. Zhan Water rises on its southern side and flows east into the Luo River. Pi Water rises on the northern side; local people call it Baida Water. It flows north into Gu Water. Pi Water contains many purple stones and patterned stones.

Forty li farther west lies White Stone Mountain. Hui Water rises on its southern side and flows south into the Luo River. It contains much water jade, an ancient term for jade or minerals such as crystal. Jian Water rises on the northern side. In the Book of Documents, the “Jian” in “Yi, Luo, Chan, and Jian” refers to this river. Jian Water flows northwest into Gu Water, and contains many mi stones and furnace cinnabar. The ancients did not clearly record the exact forms of these two minerals.

Fifty li farther west lies Mount Gu. Many gu trees grow on the mountain, and many mulberry trees grow below. Shuang Water rises in the mountain; local people call it Zhima Gorge. It flows northwest into Gu Water and contains many green minerals.

Seventy-two li farther west lies Mount Mi. There is also a Mount Mi in Mi County, Xingyang, today, but it is probably not the mountain described here. The southern slope of Mount Mi has abundant jade, while the northern slope has abundant iron. The Hao River rises in the mountain and flows south into the Luo River. The water is home to many whorl tortoises, which resemble turtles but have bird heads and softshell-turtle tails. Their cries sound like wood splitting. The mountain has no vegetation.

A hundred li farther west lies Mount Changshi. The mountain has no vegetation, but it abounds in metals and jade. To its west is a valley called Gong Valley, where bamboo grows in profusion. The Gong River rises in the valley and flows southwest into the Luo River. The area has many resonant stones. In the first year of the Yongkang era of the Jin dynasty, the commandery of Xiangyang once presented a sounding stone. It was blue-green and resembled jade; when struck, its sound could carry seven or eight li. Today, in Yongzheng Township, Quanzhou County, Lingling, there are two such sounding stones. One is shaped like a drum, so local people call it the “Stone Drum.” It is the same kind of object.

A hundred and forty li farther west lies Mount Fu. The mountain has no vegetation, but it abounds in fine jades such as yao and bi. The Yaran River rises on the southern slope and flows south into the Luo River. The water is home to many merfolk. To the west of the mountain is a wood called Panzhong; “Pan” is pronounced “fan.” The Gu River rises there and flows east into the Luo River. The Gu River today rises in Guyang Valley and flows northeast, joining the Luo River at Gucheng County. The river is said to contain much yan jade, though this has not been reported. “Yan” is pronounced “yin.”

Fifty li farther west lies Mount Qi. The mountain has many ch’u trees and a kind of tree called □. This tree also grows in Shu today. In the seventh or eighth month it puts out ears; when ripe, they look as if dusted with salt and can be used to make sour soup. “□” is pronounced “bei.” The southern slope has abundant gold and jade, while the northern slope has abundant iron. Many xiao plants also grow there—that is, a kind of wormwood mentioned in the Erya. The Tuo River rises in the mountain and flows north into the Yellow River. The water is home to many xiupi fish, which resemble □□ and belong to the frog family. They have white mouths and cry like owls. Eating this fish is said to cure white ringworm.

Ninety li farther west is Changzheng Mountain. The mountain has no grass or trees, and there is much white chalk soil. The Jiao River rises here and flows northeast into the Yellow River; the water contains much dark-green jade. The Zi River also rises here and flows north into the Yellow River.

Ninety li farther west is Kuafu Mountain. The mountain has many nanmu trees and arrow bamboos; among beasts, cattle and qian sheep are numerous, and among birds, red pheasants are numerous. The south side of the mountain has much jade, the north side much iron. North of the mountain is a forest called Peach Forest, three hundred li in circumference, with many horses in it. This Peach Forest is the valley south of Que Township in Hu County of Hongnong today, where wild horses, goats, and mountain cattle are numerous. The Hu River rises here and flows north into the Yellow River; the water contains much Yan jade.

Ninety li farther west is Yanghua Mountain. The south side of the mountain has much metal and jade, the north side much blue realgar. Among the grasses and trees on the mountain, shuyu and kuxin are abundant. The kuxin resembles the qiu tree (also written as jiu), and its fruit resembles a melon; it is sour-sweet, and eating it cures malaria. The Yang River rises here and flows southwest into the Luo River; the water contains many human-fish. The Men River also rises here, first flows northeast into the Yellow River, and its water contains much black □. Black whetstones grow in the water. The □gu River rises on the north side of Yanghua Mountain and flows east into the Men River; there is much copper along its banks. The Men River finally flows into the Yellow River; from here to the Luo River is one hundred ninety li.

The western section of the Gaodi mountain system, from Pingfeng Mountain to Yanghua Mountain, comprises fourteen mountains and stretches 790 li. The yue (here meaning the mountain deity or principal mountain) is located among them, and sacrifice should be offered in the sixth month; the sixth month is also the middle of the year. If the sacrificial ceremony is conducted according to the ritual for sacrificing to the various yue, the world will be at peace.

The Zhongci Qi Jing (Central Classic, Seventh Section) records that the first mountain of the Kushan range is called Xiuyu Mountain. Some editions write it as Xiuyu Mountain, using the character yu meaning “carriage”; the same applies below. On the mountain there is a kind of stone.

The mountain range of Kushan recorded in the “Seventh Classic of the Central Mountains” begins with Xiuyu Mountain. “Yu” is sometimes written with the character meaning “carriage,” as it is below. A stone found on the mountain is called “Emperor Tai’s Go Pieces.” Emperor Tai is the name of a divine being, and “Go pieces” refers to game stones. The stone has five colors and visible patterns, and is shaped like a quail’s egg. It is used as a ritual stone in prayers to the hundred gods. Wearing or ingesting it can protect a person from harm caused by gu poison.

The mountain also grows a plant shaped like asterwort, with red leaves and clustered roots. Called “Sutiao,” it can be used to make arrow shafts.

Three hundred li to the east lies Drum-Bell Mountain, named for being the place where Emperor Tai hosted the hundred gods and raised cups with them in celebration. A plant growing there has a square stem, yellow leaves, and round leaf blades arranged in three layers. Called “Niao-suan,” it can be used to make poison and also as medicine. The mountain has abundant coarse whetstones for sharpening blades, while fine whetstones are plentiful at its foot.

Another two hundred li to the east is Guyou Mountain. A daughter of the Emperor died there. Her name was Nüshi, and after death she transformed into a plant with leaves layered one over another, yellow flowers, and fruit like dodder. Taking this plant makes a person charming and beloved. According to legend, those who ingest it become loved by others. The plant is also called “Huangfu Grass.”

Another twenty li to the east is Kushan Mountain. A beast there, called Shangao, looks like a pig and is red as a cinnabar flame. It is skilled at hurling insults. The mountain also grows a tree called Huangji, with yellow flowers, round leaves, and fruit resembling orchid grass. Taking it makes a person infertile; here, the word “zi” means to bear children.

Another plant on the mountain has round leaves and no stem. It bears red flowers but no fruit, and is called “Wutiao.” Taking it can treat goiter, a condition in which the neck becomes swollen.

Twenty-seven li farther east lies Dushan. The spirit Tianyu lives here, so strange winds and rains often occur in the mountains. On the mountain grows a tree called “Heaven’s Unwritten Character.” There is also an herb with round leaves and no stem. It bears red flowers but no fruit and is called “Stemless.” Taking this herb prevents goiter, a disease that causes swelling of the neck.

Twenty-seven li farther east lies another Dushan. The spirit Tianyu lives here, and strange winds and rains often occur in the mountains. On the mountain grows a tree called “Heaven’s Whip,” with the second character pronounced like “whip.” Its stem is square, and it resembles a sunflower. Those who take it will not contract the disease indicated by a missing character in the text, and will not choke while eating.

Fifty-two li farther east lies Fanggao Mountain. Some versions write the character “Fang” as “Xiao” or “Mu.” The Ming River rises in the mountain and flows south into the Yi River; it contains much pale green jade. On the mountain grows a tree with leaves like those of the scholar tree. It bears yellow flowers but no fruit and is called “Meng Tree.” Taking it prevents confusion. The mountain is also home to a beast shaped like a bee, with a tail like a branch and a tongue that curls backward. It is skilled at calling and likes to cry out; it is called “Wenwen.”

Fifty-seven li farther east lies Great □ Mountain. The mountain contains much □fu jade and mi jade, though their precise forms are not described. On the mountain grows an herb with leaves like those of an elm and a square stem of blue-green color. It is called “Ox Wound,” also known as “Ox Thorn.” Its roots have blue markings. Taking it prevents reversal of the vital energy, a kind of disorder in which the Qi moves counter to its proper course, and it can also be used for protection against the Jing troops. The Kuang River rises on the southern side of the mountain and flows southwest into the Yi River; it contains many three-legged turtles. An ancient book also records that a pond on Jun Mountain in Yangxian County, Wuxing Commandery, held a large-eyed, three-legged turtle belonging to the three-legged softshell turtle family. It was called “Bao,” and the record appears in the Erya. Eating it prevents serious illness and can also reduce swelling.

Seventy li farther east lies Banshi Mountain. On it grows an herb…

Farther east, seventy li away, stands Half-Stone Mountain. A kind of grass grows on the mountain. As soon as it sprouts, it sends up an ear, and it can grow to more than a zhang in height. Its leaves and flowers are red, but it blooms without bearing fruit. It produces its ear first and its leaves afterward, with flowers blooming among the ears. It is called jiarong. Those who eat this grass are not afraid of thunder, lightning, or thunderclaps. Here, the character ting is pronounced like “Ting,” the same as the pronunciation of bo.

Laixu River rises on the southern side of Half-Stone Mountain and flows west into the Yi River. The water is full of lun fish, which have black markings and are shaped like crucian carp. Those who eat them will not suffer from insomnia.

He River rises north of the mountain and flows north into the Luo River. Its waters are full of teng fish, shaped like mandarin fish. They live in underwater caves connected to one another. The term kui refers to channels in the water that connect with one another; it is pronounced “Gui.” Mandarin fish have dog-like eyes, large mouths, and small, patterned, colorful scales. Teng fish have blue-black markings and red tails. Eating them prevents sores and abscesses and can also treat fistulas; a fistula is a kind of abscess. There are also many insects in the water. The Huainanzi says that chicken head can treat fistulas. The character lou is pronounced “Lou.”

Farther east, fifty li away, stands Shaoshi Mountain. It lies west of present-day Yangcheng in Henan and is popularly called Qinshi. Herbs and trees grow thickly on the mountain, seemingly piled up like grain bins; the precise meaning of this description is unclear.

A tree on the mountain is called dixiu. Its leaves resemble poplar leaves, and its branches divide into five prongs, spreading in crossed directions like branching roads. The Lisao also contains the phrase “miping jiuqu.” Dixiu bears yellow flowers and black fruit. Those who eat it will not become angry. The mountain is rich in jade, and a white jade paste is said to be found at its summit. Taking it enables one to attain immortality, but ordinary people cannot climb to the summit. The Shihan Shenwu also records this. There is much iron at the foot of the mountain.

Xiushui flows from Shaoshi Mountain north into the Luo River. Its waters are full of a kind of fish called “□ fish”; the two characters describing its appearance are also missing from the original, and their pronunciations are given as “Zhou” and “Wei,” so what they refer to is unknown. It has long claws and white feet, with its two feet facing one another; this description of its form is also unclear. Those who eat this fish will not contract gu disease, and it can also protect against weapons.

Thirty li farther east lies Mount Taishi, also known as Mount Song, the Central Peak, west of present-day Yangcheng County. A tree on the mountain has leaves like pear leaves and reddish veins. It is called youmu, pronounced “yu.” Eating it prevents jealousy. The mountain also has a plant whose shape resembles a certain herb and whose leaves resemble shepherd’s purse. Its flowers are white, and its fruits are black, glossy, and moist, like the berries of the wild grape. This plant is called □ grass; eating it prevents mental dullness. The mountain also yields many fine stones, whose quality is second only to jade. It was on this mountain that Qimu, traditionally said to be the mother of Xia Qi, turned into stone and gave birth to Qi, as recorded in the Huainanzi.

Thirty li farther north lies Mount Jiang. The mountain abounds in jade and also grows mulberry trees and cypresses. A tree there is called Diwu. Its leaves resemble prickly ash leaves, its branches bear backward-pointing hooked thorns, and it produces red fruit. It can be used to ward off evil influences.

Thirty li farther north lies Mount Yingliang. The mountain abounds in dark green jade, which grows attached to black stone. Another account says that a chuiyu is a musical instrument shaped like a monkey’s head.

Thirty li farther east lies Mount Fuxi. A tree on the mountain has leaves like those of the Chinese toon and bears red fruit. It is called Kangmu; eating it protects against harm from gu poison. The Si River rises here and flows north into the Yellow River. A valley on the mountain’s eastern side gives the place its name, Snake Valley; it is said that snakes live in the valley. The mountain also grows much wild ginger.

Forty li farther east lies Mount Shaoxing. A plant on the mountain is called □ grass, pronounced “gang.” Its leaves resemble those of the sunflower, its stem is red, its flowers are white, and its fruit resembles wild grapes. Eating it prevents dullness and is said to increase a person’s wisdom. The Qinan River, also written as the Xiao River in some versions, rises here and flows north into the Yi River, also written as the Qin River in some versions.

Continuing southeast for ten li, one comes to Mount Tai. There is also a smaller Mount Tai to the east, now in Zhuxu County, where the Wen River rises. The Mount Tai referred to here, however, is probably not that mountain. A plant on the mountain is called “li.” Its leaves resemble reed leaves, and it is also a kind of mugwort; its name is pronounced “di.” It bears red flowers and can treat ju—poisonous skin sores and abscesses. The Tai River rises on the mountain’s southern side and flows southeast into the Mei River. The Cheng River rises on its northern side and flows northeast into the Mei River. Local people call this stream Jingjian Water.

Continuing east for twenty li, one comes to Mount Mo. There is much red metal on the mountain, a term in ancient usage that often refers to copper. The Mo River rises here and flows north into the Mei River. The Book of Waterways calls it the Mo River.

Continuing east for twenty-five li, one comes to Mount Yi. There is much white metal on the mountain, a term in ancient usage that often refers to silver, as well as abundant iron. The Yi River rises here and flows north into the Yellow River.

Continuing east for thirty-five li, one comes to Mount Min. A tree on the mountain resembles a plant called ke—the original reference is unclear. It bears white flowers and red fruit and is called jibai, pronounced “jibai.” Taking it can make a person unafraid of the cold. There is much □fu jade on the mountain’s southern side.

Continuing east for thirty li, one comes to Mount Dagui. Today, Mount Dagui is in Mixian County, Xingyang, and the Guigou River rises there. “Gui” is pronounced “gui.” There is much iron, fine jade, and blue-green mineral pigment on the mountain’s northern side. A plant on the mountain resembles a hairy shi plant. It bears blue flowers and white fruit and is called “[the original character is damaged],” pronounced “lang.” Taking it can prolong a person’s life; “not dying young” means living out one’s allotted years. The plant’s name is also written with the character ao. It can also be used to treat abdominal ailments.

The peaks of the Mount Ku range begin at Mount Xiuyu… A plant on the mountain resembles a hairy shi plant. It bears blue flowers and white fruit and is called “[the original character is damaged],” pronounced “lang.” Taking it can prolong a person’s life and can also be used to treat abdominal ailments.

The Ku Mountain range extends from Mount Xiuyu to Mount Dagui. It comprises nineteen mountains and stretches for 1,184 li. The sixteen mountain deities of this range all have pig bodies and human faces.

To worship these deities, use a sheep with a single, uniform coat color as the sacrificial offering. Also bury a piece of five-colored jade in the ground as a funerary offering for the ritual.