《山海经》Vol. 3

Some say this was used to hold jade, as a grass mat placed beneath ritual vessels. Mount Ku, Mount Shaoshi, and Mount Taishi are all imperial tombs. When making offerings to them, one must prepare a full grand sacrifice of an ox, a sheep, and a pig, and adorn the offerings with fine jade. The mountain gods all have human faces and three heads; most of their attendant spirits have the bodies of pigs and human faces.

The Eighth Classic of the Central Mountains records that the first mountain in the Jingshan range is called Mount Jing, which is now within Nanjun Commandery. The mountain abounds in gold and jade, and many of its trees are zhu and sandalwood. Zhu is pronounced like the zhu in “rafter post.” The vessels used for the offerings should be adorned with fine jade. The mountain gods all have human faces and three heads; most of their attendant spirits have the bodies of pigs and human faces.

The Ju River rises on Mount Jing and flows southeast into the Yangtze. Today, the Ju River rises on Mount Fa’a, southeast of Weichang County in Xincheng, and flows south to Zhijiang County in Nanjun, where it empties into the Yangtze. Its waters contain many dan su, fine red stones, and patterned fish of variegated colors.

A hundred li to the northeast lies Mount Jing, now south of Muxiang County in Xincheng. Its northern slopes are rich in iron, and its southern slopes in red gold. The mountain is home to many yaks, a kind of mao ox with black hair that comes from remote regions in the southwest. There are also many leopards and tigers. The trees include many pines and cypresses, while bamboo, tangerines, and pomelos grow in abundance among the plants. Pomelos resemble tangerines but are larger, with thick skins and sour flesh.

The Zhang River rises on Mount Jing and flows southeast into the Ju River. Today, the Zhang River flows from Mount Jing to Dangyang County in Nanjun, where it empties into the Ju River. Its waters contain much gold and many jiao fish. Jiao fish belong to the crucian carp family. Their skins have beadlike patterns and are hard; their tails are three or four feet long, with a venomous barb at the end that can injure people. Their skins can be used to adorn the edges of knives and swords, and can also be used to polish wood and animal horns. Such fish are found today in Linhai County as well. The mountain is also home to many lu and elk. Lu resemble deer but are larger.

A further 150 li to the northeast is Mount Jiao. The mountain produces abundant jade, and many blue-green minerals are found at its foot. It is also rich in pine and cypress, as well as peach branches and hook-tip trees. The divine tuo, a mythical water beast, lives here. It has a human face, a ram’s horns, and tiger’s claws, and often swims in the depths of the Juzhang River. These depths are places where the current runs far below the surface. The divine tuo glows when it enters or leaves the water.

A further 120 li to the northeast is Mount Duan. The divine tuo lives here. It has a human face, a ram’s horns, and tiger’s claws, and often swims in the depths of the Juzhang River. It glows when it enters or leaves the water.

A further 120 li to the northeast is Mount Nüji. The mountain is rich in jade, and gold is abundant at its foot. Among its wild animals are many leopards and tigers, as well as lü, elk, red deer, and muntjacs. The muntjac resembles a water deer but is larger, with coarse fur and spotted legs. The birds include many white jiao pheasants. The jiao resembles a pheasant, has a very long tail, and calls as it runs. There are also blue jiao, di pheasants, and a bird whose name is written as “□.” It is as large as a vulture, with purple-green feathers, a long neck, and a red beak, and it eats the heads of pit vipers. The male is called Yunri, and the female Yinxie.

A further 200 li to the northeast is Mount Yizhu. The mountain is rich in gold and jade, and many blue-green minerals are found at its foot. The Wei River rises here and flows south into the Zhang River. The Wei contains abundant white jade.

A further 350 li to the northeast is Mount Lun. The name Lun is pronounced “Lun.” The mountain is rich in catalpa, nanmu, peach branches, zuli chestnuts, tangerines, and pomelos. Zuli chestnuts resemble pears and taste sour and astringent. The wild animals include lü, dust-colored deer, antelope, and an animal whose name is written as “□.” It resembles a rabbit, has deer-like legs, and has blue-green fur.

A further 200 li to the northeast, the text again describes the trees, fruits, and wild animals around Mount Lun: catalpa, nanmu, peach branches, zuli chestnuts, tangerines, and pomelos are abundant; zuli chestnuts resemble pears and taste sour and astringent; and the animals include lü, dust-colored deer, antelope, and a blue-green animal resembling a rabbit with deer-like legs.

A further 200 li to the northeast is Mount Lu□. The mountain is rich in fu jade, and white chalk is abundant at its foot. It also has many niu and jiang trees.

One hundred and thirty li farther east lies Mount Guang. The mountain produces much green jade, and trees grow abundantly on its lower slopes. The spirit Jimeng lives here. He has a human body and a dragon’s head. He often plays in Zhangyuan, and whenever he enters or leaves, he brings whirlwinds and torrential rain.

One hundred and fifty li farther east lies Mount Qi. Its southern slopes produce much red metal, while its northern slopes yield a fine white stone resembling jade, pronounced min. The mountain is rich in gold and jade, and its lower slopes produce much green ore. The trees on the mountain are mostly chu trees. The spirit Shetuo lives here. His name is pronounced in different ways: one reading is tuo he qie, another tuo xiao you qie. He resembles a human, with a square face and three legs.

One hundred and thirty li farther east lies Mount Tong. The mountain produces much gold, silver, and iron. Its trees are mostly gu, zha, zu, chestnut, orange, and pomelo trees. Leopards are common among the wild animals there.

One hundred li farther northeast lies Mount Mei. Many wild animals live there, including rhinoceros-like si oxen, lü, chen, pigs, and deer. The mountain produces much gold, and its lower slopes yield much green ore.

One hundred li farther northeast lies Mount Dayao. Its slopes are thick with pine, cypress, catalpa, mulberry, and ji trees, as well as bamboo. Leopards, tigers, and antelopes are the most common wild animals.

Three hundred li farther northeast lies Mount Ling. It produces much gold and jade, while its lower slopes yield much green ore. Peach, plum, Chinese plum, and apricot trees grow on the mountain. The fruit of the Chinese plum resembles an apricot, but tastes sour.

Seventy li farther northeast lies Mount Long. Many parasitic trees grow there, also called wantong. This kind of tree is recorded in the Erya. The mountain produces much green jade, and its lower slopes yield much red tin. Its grasses include taozhi and goudan.

Fifty li farther southeast lies Mount Heng. Many parasitic trees, gu trees, and zha trees grow there, along with yellow and white chalky earth.

Seventy li farther southeast lies Mount Shi. It produces much gold, and its lower slopes yield much green ore. Many parasitic trees also grow there.

One hundred and twenty li farther south lies Mount Ruo. The mountain produces much a kind of jade called fu, as well as ochre, or red earth, and much gui stone, whose specific properties are unknown. Many parasitic trees and paper mulberry trees grow there. Mount Ruo is also written with the variant name “Mount Qian.”

Farther southeast, 120 li away, stands Mount Zhi. The mountain has abundant fine stone, jade, ochre, and red earth, as well as many gui stones; what “gui stone” specifically refers to is no longer known. Ruomu and mulberry trees also grow there. In another version, the character ruo is written qian.

Another account says: Farther southeast, 120 li away, stands Mount Zhi, with abundant fine stone and mulberry trees.

Farther southeast, 150 li away, stands Mount Yu. The mountain has abundant gold and jade; at its foot are plentiful green jade and iron. Most of the trees on the mountain are cypresses.

Farther southeast, 70 li away, stands Mount Huan. Most of its trees are sandalwood, and the mountain contains abundant bang stone and white tin. White tin is what is now called pewter. The Yu River rises on the mountain, then sinks underground at its foot. Its waters contain many whetstones and grindstones suitable for sharpening knives.

Farther northeast, 150 li away, stands Mount Renju. Most of its trees are gu and oak; red gold is plentiful on the southern slope, while ochre is abundant on the northern slope.

Farther east, 50 li away, stands Mount Shimei. The southern slope has many whetstones and grindstones, while the northern slope has abundant blue “□” stone. The mountain has many cypresses, sandalwood trees, and mulberry trees; among its grasses, bamboo is plentiful.

Farther southeast, 200 li away, stands Mount Qingu. Most of its trees are gu, oak, pepper, and mulberry. The pepper trees are short and grow in clumps. Any other plants beneath them are stung by the pepper trees and wither. The mountain has abundant white min stone, and its foot has many washing stones. The animals there include many wild boars, deer, and white rhinoceroses; among the birds, there are many zhen birds.

The Ke Mountain range, from Mount Jing to Mount Qingu, comprises twenty-three mountains and extends for a total of 2,890 li. The mountain gods all have bird bodies and human faces. To worship them, people pray over a rooster and bury it in the ground. They also use an algae-patterned gui tablet and offer millet as sacrificial grain. Mount Jiao is the dwelling place of these mountain gods. When worshipping Mount Jiao, people offer wine and a small livestock offering, such as a pig and a sheep; after praying, they bury the offerings and tie a jade bi disk to the sacrificial animal’s hair.

The “Ninth Classic of the Central Mountains” describes the Min Mountain range, beginning with Mount Nüji. The mountain has abundant stone-nie, an ore used to make black pigment. Most of its trees are niu and jiang, and its grasses include chrysanthemums and “□.” The Luo River rises here and flows east into the Yangtze. The mountain has abundant realgar, which can also be found in its waters. The animals there include many tigers and leopards.

Three hundred li farther northeast is Min Mountain. The Yangtze River rises here. Min Mountain lies today west of Guangyang County in Wenshan Commandery and is the source of the great river. The river flows northeast and empties into the sea; it reaches the sea at Guangyang County.

The mountain has many fine turtles and many tuo, aquatic animals resembling giant lizards. They are about two zhang long, covered in scales, and have mottled, colorful hides that can be stretched over drums as drumheads. There is much gold and jade on the mountain, and much white min below it. Plum and crabapple trees are the most common trees. The beasts include rhinoceroses, elephants, and kui oxen. In the mountains of Shu there is still a kind of huge ox that weighs several thousand jin and is called a kui ox. In the first year of the Daxing era of the Jin dynasty, one appeared in Shangyong Commandery. People shot and killed it with crossbows, obtaining thirty-eight dan of beef. This is the “Wei” mentioned in the Erya. The most common birds on the mountain are han and bi: the han are white, and the bi are red.

One hundred and forty li farther northeast is Lai Mountain. The Yangtze River rises here. Qionglai Mountain lies today south of Yandao County in Hanjia Commandery and is a source of the river. On the mountain is Jiuzhe Slope, a steep path that winds back and forth in nine bends. The text is missing a character in its description of an animal found on the mountain. It later says the animal “resembles a bear and is black,” mentions a white feature, and says that it also eats copper and iron. The river flows east and joins the great river. Gold is abundant on the southern side of the mountain, and mi dust on the northern side. Sandalwood and paper mulberry are the most common trees; the plants include Chinese chives, scallions, and medicinal herbs. The names of later plants and their related descriptions are missing from the text. The surviving passage also mentions “kongduo” and says it is the skin shed by a snake.

A further 150 li east lies Mount Ju (pronounced “ju”). The Jiang River rises here and flows north, where it is called the North River, before turning east to join the Great River. The mountain is home to many strange snakes. In what is now Yongchang Commandery, there is a hooked snake several zhang long, with a forked tail. In the water, it can use its tail to hook people, cattle, and horses from the bank and eat them. It is also called the “horse-tripping snake”; this is likely the kind described here. The area is also home to many fish called “zhi fish,” though what kind of fish this name refers to can no longer be determined. The mountain has many you and niu trees. You wood is hard and can be used to make parts for carts. There are also many plum and catalpa trees. The wild animals include Kui oxen, antelope, an unidentified animal, rhinoceroses, and si, a beast resembling a rhinoceros. One bird on the mountain resembles an owl, with a red body and a white head. It is called the “thieving-fat bird.” Some people today use that name for a small blue-green bird with a hooked beak that eats meat, but the scripture may refer to a different bird. This bird can be used to guard against fire.

A further 300 li east lies Mount Gaoliang. The mountain has much chalk, while its lower slopes have abundant fine grinding stones and whetstones. Its trees include many taozhi and gouchuan trees. A plant grows here that resembles mallow. It has red flowers, bears pods, and has white sepals. It is said to make horses run very fast.

A further 400 li east lies Snake Mountain. The mountain has much gold, and its lower slopes have much chalk. Its trees include xun and yuzhang; among its plants are many jiarong and a few shaoxin. A beast lives here that resembles a fox. It has a white tail and long ears, and is called the “si wolf” (pronounced “si”). When this beast appears, war breaks out in the country; another account says that internal disorder follows.

A further 500 li east lies Mount Ge. Its southern slopes have much gold, and its northern slopes have much white min, a kind of pale jade. The text then mentions “pu [missing or corrupt character], pronounced ‘hong,’ long ears, called [missing or corrupt character] wolf, pronounced ‘si,’” but some of the words are missing or corrupt. The recoverable meaning is that a long-eared beast called the “[missing name] wolf” appears and foretells war in the country; another account says it foretells internal disorder.

Farther east, five hundred li away, stands Mount Ge. Gold is abundant on its southern slopes, and white jade on its northern slopes. The Pu□ River rises here and flows east into the Yangtze; it contains much white jade. Rhinoceroses, elephants, bears, brown bears, and many monkeys and you can often be seen in the mountains. The you resembles a macaque. Its nostrils point upward, its tail is four or five feet long, and its head has a forked crest. Its body is bluish gray and yellow. When it rains, it hangs upside down from a tree and blocks its nostrils with its tail, or sometimes with two fingers.

Farther northeast, three hundred li away, stands Mount Yuyang. Gold and jade are abundant on the mountain, and blue□ below it. The trees are mostly catalpa and mulberry, and among the grasses grows much purple ci. The Xu River rises here and flows east into the Yangtze; many cinnabar-colored grains are found in its waters.

Farther east, two hundred and fifty li away, stands Mount Qi, which today lies west of Xianyang County in Fufeng Commandery. The mountain has much white□, and among the grasses grows much jiarong.

Farther east, one hundred and seventy li away, stands Mount Jiachao. Yellow earth is abundant on its southern slopes, and fine ocher on its northern slopes. The trees are mostly za, chestnut, orange, and pomelo, and much longxiu also grows there. Longxiu is dragon’s-beard grass: it resembles fine-leaved rush and grows in hollows among the mountain rocks. Its stems hang downward and can be woven into mats.

The first section of the Min Mountain range, from Mount Nüji to the southern side of Mount Jiachao, produces much yellow earth to the south and fine ocher to the north. Its trees are mostly za, chestnut, orange, and pomelo, and it also has much longxiu. Longxiu is dragon’s-beard grass. It resembles fine-leaved rush, grows in hollows among the mountain rocks, and has stems that hang downward and can be used to weave mats.

The first range in the Minshan mountain system extends from Mount Nüji to Mount Jiachao. It contains sixteen mountains and stretches for 3,500 li. The mountain gods all have horse bodies and dragon heads. Their rites require a rooster as an offering, which is buried in the earth; the sacrificial rice is made from rice grains. Mount Wenshan, Mount Gouni, Mount Fengyu, and Mount Chou are the principal peaks in the range. At their rites, wine is presented first, and then a cup is drunk in full. A lesser animal offering of sheep and pigs is made, and a finely patterned jade pendant is tied to the animals’ hair. Mount Xiong is the divine seat on which the god rests, called a “mat.” At its rite, wine is presented, a grand offering of ox, sheep, and pig is prepared, and a jade disk is tied to the animals’ hair. During rites to pray for protection from calamity, dancers wield weapons and shields as they dance to drive misfortune away. To pray for good fortune, dancers wear ceremonial robes with formal caps and offer fine jade called qiu.

The Tenth Classic of the Central Mountains records the first mountain in its range as Mount Shouyang. It is rich in metals and jade, but has no plants or trees.

Fifty li farther west lies Mount Huwei. Its trees are mostly pepper trees and ju trees, and it also has many feng stones. The southern side of the mountain is rich in red gold, and the northern side in iron.

Fifty li farther southwest lies Mount Fanhui. The character hui is pronounced like “kui.” Its trees are mostly you and niu trees, and among its grasses there is much twig-hook grass. This grass still grows in the mountain today.

Twenty li farther southwest lies Mount Yongshi. It has no plants or trees, but is rich in white metal and water.

Twenty li farther west lies Mount Fuzhou. Its trees are mostly sandalwood, and its southern side is rich in gold. A bird on the mountain resembles an owl, but has only one leg and a pig’s tail. It is called Jiaozhong; jiao is pronounced roughly like “qi.” When it appears, a great plague strikes that country. The Inscription says: “The Qizhong bird has only one leg and looks like Kui. It brings no joy, but instead brings sorrow.”

Thirty li farther west lies Mount Chu. It has many parasitic trees, as well as pepper trees, ju trees, zhe trees, and white earth. Another account writes its name as “Mount Zhuzhou.”

Twenty li farther west lies Yuyuan Mountain. Its southern slopes have many green □, while its northern slopes have much iron. Many starling-like birds called guanyu live on the mountain.

Fifty li farther west lies Zhuo Mountain. It has many gu trees, oak trees, and niu trees, and much iron on its northern slopes. Many guanyu also live there.

Another fifty li west, a mountain is again recorded as Zhuo Mountain. It has many gu trees, oak trees, and niu trees, and its southern slopes have many □fu jades.

Seventy li farther west lies Bing Mountain. It has many catalpa trees, sandalwood trees, and shenniu trees; the meaning of “shen” is unknown.

The Shouyang Mountain range extends from Shou Mountain to Bing Mountain. It consists of nine mountains and stretches for 267 li. The mountain spirits all have dragon bodies and human faces. For their sacrifices, a rooster is buried in the ground, and the grains used in the rites are of five kinds. Chu Mountain is the tomb of the mountain spirits. At its rites, a minor animal offering of sheep and pigs is prepared, wine is presented, and the sacrifice also includes fur and feathered creatures, small jade discs, and wine. Gui Mountain is where the Celestial Emperor resides. At its rites, wine and a grand offering of cattle, sheep, and pigs are presented; a shaman and an officiant must dance together, and a jade disc is hung up.

The “Jing of the Eleven Mountains, Section One of the Central Range” records that the first mountain in the Jing Mountain range is Yi Wang Mountain. The Tuan River rises there and flows east into the Ji River. The name “Tuan” is pronounced “qu.” Today, the Tuan River flows through Rang County in Nanyang and joins the Qing River. The Kuang River also rises here and flows southeast into the Han River. Many jiao live in the water. A jiao resembles a snake, has four legs, a small head, and a slender neck, with a white □ on its neck. A large jiao’s body is more than ten arm-lengths around; its eggs are as large as jars that hold one or two shi of grain, and it can swallow people. The mountain has many pine and cypress trees, while its lower slopes have many lacquer and catalpa trees. Its southern slopes have much red metal, and its northern slopes have much min, a stone resembling jade.

Another 150 li to the northeast lies Chao Ge Mountain. The Wu River rises there. Today, the Wu River is in Wuyang County, Nanyang; the name “Wu” is pronounced “wu.”

Another 150 li to the northeast lies Mount Chaoge. The Wu River rises here and flows southeast into the Rong River, where many mermaids live. Catalpa and nanmu trees grow abundantly on the mountain, as do antelope and elk. A plant called mangcao grows there and can be used to poison fish. People still use it to kill fish today.

Another 200 li to the southeast lies Mount Dikun. The mountain’s southern slope yields abundant □fu jade, while its northern slope has abundant iron. The Diqin River flows out of the mountain, then disappears underground at its base. Many singing snakes live in its waters.

Another 50 li to the southeast lies Mount Shi. Chives grow abundantly on the mountain. There is a well called the Heavenly Well: it contains water in summer and dries up in winter. Mulberry trees grow there in abundance, and the mountain also yields fine white clay, gold, and jade.

Another 200 li to the southeast lies Mount Qian. It has many chu trees, which resemble oak trees. Their fruit is edible, they stay green throughout the year, and their wood resists decay when used for roof pillars. The character for chu is also sometimes written “chu,” meaning “store.” The mountain also has many cypress trees. Its southern slope yields abundant gold, and its northern slope, abundant ochre.

Another 300 li to the southeast lies Mount Feng. A beast lives in the mountain that resembles a macaque, with red eyes, a red mouth, and a yellow body. It is called Yonghe. When it appears, a great disaster befalls the country where it has appeared. The spirit Gengfu lives here. The Heavenly Emperor once visited the Abyss of Clear Chill, shining as he came and went. A beast lives in the Abyss of Clear Chill that resembles a macaque, with red eyes, a red mouth, and a yellow body. It is called Yonghe. When it appears, a great disaster befalls the country where it has appeared. The spirit Gengfu lives here. The Heavenly Emperor once visited the Abyss of Clear Chill, shining as he came and went. The Clear Chill River is on Mount Xihào in the outskirts of the county. When the spirit arrives, the water turns red and glows. There is now a shrine there where the spirit is worshipped. It is said that when Yonghe appears, the country will decline. Nine bells stand on the mountain and can foretell the arrival of frost: when frost comes, the bells ring, and so they are said to “know frost.” This is a natural response among things, not something human beings can bring about. Gold is abundant on the mountain; at its foot grow many chestnut, oak, niu, and jiang trees.

Another 800 li to the northeast lies Mount Tuchuang. Its southern slope has abundant iron, and the mountain has many shumo trees and a grass called golden pheasant grain. The root of golden pheasant grain resembles an egg and tastes both sour and sweet. Eating it is beneficial.

Another 60 li to the east lies Mount Pi. The mountain has abundant white clay and ochre, and is thickly covered with pine and cypress.

Sixty li farther east is Mount Yaobi. It grows many catalpa and nanmu trees. The north side of the mountain has abundant blue minerals, while the south side has abundant white metal, an ancient term for silver. A bird lives on the mountain that resembles a pheasant and often eats something called “bei.” It is named the zhen. “Fei” describes the way it carries a tray on its back and is pronounced like “fei” in “jadeite.” This passage refers to a different bird, not the zhen that feeds on snakes.

Forty li farther east is Mount Zhili. The Ji River rises here and flows south into the Han River. Today the Ji River rises in the mountains northwest of Li County and flows south into the Han River. “Li” in the county’s name is pronounced the same as “li” in Zhili. A bird called the Yingchao lives on the mountain. It resembles a magpie, with red eyes and beak, a white body, and a tail shaped like a ladle used for scooping wine. Its call sounds like it is calling its own name. The mountain has many □ oxen and Qian sheep.

Fifty li farther northeast is Mount Zhitong, pronounced like “diao.” The mountain grows many pine and cypress trees, as well as ji and huan trees. The huan tree’s leaves resemble a cangue, and its bark is yellow and cannot be worked. Its fruit resembles that of the chinaberry tree; when placed in wine and drunk, it can dispel harmful influences. Washing clothes with it removes dirt. Its hard, black seeds can be used to string the tassels of sachets. This tree is also called the gua lou.

One hundred li farther northwest is Mount Jinli. It grows many pine and cypress trees, as well as fine catalpa trees. The north side of the mountain has abundant cinnabar-colored minerals and gold. Leopards and tigers are often seen there. A bird called the Qinggeng lives on the mountain. It resembles a magpie, with a blue body and a white beak, eyes, and tail, and can ward off epidemics. Its call sounds like it is calling its own name.

Thirty li farther southeast is Mount Yigu, pronounced like “ku.” The mountain grows many niu and jiang trees, as well as much ju, whose identity is uncertain; it is pronounced like “ju” in “pickled vegetables.” A beast lives on the mountain that resembles a dog, with a white beak, eyes, and tail. It is called the Qinggeng and can ward off epidemics. Its call sounds like it is calling its own name.

Thirty li farther southeast lies Mount Yigu. The mountain has many niu trees, jiang trees, and jucao grass (the original commentary says the specific plant has not been identified). A beast lives there that resembles a dog, with tiger claws and scaled armor. It is called a lin and is skilled at leaping and pouncing. Eating its meat protects people from harmful winds and makes them unafraid of the winds of Heaven.

Thirty-five li farther southeast lies Mount Jigu. The mountain has abundant fine jade and black leopards. It also produces luchen, ling □, and other things. To the south are many min stones, which resemble jade; to the north are many green □.

Forty li farther southeast lies Mount Ji. The mountain has many catalpa and mulberry trees, and its grasses include abundant Chinese chives.

Fifty li farther southeast lies Mount Gaoqian. A spring on the mountain is extremely cold and clear; some versions write its name as “Qian.” It is said to be the drink of Emperor Tai. On Mount Tanshou, south of Xie County east of the river, water also wells up from underground and gathers without flowing away. Local people call it “jar-syrup”; it is probably the same kind of water. Those who drink it do not suffer heartache. There is gold on Mount Gaoqian and ochre, a reddish-brown mineral, at its foot.

Thirty li farther southeast lies Mount Youxi. The mountain has many niu, jiang, and gu trees, as well as abundant jade and feng stone.

Thirty-five li farther southeast lies Mount Cong. The mountain has many pine and cypress trees, and bamboo grows in abundance at its foot. The Cong River rises on the mountain and flows underground before emerging at its foot. It contains many three-legged turtles with forked tails. Their name and appearance can be found in the Erya. Eating one protects against gu poison and epidemics.

Thirty li farther southeast lies Mount Ying □, pronounced “zhen.” The mountain has many pine and cypress trees, while catalpa trees and xun grow at its foot.

Thirty li farther southeast lies Mount Bi. The Diyuan River rises here and flows northeast into the Shi River. Its waters contain abundant water jade, a crystal-like stone, and jiao dragons; the mountain itself has many □fu jade.

Another twenty li to the southeast lies Mount Lema. A beast lives on the mountain, shaped like “hui” and red as a flame of burning cinnabar. It is called “Liyue Bishan.” The waters of Diyuan rise here, flow northeast, and enter the Shi River. The water holds many water jades and jiao dragons. The mountain has much “□fu jade.”

Another twenty li to the southeast lies another Mount Lema. A beast lives on the mountain, shaped like “hui” and red as cinnabar fire. It is called “□,” pronounced li. When it appears, a great epidemic breaks out in that country.

Another twenty-five li to the southeast lies Mount Zhen. The Shi River rises here, though some believe its name should be written “Chen River.” The Qin River is now in the Nanyang area. The Shi River flows southeast into the Ru River. Its waters hold many mermaids, jiao dragons, and jie. The jie resembles a blue dog.

Another forty li to the east lies Mount Ying. Many blue “□” grow at its foot, and the mountain has much gold and jade.

Another thirty li to the east lies Mount Hushou. Several plants grow there in abundance: ju, chou, and ju. The plant called chou can no longer be identified with certainty; its name is pronounced diao.

Another twenty li to the east lies Mount Yinghou. The mountain has much feng stone, and its foothills have much red tin.

Another fifty li to the east lies Mount Dashu. The Sha River rises here and flows northeast into the Shi River. Its waters hold much white chalk, a kind of white earth.

Another forty li to the east lies Mount Bei. The mountain has many peach, plum, ju, and catalpa trees, as well as much lei. Lei is also called teng and pronounced lei; it is said to be a kind of tiger bean or leopard bean.

Another thirty li to the east lies Mount Yidi. The mountain has much jade, and its foothills have much gold. A beast lives there, shaped like a fei mouse. The Erya records a mouse of this shape, but what animal it refers to is unclear. Fei is pronounced like the fei in “dog bark.” This beast has white ears and a white mouth. It is called ju ru, pronounced roughly like qu. When it appears, a great war breaks out in that country.

Thirty li farther east is Mount Ni, pronounced like “ni” in “rainbow.” The Ni River rises on the mountain and flows underground to its foot. The mountain contains much fine white chalk. There is much gold on its slopes and much blue-green ore below.

Thirty li farther east is Mount Ya. The Li River, pronounced like “li” in “courtesy,” rises here and flows east into the Shi River. The water holds many large fish. Many fine mulberry trees grow on the mountain, while below it are abundant jū grass and red gold.

Fifty li farther east is Mount Xuan. The Lun River rises here and flows southeast into the Shi River. The water holds many jiao. On the mountain stands a mulberry tree fifty chi tall, with a trunk five zhang around. Its branches intertwine and spread in all directions. Its leaves are more than one chi across, with red veins; its flowers are yellow and its calyx is blue-green. It is called the “Mulberry of the Imperial Daughter.”

Forty-five li farther east is Mount Heng. Tradition identifies it as the Southern Marchmount near Hengyang, also known as Mount Xunlou. The mountain has abundant blue-green ore and mulberry trees. Among its birds are many starlings.

Forty li farther east is Mount Feng. The mountain has abundant feng stone and many mulberry trees, as well as yangtao. Yangtao resembles a peach and has a square stem. It is also called “ghost peach” and can be used to treat skin swelling.

Seventy li farther east is Mount Yu. The mountain has abundant fine jade, and there is much gold below. Among the plants growing there is plentiful jigu.

Thirty li farther east is Mount Xian. The mountain has abundant oak, chuniu trees, and jū grass. Among the grasses, there is also much weidong. Gold is plentiful on the sunny side of the mountain, and iron on the shady side. A wild beast lives here, shaped like a large mo. Its mouth and eyes are red, and its tail is white. When it appears, fires break out in the area. It is called “□ji,” pronounced like “yi.”

Thirty li farther east lies Mount Zhang, also written in some versions as Mount Tong. The southern side of the mountain is rich in metal, and the northern side has many fine stones. The Gao River rises here and flows east into the Li River. There are many gui stones in the water. The character gui was not known in earlier texts; it is pronounced like the word for “kneel.”

Twenty-five li farther east lies Mount Dazhi. The southern side of the mountain is rich in metal. There are many millet trees and oak trees on the mountain, but no grasses.

Fifty li farther east lies Mount Quwu. There are many jia trees on the mountain.

Fifty li farther east lies Mount Shengxiong. There are many millet trees and jade on the mountain, and many feng stones on its summit.

Fifty li farther east lies Mount Dagui. A mountain with the same name has already been recorded; it may be the same one. The southern side is rich in red gold, and the northern side has many whetstones.

Ten li farther east lies Mount Zhongjiu. There are no grasses or trees on the mountain, but many feng stones.

Fifty li farther east, another mountain is also recorded as Mount Dagui. A mountain with the same name has already been mentioned; it may be the same one. The southern side is rich in red gold, and the northern side has many whetstones.

Ten li farther east, another mountain is also recorded as Mount Zhongjiu. There are no grasses or trees on the mountain.

Seventy li farther northeast lies Mount Lishi, also written in some versions as Mount Moshi. There are many thorn trees and qi plants on the mountain. The southern side is rich in gold, and the northern side has many whetstones. A wild animal lives in the mountain. It resembles a leopard, has a white head and tiger claws, and is called Liangqu. When it appears, the country will be struck by a great war.

One hundred li farther southeast lies Mount Qiu. The Qiu River rises on the mountain and gathers at its foot. There is fine ochre in the mountain, many jia trees on the slopes, and a kind of bamboo. The southern side is rich in metal, and the northern side in iron.

Two hundred li farther east lies Mount Chouyang. There are many chou trees and ju trees on the mountain. A bird lives there that resembles an ordinary bird and has red feet. It is called □yu, and its cry sounds like songju zhizhi. It can be used to ward off fire.

Three hundred li farther east lies Mount Ao. There are many cypress, niu, and sandalwood trees on the mountain. The southern side has many □fu jade stones. The Ao River rises here and flows east into the Shi River.

Thirty-five li farther east lies Mount Fu. Many straight, tall trees grow on the mountain. Its summit has many blocks of stone, and its lower slopes contain abundant red tin.

Three hundred li farther east lies Mount Yao. Many jiarong plants grow on the mountain, along with abundant gold and jade.

Three hundred and fifty li farther east lies Mount Ji. Many oak and sandalwood trees grow there, and among the plants and trees, prickly ash is especially common. A beast lives in the mountain that resembles a pig. Its body is yellow, and its head and tail are white. It is called Wen□, pronounced “Lin.” Whenever this beast appears, strong winds sweep across the world. The character □ is also written as “Kou,” pronounced “Kou.”

The Jieshan mountain range extends from Mount Yiwang to Mount Ji. It comprises forty-eight mountains and stretches for 3,732 li. The mountain spirits all have the body of a pig and the head of a human. In sacrifice, a rooster is offered as the sacrificial animal, a gui—a ritual jade object from ancient times—is buried with it, and the five kinds of grain are presented as offerings.

When making offerings to the spirits of the mountains, a grand sacrificial set of ox, sheep, and pig is required. After the offerings have been presented, they are buried in the ground, with the sacrificial animals laid upside down. A jade bi is also offered, and there is no fixed number of oxen to be used. Mount Du and Mount Yu are the tombs of the mountain spirits. At both, the animals are buried upside down, a lesser sacrificial set of sheep and pig is offered, and auspicious jade is tied to the sacrificial animals.

The “Twelfth Classic of the Central Mountains” records that the first mountain in the Dongting mountain range is called Mount Pianyu; another version gives its name as “Jianyu.” The mountain has no vegetation and produces abundant gold.

Fifty li farther southeast lies Mount Yun. It has no trees or other vegetation, but grows kuai bamboo, which is highly poisonous: a person wounded by it will die. Today, Shixing Commandery and Guiyang County produce a kind of bamboo called sheng bamboo. The thickest stalks measure two chi around and grow to four zhang in length. Jiaozhi also has a kind of bamboo called di bamboo. Its hollow stalks are strong and resilient, and poisonous as well. If sharpened and used to stab a tiger, it kills the animal. These kinds of bamboo all belong to the same category. Mount Yun produces abundant gold, while its lower slopes contain much □fu jade.

One hundred and thirty li farther southeast lies Mount Gui. Many gu trees, oak trees, chou trees, and ju trees grow there. The mountain produces abundant gold, while its lower slopes have much green realgar and fu bamboo. Fu bamboo is the same as qiong bamboo. Its tall, hollow joints make it suitable for walking sticks, which is why it is also called “old-age support bamboo.”

Seventy li farther east lies Mount Bing. Gui bamboo, with its long segments, grows abundantly on the mountain. There is also much gold, copper, and iron, but no trees.

Fifty li farther southeast lies Mount Fengbo. The mountain has abundant gold and jade. At its foot grow many tall bamboos with long, hollow segments, suitable for making walking sticks; these are therefore called “elder-supporting bamboo.”

Seventy li farther east lies Mount Bing. Gui bamboo grows abundantly there, along with much gold, copper, and iron, but no trees.

Fifty li farther southeast lies Mount Fengbo. The mountain has abundant gold and jade. At its foot are suan stone and patterned stone, whose names and meanings are unclear, as well as much iron. Willow, niu, sandalwood, and paper mulberry are the most common trees on the mountain. To its east is a grove called the Forest of Mangfu, where many beautiful trees, birds, and beasts can be found.

One hundred and fifty li farther east lies Mount Fufu. There is much gold on the mountain and blue realgar at its foot. Mulberry and paper mulberry are the most common trees, and bamboo is plentiful among the grasses. The deity called “Chicken Drum Spirit Yu’er” dwells here. It has a human body and carries two snakes. It often swims in the depths of rivers, and shines when it enters or emerges.

One hundred and twenty li farther southeast lies Mount Dongting. Today, west of Yiling County in Changsha, there is a pond called Dongting Bei. It is said to have an underground current that flows into the Yangtze River.

Farther southeast, 120 li away, stands Dongting Mountain. It lies west of present-day Yiling County, Changsha. There is also Dongting Marsh, a stretch of wetlands whose waterways secretly connect with the great river. The Li Sao says, “I followed the road to Dongting” and “Dongting’s waters ripple, as leaves flutter down.” Both passages refer to this place. “Dongting” is sometimes written “Tongting,” but the character with the water radical, “Dong,” is the correct form.

Dongting Mountain yields abundant gold, while its foothills contain much silver and iron. Trees growing there include the zha tree, pear, tangerine, and pomelo; among the plants are fragrant herbs, mugwort, peony, and chuanxiong. Mugwort resembles the plant sheshuang and has a fragrant scent. The two daughters of the Celestial Emperor live here, and they are also spirits of the river. They are the two River Maidens described in the Biographies of Immortals, and the Lady of the Xiang, called the “Emperor’s Daughters” in the Nine Songs of the Li Sao.

The Jade Tablet of the River Chart says that the Lady of the Xiang was a daughter of Emperor Yao. When Qin Shi Huang crossed the river by boat to Xiang Mountain, he was caught in a great storm and asked his scholars what kind of spirit the Lord of the Xiang was. They replied that, according to what they had heard, she was one of Yao’s two daughters and a consort of Shun, buried here after her death. The Biographies of Exemplary Women also says that the two women died between the Yangtze and Xiang rivers and were called the Lords of the Xiang by local people. Zheng Sinong likewise held that Shun’s two consorts were the Lords of the Xiang. Some therefore say that when Shun died during his journey to the south, his two consorts followed him and drowned with him in the Xiang River, which is why they are called the Ladies of the Xiang.

Yet according to the Nine Songs, the Lord of the Xiang and the Lady of the Xiang were originally two distinct spirits. The Xiang region had its Lady of the Xiang, just as the Yellow River and Luo River regions each had their own water spirits. As divine beings, they ranked alongside Heaven and Earth. How, then, could they be merely daughters of Yao? And if they were Yao’s daughters, how could they both simply be called the Lord of the Xiang?

The Book of Rites says that Shun was buried at Cangwu and that his two consorts did not accompany him there. This makes clear that they did not follow Shun on his campaigns while alive, nor were they buried with him after death. Even if they had once travelled with Shun, these two women possessed extraordinary spiritual powers: they had used birds’ labor and dragon robes to rescue Shun when he was trapped. How, then, could they have been unable to escape the storm and waves, and instead drowned together? Moreover, transmitted texts say that those who held the rank of High Duke in life became exalted spirits after death. In the hierarchy of sacrifices, the five Ye were ranked with the Three Dukes, and the four Yan with the feudal lords. The Xiang is not one of the four great rivers and does not appear among the state’s prescribed sacrifices. These two women, descendants of an emperor and consorts of a divine ruler, should not have been reduced to spirits of a minor river and treated as ordinary ladies. The accounts, then, are confused and unsupported, and cannot be trusted.

These errors probably arose because both women were called “Imperial Daughters,” causing their titles and identities to be confused. As the mistaken account circulated over time, people grew accustomed to it and ceased to correct it. This is truly regrettable.

The two women often played in the depths of the river. The winds of the Li and Yuan rivers meet the Xiao and Xiang waters in the deep channels. Saying that they frolic in the river’s depths and can join the waters of the three rivers, stirring up winds and waves, conveys their divine power. The Yangtze, Xiang, and Yuan rivers converge around Baling, which is therefore called the “confluence of the three rivers.” The Li River joins the Yangtze some seventy or eighty li away. The Huainanzi mentions fishing in the Xiao and Xiang rivers, but the precise location is now unknown. “Xiao” is pronounced like “xiao” in “Xiao.” The Xiao-Xiang region lies among the Nine Rivers. The Treatise on Geography says that the Nine Rivers are south of present-day Xunyang, where the Yangtze divides into nine branches that eventually flow eastward into the great river. This is the place meant by the Documents when it says, “The Nine Rivers are vast and mighty.”

When the two women come and go, whirlwinds and torrential rain often accompany them. The area is full of strange spirits, shaped like people, with snakes coiled around their bodies and snakes held in both hands. There are also many unusual birds.

Continuing southeast for another 180 li, one comes to Mount Baoshan. The mountain has many trees, including □, nan, jing, qi, arrow bamboo, □, jun, and shou; shou is also a kind of slender bamboo. Bamboo for making arrows is produced here as well, and it is mentioned in the “Tribute of Yu.” The mountain has abundant gold and jade; its lower slopes have plenty of qi, patterned stone, and iron. The animals found here include many elk, deer, muntjac, and jiu. Jiu is another name for the eagle, mentioned in the Guangya as “zhou.”

Continuing southeast for another 200 li, one comes to Mount Jigong. The mountain has abundant gold, while its lower slopes have plenty of □fu jade. Its trees include willow, niu, sandalwood, and mulberry. A creature here called the gui resembles a slave tortoise. It has a white body and a red head. Gui is pronounced like “deceit.” It is said that this creature can be used to ward off fire.

Continuing southeast for another 159 li, one comes to Mount Yao. Its northern slopes have plenty of yellow chalk, while its southern slopes have abundant gold. Its trees include jing, qi, willow, and sandalwood; its grasses include shuyu and □.

Continuing southeast for another one-shi li, one comes to Mount Jiangfu. The mountain has abundant silver and whetstone. It has no tall trees, and its animals include many wild boar and deer.

Continuing east for another 200 li, one comes to Mount Zhenling. Its northern slopes have plenty of yellow chalk, while its southern slopes have abundant gold. Its trees include jing, qi, willow, and sandalwood; its grasses include shuyu and □.

Continuing southeast for another one-shi li, one comes to Mount Jiangfu. The mountain has abundant silver and whetstone. It has no tall trees, and its animals include many wild boar and deer.

Continuing east for another 200 li, one comes to Mount Zhenling. The mountain has abundant gold, while its lower slopes have plenty of jade. Its trees include gu, oak, willow, and niu; its grasses include rongcao zhi.

Continuing southeast for another 120 li, one comes to Mount Yangdi. This mountain is rich in fine copper. Its trees include sandalwood, niu, yi, and paper mulberry; yi is a kind of mountain mulberry. Its animals include many gazelles and musk deer.

Continuing south for another 90 li, one comes to Mount Chaisang. It lies south of present-day Chaisang County in Xunyang and is connected to Mount Ting. The mountain has abundant silver, while its lower slopes have plenty of green jade, cold stone, and red ochre. Its trees include willow, qi, paper mulberry, and mulberry. Its animals include many elk and deer, as well as white snakes and flying snakes. Flying snakes are teng snakes, said to be able to ride the mist and fly.

Traveling another 230 li southeast brings you to Mount Zheshan of Rongyu. The mountain is thick with willows, qi plants, paper mulberries, and mulberry trees. The wild beasts are mostly elk, and there are also many white snakes and flying snakes. A flying snake is a soaring serpent: it can rise into the air and travel through the mist.

Traveling another 230 li southeast brings you to Mount Rongyu. Copper is abundant on the mountain, and silver below it. The slopes are thick with willows and qi plants, and there are also many strange snakes and insects.

The Dongting mountain range extends from Mount Pianyu to Mount Rongyu. It comprises fifteen mountains stretching for 2,800 li. The mountain spirits all have bird bodies and dragon heads.

To sacrifice to these mountain spirits, use a rooster and a sow as offerings, and slaughter the animals. The fine rice used in the ritual is to be taken according to Xu, a place name or specific designation. Mount Fufu, Mount Jigong, Mount Yao, and Mount Yangdi are all burial places of mountain spirits. For the ritual, first lay out the animal offerings and jade objects, then bury them together. Offer wine in prayer, and use a lesser sacrificial set—one sheep and one pig—with a piece of auspicious jade adorning the offerings.

For sacrifices to the mountain spirits of Mount Dongting and Mount Rongyu, first lay out the animal offerings and jade objects, then bury them. Offer wine in prayer, and use a grand sacrificial set—one ox, one sheep, and one pig. Adorn the offerings with fifteen jade objects, such as gui tablets and bi disks, and apply decorations in five colors. The term “zhuan” means “to adorn”; it is a regional expression.

The account above gives an overview of the mountains and waterways in the Central Classic. It lists 197 mountains, extending for a total of 21,371 li. Across the world there are 5,370 famous mountains, covering a total of 64,056 li.

Yu said: Among the famous mountains of the world, there are 5,370 in all, stretching for 64,056 li across the earth. These are the mountains recorded in the Five Treasuries of Mountains Classic (Wuzang Shanjing). There are many other smaller mountains, too numerous to record one by one. The distance from east to west across Heaven and Earth is 28,000 li, and from north to south, 26,000 li. In the mountains, a stretch of 8,000 li marks the sources of rivers, and another 8,000 li their confluences. There are 467 mountains that yield copper and 3,690 that yield iron. These places provide people with land to divide and grain to cultivate, and produce weapons such as halberds, spears, swords, and lances. The capable have strength to spare, while the inept find themselves lacking. The Fengshan rites—the imperial ceremonies for offering sacrifices to Heaven and Earth—were performed on Mount Tai for the feng sacrifice and on Mount Liangfu for the shan sacrifice. Seventy-two rulers performed them. The records include the rise and fall, gains and losses of successive dynasties; this is the information needed to govern a state. The “Numerical Resources” chapter of the Guanzi says, “There were seventy-two ruling houses in the Feng-hui dynasty.”

The five books of the Five Treasuries of Mountains Classic comprise 15,503 characters in all.

Taolin

The Taolin Valley area is indeed a vast plain. After King Wu of Zhou defeated the Shang, he let the oxen rest and the horses roam free, signaling that there would be no more warfare. He then crossed the formidable Mount Santu and established a line of defenses in the Western Xia region.

Resonant Stone

Metal and stone belong to the same category, and stone conceals sound deep within it. When struck, it booms like thunder, carrying far away. If one responds to it according to a set method, there is no breath that cannot circulate.

Spiral Tortoise, Human-Faced Fish, and Xiupi

The spiral tortoise cries like splitting wood. Xiupi uses □ as …; its cry sounds like that of a chi, a kind of owl. The human-faced fish is shaped like □ and appears in the region of the Luo and Yi Rivers.

Diti’s Go Stones

Diti is vast and boundless, a place of numinous power and distinction. There are stone Go pieces there, mottled with five colors. People offer wine in prayer to the hundred gods, seeking harmony between the Qi of Heaven and Earth.

Ruohua Bird and Sour Grass

In the region of the Luo and Yi Rivers.

Diti’s Go Stones

Diti is vast and boundless, a place of numinous power and distinction. There are stone Go pieces there, mottled with five colors. People offer wine in prayer to the hundred gods, seeking harmony between the Qi of Heaven and Earth.

Ruohua Bird and Sour Grass

A plant used to treat malaria, its fruit resembles a melon. Its leaves taste sour, and it bears three tiers of yellow flowers. It can be made into poison, and it can also make people unafraid of venomous snakes.

□ A plant with yellow flowers and fruit resembling dodder. When a noble person wears it, people who see them will feel fond of them and draw near. It is said to have transformed from an imperial daughter, though the truth of this is difficult to fathom.

The Mountain Boar and Yellow Thorn

The Mountain Boar resembles a pig and enjoys insulting people. It feeds on Yellow Thorn. It is neither born through the reproduction of descendants nor produced by transformation. Though it lacks the virtue of chastity and fidelity, its nature is like that of a woman who does not marry.

The Three-Legged Turtle

The Creator lets all things find what suits them, without favoritism or injustice. Fewness does not mean deficiency, and length does not mean excess. Ben has grown three legs—how is it different from a softshell turtle?

Jiarong

Thunder is the vital essence of Heaven; it can make people’s hearts race and their vision swim. What can ward it off? Taking Jiarong will do. It can steady the mind and regulate the appetite, stomach, and intestines.

Tianbian, Niushang, the Patterned Beast, and the Blue-Spotted Fish

Niushang can calm the breath, while Tianbian can relieve obstruction in the throat. The Patterned Beast resembles a bee, with a forked tail and a tongue that curls backward. The Teng fish has blue markings on its body and lives in the Ku caves.

Di Xiu

The branches of the Di Xiu tree interweave. Its trunk rises tall on Mount Shaoshi, and its dense shade resembles a bank of clouds. A noble person who wears it will not provoke others’ anger, but instead will be liked.

Taishi

Mount Song is the foremost of the Five Sacred Peaks. Mount Hua, Mount Dai, Mount Heng in the north, and Mount Heng in the south each guard a direction. Their breath reaches upward to the Celestial River, and the spirits can discern darkness and light. Mount Taishi rises steeply at the center, outstanding among the mountains.

Youmu

There is a beautiful tree called Youmu. Gathered and worn, it lends the wearer an elegant, gentle bearing. A noble person will therefore feel joyful, and there will be no quarrels at home.

□ Plant

The stem of the □ plant is red, and its fruit resembles wild grapes. Eating it can increase wisdom, though people often do not notice the change themselves. It seems to make a person as clever as someone naturally gifted; its unusual effect surpasses learning alone.

The Kalij Pheasant

The kalij pheasant responds to drought. Though it is a creature of a different kind, when attacked it does not retreat, even at the cost of its life. People adorn warriors with its feathers, using them to inspire warriors to uphold loyalty and honor.

Ming Snake and Hua Snake

The Ming Snake and Hua Snake belong to the same kind, though they differ in form. They beat their wings and fly together, leaping over the water and raising waves. Their appearance portends calamity: sometimes floods, sometimes drought.

Red Copper

Kunwu Mountain (a legendary mountain) produces copper. A knife made from its copper can cut jade as easily as if it were cutting mud; when exposed to fire, it gleams with many colors. Zishi once praised this, and Zai Wo also tested it himself.

The Spirit of Xunchi

Taifeng has a tiger’s tail, and Wuluo has a human face. The Spirit of Xunchi, however, cannot be seen. There is fine jade there, and the riverside woods are lush and bright green.

The Spirit Wuluo

There is a spirit named Wuluo, with a slender waist and white teeth, whose voice sounds like jade pendants striking together. She wears ornaments threaded through holes in her ears and governs the deep, secluded city of the Heavenly Emperor. This place is also well suited for women to live.

The Yao Bird

The Yao bird resembles a liang bird. It has emerald-green feathers and red eyes. It is beautiful in appearance, and its flesh is unusual as well. When women eat it, they can bear many descendants. The riverside woods where it lives are lush and bright green.

The Spirit Wuluo

There is a spirit named Wuluo, with a slender waist and white teeth, whose voice sounds like jade pendants striking together. She wears ornaments threaded through holes in her ears and governs the deep, secluded city of the Heavenly Emperor. This place is also well suited for women to live.

The Yao Bird

The Yao bird resembles a liang bird. It has emerald-green feathers and red eyes. It is beautiful in appearance, and its flesh is unusual as well. When women eat it, their descendants can flourish.

Xuncao

Xuncao bears red fruit, and its plant resembles reeds. Women who eat it can whiten their complexion and transform their appearance. Xia Ji was especially alluring; her beauty and charm were renowned far and wide.

The Horse-Belly Beast and the Flying Fish

The horse-belly beast has a human face and looks like a tiger. The flying fish resembles a pig, with red markings on its body and no feathers. Eating them can ward off the calamities of war and make one unafraid of thunder.

The Spirit Taifeng

The spirit Taifeng enjoys roaming the southern slopes of mountains. He washes his feet in the Nine Provinces, and when he comes and goes, light shimmers around him. His appearance always brings changes in the weather, leaving Kong Jia in a state of alarm.

Jibai

Jibai bears white flowers and fruit as red as cinnabar. Its fruit is plump; eating it can change one’s breath and make one unafraid of cold. All things change according to the influences they receive. Mozi once sighed over this.

Juyou

Juyou fruit has a husk and a uniquely sweet taste. Its flesh is rosy, its color like gold, and its leaves are lush and bright green. Lingjun (Qu Yuan’s courtesy name) once sang of it, depicting it as a splendid thing.

Pingcao grows on Daguai Mountain (a legendary mountain). It has blue flowers and white fruit. Eating it can prevent an early death. Though it cannot extend one’s lifespan, it can let one enjoy the full course of life.

The Jiaoren Fish

The jiao (a legendary aquatic creature resembling a shark) is an unusual kind of fish. Its skin is like pearls, and its tail is poisonous. It has neither the scales of a fish nor the fur of a beast. Its hide can be used to polish horn objects and to decorate swords.

Zhen Bird

The viper is the chief among poisonous creatures, and the zhen bird feeds on vipers. As it beats its wings and cries in the woods, the plants and trees seem to wither and grow desolate. It brings death silently as it flies past, and must not be provoked.

Pepper

Pepper trees grow in dense stands and bear abundant fruit in orderly clusters. Their flower spikes sway, touched by autumn frost, while their red fruits are fragrant and pungent. It is said that eating pepper fruit can grant insight into things and communication with the spirits.

Divine Beast and Jimeng

The name of the divine beast is missing the character she. It has three legs; the surviving text describing its □wei is also damaged, but says that it has tiger claws. Jimeng, a legendary spirit, has a dragon’s head and an unusual appearance. It can rise and descend between Heaven and Earth, bringing wind and rain, and its movements are distant and hard to predict.

Mount Min

The numinous energy of Mount Min reaches upward to Dongjing, the name of a constellation. The river begins with no more than a ladleful of water, then gathers into a deep, vast, and far-reaching current. Mount Min is the governing ridge of the southern mountains and rivers, and so Heaven and Earth are clear and peaceful.

Kui Ox

In the southwest there is a gigantic ox, said to come from the region of the river and Mount Min. Its body is vast as a hanging cloud, and its weight is a thousand jun. Though astonishingly strong, it is difficult to tame and control.

Mount Lai

The Qionglai Mountains are high and rugged, and their paths twist through nine turns. Wang Yang, a man of the Western Han, once hesitated there, while Wang Zun, also of the Western Han, pressed forward and showed his resolve. The Yin-Shang had three men of virtue, and the Han dynasty had two worthy sages.

□ Wolf, Yonghe, and □ Beast

When the □ wolf appears, armies do not campaign abroad. The appearance of Yonghe brings fear; another strange beast, whose name is missing, brings pestilence. Both are ill omens, but the disasters they cause differ, each corresponding to a different course of fate.

Wei

Among apes, none is more capable than the wei, a long-tailed ape. When it rains, it hangs upside down and plugs its nose with its tail. Though its form resembles that of an ape or monkey, it is also depicted on ritual vessels used in ancestral temples.

Bear’s Cave

On Bear Mountain there is a cave from which, it is said, a spirit being emerged. The spirit of Bear Mountain and the stone drum, a wondrous stone of legend, differ in appearance but bring about the same omens. Though they foretell auspicious signs, the events they portend are not necessarily fortunate.

Qizhong

The qinggeng bird can ward off epidemics, while the qizhong, a legendary beast, brings disaster. All things are opposed to one another, each appearing in accordance with a different Qi. When the qizhong appears, the people are filled with fear; it is indeed an omen of disease.

Jiao

It is neither like a snake nor a dragon. Its scales are vividly colored and dazzlingly bright. It leaps among the waves, winding through the Yangtze and Han Rivers. The arrow shot by Emperor Wu of Han pierced it deeply, but the arrows that followed snapped one after another.

The Spirit Gengfu

Clear, cold water flows at the mountain summit. The spirit Gengfu roams and dwells here, its radiance streaming across the surroundings. The people offer sacrifices to it, praying that calamities will be dispelled.

The Nine Bells

High mountains collapse, the Jing River runs dry, qilin fight, and the sunlight grows dim. The Nine Bells are about to ring; only when frost descends will they fall. Their vital energies respond to one another, and when stirred, they erupt into action.

Yingshao

On Mount Zhili lives a bird that looks like a magpie. It has a white body, red eyes, and a spoon-shaped tail. Though it bears something shaped like a dipper, it cannot use it to scoop water.

Lin

There is a beast with tiger claws called Lin. It likes to leap and pounce, shaking its armor and appearing full of energy. Eating its flesh means you will not feel the wind blowing fiercely.

The Elixir of Ditai

The water of Ditai, when drunk, can dispel troubles of the heart and cleanse the spirit, bringing calm to the mind and balance to one’s temperament. Drinking it brings ease and freedom; it can also be used to wash one’s hair, bathe, or swim.

Juru

Juru is a tiny insect, harmless in itself. Whenever it appears, troops are mobilized and the two sides go to war. How could the responses things provoke be measured by their size?

The Imperial Maiden’s Mulberry

There is a great mulberry tree growing in a deep pool in a marsh. Its trunk is five zhang in circumference, and its branches are tangled together. The garden keeper gathers mulberry leaves from the tree to feed the Imperial Maiden’s silkworms.

Liangqu, Yiji, Wenlin, Shou□, and the Yu Bird

The appearance of Liangqu brings war; when Yiji appears, disaster follows; the Yu Bird can ward off fire. Each thing has its own function. When Wenlin appears, a great wind will come.

The Spirit Yuer

The spirit Yuer looks like a person but has two snake heads. It often swims in deep river pools and also appears in broad caverns. It sometimes dives beneath the water and sometimes rises to the surface, its divine light flickering in and out.

The Two Goddesses

The two goddesses live around Dongting Lake and roam, changing form among the Five Rivers, their movements elusive and mysterious. They are called the Lady in White, also known as the Xiang River spirit.

Flying Serpent

Shen Soars

Shen appears in the region around Dongguang Mountain. At times it dives beneath the water; at others, it rises to the surface, its divine radiance flickering in and out.

The Two Daughters of Shen

The two daughters of Shen live in the region around Dongting. They travel and transform among the Five Rivers, their forms faint and hard to discern. They are known as Lady Bai—that is, Xiang Ling, the divine female form of Xiang Jun, the water deity.

Flying Serpent

The Tengshe, a legendary flying serpent, is paired with the dragon and leaps aloft on the mist. Though it longs to fly into the sky, once the clouds and mist disperse, it can only fall to the ground and wander there. Unless it first crouches to gather strength and stretches out its body, it cannot ride the cloud vapors upward.

Collation Notes on Volume Five of the Classic of Mountains and Seas

These entries record differences in wording among various editions. For example, one edition changes “There are many haoyu fish within it” to “Within it are many haoyu fish”; another adds “red” to make “red beak, red tail, red feathers.” The remaining notes also concern missing text and variant readings, including the story of Kong Jia hunting on Mount Huang, losing his way in a great wind, and entering a dwelling, as well as the phrases “Further east, ten li lies Corpse Mountain” and “Women preside over silkworms, hence the name Mulberry.”

Volume Six of the Classic of Mountains and Seas

Commentary by Guo Pu (annotations by Guo Pu)

The Southern Lands Beyond the Sea

The earth supports all things. The six directions—above, below, and the four quarters—are collectively called the “Six Directions.” Within the Four Seas, the sun and moon shine, the stars move, and the seasons turn; the taisui, an ancient astral system used for reckoning years, determines the year’s designation. From this arise the spirits, while things take on different forms, some short-lived and others long-lived. Only a sage can understand the patterns at work. Without probing the principles of things and recognizing their inherent nature, one cannot investigate the source of these transformations. The account of the lands beyond the southern sea extends from the southwestern corner to the southeastern corner. Zou means a corner or remote extremity, and is pronounced “zou.”

The Chest-Pushing Country lies to its southwest. The people there have chests that jut forward like a human Adam’s apple.

South Mountain lies to its southeast. Accounts of the mountains, rivers, and strange beings to the southeast from here differ. “Beyond the Seas” refers to the region from the southwestern corner to the southeastern corner; zou means “corner.”

Another account says that South Mountain lies southeast of the Chest-Pushing Country. In the area around South Mountain, creatures that travel back and forth change into snakes, and snakes are also called fish. Some accounts say that the creatures are snakes and the snakes are fish.

The Joined-Wing Birds live east of South Mountain. Their feathers are blue and red, and they look like wild ducks. The two birds are joined side by side and fly together. Another account places them east of South Mountain.

The Feathered People’s Country lies southeast of the Joined-Wing Birds. The people there have long heads and feathers growing on their bodies. They can fly, though not far, and reproduce by laying eggs. Their images look like those of immortals. Another account places the Feathered People’s Country southeast of the Joined-Wing Birds and says its people have long cheeks. The Qishi records that the Feathered People have bird beaks, red eyes, and white heads. It also tells of sixteen divine beings, joined in pairs with their arms touching, keeping watch over the wilderness at night on the Emperor’s behalf. They can also be seen in pictures. People east of the Feathered People have smaller cheeks and red coloring near the shoulder blades; there are sixteen of them. The commentator suspects this passage was added later.

The Bifang Bird lives east of the Feathered People and west of the Blue River. It has a human face and only one leg. Another account places it east of the sixteen divine beings.

The Huan Head Country lies south of the Bifang Bird. The people there have human faces and wings, can fly like birds, and catch fish. Huandou was a minister of Yao who, after committing a crime, went south and drowned himself in the Southern Sea. The Emperor took pity on him, let his son live in the Southern Sea, and had him worshipped there. Images of the people of the Huan Head Country also look like those of immortals. Another account places the Huan Head Country east of the Bifang Bird; it is also called the Huan Zhu Country.

The Fire-Eating Country lies south of the Huan Head Country. Its people have animal bodies and are black all over. They can breathe fire from their mouths, and their images look like black macaques. Another account places the Fire-Eating Country east of the Huan Zhu Country.

The Three-Tree grows north of the Land of Fire-Haters, above the Red River. It resembles a cypress, and its leaves are covered in pearls. Another account says it looks like a comet—that is, it is comet-shaped.

The Land of the Three Miao lies east of the Red River. Its people always travel in groups. In ancient times, when Yao abdicated the throne in favor of Shun, he asked the lord of the Miao for his opinion. The lord opposed the decision, so Yao had him killed. The Three Miao people then rebelled, moved into the region around the South Sea, and established the Land of the Three Miao. Another account calls it the Land of the Three Mao.

The Land of Zhi lies east of the Land of the Three Miao. “Zhi” is pronounced like “zhi” in “order,” though some pronounce it like “ti” in “replace.” Its people have yellowish skin and are skilled at shooting snakes with bows. The Great Wilderness Classic says that the people of this land are born with five kinds of clothing. Another account places the Land of Zhi east of the Land of the Three Mao.

The Land of Pierced Chests lies east of the Land of Zhi. Its people have a hole passing through their chests. The Master Shi says that in the west there are peoples such as the Pierced Chests, Deep Eyes, and Long Arms, who once came to submit to the virtue of the Yellow Emperor. The Record of Strange Things says that when the people of the Penetrated Chests take off their clothes, nothing covers their bodies; this passage seems to imitate the legend of the Pierced Chests. Another account places the Land of Pierced Chests east of the Land of Dai.

The Land of Crossed Shins lies east of the Land of Pierced Chests. Its people cross their lower legs. “Crossed shins” means that their shins curve and cross over one another. Some also compare them with legendary foreign peoples such as the Tattooed Foreheads and the Crossed Toes. Another account writes “neck” instead of “shin,” saying that the people walk with their necks crossed. Yet another places the Land of Crossed Shins east of the Land of Penetrated Chests.

The Immortals lie east of the Land of Crossed Shins. Their people have dark skin and live long lives without dying. In their land stands Mount Yuanqiu, where an immortal tree grows. Eating its fruit prolongs life. There is also a Red Spring; drinking its water prevents aging. Another account places the Immortals east of the Land of Penetrated Chests.

The Land of Forked Tongues lies east of the Immortals. Its people have split tongues; some say their tongues branch like the limbs of a tree. Another account also places the Land of Forked Tongues east of the Immortals.

The Kunlun Mound lies east of the Land of Forked Tongues, and its site is square. “Mound” refers to the foundation at the foot of a mountain. The text that follows again mentions the Land of Forked Tongues and its location: its people have split tongues, or tongues that branch like a tree, and it lies east of the Immortals.

Kunlun Ruins (Kunlun Mountain’s flatland at its foot) lie to the east, and the terrain is square on all four sides. “Ruins” refers to the foundation land below a mountain. Another account says that Kunlun Ruins lie east of the Qishe Country, on level, square terrain. Yi, the legendary skilled archer, once fought Zuochi in the wilds of Shouhua and killed him with an arrow. The wilds of Shouhua lie east of Kunlun Ruins. Yi carried a bow and arrows, while Zuochi carried a shield. Zuochi had a human form, but his teeth resembled chisels and were five or six feet long, which is how he got his name. Another account says he carried a spear, though the details are unclear.

The Three-Headed Country lies east of Kunlun Ruins. Each inhabitant there has three heads on a single body. Another account places the Three-Headed Country east of Zuochi Country.

The Zhourao Country lies east of the Three-Headed Country. Its people are short in stature and wear caps and belts; even their horses resemble people in height, standing only three feet tall. The inhabitants live in caves and are skilled at making ingenious objects, with five kinds of craft. Another account calls this country the Jiaoyao Country and places it east of the Three-Headed Country. The Waizhuan says that the Jiaoyao people are only three feet tall, exceptionally short. The Shihan Shenwu says that traveling four hundred thousand li east from the Central Region brings one to Jiaoyao Country, where the inhabitants stand one chi and five cun tall.

The Long-Armed Country lies east of Jiaoyao Country. Its people fish in the water, holding one fish in each hand. According to an old account, their arms hang down to the ground. During the Huangchu era of Wei, Wang Xu, Governor of Xuantu, campaigned against the Goguryeo king Gung and pursued him far afield, passing through the Woju Country. Woju’s eastern border meets the sea; this is where the sun rises. Wang Xu asked the local elders, “Are there people beyond the eastern sea?” They replied that they had once found a cloth garment in the sea, sized for a person of average build, with each sleeve three feet long. It was the clothing of the long-armed people. Another account says that the Long-Armed Country lies east of Jiaoyao Country, and its people fish in the sea.

Mount Di is as follows: Emperor Yao is buried on its southern side. The Lüshi Chunqiu says that Yao was buried at Gulin. Today, there are tombs of Yao in the village of Ci, west of Yangcheng County and near the seat of Dong’e County, as well as south of Xiangting in Zheyang County.

Emperor Ku is buried on the northern side of the mountain. Ku was Yao’s father and was known as Gao Xin. Today, his tomb lies in the wilds of Kuiyin, south of the seat of Dunqiu County. “Ku” is pronounced like “cool.” Bears, brown bears, patterned tigers, and striped tigers are also found here. The Shizi records that Zhonghuang Boyu seized a macaque from Mount Taihang with his left hand and fought a striped tiger with his right. Here too are the wei, a kind of long-tailed macaque, leopards, and Lizhu. Lizhu is a kind of tree mentioned in the Zhuangzi; illustrations today depict it as a red crow.

There is also shirou, a lump of flesh shaped like a cow’s liver and bearing two eyes. After some is eaten, it grows back, so that it can never be consumed entirely. It is unclear what the name Xuyan refers to. King Wen’s tomb is here too. Today, the tomb of King Wen is in the community of She, east of Hao in Chang’an.

A survey of royal tombs in different places shows that they usually have fixed locations. Yet the Shanhaijing often mentions the tomb of the same ruler in different places. This is probably because the sages ruled for a long time and governed with benevolence, extending their kindness to birds and beasts. When they died, people throughout the realm grieved as if they had lost their parents. Distant peoples of other lands, hearing of the Son of Heaven’s death, would each set out an ancestral tablet, offer sacrifices, and weep; they would also build a mound of earth as a tomb. This is why tombs of this kind appeared in many places. It is like the shrines to the Son of Heaven built in distant commanderies and kingdoms during the Han dynasty: a trace left behind by this custom.

Another account calls this mountain Mount Tang. Bears, brown bears, patterned tigers, wei macaques, leopards, Lizhu, and animals whose names are missing or unclear live on the mountain, along with birds of the quliu kind. Shirou is found here as well. It is unclear what the name Hujiao refers to. Fanlin covers an area of three hundred li in circumference. “Fanlin” means that trees spread widely through the area and grow in a dense, continuous expanse.

In the south, Zhurong, the legendary god of fire, has the body of a beast and the face of a man, and rides two dragons. He is the god of fire.

Illustrations and Eulogies from the Classic of the Southern Regions Beyond the Seas

The creatures that came from this mountain were later called snakes; snakes, in turn, were called fish.

The value of things has no fixed standard. What is regarded as base need not remain base forever, and what is considered precious is not always a treasure. Things do not acquire value on their own; people assign it to them. So it is with everything in the world—and snake scales are no exception.

The Feathered People

The people of the Feathered People’s Country have beaks and long cheeks. Feathers grow on their bodies, and they lay eggs. They spread their wings and fly, though not far, like dragons. Humans belong to a class of creatures that are naturally naked, so how can such different forms exist?

The Twenty-Eight Divine Beings

East of the Feathered People’s Country are divine beings who govern the night. They are joined in pairs, their arms linked, and move by pulling one another along. They vanish by day and appear at night, coming and going in a strange rhythm.

The Xuantuo People

The people of the Xuantuo Country have beaks and walk with staffs made of feathers. They live in seclusion by the sea and eat a kind of black millet called ju. This is in fact a fine grain, known as moist millet.

The Fire-Resistant People

The people here have strange forms that combine human and animal features. They breathe out fiery Qi; the stronger their breath, the higher the flames rise. On closer examination, there is nothing strange about this. There is a reason for it: hot breath naturally intensifies fire.

The Three-Pearl Tree

The Three-Pearl Tree grows on the banks of the Red River. Its tall, upright branches and leaves are beautiful and imposing, like a comet. It reflects brilliant colors in the river’s red waves; tree and water shine upon each other in a radiant glow.

The Di People

The people here do not raise silkworms, reel silk, or cultivate and harvest crops. The beasts dance to a rhythm, while flocks of birds beat their wings in response. These are the Di people: they follow nature and provide for their own clothing and food.

The Countries of Pierced Chests, Crossed Shins, and Forked Tongues

Heaven and Earth are like a vast furnace, able to smelt and disperse metal into countless forms. Creation treats all things alike, and each comes into being according to its own nature. As all things return to nature’s harmony and fulfillment, signs of their many different forms appear.

The Country of the Immortals

Some people dwell atop Mount Yuan. There is a Red Spring that halts the passage of their years, and a divine tree that nurtures life. Look at their longevity: it stretches on without end.

The Chisel-Toothed One

The Chisel-Toothed One is a kind of human, with sharp teeth that jut out. He is fiercer than the Nine-Headed Serpent and causes more harm than the Long Serpent. Yao therefore ordered Yi to kill him at Shouhua.

The Three-Headed Country

Although all things come from the same Qi, they breathe in different ways. We can see them all when we observe them, and whatever they eat can satisfy their hunger. Each thing has its own complete form; the workings of creation are not the result of deliberate craftsmanship.

The Kingdom of Jiaoyao

Sounds mingle, and breaths differ from one another. A grown man stands three zhang tall, while the people of Jiaoyao are just over one chi tall. Though all things take different forms, in the end they still come from a single source; the people of Jiaoyao are simply one kind among them.

The Kingdom of Longarms

Their arms are three chi long, and their bodies are much like those of ordinary people. Who are they? They are the people of the Kingdom of Longarms. They carry people with long legs on their backs as they fish by the sea.

Mount Dishan: Emperor Yao Was Buried on the South Side of the Mountain, and Emperor Ku on the North

The Virtue of the sages extends widely to all things, and nothing fails to be moved by it. When they die, people raise burial mounds to express their grief. If even beings unlike themselves do this, how much more so the people of Huaxia and the common folk?

Flesh of Sight

This is a lump of flesh with eyes but no digestive organs. It closely resembles the fungus known as horse dung mushroom, which is roughly spherical. Its remarkable feature is that no matter how much of it is eaten, it is never used up, though its flavor is bland.

Zhurong of the South

Zhurong is the god of fire. He travels on clouds and rides a dragon. He commands the Qi of fire and dwells amid Zhuming, the Qi of the south and of summer, in the place of perfect yang. He is paired with the Flame Emperor and holds the position of the south.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas, Volume Six

The Classic of Mountains and Seas, Volume Seven

Transmitted by Guo Pu.

The Classic of Regions Beyond the Western Seas

An account of the lands beyond the seas, from the southwest corner to the northwest corner.

The Mie-meng Bird is north of the Kingdom of Joined Chests. It has a blue body and a red tail.

Mount Dayun is three hundred ren high and lies north of the Mie-meng Bird.

In the Wilds of Great Joy, Xiahou Qi once performed the Dance of the Nine Generations. “Nine Generations” is the name of a horse. Here, “dance” means making the horses wheel and turn, so their movements appear magnificent. Xiahou Qi rode two dragons beneath a canopy of three tiers of clouds; “layered” means arranged one above another. In his left hand he held a yi, a ceremonial banner decorated with feathers.

The Wilds of Great Joy, a legendary place name, was where Xiahou Qi once danced while riding a horse called “Nine Generations.” Here, “dance” means making the horse wheel and prance in a vigorous, powerful manner. Xiahou Qi rode in a chariot drawn by two dragons, beneath a canopy patterned with three tiers of clouds. He held a feathered banner in his left hand and a jade ring in his right, and wore a jade huang, a semicircular jade ornament. The Wilds of Great Joy lie north of Mount Dayun. The Zhengmu Scripture of the Guicang records that after consulting the oracle, Xiahou Qi rode a flying dragon up to Heaven and received an auspicious sign. This also shows that he was believed capable of becoming an immortal. Another account calls this place the Wilds of Great Abundance; the Classic of the Great Wilderness calls it the Wilds of Great Serenity.

The Kingdom of Three Bodies lies north of Xiahou Qi. Its people have one head but three bodies.

The Kingdom of One Arm lies north of the Kingdom of Three Bodies. Its people have only one arm, one eye, and one nostril. A kind of yellow horse with tiger stripes lives there; each of these horses has only one eye and one leg.

The Kingdom of Qigong, also written “Yinqi,” lies north of the Kingdom of One Arm. Its people have only one arm and three eyes, and the Yin and Yang in their bodies are arranged differently from those of ordinary people: Yin is above and Yang below. They ride patterned horses. The patterned horse is called Jibai. A bird with two heads and red-yellow coloring also lives near the people of Qigong. They are skilled at making ingenious devices for catching all kinds of birds, and can also build flying chariots that travel far on the wind. During the reign of King Tang of Shang, someone found a flying chariot within the borders of Yuzhou and destroyed it so no one else would see it. Ten years later, when the west wind blew, he rebuilt the chariot and sent it on its way.

Xingtian, also written Xingtian, once fought here with the Heavenly Emperor for the divine throne. The Emperor cut off his head and buried it at Mount Changyang. Xingtian then used his nipples as eyes and his navel as a mouth, and continued dancing with a shield and an axe in his hands. He thus became one of the headless people.

Nüji and Nüqi live north of the Kingdom of Qigong, between two rivers. Nüqi holds a fish of the eel family, while Nüji holds a ritual chopping board used for offerings. The Jingniao and Cizhan birds are both strange, blue-yellow birds; any country they pass through will perish. They are regarded as birds that bring calamity and pestilence, similar to what are now called owls and scops owls. The Jingniao lives north of Nüji. It has a human face and dwells in the mountains. Another account says it is called the We bird, and that blue and yellow birds gather where it lives.

The Land of the Husbands lies north of the Wei Bird. Its people wear clothes and hats and carry swords at their waists. The text also records that Emperor Ao, Da Wu, sent Wang Meng to gather medicinal herbs. The Wei Bird was probably a bird such as an owl, a zhu, or a liu. It is north of Nüji. The Jing Bird has a human face and lives in the mountains. Another account identifies the Jing Bird with the Wei Bird, saying that it is where blue birds and yellow crows gather.

The Land of the Husbands lies north of the Wei Bird. The people there wear clothes and hats and carry swords at their waists. Emperor Ao, Da Wu, sent Wang Meng to gather medicinal herbs. Wang Meng traveled north from the Queen Mother of the West, but after crossing Juegen, he could go no farther. He could only eat the fruit of trees and wear their bark. He never had a wife, yet he fathered two sons. After the sons emerged from his body, he died. These people are called the Husband People.

Nüchou’s corpse was born only to be scorched to death by ten suns. She lies north of the Land of the Husbands, shielding her face with her right hand. With her hand covering her face, the ten suns hang high in the sky, while Nüchou lies on a mountain.

The Land of the Wu Shamans lies north of Nüchou. Wu Xian holds a green snake in his right hand and a red snake in his left, and lives on Dengbao Mountain. The drought shamans travel up and down this mountain to gather medicinal herbs.

The Bingfeng lies east of the Land of the Wu Shamans. It looks like a pig, has a head at each end, and is black. The creature now called the Nuxian Snake belongs to the same kind.

The Land of Women lies north of the Land of the Wu Shamans. Two women live there, moving between the surface and depths of the water, where they gather medicinal herbs.

The Bingfeng lies east of the Land of the Wu Shamans. It looks like a pig, has a head at each end, and is black. The creature now called the Nuxian Snake belongs to the same kind.

The Country of Women lies north of Wuxian. Two women live there, surrounded by water. In the country is a yellow pool. When women enter it to bathe, they become pregnant as soon as they emerge. If they give birth to a boy, he usually dies at the age of three. “Zhou” means “to surround.” The Li Sao says, “Water surrounds the halls below.” Another account says that the people of the Country of Women live inside a gate.

The Country of Xuanyuan lies near Mount Qiong. Even though its people do not live long, they can reach the age of eight hundred. The country is south of the mountain. The Classic of the Great Wilderness says that south of Mount Min, north of the Country of Women, the people have human faces and snake bodies, with their tails coiled around their heads. Mount Qiong lies to their north. People dare not shoot arrows westward because they revere Xuanyuan Hill, where the Yellow Emperor resides. This means that people fear the Yellow Emperor’s divine power and therefore dare not shoot to the west.

North of the Country of Xuanyuan is a square hill, with four snakes facing south. Here, too, it is said that north of the Country of Women is a place where the people have human faces and snake bodies, with their tails coiled around their heads. Mount Qiong lies to the north, and people dare not shoot westward because they revere Xuanyuan Hill. The hill is north of the Country of Xuanyuan, where four snakes coil around one another, twisting and winding together.

This is the Field of All Blessings, a fertile and abundant place. Luan birds sing of their own accord, and phoenixes dance of their own accord. The people eat phoenix eggs and drink sweet dew; whatever they desire comes to pass. In other words, every kind of delicacy is found there, and the people can obtain whatever they wish, which is why it is called the Fertile Field. Beasts of every kind also live there together in herds. The Fertile Field lies north of the four snakes. Its people hold eggs in both hands as they eat, and two birds lead the way before them.

The Dragon Fish lives on the ground north of the Fertile Field and resembles a wildcat. Another account says that the Dragon Fish resembles a wildcat with a single horn; yet another says it is a shrimp. One interpretation of “lives on the heights” is that it lives on land. A divine sage rides it as he travels through the Nine Regions. Another account calls it the turtle fish. It lies north of the Fertile Field and looks like a carp.

The Country of the White People lies north of the Dragon Fish. Its people have snow-white bodies and wear their hair loose. The country has a beast called the Chenghuang, which resembles a fox and has a horn growing from its back. Anyone who rides it can live for two thousand years. The Book of Zhou says that the Chenghuang of the Country of the White People resembles a fox.

The Kingdom of White People lies north of the Kingdom of Dragon Fish. Its people are white all over and wear their hair loose. In this land lives a strange beast called the Chenghuang. It resembles a fox, with horns growing from its back. It is said that anyone who rides it can live for two thousand years. The Book of Zhou says that the Chenghuang ridden by the people of White People resembles a fox and has two horns on its back; it is also called Feihuang. The Huainanzi says that when the world is at peace and governed by the Dao, the Feihuang lies down beneath a soapberry tree.

The Kingdom of Sushen lies north of the Kingdom of White People. There is a tree here called Xiongchang. Whenever a wise and enlightened ruler ascends the throne in China, people come here to harvest this tree. The local custom is to wear no clothes; only when a sage ruler ascends the throne in China does the Xiongchang tree grow bark suitable for making clothing.

The Kingdom of Long Legs lies north of the Xiongchang tree. Its people wear their hair loose and live east of the Red River. Their bodies are about the same size as those of ordinary people, but their arms are two zhang long. From this, one might infer that their legs are more than three zhang long. During the time of the Yellow Emperor, these people once came to the Central Plains. Another account says that the Long-Legged people often carry the Long-Armed people on their backs when going out to fish in the sea. Some records call them “Long Feet” or the “Kingdom of Youqiao.” Perhaps the stilt walkers in acrobatic performances today imitate their appearance.

In the west is a god named Boshou, with a snake beside his left ear and two dragons as his mount. He is a Metal deity, with a human face, tiger claws, a coat of white fur, and an iron implement in his hand. See the Outer Commentary.

Illustrated Praise of the Classic of the Western Regions Beyond the Seas

After divining, Xiahou Qi, ruler of the Xia dynasty, rode a flying dragon and indeed danced in the Kingdom of Youqiao. The stilt walkers in acrobatic performances today may imitate the people of Youqiao.

In the west is a god named Boshou, with a snake beside his left ear and two dragons as his mount. He is a Metal deity, with a human face, tiger claws, a coat of white fur, and an iron implement in his hand. See the Outer Commentary.

Illustrated Praise of the Classic of the Western Regions Beyond the Seas

After divining, Xiahou Qi rode a flying dragon and indeed performed the Dance of the Nine Generations. Yunrong waved a jade huang, an ornamental jade ritual object, as an adornment, praising the ruler’s virtue and receiving Heaven’s numinous teachings.

The Kingdoms of Three Bodies and One Arm

All things come into being and change in their own way, dispersing the primordial Qi. Adding to them does not make them more numerous; diminishing them does not cause them harm. Their transformations are difficult to trace. Follow them back to their roots and seek out their source.

The Kingdom of Skilled Arms

The people of the Kingdom of Skilled Arms are remarkably ingenious. Taking their cue from the wind, they devised flying wheels, rode the wind through the air, and traveled along their chosen paths. Tang, founder of the Shang dynasty, once invited them to be his guests.

Xingtian fought against the Celestial Emperor and was defeated. After the Emperor killed him and cut off his head, Xingtian used his navel as a mouth and his nipples as eyes, and continued to brandish his shield and axe. Even though his body had been transformed, he refused to yield.

Nüji and Nüqi

Whose daughters were those two women? Why were they by the water, holding fish and a ritual stand for offerings? Where were their companions? Why had they left the community to live alone outside it?

The startled bird □ could not prevail and was killed by the Celestial Emperor. Its body was transformed: it used its navel as a mouth and its nipples as eyes, yet continued to brandish its shield and axe. Even though its form had changed, it refused to yield.

Nüji and Nüqi

Whose daughters were those two women? Why were they by the water, holding fish and a ritual stand for offerings? Where were their companions? Why had they left the community to live alone outside it?

The startled bird □ bird

There is a kind of crow with feathers mottled blue and yellow, called □□. It meets with strange and uncanny beings, and wherever they gather, unusual events occur. It resembles birds such as owls and scops owls, and has an appearance that is difficult to approach.

The Land of Husbands

Here, men and women undergo different kinds of transformation: those of the feminine sex undergo unusual changes, while those of the masculine sex do not reproduce in the usual way. Everyone in this land can beget sons. The king, Meng, was the first ancestor. They commune with spirits and live in the land of Mulberry Stone, yet have no sons.

The Corpse of Nüchou

Ten suns scorched the earth all at once, and Nüchou died as a result. Her corpse lay exposed on a hillside, waving her sleeves to shield herself from the sunlight. Who was that beautiful woman? She met with a calamity sent down from Heaven.

Wuxian

Among the many shamans, Wuxian was their leader. He gathered classical learning and techniques, bringing together all kinds of arts and skills. He went to Mount Spirit to gather medicinal herbs, ascending and descending the mountain at appointed times.

Bingfeng

Where the dragon passes, there are no heads; Bingfeng, by contrast, has bodies joined together. Their shapes are strange, as if two horses stood back to back, separated. The more one turns it over in one’s mind, the harder it is to understand; the more one searches, the deeper the confusion grows.

The Land of Women

Jian Di once swallowed an egg of the Dark Bird, and Jiang Yuan once became pregnant after stepping in the footprint of a giant. Here the text speaks of the Land of Women, whose people bathe in the Yellow River.

Bingfeng

Where the dragon passes, there are no heads; Bingfeng, by contrast, has bodies joined together. Their shapes are strange, as if two horses stood back to back, separated. The more one turns it over in one’s mind, the harder it is to understand; the more one searches, the deeper the confusion grows.

The Land of Women

The people of the Land of Women bathe in the Yellow River, then become pregnant and give birth. If they give birth to a boy, he dies.

The Land of Xuanyuan

The people of the Land of Xuanyuan are protected by Heaven. In winter they need no thick clothes, and in summer they need no fans to escape the heat, because their breath is balanced. Every household can live as long as Pengzu.

Chenghuang

Feihuang is a remarkable steed. Riding it can prolong one’s life. It has a horn on its head, is light-footed and nimble, and when it leaps into the air it suddenly soars upward like a dragon. It can recognize people of virtue, and only those whose virtue is worthy can win its allegiance.

The Miemeng bird has a blue body and a red tail; it is called Miemeng. Mount Dayun rises high into the clouds in three successive tiers, reaching a height of a hundred ren. On the mountain grows a tree called Xiongchang. When a person of virtue appears, the tree reveals its numinous response and communicates with them.

The dragon-fish has a single horn and resembles a civet. It lives among the hills and ridges, waiting for the right moment to appear. A sage can ride it, fly across the Nine Provinces, and ascend to Heaven on a dragon.

Ritually, Shou of the West is the deity who governs Metal and autumn. He has white fur and tiger claws, with snakes coiled beside his ears, and carries a great axe. He punishes those who act without the Dao. Dwelling at the western boundary, he carries out Heaven’s punishments with reverence, as commanded.

The eighth scroll of the Classic of Mountains and Seas, “The Northern Lands Beyond the Seas,” records the things found in the lands beyond the seas, from the northeastern corner to the northwestern corner.

The Country Without Kidneys lies east of the Country of Long Thighs. Its people have no kidneys; here, “kidneys” refers to the large intestine. They live in caves and eat earth, and have no distinction between men and women. When they die, they are buried, but their hearts do not decay. After a hundred and twenty years, they come back to life.

The deity of Mount Zhong is named Zhuyin, also known as the Torch Dragon. “Torch of the Ninefold Darkness” is its title. When it opens its eyes, daylight comes; when it closes them, night falls. Its breath brings winter, and its exhalation brings summer. It neither drinks nor eats nor breathes; whenever it exhales, it creates wind. It is a thousand li long and lives at the foot of Mount Zhong, east of the Country Without Kidneys. It has a human face and a serpent’s body, and is red all over. The Huainanzi says it has a dragon’s body and one foot.

The Country of One Eye lies east of the place where Zhuyin dwells. Its people have only one eye on their faces. One account says they also have hands and feet.

The Country of Rouli lies east of the Country of One Eye. Its people have only one hand and one foot; their knees bend backward, and their feet curl in the opposite direction. Another account says the country is called Liuli, and that its people’s feet bend backward.

Gonggong’s minister was named Xiangliu. Gonggong was a figure who held sway over the Nine Provinces. Xiangliu had nine heads, each feeding on a different mountain. Every head devoured everything on its own mountain, a sign of his greed and ferocity: he could never be sated. Wherever Xiangliu touched became marshland and streams.

After Yu killed Xiangliu, his blood gave off a foul stench, and the land could no longer grow grain. Yu dug into the soil, but the excavated areas were repeatedly flooded, showing that Xiangliu’s blood had seeped into the earth. Later, Yu built a terrace there for the assembled emperors. Because the ground was wet, he could only pile up earth to make the terrace. It lay north of Kunlun Mountain in the lands beyond the sea, and east of the Rouriguo. Xiangliu was a monster with nine heads, a human face, and a blue-green serpent’s body.

People did not dare shoot arrows to the north, for fear of Gonggong’s terrace. The terrace stood east of the place where Xiangliu had lived. It had a corner on each of its four sides, and at each corner was a tiger-striped snake with its head facing south.

The Land of Deep Eyes lay east of the terrace. Its people held one hand and one eye raised upward.

The Land of No Intestines lay east of the Land of Deep Eyes, though some accounts place it to the south. Its people were tall and had no intestines; food they swallowed passed straight through their bodies.

The Nie’er Country lies east of the Wuchang Country. Its people support their ears with their hands because their ears are so long that they must lift them as they walk. “Nie” is pronounced nuo-jia. The Nie’er Country hangs amid the sea; the character “xian” here is the same as “xuan,” meaning “suspended,” though it can also refer to a city. It is said that the strange creatures that move in and out of the sea are all found in these waters. Two tigers live east of the Nie’er Country.

Kuafu chased the sun all the way to where it sets. Just as he was about to catch it, he became thirsty and wanted water. He drank from the Yellow River and the Wei River, but their waters were still not enough, so he headed north to drink from the great marsh. Before reaching it, he died of thirst on the way. The walking stick he left behind turned into Deng Forest, the legendary peach grove.

Kuafu was probably the name of a divine being. He could catch up with the sun’s shadow and drink the Yellow and Wei Rivers dry. How could this have been accomplished merely by running and drinking? These accounts use “chasing” and “drinking” simply to express his extraordinary powers. He could almost arrive swiftly without hurrying, and reach distant places without walking. Kuafu changed from one form into many, passed through cycles of life and death, and in the end took refuge in Deng Forest, where his traces disappeared. How, then, could anyone track down his wondrous transformations?

The Bofu Country lies east of the Nie’er Country. Its people are tall, holding a green snake in the right hand and a yellow snake in the left. Deng Forest lies east of the Bofu Country and consists of two trees, though another account says that Deng Forest is the Bofu people themselves. Jishi Mountain, where Yu the Great channeled the river, lies east of the Bofu Country; the Yellow River enters China there.

The Yellow River rises in the Kunlun Mountains. It once flowed underground, then emerged again at the Congling Mountains and flowed into the Salt Lake. From the Salt Lake it continued south to this mountain, becoming the Yellow River within China, and finally emptied into the sea. The Book of Documents says, “Channel the Yellow River to Jishi Mountain.” This means that the river’s course had been obstructed at the time, so the waterways were cleared and the river allowed to flow freely.

The Juying Country lies east of the Bofu Country. Its people hold a hat strap in one hand, as though they often use one hand to keep the ties on their headgear in place. Some say that “ying” should instead be written with the character meaning “goiter,” referring to a swelling on the neck. The Juying Country is also called the Liying Country.

The Xun Tree, a thousand li long, grows on the northwest bank of the Yellow River, south of the Juying Country.

The Qizhong Country, with “qi” pronounced like “qi” in “qǐ” (to raise), lies east of the Juying Country. Its people are tall and have large feet; when they walk, their heels do not touch the ground.

“Qi” is read as qi, meaning “to stand on tiptoe.” The Land of the Qi-Heel People lies east of Juying. Its people are tall, with very large feet, and walk without their heels touching the ground. The Hooked Command of the Classic of Filial Piety says, “The people of Jiaoyao and the Qi-Heel Land must pass through many interpreters before they can come through the pass to pay their respects.” Another account says that these people have especially large heels.

The Land of Silk Spinners lies east of Great Heel. A woman kneels beneath a tree and spins silk from her mouth. “Silk Spinners” means that she eats mulberry leaves and produces silk, so she probably belongs to the silkworm kind.

The Three Branchless Mulberry Trees lie east of the Land of Silk Spinners. The trees there are a hundred ren tall and have no branches; their trunks, too, are a hundred ren tall.

Fan Forest, which extends three hundred li in every direction, lies east of the Three Branchless Mulberry Trees. Islands surround its base. “Islands” means habitable land in the water; saying that they surround the forest below means that these lands are encircled by water.

On Mount Wuyu, Emperor Zhuanxu is buried on the southern slope. Zhuanxu was also known as Gaoyang. His tomb is now in Puyang, which was formerly called Diqiu. Another account places it in Guangyang Ward, outside the city gate of Poqiu County. The Nine Consorts are buried on the northern slope; “consorts” refers to imperial concubines and women. Another record says that strange creatures live there, including bears, brown bears, patterned tigers, Liju birds, Chijiu birds, and Shourou.

Pingqiu lies east of the Three Branchless Mulberry Trees. It has Yiyu, a kind of jade, as well as blue horses, Shourou, willows, and Ganzu. The branches and trunks of the Ganzu tree are red; its flowers are yellow, its leaves white, and its fruit black. The Lüshi Chunqiu says that Ganzu grows on the eastern side of a mountain. The character “zu” in Ganzu is pronounced much like “zu” in “rent” and refers to a kind of pear. Ganzu flowers and also has red branches and trunks, with yellow flowers. All kinds of fruit trees grow here: a valley lies between two mountains, and two large hills rise above the valley. The place between them is called Pingqiu.

In the North Sea there is a beast shaped like a horse, called “Taotu” (the final character is missing; “Taotu” is pronounced táo tú). It is also recorded in the Erya. There is another beast called [name missing], shaped like a white horse, with saw-like teeth, that can eat tigers and leopards. The Book of Zhou says: “In Yiqu there is a Zibai. Zibai is like a white horse, with saw-like teeth, and can eat tigers and leopards.” From this, it seems that the two accounts agree with the description in the Erya. There is also a white beast shaped like a horse, called Qiongqiong, or Qiongqiong Juxu. It is said to be able to run a hundred li in a single breath, and appears in the Biography of King Mu. “Qiong” is pronounced qióng. Another beast, blue in color and shaped like a tiger, is called Luoluo.

In the north is Yujing, the water god, with a human face and a bird’s body. This accords with the account in the Erya. There is also a white beast shaped like a horse, called Qiongqiong, or Qiongqiong Juxu. It is said to be able to run a hundred li in a single breath, and appears in the Biography of King Mu. “Qiong” is pronounced qióng. Another beast, blue in color and shaped like a tiger, is called Luoluo.

Yujing of the north has a human face and a bird’s body, with two green snakes coiled around him and two red snakes beneath his feet. His courtesy name is Xuanming, and he is the water god. Zhuang Zhou says, “Yujing lives at the North Pole.” Another account calls him Yujing. A different book says that Yujing of the north is entirely black, has both arms and legs, and rides two dragons.

Illustrated Commentary on the Classic of the Northern Lands Beyond the Sea

The Country Without Kidneys

All things multiply and pass on their line either through offspring or through their source. The people of the Country Without Kidneys, because of their hearts, form their bodies from flesh and generate their souls, and so are able to live. Those who value the body preserve their lives.

The Torch Dragon

The northwest of Heaven has a breach, and the Torch Dragon bursts forth in flames. Its breath transforms into cold and heat; when it opens its eyes, day comes, and when it closes them, night falls. It is a thousand li long—truly a being of the utmost wonder.

The Country of One Eye

The four directions beneath the vast sky are not too many, nor is the extra eye here too few. In the wilderness, people close their eyes and are blind, yet can see what has no form or trace. The body is like a lodging in an inn; what is truly precious is only the subtle spirit.

The Country of Flexible Limbs

The people of the Country of Flexible Limbs have feet that bend backward and elbows that point the wrong way. Judged by the appearance of ordinary people, they indeed have this strange form. Yet what is precious is the spirit—what does the body matter?

Xiangliu, Minister to Gonggong

Gonggong’s minister was named Xiangliu. He was born with a strange appearance: a serpent’s body and nine heads. Relying on his strength, he was savage and domineering…

The Country of Flexible Limbs

The people of the Country of Flexible Limbs have feet that bend backward and elbows that point the wrong way. Judged by the appearance of ordinary people, they indeed have this strange form. Yet what is precious is the spirit—what does the body matter?

Xiangliu, Minister to Gonggong

Xiangliu was a minister of Gonggong, the ancient water deity and tribal leader. He had a strange form: a serpent’s body with nine heads. Relying on his great strength, he was fierce and violent, but in the end Xiahou, ruler of the Xia dynasty, captured him.

The Deep-Eyed Kingdom

The people of the Deep-Eyed Kingdom resembled the Hu, an ancient general term for peoples of the north and west. Their eyes were deeply set, but their mouths were very small. After Xuanyuan, the Yellow Emperor, led an expedition against them, they opened their border pass and submitted. The people of the Through-Chest Kingdom and the Long-Legged Kingdom came as well, bringing together many different peoples.

The Nie’er Kingdom

The Nie’er Kingdom lay on an island in the sea. It sent envoys such as Diaohu, and all kinds of strange things could be seen there. The local people seemed joined to one another, and their hands never left their faces.

Kuafu

Kuafu was truly extraordinary; his actions defy ordinary explanation. He chased the sun and drank up the waters of the rivers, but at last, exhausted, he fell in Deng Forest. Things change when they encounter different conditions. Perhaps Kuafu, too, had no fixed intention.

The Xun Tree

The towering, far-reaching Xun Tree grew beside the river. Its trunk and branches rose a thousand li, reaching into the clouds and sky. Its shade spread in all directions, casting its shadow down over Yuyuan, the legendary place where the sun sets.

The Heel-Lifting Kingdom

The people of the Heel-Lifting Kingdom were tall, yet stood on tiptoe. They hopped as they walked, springing about like sparrows with their heels off the ground. Moved by virtuous rule, they came to the border pass and submitted.

The Field of Silk-Spinning Women

The women of the Jiao people were a strange aquatic race, with bodies like silkworms and mussels. They produced pearls without shells and spun silk without transforming from silkworm pupae. The transformations of things have no fixed pattern; how, then, could all living beings be explained by the same origin?

The Intestine-Free Kingdom

The people of the Intestine-Free Kingdom had hollow bodies, yet their inner selves were repositories of spiritual clarity. The other parts of their bodies served only outward functions. Attaining the Dao and preserving wholeness: in principle, all things are connected.

Pingqiu

Between two mountains lay a hill called Pingqiu. There one could find relic jade, blue steeds, sweet, living flesh—a legendary food that grew back after being eaten—and strange fruits.

Taowu

Taowu were wild horses from the north. They rubbed their necks together, then each turned away and kicked up its hind legs. Even Sun Yang, the skilled horse judge, could not tame them.

Yuqiang of the North

Yuqiang was the water deity of the north, with a dark complexion. He rode dragons, trod on snakes, and soared through the air, riding the clouds and flying on wings. His Qi joined with that of Xuanming, the northern water deity or deity of winter, and he dwelt in the north.

Yuqiang is a water deity with a dark complexion. He rides a dragon and treads on a snake, soaring above the clouds with wings at his sides. He is the deity in charge of Xuanming—the divine office associated with the north and winter—and lives at the North Pole.

This concludes Volume Eight of the Classic of Mountains and Seas.

Volume Nine of the Classic of Mountains and Seas

Commentary by Guo Pu

Overseas—East

The records of the overseas regions, from the southeast corner to the northeast corner, are as follows:

Cuo Hill produces legacy jade, blue horses, shishi (flesh said to grow back on its own), yangliu, ganzu, ganhua, and other things. Sweet fruits also grow there. Cuo Hill lies in the Eastern Sea, where two mountains flank a mound covered with trees. Another account says the place is called Jie Hill, where all kinds of fruit grow, and that it lies east of Yao’s burial place.

The Land of Giants lies north of Cuo Hill. Its people are tall and sit in boats carved from logs. Another account says the Land of Giants lies north of □ Hill.

The corpse of Shebi—a form in which a deity is described in ancient texts—lies north of the Land of Giants. Shebi is also a deity, with the body of a beast, a human face, and large ears. A blue snake is threaded through each ear as an ornament. “To wear as an earring” means to pierce the ear and hang an ornament from it. Another account says the corpse of Ganyu lies north of the Land of Giants.

The Land of Gentlemen lies north of the corpse of Shebi. Its people dress and wear caps, carry swords, and eat the flesh of animals. Two patterned tigers stay by their sides. They are courteous and friendly, and do not enjoy quarrelling. A plant called xun (written “jin” in some versions) grows there; it blossoms in the morning and withers by evening. Another account says the Land of Gentlemen lies north of the corpse of Ganyu.

□□ (pronounced “Xue”) lies north of the Land of Gentlemen. Each has two heads. Hong is a rainbow, also called didong. Another account says the rainbow lies north of the Land of Gentlemen.

In the Valley of the Rising Sun lives a deity named Tianwu, who governs water. The valley lies north of Chongchong. Between two rivers there are two-headed…

In the Valley of the Rising Sun lived a deity named Tianwu, a water god. He dwelt between two rivers north of the ranges of mountains. Tianwu resembled a beast, with eight heads, each bearing a human face, as well as eight feet and eight tails. His whole body was blue-yellow. The Classic of the Great Wilderness: East says that he had ten tails.

The kingdom of Qingqiu lay north of Tianwu’s dwelling. Its people ate the five grains and wore silk clothing; the foxes there had four feet and nine tails. Another account places Qingqiu north of the Rising Sun. The Bamboo Annals from the Ji Tomb records that Baizhuzi campaigned against the Eastern Sea, reached Sanshou, and obtained a nine-tailed fox. It refers to this kind of fox.

The Lord commanded Shuhai to measure the distance across the earth, having him walk from its eastern extremity all the way to its western extremity. Shuhai was skilled at walking; “xuan” means “ten thousand.” The record says he walked 500,109,800 paces. Shuhai held counting rods in his right hand and pointed north of Qingqiu with his left. Another account says that Yu commanded Shuhai to do this; it gives the same number of paces, though written in a different form. The Odes Containing the Divine Mist records that the distance between east and west was 233 million li, the distance between north and south was 215 million li, and the distance between Heaven and Earth was 105 million li.

The Land of the Black-Toothed People lies to its north. The “Account of the Eastern Yi” says: “More than four thousand li east of the Land of Wa is the Land of the Naked People; southeast of the Land of the Naked People is the Land of the Black-Toothed People. It can be reached by sailing for a year.” The Records of Strange Things says: “The people of Xitu dye their teeth black, just like the people of this land.” The people of the Land of the Black-Toothed People have dark skin. They eat rice and snakes; the snakes are red or blue-green. Another account says that one kind is a blue-green snake that coils around them. Yet another says that the Land of the Black-Toothed People lies north of Jianhai. The people there have black hands, eat rice, and keep snakes in their service; one of the snakes is red. Beneath their land is the Valley of Hot Springs, whose waters are hot.

Above the Valley of Hot Springs stands Fusang, the legendary divine tree. The ten suns bathe there. Fusang is a tree that grows in water: nine suns perch on its lower branches, and one on its upper branch. Zhuang Zhou says that long ago all ten suns appeared at once, scorching the plants and trees until they withered. The Huainanzi also says that Yao ordered Yi to shoot down nine suns, and all the crows inside them died. The line in the Li Sao about “Yi shooting down the suns, and crows falling with their feathers” refers to this. The Zhengmu Jing of the Guicang says that Yi was skilled at archery long ago and shot all ten suns. The Bamboo Annals of Jizhong records that after Yin Jia ascended the throne and settled in Xihe, an extraordinary omen appeared: all ten suns came out at once. This shows that stories about the strange appearance of ten suns have a long history.

Ancient books say that there are ten suns in the sky, with ten as the fixed number. Here, nine dwell on the lower branches of the tree and one on the upper branch. The Classic of the Great Wilderness also says that one sun is about to arrive as another is about to rise. These accounts suggest that although legend speaks of ten suns, they ordinarily take turns appearing to shine upon Heaven and Earth. If all ten appeared at once, it would bring disaster to the world. Thus, at Yao’s command, Yi drew his bow toward the sky with unwavering resolve and shot until nine suns disappeared. Judged by ordinary reasoning, this event may seem hard to understand; yet it can also be explained within the numerical logic of the ancients. Those who are learned should grasp its deeper meaning and understand it through subtle principles, rather than dismissing these extraordinary accounts.

The Land of the Rain Master’s Consort lies north of the Land of the Black-Toothed People. The Rain Master is Pingyi, the legendary god of rain. The people of the Rain Master’s Consort have dark skin. Each holds a snake in one hand; a blue-green snake hangs from the left ear and a red snake from the right. Another account places the Land of the Rain Master’s Consort north of the Land of the Ten Suns. Its people have black bodies and human faces, and each holds a turtle in either hand.

The Land of the Black-Thighed People lies north of the Land of the Rain Master’s Consort. The people are black from the thighs down, which is why they are called the Black-Thighed People. They wear clothes made from fish skin and eat a water bird called “you.” Two birds stay beside them as guards. Another account places the Land of the Black-Thighed People north of the Land of the Rain Master’s Consort.

The Land of the Hairy People lies north of the Land of the Black-Thighed People. Its people are covered in hair. It is said that among the islands in the sea two thousand li southeast of Linhai Commandery, there are hairy people: they are short, their faces and bodies covered in piglike hair, and they can live in caves without wearing clothes. In the fourth year of the Yongjia era of the Jin dynasty, Dai Feng, a salt administration inspector from Wu Commandery, discovered a boat by the seashore. On board were four men and one woman, all with this appearance. They could not understand the local language, so they were sent to the Chancellor’s residence. Some died on the way, leaving only one person. The emperor gave him a wife, and later they had a child. He went in and out of the marketplace and gradually learned to speak the local language. He said that he came from the Land of the Hairy People. The Classic of the Great Wilderness says that the people of the Land of the Hairy People eat millet. Another account places their land north of the Land of the Black-Thighed People.

The Land of the Toiling People lies to its north. Its inhabitants have dark skin and live on fruit and grass seeds. There is a kind of bird there with two heads. Some also say the place is called the “Land of the Slaying People.” Another account says the Land of the Toiling People lies north of the Land of the Hairy People. Its inhabitants have black faces, eyes, hands, and feet, and are draped with two dragons.

Goumang, the eastern spirit of Wood, has a crow’s body and a human face, and rides two dragons. He assists Ling Weiyang, the Eastern Celestial Emperor, and is also the deity who governs trees. Facing east, he wears white. The Mozi says: In ancient times, Duke Mu of Qin possessed virtue, so the Lord on High sent Goumang to grant him nineteen years of life.

On the bingxu day of the fourth month of the first year of Jianping, the attendant-in-waiting, subordinate of the Grand Minister of Ceremonies, your servant Wang, collated and corrected this text. The Attendant-in-Chief and Chamberlain for the Palace Garrison, your servant Gong, and the Attendant-in-Chief, Commandant of the Carriages, and Grandee Secretary, your servant Xiu, were ordered to oversee its review.

Illustrated Notes on the Classic of the Eastern Regions Beyond the Seas

The Land of the Gentlemen

The vital energy of the East is benevolent and generous, and so there is a Land of the Gentlemen. Its people eat xunhua and keep tigers as servants. They value deference and courtesy, observe proper conduct, and know how to assess matters and reason.

Tianwu

Tianwu is a deep and awe-inspiring water deity, also known as the Valley Deity. It has eight heads and ten tails, a human face and a tiger’s body, and rides two dragons. Its imposing presence shakes everything it reaches.

The Nine-Tailed Fox

In Qingqiu there is a strange creature: the nine-tailed fox. When a clear and virtuous ruler appears, it emerges and flies, carrying a book in its mouth. It appeared as an auspicious sign in the time of King Wen of Zhou, revealing a blessing sent down by the spirits.

Shuhai

Yu the Great ordered Shuhai to travel north of Qingqiu, eastward to the farthest reaches, and westward to the land of Bin. Shuhai measured the four quarters of Heaven and Earth on foot, thereby displaying the virtue of the spirits.

The Ten Suns

All ten suns rose at once, scorching the plants until they withered. Yi then drew his bow, set an arrow, and shot upward at the three-legged crows in the suns. This may be called a far-reaching resonance: a sign of Heaven and humanity responding to one another.

The Land of the Hairy People

Laobei is a seabird, while Xizi startles the deer. Some esteem dwelling in caves and going naked; others esteem wearing clothes and robes. The views of beings and people conflict with one another. Which is right and which is wrong? Who can say?

The Land of the Black Teeth, the Rain Master’s Consort, the Land of the Dark Thighs, and the Land of the Toiling People

Near Yanggu Mountain lies a country called the Land of the Black Teeth. The Rain Master’s Consort … a sign of Heaven and humanity responding to one another.

The Land of the Hairy People

Laobei is a seabird, while Xizi startles the deer. Some esteem dwelling in caves and going naked; others esteem wearing clothes and robes. The views of beings and people conflict with one another. Which is right and which is wrong? Who can say?

The Land of the Black-Toothed People lies around Mount Yanggu. The Rain Master’s wife wears a snake hanging from her ear. The people of Xuanguo eat the food designated by “□,” while the people of Laomin have black toes.

Gou Mang of the East

There was a divine being with a human face and a bird’s body, dressed in white. By order of the Celestial Emperor, he granted Duke Mu of Qin a long life. August Heaven does not favor any one person; those who do good naturally receive blessings in return.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas, Volume Nine

A place where sweet fruit grows. In this passage, the character “sweet” has been changed to “hundred” in the Tan collated edition.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas, Volume Ten

Commentary by Guo Pu.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas: The Southern Regions Within the Seas

The account of the region extending westward from the southeastern corner of the lands within the seas begins at the southern end. The Ou people live in the sea. Today, Yongning County in Linhai Commandery is Dong’ou, located within the Qihai. “Ou” is pronounced like “qu.” The Min people live in the sea; “Min” is pronounced like “min” in “heavenly.” Northwest of Min is a mountain. Minyue is X’ou, corresponding roughly to present-day Jian’an Commandery, also within the Qihai. Another account says that Mount Minzhong is in the sea.

Mount Santianshan is west of Min and north of the sea. “Zhang” in its name is pronounced like “zhang” in “chapter.” Today, east of She County in Xin’an Commandery, it is called Mount Sanwang, and the Zhejiang River rises from its edge. Zhang’s Record of Lands says: four li south of Yongkang County in Dongyang Commandery is Mount Shicheng, with a small stone fortress on its summit. Tradition says the Yellow Emperor once visited here, and that this is where the Three Heavenly Sons dwelt. Another account places Mount Santianshan in the sea.

The Eight Cassia Trees of Guilin lie east of Panyu. The eight trees form a grove; this description indicates that the trees are exceptionally tall. Panyu is today Panyu County.

Little is known about the state of Bolü. The people of the state of Lier pierced their ears and split the flesh so that their earlobes hung down; for this reason, the state was also called Dan’er. It lay on an island in the Zhuya Sea. Its people ate no grain, living instead on shellfish and foods such as yams.

The people of the state of Diaoti tattooed their faces with black dye and marked their bodies with scale-like patterns, so they were also called the Jiao people. Little is known about the state of Beixiong; “Beixiong” is read as “Qu.” These places all lay south of the Yu River. The river rises in the southern mountains of Xiangling, a range also called Xianglü.

The state of Xiaoyang lay west of Beiju. Its people had human faces and long lips, black, hairy bodies, and heels that pointed backward. When they saw people laughing, they laughed too, and they held a tube in their left hands.

The Book of Zhou records people of the state of Zhoumi who looked something like this: they had human bodies, heels that pointed backward, and laughed on their own; when they laughed, something above them covered their faces. The Erya also mentions this kind of “fangfu.” The Great Tradition says that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou, the state of Zhoumi presented such a person as tribute. The Classic of the Mountains and Seas: The Lands Within the Seas calls them the “Gancheng people.”

It is said that creatures of this kind can still be found in the deep mountains of Nankang Commandery in Jiaozhou. About ten feet tall, they have heels turned backward, run very fast, wear their hair loose, and enjoy laughing. The females secrete a fluid that makes people ill if it splashes on them. Locals commonly call them “mountain spirits.” Nankang has a Gan River, said to have been named for these creatures. This resembles the account in The Great Wilderness, which says that a place was inhabited by “Yu people,” and that people therefore called its mountain Mount Yu.

A si, a rhinoceros-like beast, lives east of Emperor Shun’s tomb and south of the Xiang River. It resembles an ox, has bluish-black fur, and a single horn on its head. Mount Cangwu is where Emperor Shun was buried; his tomb lies on the mountain’s southern slope, at Mount Jiuyi. The Book of Rites also says that Shun was buried in the wilderness of Cangwu. Dan Zhu was buried on the mountain’s northern slope, and his tomb can still be found in Danyang today. The Bamboo Annals likewise record that Hou Ji exiled Emperor Zhu to the area around the Dan River, which accords with this account. Dan Zhu was called “Emperor” in the same way that the Han-era Duke of Shanyang was given the posthumous title “Emperor Xian” after his death.

The region of Silin extends three hundred li in every direction and lies east of the place where the xingxing, a legendary beast, lives. The name xingxing is also written with a different character, though the pronunciation is the same. The xingxing is said to know people’s names. It resembles a pig but has a human face. The Book of Zhou records that the xingxing in the Zhengguo area resembles a yellow dog, with a human face and a rooster’s head; eating its flesh prevents drowsiness. Xingxing are also found today around Fengxi in Jiaozhi. Local people say they resemble little pigs, though somewhat like dogs, and cry like children. The xingxing lives west of Emperor Shun’s tomb.

Northwest of the xingxing are rhinoceroses. They resemble oxen and are black all over. Xingxing are also found around Fengxi in Jiaozhi; local people say they resemble little pigs or dogs and cry like children. The rhinoceros resembles a water buffalo, has a pig’s head, and has three horns on its feet. It lives northwest of the xingxing.

Meng Tu, a minister of Xiahou Qi, was the person responsible for matters concerning the spirits in the land of Ba. When local people had disputes, they treated him as a spirit and asked him to judge their cases. According to the legend, bloodstains would appear on the clothing of the dishonest, exposing them; people therefore went to Meng Tu to seek a fair judgment. The phrase “seeking life” refers to his willingness to preserve life and his esteem for nurturing it. Meng Tu lived in the mountains, west of Mount Dan. Mount Dan lies south of Danyang, which belonged to the local administrative region of that time. Today, the place said to be Meng Tu’s home is seven li east of Zigui County, in Danyang City, Jianping Commandery.

Yayu, a legendary beast, has a dragon’s head and lives in the Weakwater, west of Xingxing, a legendary beast said to be able to call out people’s names. It looks like a dragon-headed creature and eats people. Yayu was originally a serpent-bodied, human-faced being. After being killed by a minister of Erfu, it transformed into this monster.

There is a tree shaped like an ox. The Hetu Yuban says that when magical fungus grows sideways, some forms resemble chariots and horses, while others resemble dragons and serpents; these belong to the same category. When pulled, its bark peels away, taking the shape of a hat tassel or a yellow snake. Its leaves resemble gauze or damask, and its fruit resembles that of a tree called “Le.” Le is also a kind of tree: its trunk is yellow, its branches red, and its leaves green. It grows on Yunyu Mountain. Some records write its name as “Mao” or “Ma,” while others say it is associated with music. Its trunk resembles that of another tree called “Qiu,” though it is not clear what kind of tree Qiu is.

This tree is called Jianmu. It grows west of Yuyu, above the Weakwater. Its leaves are green, its stem is purple, its flowers are black, and its fruit is yellow. Sounds made beneath the tree produce no echo, and a person standing beside it casts no shadow.

The Country of the Shi People lies west of Jianmu. The character “Shi” is pronounced much like the “di” in “chudi” (“to touch and resist”). The Shi people have human faces and fish bodies, with no feet; above the chest they have human bodies, and below it they have fish bodies.

The Ba Snake swallows elephants and does not regurgitate their bones until three years later. A gentleman who eats Ba Snake meat can be free of ailments of the heart and abdomen. There are stories today in the south of pythons swallowing deer: once the deer has rotted inside the snake, the snake coils around a tree, and the deer’s bones pierce through between its scales. This may be a similar case. The Chuci also speaks of a snake swallowing an elephant; its commentators say the snake is a thousand xun long. The Ba Snake is blue, yellow, red, or black. Another account describes it as a black snake with a blue head, found west of the rhinoceros.

The Maoma looks like a horse, with hair growing at the joints of all four legs. The “haoma” mentioned in the Mu Tianzi Zhuan may be this creature. There are also Maoniu. The Maoma is northwest of the Ba Snake and south of the high mountains.

The Xiongnu are also called the Xianyun in some records. The Country of Kaití—the “ti” in its name pronounced like “ti” in “tí”—and the Country of the Lieren both lie to the northwest. These three places are all in the region of the Maoma, northwest of the Ba Snake and south of the high mountains.

The Xiongnu, also called the Xianyun, were an ancient northern people. The state of Kaití, pronounced “Yinti,” and the state of the Lieren both lay to the northwest. All three states were northwest of the Maoma Kingdom.

Illustrated Eulogies of the Southern Lands Within the Seas

Xiaoyang

The Xiaoyang is a strange beast with unbound hair and a bamboo stalk in its hand. When it catches a person, it laughs, turning its lips upward until they cover its eyes. Then it suddenly bursts into loud sobs and is killed by the person it caught.

Xingxing

The Xingxing, a mythical beast, sometimes looks like a dog. It is naturally quick-witted, can recognize the way it has come, and is alert to things around it. People lure it with wine, but this only invites calamity and brings disaster upon themselves.

Meng Xu, Minister to Xiahou Qi

Meng Xu governed the land of Ba and judged disputes over right and wrong. If he rendered a biased verdict, blood would stain his clothes. People asked him for efficacious judgments and marveled at his uncanny, unfathomable power.

Jianmu

Jianmu grows there, bearing yellow fruit and purple branches and trunk. Its bark resembles snakeskin, and its leaves are like white silk. Its shade stretches all the way to the Weak Water; only those of De can pass through.

The Di People

The Di people are descendants of the Flame Emperor, born of Huang. They can return to life after death, and their bodies are covered in scales. They make Yunnan their home and also drift about near the Celestial River.

The Ba Snake

The Ba Snake is a gigantic beast that can swallow an elephant. The elephant’s bones take three years to pass through its body. Just how large is it? Qu Sheng himself wondered.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas, Scrolls Ten and Eleven

Commentary by Guo Pu.

The Old Classic of Lands Within the Seas

From the southwestern corner of the lands within the seas, northward…

Danger’s minister was named Wei. Wei and Danger killed Yayu, so the Celestial Emperor imprisoned them on Mount Shushu. The term gu means to strike and bind, and is pronounced like huo. The Celestial Emperor locked Wei’s right foot in a shackle, bound his hands together with his hair behind his back, and fastened him to a tree on the mountain. This place lies northwest of Mount Kaití.

During the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han, someone was ordered to excavate a huge rock in Shang Commandery. Inside a stone chamber, they found a person naked, with disheveled hair, hands bound behind the back, and a shackle on one foot. Emperor Xuan asked his ministers, but no one knew what it was. Liu Zizheng (Liu Xiang, whose courtesy name was Zizheng) explained it based on this account, and the emperor was astonished. From then on, people of that time eagerly studied the Shanhaijing. Many commentators thought that what had been found in the stone chamber was merely a corpse like the one described in the text, not someone actually bound there. Others held that such events should be understood in terms of spiritual transformations, which are difficult to infer through ordinary reasoning. Things receive different kinds of Qi, and some phenomena exceed what is usual; they cannot be measured by ordinary patterns or the experience of recent times.

During the Wei dynasty, someone opened an old tomb of a Zhou king and found a woman buried with him. She seemed neither alive nor completely dead. After several days she began to breathe, and it took several months before she could speak. She appeared to be about twenty years old. People brought her to the capital and reported the matter to the Empress Dowager, who took her in and kept her by her side. More than ten years later, when the Empress Dowager died, the woman wept in grief and gradually died ten days afterward. This is the kind of event being described.

The Great Marsh stretches a hundred li in every direction. It is where many kinds of birds breed and molt. Birds of every kind hatch and raise their young here, and shed their soft down here as well. The Great Marsh lies north of Yanmen. Mount Yanmen lies north of Gaoliu, and geese fly out through its passes.

Gaoliu is in the territory of Dai.

The burial place of Houji is surrounded by mountains and water. It lies on the Guangdu plain, west of the state of Shi.

The state of Liuhuang Fengshi extends three hundred li in every direction; this refers to the area within its walled city. Roads run in all directions through the city, with a mountain at its center. These roads lead to the west of Houji’s tomb.

The Liu-miao River rises in the Zhong Mountains, flows west and then turns south, passes through the Kunlun Ruins, and finally runs southwest into the sea. There is a Blackwater Mountain there. Today, in the area of the Western Sea, there is Juting Marsh. The quicksand mentioned in the Book of Documents is crescent-shaped, like the moon on its fifth day.

The Donghu live east of the Great Marsh, and the Yi people live east of the Donghu. The Mo kingdom lies northeast of the Han River. The present-day Fuyu kingdom occupies the former territory of the Huimo. It lies north of the Great Wall, a thousand li from Xuantu. The region produces fine horses, red jade, sable pelts, and large pearls about the size of crabapples. Fuyu lies near the state of Yan and was later conquered by Yan.

Mengwu is also the name of a kind of bird that lives northeast of the Mo kingdom. Its feathers are patterned, its beak is yellowish green, and it faces east.

The Kunlun Ruins within the seas—that is, the foothills or remains of Mount Kunlun—lie in the northwest. They are called “within the seas” to indicate that another Kunlun Mountain lies beyond the seas. This is the city where the Celestial Emperor dwells in the human world. The Kunlun Ruins extend eight hundred li in every direction and rise ten thousand ren. These figures describe the broad and lofty foundations of Mount Kunlun. More than two thousand five hundred li higher up are the Sweet Spring, a spring of clear, sweet water, and the Splendid Pool, an elegant pool. The mountain lies fifty thousand li from Songgao and is probably at the center of Heaven and Earth. These accounts are found in the Records of Yu. Tall, tree-like grain plants also grow on Mount Kunlun.