《山海经》Vol. 4

The mountain is five xun high and five wei wide. Wood grain is a type of grain that grows along the banks of the Black River and can be eaten. See the Traditions of King Mu.

There are nine wells on the mountain, with jade wellheads; nine gates surround it, guarded by the Kai Ming beasts. This is where the gods dwell, among the mountain crags of Fengyu. On the banks of the Red River, only a benevolent person or someone as gifted as Yi could climb the steep cliffs of the ridge. Yi once sought the elixir of immortality from the Queen Mother of the West, which was also regarded as a sign that he had attained the Dao. Some accounts write “Yi” as “Sheng.”

The Red River rises at the mountain’s southeastern corner and flows northeast, then southwest, emptying into the South Sea. It lies east of the Land of the Fire-Repellers.

The Yellow River rises at the mountain’s northeastern corner and flows north, then turns southwest and empties into the Bohai Sea. It then emerges beyond the seas and flows west, then north, entering Jishi Mountain, where Yu the Great had channeled it. When Yu the Great controlled the floods, he reopened and cleared the river course. Thus the text says that he “channeled the Yellow River at Jishi”: he guided the river from Jishi Mountain.

The Yang River (with “Yang” pronounced “Xiang”) and the Black River rise at the mountain’s northwestern corner. The Black River flows east, then turns northeast and runs south into the sea, passing south of the Land of the Feathered People.

The Weak River and the Blue River rise at the mountain’s southwestern corner. They flow east, then north, and turn southwest, passing east of the place where the Bi Fang bird dwells. The Western Regions Account records that the kingdom of Wuyiguo lies more than fifteen thousand li from Chang’an and can be reached by traveling west for over a hundred days; the kingdom of Tiaozhi is near the Western Sea. According to local elders, the far west is home to the Weak River and the Queen Mother of the West. The Eastern Barbarians Account also says that the Weak River lies several thousand li beyond the Great Wall, but these are places the writers had never seen for themselves. The Huainanzi says that the Weak River rises at Qiongshi. Qiongshi is in the area of Naran in what is now Xijun; perhaps it is only the source of a tributary of the Weak River.

The abyss south of Kunlun is three hundred ren deep, an ancient unit of length. This abyss is called the Spirit Abyss.

South of Kunlun lies a deep abyss, three hundred ren in depth, called the Spirit Abyss. The Kaiming Beast is enormous, like a tiger; some versions say its body is upright. It has nine heads, each with a human face. Facing east, it stands on Mount Kunlun as a divine beast of the celestial realm. The Rong says: “The Kaiming Beast received Heaven’s vital essence. It gazes fiercely at Kunlun, its might striking fear into all the gods.”

To the west of the Kaiming Beast are phoenixes and luan birds. Snakes crown their heads, coil beneath their feet, and wind across their chests. To its north are shourou, pearl trees, patterned jade trees, and five-colored jade trees, as well as weiqi trees and yuying—all kinds of red jade. In the first year of the Wutianxi era, Wu Yao, an official of Linhai Commandery, found a stone tree by the sea. It stood more than three chi tall, with a purple trunk and leaves; supple and twisted, it glittered in the light. It belonged to the same class as jade trees. Nearby was an immortal tree, so called because it stays green and never withers. The phoenixes and luan birds all carry shields on their backs. “Lizhu” is a kind of bird. There are also grain trees, cypress trees, and Sweet Water, meaning a sweet spring. The sacred tree is said to make those who eat it intelligent and perceptive. The identity of Mandui is unknown; another account says that upright trees grow intertwined. The Huainanzi calls it a xuan tree; xuan is a kind of jade.

East of the Kaiming Beast live Wu Peng, Wu Di, Wu Yang, Wu Lü, Wu Fan, and Wu Xiang. They are all divine healers. The Shiben says that Wu Peng founded the art of medicine.

The Chuci says that the Celestial Emperor ordered Wu Yang to restore the corpse of Yuya, and commanded all the shamans to carry the elixir of immortality, ward off the breath of death, and help Yuya return to life. Yuya was a beast with a serpent’s body and a human face, killed by the minister of Erfu.

A three-headed person sits in a fuchang tree, keeping watch over a langgan tree. What kind of tree fuchang is remains unclear. The fruit of the langgan tree resembles pearls. The Erya says that among the most precious things of the northwest are the langgan of Mount Kunlun. The Zhuangzi mentions a three-headed person who takes turns lying down and standing up as he guards the fruits of the langgan and yuying trees. It is this person here that the passage refers to.

South of Kaiming, a divine beast or sacred mountain, there is a kind of tree bird with six heads. There is also a jiao, a dragon-like creature resembling a snake with four legs. Other creatures there include locust snakes, wei (long-tailed apes), leopards, and a tree called the Niaozhi tree. What kind of tree the Niaozhi tree is remains unknown. Trees stand in rows beside Biaochi, the name given to the Hua Pool. There is also a bird called the Song bird; Song is its name, but its shape is unknown. The sun is a large bird of prey. The Record of King Mu of Zhou says, “There are white sun and blue eagles there.” The character sun is pronounced like “sun” in “bamboo shoot.” There is also shorou, a miraculous flesh-like being that grows on its own.

Illustration and Eulogy for the Western Lands within the Seas

Erfu’s Minister Wei

People of the Han dynasty split open a great boulder, and Wei appeared from within. Liu Sheng recognized him, but none of the ministers knew who he was. Liu Sheng could truly be called learned and well informed; the beings recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas are truly wondrous.

The Land of the Liu Huang Feng Clan

Its walls stretch for three hundred li, and the beams of its houses join together beside the river. At the slightest disturbance, dust billows up and darkens the sky, while dense vapor rises. How might one travel there and roam to one’s heart’s content?

The Great Marsh, a Hundred Li Across

This land is called Jiyu, and it measures a hundred li across. Birds gather there like clouds, and the beating of their wings sounds like thunder. King Mu of Zhou turned his chariot around and let his fine horse Luer gallop there.

The Flowing Sands

The Flowing Sands form a boundary between the inner and outer realms of Heaven and Earth, separating the two sides. They stretch far into the western distance, winding and undulating as they flow slowly onward. At last they empty into the Black River, their remaining waters seeming to sink there forever.

Wood Grain

South of Mount Kunlun lies a mountain hollow where swans and herons dwell. Fine grain grows there, called Wood Grain. It needs neither planting nor cultivation, but grows and multiplies of its own accord.

Kaiming

Kaiming is a divine beast born of Heaven, endowed with the essence of Metal. It has a tiger’s body and a human face, its form strong and strange. It glares at Mount Kunlun, its might subduing the hundred gods.

The Trees of Wen Jade and Yuqi

Wen jade and yuqi, both names for fine jade, grow in clusters, each with its own shape. Emerald leaves sway with graceful softness, and crimson branches are delicate and translucent. Their jade light reflects from one another, their brilliant colors glowing like fire dragons.

The Tree of Immortality

All things appear for a time; human life is like a sojourn in this world. Yet the Tree of Immortality endures as long as Heaven and Earth. Seek the elixir from the Queen Mother of the West. There grow clusters of wen jade and yuqi: emerald leaves sway with graceful softness, and vermilion branches are delicate and translucent. Their jade light reflects from one another, their brilliant colors glowing like fire dragons.

The Tree of Immortality

All things in the world are only temporary manifestations, and human life is like lodging in this world. The deathless tree can live as long as Heaven and Earth. Even if one seeks an elixir from the Queen Mother of the West (the deity who governs longevity and elixirs), how could one be like Yi?

The Sacred Trees of Sweet Waters

The Sweet Spring and the Jade Tree, a legendary sacred tree, nourish one’s years of life, allowing people to enjoy the full span of their allotted years. The harmonious Qi they bring can make the spirit peaceful and quiet. Why must one be born knowing everything to qualify as a sage?

Yayu

Yayu, a legendary beast, was innocent, yet harmed by Erfu, a figure from myth. The Lord of Heaven ordered the shamans to keep watch beside it with medicine in hand. In the end, Yayu sank into the depths and became a strange creature with a dragon’s head.

The Fuchang Langgan Tree

The Fuchang Langgan Tree is a wondrous tree on Mount Kunlun. Its red fruit shines like pearls and jade, and its green leaves spread like emerald. Three human heads grow on the tree, taking turns gazing into the distance and looking at one another.

A note added to the scripture says that the phrase “its crow has patterned markings on its beak” is emended in the Tan edition to “its crow has patterned markings and a red beak.”

The Northern Classic of the Regions Within the Seas

The area extending eastward from the northwestern corner of the regions within the seas.

On Snake-Shaman Mountain, a person stands facing east, holding a cup. Another account calls this mountain Turtle Mountain. Some versions write the word for “cup” as “bang”; the two characters are interchangeable.

The Queen Mother of the West leans against a table, wears a sheng hair ornament, and holds a staff. “Ladder” means to lean against. South of her are three blue-green birds that bring her food, along with a three-legged bird that serves at her command. North of the Kunlun Ruins, a figure called the Earl of Great March holds a spear. Farther east lies the Dog-Seal Country.

According to legend, after Panhu, the divine dog, killed the king of the Rong, the Gaoxin ruler gave him a beautiful woman as a wife. Later, the arrangement became difficult to control, so the ruler banished Panhu to the sea southeast of Kuaiji. There, Panhu received a territory three hundred li in circumference as his fief. The boys born to them were dogs, and the girls were beautiful women; these people became the inhabitants of the Dog-Seal Country. Erfu’s corpse lies east of the Earl of Great March.

The Country of Dog Seal is also called the Country of the Dog Rong. Bianming, a descendant of the Yellow Emperor, fathered two white dogs. They mated with each other, and their offspring eventually formed this country. The local people looked like dogs, so the place was called the Country of Dogs. There was a woman kneeling and holding out a cup as she ate, serving food to a dog. The country was also home to a patterned horse with a body white as silk, a vermilion mane, and eyes like gold. It was called Jiliang, also written “Jiliang” with a different character. Anyone who rode this horse could live for a thousand years.

The Book of Zhou says that the Dog Rong had a patterned horse with a red mane, a white body, and eyes like gold, called the “Mount of Jihuang.” One was presented during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou. The Six Secret Teachings says that this horse was patterned, with a red mane, golden eyes, and a head like a rooster’s tail; it was called the “Mount of Jisi.” The Great Tradition describes it as having a spotted body, a red mane, and rooster-like eyes. The Classic of Mountains and Seas also records the Mount of Jihuang, saying that riding it could extend one’s life to a thousand years. These accounts differ only in the name and in a few details of the description; they refer in fact to the same horse. They are listed together here to broaden the reader’s knowledge.

The Country of Ghosts lies north of the corpse of Erfu. It is home to a strange being with a human face and one eye. Another account says that the spirit Erfu lives east of the Country of Ghosts and has a human face and a snake’s body.

The Taogou, a legendary beast, resembles a dog and is blue-green in color; its name is pronounced “Tao.” When it eats people, it starts at the head. Its name is also written with the character “Gou,” which likewise refers to this monster that devours people starting at the head.

Qiongqi resembles a tiger, has wings, and is covered in bristly hair like a hedgehog. When it eats people, it starts at the head, and its victims are left with their hair hanging loose. It lives north of the Taogou. Another account says that it starts eating people at the feet.

The viewing towers of Emperor Yao, Emperor Ku, Emperor Danzhu, and Emperor Shun each consisted of two square structures. They stood northeast of Mount Kunlun. Legend says that when the Son of Heaven made his progress through the four directions, he once passed through this place. The local Yi and Di peoples admired the virtue of the sage rulers, so they built the towers together to mark where the Son of Heaven had once stayed. Another book says that this was the place left behind after Xiangliu was killed. The soil was foul-smelling and could not grow grain, so it was used as the viewing ground of the emperors.

The great bee is shaped like a snail. The vermilion moth is shaped like a moth. The “moth” mentioned here refers to the piyi, or large ant. The Songs of Chu says, “The dark bee is like a pot; the red down is like an elephant,” referring to creatures of this kind.

Jiao, a legendary strange being, has tiger markings on its body and a feature denoted by the character “□” on its lower legs, meaning that its legs have bulging muscles; the name is pronounced “qiao.” It is east of Qiongqi. Another account says it is shaped like a person and lives north of the Kunlun Ruins. It is one of the beings mentioned earlier.

Tafei, a legendary monster, has a human face and the body of a beast. It is blue-green in color, and its name is pronounced “ta.”

The corpse of Jubi, also called Chuanbi, has a broken neck, disheveled hair, and one missing hand.

Huanju has the head of a beast and the body of a person. Another account says it is shaped like a dog, has spines on its body, and is yellow.

Mo, a legendary monster, has the body of a beast and is blue-green. Its name is pronounced “ta.”

The corpse of Jubi, also called Chuanbi, has a broken neck, disheveled hair, and one missing hand.

Huanju has the head of a beast and the body of a person. Another account says it is shaped like a dog, has spines on its body, and is yellow.

Mo is a monster with a human body, a black head, and vertically aligned eyes. The word “mo” means “mei,” a spirit creature.

Rong has a human body and three horns on its head.

The state of Lin has a rare and wondrous beast as large as a tiger, with all five colors on its body and a tail longer than its body. It is called Liwu, and riding it, one can travel a thousand li in a day. The Six Secret Teachings says that when King Zhou imprisoned King Wen, Hong Yao and the others went to the state of Lin, found this beast, and presented it to King Zhou. He was delighted and released King Wen. The Book of Zhou says that at Jialin there was a beast called Qiuer. Qiuer was shaped like a tiger, had a tail as long as its body, and could eat tigers and leopards. The Great Tradition calls it the “zhishou beast.” The character “wu” should be “yu.”

South of the Kunlun Ruins lies a marshland called Fanlin, three hundred li across.

At the depths of the Abyss of the Pole, three hundred ren deep (a ren was an ancient unit of length), Bingyi made his home. Bingyi is the same figure as Fengyi. The Huainanzi says that after attaining the Dao, Fengyi withdrew to the Great Abyss; he was also the River Earl. The Biography of King Mu of Zhou calls him “the River Earl Wuyi,” while the Bamboo Annals writes his name as “Fengyi.” Some editions write “Bing” instead of “Feng.” Bingyi had a human face and rode in a chariot drawn by two dragons. Another account says he had four faces, each riding in a spirit chariot drawn by two dragons. A different account calls this place the Abyss of Zhongji. Rivers rise from both Yangwu Mountain and Lingmen Mountain; each is the source of a tributary of the Yellow River.

The corpse of Wang Yuye was divided apart: his two hands, two legs, chest, head, and teeth lay scattered in different places. Perhaps his body had been separated while his spirit remained connected. Though his appearance was incomplete, his vital energy was still in accord. Being in accord does not mean being intimate and inseparable, just as being apart does not mean being distant.

Shun’s wife, Lady Dengbi, gave birth to Xiaoming and Zhuguang. These names were titles for their two daughters. They were named for their ability to emit light and illuminate the surrounding lands. They lived in a great marsh beside the river; “marsh” here means a wetland formed when river water overflows and spreads across the land. Tradition says the sisters’ numinous light illuminated an area extending a hundred li in every direction around them. Another account gives Lady Dengbi’s name as Lady Dengbei.

The state of Gai lay south of Juyan and north of Wa. Wa belonged to the territory of Yan. It lay in the great sea east of Daifang and was ruled by women. The local people wore their hair loose and bound up, made their clothes without sewing, and painted their bodies with cinnabar. They felt no jealousy, and one man might have dozens of wives.

Joseon lay east of Lieyang, north of the sea, and south of the mountains. Lieyang belonged to the territory of Yan. Gulousian is today’s Lelang County, where Jizi was enfeoffed. “Lie” was also the name of a river. Leng River was in the Daifang area, which included Liekou County.

Mount Liegushe was an island mountain in the sea, where divine beings lived. The “river island” mentioned here refers to a place in the sea through which a river flowed. The “faraway Mount Gushe” described in the Zhuangzi is this very mountain.

The Kingdom of Gushe lies in the sea, within the region of Liegushe, surrounded by mountains to the southwest. A great crab lives in the sea; it is said to be a thousand li in size.

There are also ling fish in the sea, with human faces, hands, and feet, but the bodies of fish.

Large bian fish live in the sea. Bian refers to the fang fish; the character is pronounced “bian.”

The settlement of Mingzu lies in the sea. The “zu” in “Mingzu” is pronounced like “zu,” meaning ancestor.

Mount Penglai lies in the sea. Its palaces, where immortals dwell, are built entirely of gold and jade. All the birds and beasts there are white, and from afar they look like clouds. Mount Penglai lies in the Bohai Sea.

The Market of the Great People is also in the sea.

Illustrated Praise of the Northern Regions Within the Seas

Jiliang

Jiliang’s body holds golden vital energy, and its mane glows red. It moves like a dragon and stands with extraordinary spirit. It gathers bamboo joints and races as swiftly as a wild goose, while the dust it raises settles and then rises again. This divine beast is called Jihuang; through it, the sage’s numinous brilliance is revealed.

Snake-Witch Mountain, the Ghost-Spirit Tao, the Great Diquan Terrace, Great Bees, and Vermilion Moths

On Snake-Witch Jia Mountain, a person holds a wine cup. The Ghost-Spirit Tao is enormous and governs strange calamities. Great bees and vermilion moths gather on the terrace and pavilion of the Heavenly Emperor.

Tapfei, the Corpse of Jubi, Mei, and Rong

Tapfei has a human face and the body of a beast. The Corpse of Jubi has disheveled hair and a broken neck. Rong has three horns, while Mei’s eyebrows stand upright.

Zouyu

The zouyu is a strange beast covered in five colors, with a tail almost as long as its body. It strides with strength, can travel a thousand li, and moves with supernatural speed. This beast is called the zouyu, and the Book of Songs praises its benevolence.

Bingyi

Bingyi receives the essence of Heaven and Earth and refines and consumes stone eight. Riding a dragon, he appears and disappears, coming and going among the sea spirits. This water deity is also called Shuishan and bears the title Earl of the River.

The Corpse of Wang Yuye

After Yuye died, his body divided into seven parts. Separation did not make him distant, and joining together did not make him close. As long as the spirit’s intention governed them, his bodily form could return to unity.

Xiaoming and Zhuguang

The image of a beautiful woman is reflected in the water, as though illuminated by a radiant light. Her brilliance flows along the riverbank, and she receives extraordinary auspicious signs. She is one of Shun’s two daughters; the sisters live apart, in another place.

Mount Gushe, the giant crab, and the ling fish

Mount Gushe is indeed where the spirit beings of the West dwell. There are giant crabs a thousand li long, as well as ling fish, a legendary kind of fish. The vast sea holds wondrous things and treasures.

Mount Penglai

On Mount Penglai, jade and green jade form a forest. There are golden terraces and halls among the clouds, and the birds and beasts are bright and white. It is truly a numinous abode, and the Jade Lord, deity who governs jade, is filled with joy.

The Eastern Classic of the Lands Within the Seas

South of the northeastern corner lies the region of Giant Yan, which is situated at the northeastern corner.

Among the countries in the Flowing Sands is Zhuduan. The graph after “Xi” is damaged and its sound and meaning are unclear. Some read it as “huan,” while other versions write “jianru.” These places lie southeast of the Kunlun Ruins. Another account says they belong to Meinei Commandery, which had no counties and lay within the Flowing Sands.

Beyond the Flowing Sands are the countries of Daxia. Daxia’s walled cities extend two or three hundred li in every direction, and its territory is divided into dozens of states. The land there is warm and moist, suitable for growing the five grains. There are also the countries of Jiansha, Juyou (pronounced “yao”), and the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi produce fine horses and delicious fruit, as well as a kind of sheep with a large tail like a donkey’s: the qiang sheep. The Lesser Yuezhi and the country of Tianzhu are both said to be dependent states.

White Jade Mountain lies east of Daxia, and Cangwu lies southwest of White Jade Mountain. Both are west of the Flowing Sands and southeast of the Kunlun Ruins. The Kunlun Mountains lie west of the Western Hu and also to the northwest. The Treatise on Geography says that the Kunlun Mountains lie west of Linqiang, where there is also a shrine to the Queen Mother of the West.

The Thunder Marsh is home to the Thunder God. The Thunder God has a dragon’s body and a human head, and makes thunder by striking his belly. He dwells west of the land of Wu. Today, in Chengyang, there is a tomb of Yao and a numinous terrace; the Thunder Marsh lies to its north. The River Chart says that a giant footprint was found in the Thunder Marsh. Huaxu stepped into it and gave birth to Fuxi.

Du Prefecture lies in the sea and is also called Yu Prefecture. It is now within Xiong County in the East Sea Commandery. According to tradition, this mountain migrated from Cangwu in the south. Traces of Hua Xu—the legendary mother of Fuxi—are found all over the mountain, and Fuxi was born from them.

Another account says: Du Prefecture lies in the sea and is also called Yu Prefecture. It is now within Xiong County in the East Sea Commandery. Tradition says that this mountain migrated from Cangwu in the south, and that southern things can be seen everywhere on it. Yu is pronounced “yu.”

Langya Terrace lies in the Bohai Sea, east of Langya. Langya is now on the coast, where a tall, projecting mountain rises in the shape of a high terrace. This is Langya Terrace. Langya was the capital of King Goujian of Yue when he entered the Central Plain and established supremacy over the feudal lords. Another mountain lies to its north. One account says that Langya Terrace itself lies in the sea.

Hanyan lies in the sea, south of Du Prefecture.

Shijiu lies in the sea, south of Yuanli. Shijiu is the name of a state; some say it is the name of a kind of bird.

Mount Kuaiji lies south of Great Chu. Mount Min has three rivers. The first is the Great River, which rises in Wenshan. Today the Great River rises at Mount Kun in Shengqian County, Wenshan Commandery. It flows southeast through Qianwei in Shu Commandery, then reaches a point north of Jiangyang. It passes through Badong, Jianping, Yidu, Nanjun, Jiangxia, Yiyang, and Anfeng, and flows to the southern boundary of Lujiang. It then turns northeast, passing through Huainan and Xiana, reaches Guangling Commandery, and finally enters the sea.

The North River rises at Mount Man, and the South River rises at Mount Gao. Mount Gao lies west of Chengdu. The South River enters the sea south of Changzhou.

The Zhejiang River rises at Three Son of Heaven City, east of that place. According to the Treatise on Geography, the Zhejiang River rises in the lands of the Man people south of Yi County in Xin’an Commandery, flows east, and enters the sea. The Qiantang River of today is the Zhejiang referred to here. Yi is another name for She, and Zhe is pronounced “zhe.” This river lies northwest of Min and enters the sea south of Yuji. Yuji County belonged to Kuaiji Commandery and is now called Yongxing County.

The Lujiang River rises at Three Son of Heaven City and flows into the Yangtze, joining it west of Pengze. Pengze is today Lake Pengli, in Pengze County, Xunyang Commandery. Another account says the name here is “Son of Heaven’s Outskirts.”

The Huai River rises in Yu Mountain. Yu Mountain lies east of Chaoyang and west of Yixiang. The Huai flows into the sea, passing north of Huaipu. Today the Huai rises in Tongbai Mountain, in Ping shi County of Yiyang Commandery. It flows out from the mountain’s northeastern side, passes through Runan, Ruyin, Huainan, Qiao State, Xia Na, and other places, then enters the sea at Guangling County. Chaoyang County now belongs to Xinye.

The Xiang River rises at the southeastern corner of Emperor Shun’s tomb and flows west, circling the tomb. “Circle” means to go around. Today the Xiang rises in Yangshuo Mountain, in Yingdao County of Lingling Commandery. It flows into the Yangtze River, then joins the waterway below Lake Dongting. Dongting is explained as an underground cavern, located around Baling in Changsha Commandery. Today, in the great lake south of Wu County, there is Bao Mountain, with Dongting beneath it. A cavern passage runs under the water; it is said to connect everywhere and is called the “earth veins,” meaning underground waterways. Another account says that Dongting is a body of marshland to the east, south, and west.

The Han River rises in Fu Yu Mountain. The Book of Documents says, “Channel the Yang River from Bozhong Mountain; flowing east, it becomes the Han.” According to the Classic of Waterways, the Han rises in Wolf Valley, east of Ju County in Wudu Commandery. It passes through Hanzhong and Weixing, reaching Nanxiang; then it flows east through Xiangyang, reaches Anlu County in Jiangxia Commandery, and empties into the Yangtze River. The Han is also sometimes called the Mian River or the Canglang River.

“Di flowed forth to become the Han” refers to the waters of Di Flow Mountain converging to form the Han River. According to the Classic of Waterways, the Han rises in Wolf Valley, east of Ju County in Wudu Commandery. It passes through Hanzhong and Weixing, reaching Nanxiang; then it flows east through Xiangyang, reaches Anlu County in Jiangxia Commandery, and empties into the Yangtze River. The Han is also sometimes called the Mian River or the Canglang River.

Emperor Zhuanxu was buried on the sunny side of the mountain, and his nine consorts were buried on the shaded side. Four snakes guarded them. This means that four snakes kept watch at the foot of the mountain.

The Meng River rises west of Hanyang and flows into the Yangtze River, passing west of Nieyang. Hanyang County belongs to Zuti Commandery.

The Wen River rises in Kongtong Mountain. Kongtong Mountain lies south of Linfen. The Wen flows into the Yellow River, passing north of Huayang. Today there is a Wen River in Yinpan County of Jingzhao Commandery; it takes its name from the water’s year-round warmth. Linfen County belongs to Pingyang Commandery.

The Ying River rises in Mount Shaoshi. Mount Shaoshi lies south of Yongshi County. The Ying flows west past the north side of Yan County, then empties into the Huai River. Today, the Ying rises in Mount Qian in Yangcheng County, Henan, and flows southeast through Yingchuan and Runan, continuing to Huainan, where it empties into the Huai at Xiacai. Yan County is today’s Yanling County, part of Yingchuan Commandery. Another account says the Ying rises in Goushi County, which belongs to Henan Commandery; “Gou” is pronounced like “hook.”

The Ru River rises in Mount Tianxi, southwest of Liangmian Township. It reaches the northwesternmost point of the Huai River and empties into it there. Today, the Ru rises northeast of Mount Dameng in Luyang County, Nanyang, and flows to Liang County in Henan. It then runs southeast through Xiangcheng, Yingchuan, and Runan, reaching Baoxin County in Runan, where it empties into the Huai. “Huai Ji” is a place name. Another account says the Ru empties into the Huai north of Qisi County, which belongs to Yiyang Commandery.

The Jing River rises in a mountain north of the Great Wall, within Yuzhi County. Changyuan also lies north of Yuzhi; both are county names. “Zhi” is pronounced like “zhi” in “shackle.” The Jing flows north and empties into the Wei River north of Xi. Today, the Jing rises at Mount Shengtou, west of Chaona County in Anding, and flows southeast through Xinping and Fufeng before emptying into the Wei at Gaoling County in Jingzhao. Xi is a place name, corresponding to today’s Xinfeng County.

The Wei River rises at Mount Niaoshu Tongxue, flows east, and empties into the Yellow River north of Huayin County. Mount Niaoshu Tongxue is now in Shouyang County, Longxi. The Wei rises on the mountain’s eastern side and flows through Nanan, Tianshui, Lueyang, Fufeng, Shiping, Jingshan, Jingzhao, Long County, and Huayin County before finally emptying into the Yellow River.

The Baishui rises in Shu and flows southeast into the Yangtze River. Its water is slightly whitish and turbid. The Baishui referred to today is in Baishui County, Zitong. Another record says the Baishui rises in Mount Xiqing, west of Lintao. It flows past Tazhong, then east through Yinping, and empties into the Qian River at Hanshou County, before joining the Yangtze below Jiangzhou City. Jiangzhou County belongs to Ba Commandery.

The Yuan River rises west of Tancheng County in Xiang Commandery. Xiang Commandery corresponds to the southern region today. Tancheng County now belongs to Wuling; its name is pronounced yin. The Yuan River flows east into the Yangtze, joining it west of Xiajuan County. Xiajuan County now belongs to Changsha; its name is pronounced zuo-yuan in traditional fanqie notation. The Yuan River also joins the waters of Dongting Lake. The Book of Waterways records that the Yuan River rises in Lan County, Xiangke Commandery, and flows northeast to Tancheng County, where it is called the Yuan River. It then flows east past the south side of Linyuan County, continuing east to Xiajuan County in Changsha.

The Gan River rises in the mountains east of Nedu. The Gan River today rises northwest of Nanye County in Nankang; gan is pronounced like the word for “feeling.” It flows northeast into the Yangtze, joining it west of Pengze.

The Si River rises northeast of the land of Wu and flows south. After passing west of Huling, it turns southwest, then flows southeast into the Eastern Sea, joining it north of Huaiyin. Today, the Si River rises southwest of Bian County in Lu and empties into the Yangtze after reaching Hulu County in Gaoping, joining it west of Pengze.

The Si River rises northeast of the land of Wu and flows south. After passing west of Huling, it turns southwest, then flows southeast into the Eastern Sea, joining it north of Huaiyin. Today, the Si River rises southwest of Bian County in Lu. After reaching Hulu County in Gaoping, it flows southeast past Pengcheng and Xiapi in Pei Commandery, and finally joins the Huai River at Xiaxiang County in Linhuai.

The Yu River rises in Xiang Commandery and flows southwest into the South Sea, joining it southeast of Xuling.

The Yi River rises southwest of Linjin. Yi is pronounced like the yi in “practice.” It flows southeast into the sea, joining it west of Panyu. Panyu County belongs to Nanhai Commandery and was the site of a Yue settlement.

The Huang River rises in the mountains northwest of Guiyang; huang is pronounced like “yellow.” It flows southeast into the Yi River, joining it west of Dunpu. The Luo River rises in the Western Luo Mountains and flows northeast into the Yellow River, joining it west of Chenggao. The Book of Documents says, “From Mount Xiong’er, the Luo River was traced.” According to the Book of Waterways, today the Luo River rises in Mount Zhongling in Shangluo and flows northeast through Hongnong, joining the Yellow River at Gong County in Henan. Chenggao County also belongs to Henan Commandery.

The Fen River rises north of Shangyu; yu is pronounced like “surplus.” It flows southwest into the Yellow River, joining it south of Pishi County. Today, the Fen River rises in the area of the former Fenyang County near Jinyang in Taiyuan. It flows southeast past Jinyang, then southwest through Pingyang in Xihe, and finally joins the Yellow River at Fenyin in Hedong. Pishi County belongs to Pingyang Commandery.

The Qinshui River rises east of Mount Jingxing. It flows southeast into the Yellow River, then onward to a point southeast of Huai County. Huai County belonged to Henei Commandery. Mount Jingxing lies in the northern part of Huai County.

The Jishui River rises and flows into the Yellow River. Pishi County belonged to Pingyang Commandery.

The Qinshui River rises east of Mount Jingxing. It flows southeast into the Yellow River, then onward to a point southeast of Huai County. Huai County belonged to Henei Commandery. Mount Jingxing lies in the northern part of Huai County.

The Jishui River rises at East Hill, south of Mount Gong. “Gong” and “Gong” are the same character. The Jishui crosses the Great Deer Marsh; here, “crosses” means to cut across or pass through. The Great Deer Marsh lay around present-day Gaoping. The Jishui empties into the Bohai Sea, reaching the coast northeast of Langhuai County in Qi. Today, the Jishui flows east from Juan County in Rongyang Commandery, passes through Chenliu to a point north of Qianyin, then turns northeast toward Gaoping. It continues northeast through Jinan and reaches the sea at Boxing County in Le’an, in the area now called Jieshi. The accounts of the various waterways do not fully agree with the Guide to Rivers. This is because mountains and rivers sometimes share a name despite being different places; sometimes one place has different names, or several names; and some accounts seem alike but describe different things, while others seem different but describe the same thing. Over the long passage of time, landscapes and names have changed between antiquity and the present, and local speech also varies, making it difficult to establish every detail with certainty.

The Liaoshui River rises east of Mount Weigao, at the mountain’s source beyond the frontier. Mount Liao lies within Gaogouli County of Xuantu Commandery, and the Liaoshui also rises there. The Liaoshui flows west into the Great Liao River; “Liao” is pronounced like “Liao.” It then flows southeast into the Bohai Sea, reaching the coast at Liaoyang County.

The Liaoshui River rises east of Mount Weigao, at the mountain’s source beyond the frontier. Mount Liao lies within Gaogouli County of Xuantu Commandery, and the Liaoshui also rises there. The Liaoshui flows west into the Great Liao River; “Liao” is pronounced like “Liao.” It then flows southeast into the Bohai Sea, reaching the coast at Liaoyang County. Liaoyang County belonged to Liaodong Commandery.

The Huchi River rises south of Jinyang City. It flows west to a point north of Yangqu County, then turns east and empties into the Bohai Sea. It passes through Lecheng in Hejian Commandery and finally reaches the sea north of Zhangwu County. Jinyang and Yangqu were both counties in Taiyuan Commandery during the Jin dynasty. The Zhang River rises east of Yang County and flows east into the Bohai Sea, reaching the coast south of Zhangwu County. Another Zhang River flows through Bianyin County in Xincheng.

On the bingxu day of the fourth month in the first year of the Jianping era, the attendant official Wang of the Court of the Grand Sacrifices was charged with collating the text. Those who took part in overseeing the work included the Attendant, Minister of Ceremonials, Gong, and the Attendant, Commandant of the Carriages, and Grandee of Imperial Grandee, Xiu. Xiu oversaw the affairs of the palace library.

In the Eastern Sea there is a high mountain called Mount Antarctic, stretching across the sea. One can reach it without walking; its position does not shift, yet its appearance changes. This is the result of the spirits setting Heaven and Earth in motion, and so nothing among the myriad things has a fixed, unchanging place.

Han Yan and Shi Jiu dwell on islands in the sea. The spirit of Thunder Marsh sticks out his belly, at ease and carefree. Mount Langya rises steeply; from afar, it looks like a tower in the clouds.

Jiansha, Juyou, Zhuduan, Xiyu, and other places all have stretches of sand. This is a land of deserts and a dwelling place in remote regions. Some places are under the jurisdiction of Qin, while others have submitted to the Han as guests.

The Great River, the Northern River, the Southern River, the Zhejiang, the Lu, Huai, Xiang, Han, Meng, Wen, Ying, Ru, Jing, Wei, Bai, Yuan, Gan, Si, Yu, Yi, Huang, Luo, Fen, Qin, Ji, Liao, Huchi, and Zhang Rivers crisscross the land. Their waters surge and flow in winding ribbons. Their channels connect and nourish the lands below, and their waterways extend beyond the realm of Hua-Xia. Though the rivers rise in different places, they eventually join and flow east into the sea.

Classic of Mountains and Seas, fascicle thirteen.

Classic of Mountains and Seas, fascicle fourteen, collated and supplemented.

Guo Pu’s commentary:

The “Classic of the Great Wilderness: East” says that beyond the Eastern Sea there is a deep valley. The Odes Containing the Divine Mist says it is a mountain valley that flows eastward and has no visible bottom; this refers to the Great Ravine.

There is the kingdom of Shaohao. Shaohao is Jintian, also the title of Emperor Zhi. Shaohao once raised Emperor Zhuanxu here; the meaning of the word “ru” is still unclear. Shaohao discarded his zithers and lutes. The passage means that there are zithers and lutes in the Great Ravine.

There is a Mount Gan. The Gan River issues from the mountain and gathers into the Gan Pool. As water accumulates, it forms a deep pool.

At the southeastern corner of the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Mount Pimu.

Beyond the Eastern Sea, in a remote and desolate region, stands a mountain called Great-Speech Mountain. Legend says that the sun and moon rise from there. There is also Wave-Valley Mountain, where a land of giants is said to be found.

In the second year of the Yongjia era of the Jin dynasty, a fish owl fell into the pond at Ao, twenty li south of Shixian County. Two local people, Zhou Hu and Zhang De, captured it. A wooden arrow was lodged in its body, tipped with iron and measuring six and a half feet long. Judging from the arrow’s length, the archer must have been fifteen or sixteen feet tall. Gao Hui, an assistant administrator of Pingzhou, also said that people from Wa had once set out on a journey and, caught in a storm, were blown across the sea. They saw a country where everyone stood more than ten feet tall and looked like the Hu peoples. They were probably a branch of the Changdi people. Perhaps the arrow had been shot from that country.

The Outer Traditions says that the Jiaoyao people, who stand three feet tall, are the shortest of all, while the tallest people are no more than a hundred feet tall—the limit of human stature. The Jade Tablet of the River Chart records that, ninety thousand li north of Kunlun Mountain, there is the land of the Longbo people, whose inhabitants stand thirty zhang tall and live for eighteen thousand years. East of Kunlun lies the land of the Daqin people, whose inhabitants stand ten zhang tall and all wear silk clothes. Another hundred thousand li to the east is the land of the Tiao people, whose inhabitants stand three zhang and five chi tall; a further hundred thousand li east lies Central Qin, where people stand one zhang tall. The Commentary on the Guliang says that the Changdi people occupy nine mu of ground when lying across it, and that when they walk with their heads raised, their eyebrows rise above the crossbar at the front of a carriage. This describes giants several zhang tall. In the Qin dynasty, a giant appeared at Lintao. He stood five zhang tall and left footprints six chi long. In light of these accounts, it is impossible to determine just how tall the giants were.

There was a market of giants called the Hall of the Giants. It was also a mountain, shaped like a hall. The giants sometimes gathered there to trade. One of them is described as squatting with his ears spread wide. Some editions write the character jun for “squat”; both characters were used in ancient times to mean “squat.” The Zhuangzi also says, “squatting at Kuaiji.”

There is a small-people country called Jingren. Adults sometimes gather there to trade. One adult crouches above the small-people country, spreading both ears wide. In some versions, the word qun is written jun; both were ancient characters meaning to crouch or sit. The Zhuangzi also speaks of “crouching on Mount Kuaiji.”

The Shihan Shenwu records that people in the far northeast were nine inches tall; perhaps these were the small people of Jingren. Jingren is also written Jingren, with the same pronunciation.

There is a spirit with a human face and a beast’s body, named Lijian.

There is a mountain called Yushan; yu is pronounced like the yu in yuzha (“deceit”). The Yang River rises there.

There is a country called Weiguo, whose people eat millet. In other words, millet is the only grain in this country. Wei is pronounced like wei in weizhuang (“pretending”).

In the Great Wilderness stands Mount Hexu, where the sun and moon rise. The country of Zhongrong lies there. Emperor Jun, a ruler in ancient mythology, fathered Zhongrong; Jun may also be a phonetic loan for Shun. The people of Zhongrong eat wild animals and the fruits of trees. The country has red and dark trees with beautiful flowers and fruit; these trees are also recorded in the Lüshi Chunqiu. Emperor Jun also put four kinds of birds and beasts to work: leopards, tigers, bears, and pi (a fierce beast of the brown-bear kind).

There is a mountain called Dongkou, near which lies the country of the Junzi. Its people wear clothes and caps and carry swords at their waists. They also put tigers and leopards to work, yet treat others with modesty and courtesy.

There is a country called Siyou. Emperor Jun fathered Yanlong, who fathered Siyou. The people of Siyou are divided into sishi and sinü: the sishi do not take wives, and the sinü do not marry. The commentary suggests that they reproduce through mutual attunement of intention and breath, without the cooperation of men and women. This resembles the Zhuangzi’s account of white swans responding to one another merely by looking, without moving their pupils. It is also close to the idea that reproduction occurs through the transformative influence of wind and vital energy. A great mountain called Da’e also stands there.

In the Great Wilderness stands Mount Mingxing, where the sun and moon rise.

There is the land of the White People. Dijun fathered Dihong, who in turn fathered the White People. Their surname is Xiao. They mainly eat millet and keep tigers, leopards, bears, and great bears as servants. There is also a beast there called the Chenghuang; it is said that anyone who rides it will live a long life.

There is the land of Qingqiu, where nine-tailed foxes live. In times of peace and prosperity, a nine-tailed fox appears as an auspicious sign.

There is the land of Rupu, whose soil is fertile and expansive.

There is the land of the Black-Toothed People. Dijun fathered the Black-Toothed People, whose teeth are as black as lacquer. Sages possess wondrous powers of transformation and have no fixed form, so their descendants may include many people of unusual appearance and kind. In this text, “fathered” often refers to descendants and does not necessarily mean direct biological parentage. The people of the Black-Toothed land have the surname Jiang, eat millet, and also keep tigers, leopards, bears, and great bears as servants.

There is the land of Xiazhou, and there is also the land of Gaiyu.

There is a spirit with eight heads, human faces, a tiger’s body, and ten tails. It is called Tianwu and governs water. In the Great Wilderness there is a mountain called Juling Yutian, also known as Li (the sound of “Ju” is close to “Gu”). Limou, at the eastern edge, is also the name of a mountain. “Mou” is pronounced close to “Mao.” These places are where the sun and moon rise.

There is also a spirit there called Zhedan. “Zhe” is the name by which the East is called, referring to him. The coming wind is called “Jun,” though the location of the “coming wind” is not recorded precisely. Zhedan dwells at the eastern edge and governs the coming and going of the wind. He can regulate the wind’s energy, making it rise and fall at the proper times.

On an island in the Eastern Sea lived a deity with a human face and a bird’s body. Two yellow snakes were wrapped around his body, snakes were pierced through his ears as ornaments, and he stood on two more yellow snakes. His name was Yu Guo. The Yellow Emperor fathered Yu Guo, who in turn fathered Yu Jing, also known as Yu Qiang. Yu Jing lived in the Northern Sea, while Yu Guo lived in the Eastern Sea. Both were sea gods, each ruling over a part of the sea. In some editions, the character guo in “Yu Guo” is written as hao.

A river on Mount Zhaoyao was called the Rong River. There was a country there called the Kingdom of Dark Thighs. Its people were black as lacquer from the navel down. They ate millet and used four kinds of birds as beasts of burden.

There was another country called the Kingdom of Yinmin. Its people had the surname Gou and ate a certain kind of food. A man there named Wang Hai held birds in both hands and was about to eat their heads. When Wang Hai was staying in the Kingdom of Youyi, the River Earl and Puniu were also present. The River Earl and Puniu were both personal names; this account appears in the Bamboo Annals of Jixun.

The people of Youyi killed Wang Hai and seized Puniu. The Bamboo Annals records: Wang Hai, son of the king of Yin, visited the Kingdom of Youyi but behaved wantonly there. Mianchen, ruler of Youyi, killed him and dismembered his body. In response, Jiawei, king of Yin, asked the River Earl for troops, attacked Youyi, destroyed the kingdom, and killed its ruler, Mianchen. The River Earl pitied the people of Youyi and secretly helped them escape. They later founded a kingdom in the Land of Beasts, called the Kingdom of Bomin. Emperor Shun fathered Xi, who in turn fathered the people of Bomin. The commentator holds that Youyi had originally been on friendly terms with the River Earl. Shang Jiawei sought troops to attack Youyi in the cause of justice and to punish the guilty, so the River Earl had no choice but to help him. Later, moved by pity for the people of Youyi, the River Earl secretly helped them migrate and transform into the people of Bomin.

In the lands within the seas, two figures were transformed from the Youyi people. They were called Nüchou, also known as “Nüchou’s Corpse.” The text says that her transformations had no fixed form. Those who cross the ford of transformation and enter the mysterious realm leave traces wherever they go through their interactions with the world. People like Fan Li had also heard the tale of her. Nüchou possessed a giant crab whose body stretched a thousand li across.

In the Great Wilderness stood a mountain called □Yaotou Di. A Fumu tree grew on it, its trunk rising three hundred li, with dense branches and leaves shaped like mustard greens. There was a valley there called Wenyuan Valley, also known as Tang Valley. A Fumu tree grew above Tang Valley, and the Fusang tree grew upon it. As one sun arrived, another rose from there, signifying the alternating passage of the suns. They were both carried by crows, one of which was a three-legged crow.

There was a deity with a human face, dog’s ears, and the body of a beast. Two green snakes hung beside the deity’s ears. This deity was called Shebishi. There were also multicolored birds, facing one another and dwelling on “discarded sand.” The meaning of “discarded sand” is uncertain. Another account speaks of Emperor Jun descending to make friends, though its precise meaning is also unclear. Emperor Jun established two altars below the mountain, where the multicolored birds presided over the rites.

In the Great Wilderness stood a mountain called Yitian Sumeng, where the sun and moon were born. There was a kingdom of the Xunmin people, as well as Qishan, Yaoshan, a mountain whose name is missing a character, Menhu Mountain, Sheng Mountain, and Dai Mountain. Multicolored birds lived there too.

In the Eastern Wilderness stood a mountain called Heming Junji, where the sun and moon rose. There was a kingdom of the Zhongrong people.

Beyond the northeastern sea live blue-green horses, as well as three fine steeds. “Zhui” refers to a horse with a pale, mottled coat. There are Gan Hua, jade left behind, three blue-green birds, three Zhui horses, and shiro (flesh said to grow back on its own), along with Gan Hua and Gan Zu. This is where the grains grow; that is, the grains grow there of their own accord.

There is a Kingdom of the Moon Mother, where a woman named □ lives; her name is pronounced “Wan.” In the north, another name is □, and she is also called □, pronounced “Shan.” These are two names for the same deity. She lives in a corner at the eastern edge and oversees the movements of the sun and moon, ensuring that they rise and set in order without crossing paths. She also governs the length of time they spend on their courses. The scripture says that □ watches the sun and moon as they come and go, keeps them from crossing paths, and determines how long they travel.

At the northeastern corner of the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Xiongli Earth Mound. Yinglong, the winged dragon, lives at the southern edge and once killed Chiyou and Kuafu. Chiyou governs the length of time the sun and moon spend on their courses.

At the northeastern corner of the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Xiongli Earth Mound. Yinglong lives at the southern edge and once killed Chiyou and Kuafu. Chiyou was the maker of weapons. As a result, Yinglong could no longer return to Heaven, and droughts repeatedly struck the human world. Yinglong remained underground, and no deity descended from Heaven to bring rain. During droughts, people made images of Yinglong to pray for rain, and heavy rain would come. The custom of making a dragon from clay to pray for rain today has its origin in this. The scripture explains that this is the natural response of Qi, with subtle forces resonating and connecting; it is not something people can control.

In the Eastern Sea stands Mount Liubo, seven thousand li from the shore. On the mountain lives a beast shaped like an ox, with a blue-gray body, no horns, and only one leg. Whenever it enters or leaves the water, it brings wind and rain. Its body shines like the sun and moon, and its voice sounds like thunder. It is called Kui. After the Yellow Emperor captured it, he made a drum from its hide and fashioned a drumstick from the bones of the Thunder Beast. The Thunder Beast is the Thunder God, with a human face and a dragon’s body. The drumstick is the implement used to strike the drum. When the Kui-hide drum is beaten, its sound carries five hundred li, striking fear throughout the world.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas, scroll fourteen

The Classic of Mountains and Seas, scroll fifteen

“Classic of the Great Wilderness: South”

Beyond the Southern Sea, west of the Red River and east of the Flowing Sands, there is a beast with a head on each side, called “□ti”. It appears in the kingdom of □ming (the kingdom’s name is missing from the original). There are also three blue beasts standing side by side, called “Shuangshuang”; reportedly, their bodies join together as one. The phrase “Shuangshuang came together” in the Gongyang Commentary probably refers to this.

There is a mountain called E Mountain. In the Southern Sea lies Fantian Mountain, where the Red River reaches its end. The Classic of Mountains and Seas refers to this as “the water running out”: the river flows to this mountain and stops. East of the Red River is the Plain of Cangwu, where Shun and Shujun (that is, Shangjun) are buried. Shun died in Cangwu while making an inspection tour and was buried there; Shangjun later remained in the area and was buried there after his death as well. Their tombs are in today’s Jiuyi Mountains. Here are patterned shellfish—shells with colorful markings, also called purple shells—Liyu (that is, Lizhu), □jiu, Yingjia (a kind of eagle), We wei, as well as bears, brown bears, elephants, tigers, leopards, wolves, and “flesh that sees” (a strange, flesh-like creature of legend).

There is a mountain called Ying Mountain, from which the Ying River flows. South of the Black River lives a black snake that feeds on dust. Today, the southern mountains have a yueshe snake that can swallow deer; it probably belongs to the same kind.

There is a mountain called Wu Mountain. To its west is the Yellow Bird. The Heavenly Emperor’s medicines and the Eight Purifications are all here, along with the medicines used by the Heavenly Emperor and the immortals. The Yellow Bird lives on Wu Mountain and guards the black snake.

In the Great Wilderness stands Mount Buting, where the Ying River comes to its end. Here is the Land of the Three-Bodied People, whose inhabitants each have three bodies. Ehuang, wife of Emperor Jun, gave birth to the ancestors of this land; they were perhaps descendants of a legendary ancient people. The people of the land have the surname Yao, eat millet, and make use of four kinds of birds. Yao was also the surname of Shun.

Here is a square abyss, whose four corners all open onto the outside world: to the north it connects with the Black River, and to the south with the Great Wilderness. The word “connects” means “is linked to.” The abyss’s northern part is called the Abyss of Shaohe, and its southern part the Abyss of Cong; “Cong” is pronounced like the “cong” in “congma,” meaning a gray horse. Legend says that Shun once bathed here. There is also Mount Cheng, at whose foot the Gan River comes to an end. The river rises on Mount Gan and eventually flows here.

Here is the Land of Jiyu, whose people are descendants of Zhuanxu and eat millet. There is also the Land of the Feathered People, where everyone has feathers growing on their bodies, and the Land of the Egg-Born People, whose inhabitants are all born from eggs.

In the Great Wilderness there is also Mount Bujiang, where the Black River comes to an end; the Black River rises on Mount Kunlun. There is also Mount Jia, where the Qi River rises, as well as Mount Yan and Mount Dengbei, also known as Mount Dengbao. The shamans travel between Heaven and the human world from this mountain.

Here are Mount Qiaqia, pronounced like the “qi” in “quanqi,” meaning a contract; Mount Pu, where the Li River rises; and Mount Wei, pronounced like the “Wei” in Wei Xiao. To the west of Mount Wei is cinnabar, and to its east, jade. Farther south is a mountain where the Piao River rises; “Piao” is pronounced like the “piao” in “piaoliang,” meaning beautiful. There are also Mount Wei and Mount Cui, where kingfishers live.

Here is the Land of the Ying People, whose inhabitants have the surname Yu and eat millet; in another place, people eat only leaves. There is also the Land of the Immortals, whose people have the surname A and eat sweetwood. Sweetwood is the Tree of Immortality; eating it prevents people from growing old.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Quchi Mountain. Its southern side reaches an extremely distant place, while its northern side does not extend there. The mountain is called Quchi. The character chi is pronounced the same as in “wind-induced convulsions,” though its precise meaning is unknown.

Among the islands of the South Sea lives a deity with a human face and two green snakes hanging from its ears. It is called Buting Huyu. The deity’s name is Er. Another deity is called Yinyinhu, and in the south it is also called Yinhu. “Kuafeng” is also known as “Humin”; these names likewise each refer to two names for the same figure. These deities live in the far south and govern the coming and going of the wind.

There are Xiang Mountain and Chongyin Mountain. A person who lived there ate the flesh of animals and was called Jili. Emperor Jun fathered Jili, who therefore also had another name. Jili lived in the far south and governed the coming and going of the wind.

There are Xiang Mountain and Chongyin Mountain. A person who lived there ate the flesh of animals and was called Jili. This is the land of Jili. There is a pool called Min Pool; “Min” is pronounced like “hun.” Shaohao fathered Beifa, who descended and settled by Min Pool. There is a square body of water there called Jun Altar. Its shape resembles an earthen platform, so it is also called Shun Altar.

There is the Land of the Zaimin People. Emperor Shun fathered Wuyin, who descended and settled there, so the place is called the Land of the Wu Zaimin. The Wu Zaimin people have the surname Pan and eat grain, but they neither spin and weave nor plow and harvest. It is said that cloth and silk occur there naturally, and the five grains grow on their own. Planting crops is called jia, and harvesting them is called se. Birds there sing and dance: the luan bird sings of its own accord, and the feng bird dances of its own accord. Wild animals live there in herds and groups, and the hundred grains gather there as well.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Rongtian Mountain, into which the sea flows southward.

A man named Zaochi was killed by Yi; that is, Yi shot him with an arrow.

There is Mount Yu, where the Land of the Yu People is located. “Yu” is pronounced like “yu” in “region.” The Yu people have the surname Sang, eat broomcorn millet, and also hunt and eat yu. The yu is a short-tailed fox. It looks like a softshell turtle and can hold sand in its mouth and spit it at people. Those struck by it fall ill and may even die. This creature is found on Mount Yu, which is named after it. Someone who draws a bow, takes aim, and shoots a yellow snake is called a Yu archer.

On Song Mountain lives a red snake called the Green Snake. A tree known as maple wood grows on the mountain. According to legend, after Chiyou was captured by the Yellow Emperor, he was put to death wearing shackles. When the shackles were removed and discarded, they turned into a tree: maple wood, which is the sweetgum tree of today.

There was a man with square teeth and a tiger’s tail, named Zuzhuang’s Corpse. His name was pronounced like “zu li zhi zha.”

There was a land of little people called the Kingdom of Jiaoyao. Its people all had the surname Ji, stood only three feet tall, and ate fine grain.

In the Great Wilderness stood a mountain called Mount Chengkong. The Qing River began there; it flowed from the Kunlun Mountains. There was also a Mount Yunyu, where a tree called Le grew. Yu once cut down the trees on Mount Yunyu. Red stones lay in the mountain, and Le trees grew on them. Their trunks were yellow, their branches red, and their leaves green. The various emperors of Heaven went there to gather herbs. It is said that the tree’s flowers and fruits were all divine medicines.

There was a country called Zhuanxu, where Bofu was born; its people ate millet. There was also a country whose people had the surname You. The character “You” was pronounced like the “you” in “juyou” (tangerine and pomelo). The region also had Mount Tiao, Mount Zong, Mount Xing, Mount He, Mount Chenzhou, Mount Dongzhou, and Mount Baishui. The Baishui River flowed from Mount Baishui and gathered into the White Abyss, where the attendants of Kunwu bathed. Some accounts say that Kunwu was the title of an ancient ruler, while other commentaries identify Kunwu as a mountain. The stream produced fine metals. The accounts differ, and it is difficult to determine which is correct.

A man named Zhang Hong fished in the sea. In the sea there was a Kingdom of Zhang Hong. Some say its people were the Qigong people, but this seems unlikely. They ate fish and made four birds serve them.

There was also a kind of person with a bird’s beak and wings, just about to go out to sea to fish.

In the Great Wilderness there was a man named Huantou. His grandmother was Shijing, Gun’s wife. Shijing’s son was Yanrong, who fathered Huantou. Huantou had a human face, a bird’s beak, and wings, and fed on fish from the sea. He walked leaning on his wings. They could not be used for flying, only as crutches. The local land was suitable for growing crops such as qi, ju, and liuyang. When the Guanzi discusses crops suited to different regions, it says that liu, qi, and black millet all belong to the grain crops. Ju was black millet; the character for “ju” is now written with the grain radical, and its pronunciation is given variously as “qi,” “ju,” or “qiu.” There was a kingdom of Huantou there.

Emperor Yao, Emperor Ku, and Emperor Shun were all buried on Mount Yue, also called Mount Di. The mountain contained patterned shellfish, liyu, □jiu, yingjia, yanwei, flesh-like plants, and bears, brown bears, tigers, and leopards. The great vermilion branch with blue-green blossoms was also buried on Mount Yue, or Mount Di. The mountain likewise contained patterned shellfish, liyu, □jiu, yingjia, yanwei, flesh-like plants, bears, brown bears, tigers, and leopards, as well as a great vermilion tree, blue-green flowers, and black fruit. There was also Mount Shen.

In the Great Wilderness stood a mountain called Tiantai, also known as Gaoshan, where the waters of the sea flowed in. Beyond the Eastern Sea, between the waters of the Gan, lay the kingdom of Xihe. There was a woman there named Xihe, bathing the suns in the Gan Abyss. Xihe was said to have governed the sun and moon at the beginning of Heaven and Earth. The Qishi records: “On the vast Mount Kongsang, the eight directions of Heaven and Earth had already opened. Then Xihe appeared. She governed the sun and moon and oversaw their rising and setting, bringing the alternation of day and night.” The text also says: “Look up at the sky: sometimes bright, sometimes dark. That is Xihe’s son emerging from Yang Valley.”

For this reason, Yao established the office of Xihe to oversee the four seasons. In later times, this responsibility gradually became part of the legend of the kingdom of Xihe. Xihe made symbolic representations of the sun and moon, bathed them in the Gan River, and set them in motion, depicting the sun’s rise from Yang Valley and its descent into Yu Abyss. This refers to the Xihe lineage faithfully carrying out its duties from generation to generation. Xihe was Emperor Jun’s wife and gave birth to ten suns. The phrase “gave birth to ten suns” means that she bore ten sons, each named “Sun,” so together they were called the Ten Suns.

Xihe, the deity who governs the sun’s course, lives on Mount Yiyou. She is responsible for the sun rising from Yang Valley and setting at Yuyuan, ensuring that its movement through the world never falters. Xihe is Di Jun’s wife and gave birth to ten suns. In other words, she bore ten sons, each named after one of the suns; this is why it is said that she “gave birth to ten suns.” “Ten suns” means ten separate suns.

On Mount Yiyou grows a tree called Ganzu. Its branches and leaves are red, and it bears yellow leaves, white flowers, and black fruit. On the eastern side of the mountain there is also a Ganhua tree, with red branches and trunks and yellow leaves. Blue-green horses and chestnut horses live there; together they are called the three zhui (zhui are dark blue-black horses). There is also shirou, a kind of flesh said to grow back again and again.

There are also little people there called junren. The character jun is pronounced the same as the jun in “morning mushroom.”

Mount Nanlei produces Yiyu jade, blue-green horses, the three zhui, shirou, and Ganhua trees. Various grains grow there as well.

Beyond the northwestern sea, at the edge of the Great Wilderness, there is a mountain split apart, its two sides unable to meet. It is called “Buzhou Fuzu.” The Huainanzi says that long ago, Gonggong and Zhuanxu fought for the throne. In his anger, Gonggong struck Buzhou Mountain, breaking the cords that held up the sky and snapping the pillars that supported the earth. That is why the mountain now has a gap and is called “Buzhou,” meaning “incomplete.” Two yellow beasts guard it.

There is a river there called the Cold-and-Heat River. Wet Mountain lies to its west, and Curtain Mountain to its east. According to legend, when Gonggong and Zhuanxu fought for the throne, Gonggong broke Buzhou Mountain. The heavenly cords were severed and the pillars of the earth snapped, leaving a gap in the mountain. Two yellow beasts guard the place. The Cold-and-Heat River flows through it, with Wet Mountain to the west and Curtain Mountain to the east.

One mountain is associated with Yu the Great’s campaign against the land of Gonggong. According to legend, Yu attacked Gonggong’s country and killed Gonggong’s minister and counselor, Yi, on this mountain. The Qishi records that members of the Gonggong clan had human faces and snake bodies, red hair, and a talent for making sounds. Their country was called Shushi. Gonggong was Zhuanxu’s son, which means he too belonged to the Gaoyang clan.

There are ten spirits called “the Intestines of Nüwa.” They transformed into divine beings and live in the Fields of Liguang. Nüwa was an ancient goddess and ruler. She had a human face and a snake’s body, and could transform seventy times in a single day. Her intestines became these spirits. Liguang is the name of a wilderness. “Jiao” is pronounced “gua.” These spirits lie across the road as if blocking the way.

A man named Shiyi is in charge of welcoming the wind; this is called “Wei.” Some editions write the character “lai” as “ben.” He lives in the northwestern corner and oversees the lengths of time taken by the sun and moon in their courses. He observes their movements and the changing seasons.

There is a five-colored bird with a crest on its head called the Mad Bird. The Erya says that the “Wangmeng” is this bird.

There are also Mount Dajinzhichang and the land of the White People. Beyond the northwestern sea, east of the Red River, lies the land of Changsheng, where people have a stride five chi long. There is also the land of Western Zhou. Its people have the Ji surname and live on grain.

A man named Shujun is plowing a field. Di Jun fathered Ji; Di Jun was also known as Di Ku, whose second consort gave birth to Houji. Houji brought all kinds of grain to the human world. Ji’s younger brother was Taixi, who fathered Shujun. Later, Shujun took his father’s place and sowed the many grains alongside Houji, beginning the practice of farming. There are also the Red State Wife clan and Twin Mountain.

The waters of the Western Sea flow into the Great Wilderness. There stands a square mountain, on which grows a blue-green tree called “Cabinet-Frame Pine”; the word “cabinet” is pronounced much like “measuring square.” This is also where the sun and moon set.

Beyond the Western Sea, west of the Red River, lies a country of the ancient people. Its inhabitants eat grain and make use of four kinds of birds. There is also a country of the Northern Di, whose ruler, Shijun, was a grandson of the Yellow Emperor. Shijun fathered the ancestors of the Northern Di.

There are Mount Mang, Mount Gui, and Mount Yao. Mount Yao takes its name from the many cassia trees and yao trees growing there. A man named Prince Changqin lives on the mountain. Zhuanxu fathered Laotong. The Genealogy of the World records that Zhuanxu married Nülu, daughter of the Tengfen clan, and fathered Laotong. Laotong fathered Zhurong, also known as Chongli. Zhurong served as the Fire Official of the Gaoxin clan, overseeing matters of fire, and was known by the title Zhurong. Zhurong fathered Prince Changqin. Prince Changqin lived on Mount Yao and began composing music; “Music of the Winds” refers to the melodies he composed and passed down.

There are also three kinds of multicolored birds, called the Feng Crow, the luan bird, and the phoenix. Another creature resembles a rabbit, with a bare patch on its chest where no fur can be seen; the exposed skin is blue-green. Overall, it also looks like an ape.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Fengju Yumen, another place where the sun and moon set. There is also Mount Ling, where Wu Xian, Wu Ji, Wu Xi, Wu Peng, Wu Gu, and others live. A creature resembling both a rabbit and an ape lives there as well.

Deep in the Great Waste stands a mountain called Fengju Yumen, where the sun and moon set. There is a sacred mountain there where ten shamans—Wu Xian, Wu Ji, Wu Xi, Wu Peng, Wu Gu, Wu Zhen, Wu Qi, Wu □, Wu Xie, and Wu Luo—travel up and down. A hundred kinds of medicinal plants grow there as well. In other words, the shamans often visit this mountain to gather herbs.

There are also the mountains of the Queen Mother of the West, the Sea Mountain, and the Ravine Mountain, all names of mountains in the Great Void. There is also the Land of Wo, a fertile and abundant country inhabited by the Wo people. They eat food grown in its rich fields and eggs laid by phoenixes, and drink sweet dew. Everything they might desire is available there, and every flavor they might wish to eat can be found.

The land produces sweet flowers, sweet jujubes, white willows, flesh-like plants, three piebald horses, xuan-gui jade, and precious jade. Xuan-gui is also a kind of jade. The Traditions of King Mu records that King Mu of Zhou once gathered xuan-gui. The land also produces white wood, langgan stone, and white, green, and black minerals. Langgan is a beautiful stone resembling jade; the white, green, and black minerals are ores of different colors. The Classic of Filial Piety: The Divine Child says, “When a ruler’s virtue reaches and transforms even the mountains, black mineral appears.” Silver and iron are also produced there.

Phoenix-like luan birds sing of their own accord, phoenixes dance of their own accord, and all kinds of wild animals live there in herds. For this reason, the place is called the Wilds of the Wo People. Three blue birds live there too. They have red heads and black eyes; one is called Dahewu and another Shaoli. They are both messengers of the Queen Mother of the West.

There is also the Terrace of Xuanyuan. Archers do not dare to shoot westward because they revere the Terrace of Xuanyuan and honor the Yellow Emperor.

Deep in the Great Waste there is another mountain, Dragon Mountain, where the sun and moon set. Three muddy rivers flow there, collectively called the “Three Diao.” They are the waters used by the Kunwu people for food.

In the Great Wilds stands Dragon Mountain, where the sun and moon set. There are three muddy waters there, called the “Three Drops,” which the Kunwu clan drinks. The Traditions of King Mu records: “The Tao River is drunk by the Zhuorong You clan.” This, too, refers to a place of this kind.

There is a person dressed in blue, covering their face with a sleeve, called “the Corpse of the Queen.” There is also a kingdom of women. The lords and nobles came to the Kingdom of Wozu and reached its eastern border, where they questioned the local elders. The elders said that people from their kingdom had once gone fishing by boat, but were caught in a gale and blown about for dozens of days. Looking east, they saw a country in the sea inhabited only by women, with no men. This, they said, was that country.

There are Peach Mountain, P Mountain, Cassia Mountain, and Dry Earth Mountain. There is also a kingdom of men, with no women.

There is Mount Yanzhou. Five-colored birds peck at the sky and open their beaks to blow toward it; they are called singing birds. Music and dance flourish there, and it is said that every kind of music and dance has its own regional style.

There is also the Kingdom of Xuanyuan, whose people have human faces and serpent bodies. South of Jiang Mountain, living in the mountains is considered auspicious; the place is thought to lie near Qiong Mountain. Those who dwell in the mountains are called “Qi.” It is said that there are no fierce demons or monsters there, and that people can live for eight hundred years, even several thousand.

On an island in the Western Sea lives a divine being with a human face and a bird’s body. Two blue snakes hang from its ears, and it treads on two red snakes. It is called Yanzi.

In the Great Wilds stands a mountain called Moon Mountain. On an island in the Western Sea lives a divine being with a human face and a bird’s body. Two blue snakes hang from its ears, and it treads on two red snakes. It is called Yanzi.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Moon Mountain, at the edge of the sky. There is a Gate of Heaven here, where the sun and moon enter.

A divine being has a human face but no arms, and both feet are attached backward to its head. It is called Xu. “Xu” means to make a crying sound.

Zhuanxu fathered Laotong, and Laotong fathered Chong and Li. The Shiben says that Laotong married a woman of the Genshui clan, named Jiaofu, and had Chong and Li. The Emperor ordered Chong to hold up the sky and Li to bring order to the earth. In ancient times, humans and spirits mingled and interfered with one another. Zhuanxu therefore ordered the Southern Director to oversee the affairs of Heaven, so that each spirit would have its proper place. He ordered the Great Director Li to oversee the affairs of Earth, so that the people would each have their proper place. Chong was in fact responsible for the affairs of Heaven, and Li for those of Earth. The meaning of the phrase “presenting the seal” is unclear.

Among Li’s descendants was Ye. He lived in the far west and was responsible for inspecting the courses and order of the sun, moon, and stars—that is, observing them according to their appointed degrees and positions.

There was also a being whose arms were attached backward, called Tianyu. Chishi was also a Yu.

A woman was bathing the moon. Changxi, the wife of Dijun, gave birth to twelve moons; this passage refers to her bathing them. The story corresponds to Xihe bathing the sun.

There is a mountain called Xuandan Mountain, which produces black elixir stones. There are five-colored birds there, with human faces and hair. There are also blue birds, yellow birds, and ao birds. Wherever blue and yellow birds gather, the country will perish.

There is a pool called Mengyi’s Pool for Attacking Zhuanxu. “Mengyi” is a person’s name.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Chenao (“ao” is pronounced áo). This is where the sun and moon set.

In the mountain lives a wild beast with a head on each side of its body, called Pingfeng, also known as Bingfeng. The name is said to have changed through a shift in pronunciation in the legends. The text also mentions Wushan, Heshan, and Jinmen Mountain. A woman named Huang Ji lived on Jinmen Mountain. She has died, and so is called “the corpse of Huang Ji.” The text also mentions a pair of lovebirds, as well as a kind of white bird with blue-green wings, a yellow tail, and a black beak.

There is also a red dog called the Celestial Dog. War breaks out wherever it descends. The Book of Zhou records that where the Celestial Dog comes to rest, it seems to sweep across the ground with a lingering glow. When it rises into the sky, it becomes a meteor. The meteor stretches for dozens of zhang, moves as swiftly as the wind, sounds like thunder, and shines like lightning.

The text also refers to the rebellion of the seven states of Wu and Chu, and to accounts of the Celestial Dog passing over the regions of Liang, Fenye, and Quye.

South of the western sea, beside the banks of the Flowing Sands, downstream from the Red River and upstream from the Black River, there is a mountain called Kunlun Mound. A divine being lives on the mountain. It has a human face and a tiger’s body, patterned markings, and a tail; its whole body is white. The phrase “the tail is mottled with white” means that the tail has white spots. Below Kunlun, deep, abyss-like Weak Water surrounds the mountain. Its current is so feeble that it cannot even support a swan’s feather. Beyond the mountain is another, called the Mountain of Blazing Fire. Anything that falls into it from east or west catches fire at once.

Today, ten thousand li east of Funan lies the state of Qibo; about five thousand li farther east from Qibo is the state of Huoshan. Even when struck by thunderstorms, the mountains there burn without going out. White mice live in the flames and sometimes emerge to forage along the mountainside. People catch them and weave cloth from their fur. This is what is known as fire-washed cloth. The Mountain of Blazing Fire beyond Kunlun is probably similar to these fiery mountains.

There is also a person in the mountain who wears a “cheng,” a kind of headdress, has tiger’s teeth and a tail, and lives in a cave. She is called the Queen Mother of the West. [The wording at “a person in the mountain” in the original appears corrupt; here it is read continuously according to the context.] The Jade Tablet of the River Chart also says that the Queen Mother of the West lives on Kunlun Mountain; the Classic of the Western Mountains says she lives on Jade Mountain. The Travels of King Mu records that King Mu of Zhou once carved the Queen Mother of the West’s title and traces into a stone on Mount Yan, calling the place “the Mountain of the Queen Mother of the West.” It appears, then, that although the Queen Mother of the West has her palace on Kunlun Mountain, she also has dwellings and caves elsewhere where she can wander and rest; she does not live on only one mountain. Thus, different chroniclers recorded the places they had each seen. Every kind of thing is found on this mountain.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Changyang, where the sun and moon set. There lies the land of the Cold Wilderness, home to two people named Nüji and Nümiè. Nüji holds an eel, and Nümiè holds a ritual vessel.

The land of Shouma. The Lüshi Chunqiu records: “To the west, Shouma was brought into submission; to the north, Ta Rong was pacified.” Two people there are named Nanyue and Quzhou. The scripture also says that Nüqian gave birth to Jige, who gave birth to Shouma. When Shouma stood, he cast no shadow; when he shouted at full volume, there was no echo. The ancients used this to explain that his physical form and breath were unlike those of ordinary people. The Biographies of Immortals says that Xuansu’s courtesy name was Yuanjing.

There is also a place of such fierce heat that no one can approach it; legend says its heat is enough to scorch people. There is a headless man there, standing with a halberd and shield in hand, named the Corpse of Yougeng. His appearance belongs to the same kind as Xingtian’s. According to legend, Tang of Shang attacked Xia Jie at Zhang Mountain and won, then cut off Geng’s head in front of the mountain. Geng remained standing without a head, fled to escape punishment, and later hid at Wu Mountain. This is the Wu Mountain in the area of Wu County, Jianping Commandery, today.

A man named Wuhui lives there. His son Qi was missing his right arm, and was therefore called Qigong, “One-Armed.” Wuhui was Zhurong’s younger brother and once served as Fire Minister, an official in charge of fire affairs. There is also the land of Gaishan, where a kind of tree grows: its bark is red, and its branches, trunk, and leaves are green. It is called the Vermilion Tree, though it is also recorded as the “Three-Qi Tree.”

There are also people with one arm. Beneath the North Pole, there are people with only one leg as well; this claim is found in the Hetu Yuban.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Great Wilderness Mountain, where the sun and moon set. A three-faced person lives there, a descendant of Zhuanxu. He has three faces and one arm and is named Qi. He has no right arm. The three-faced person does not die. “Three-faced” means that a face grows on each of the three sides of his head.

When Wang Qing, the governor of Xuantu, governed the state of Woju, he once questioned local elders. They said that a broken boat often drifted along the shore, carrying a person with another face growing below his neck. They spoke to one another but could not understand each other. The person died without eating. The elders believed this, too, was a two-faced person. The “land of one-armed, three-faced people” mentioned in the Spring and Autumn Annals of Master Lü refers to this place, which is called the Wilds of the Great Wilderness.

Beyond Meishan to the southwest, south of the Red River and west of the Flowing Sands, there is a person with two green snakes hanging from his ears who rides two dragons. He is named Xiahou. Xiahou Qi offered three consorts—imperial women attendants or concubines—to the Celestial Emperor and received musical pieces such as the Nine Variations and the Nine Songs. These are names of the Celestial Emperor’s music. Qi ascended to the heavenly court, stole the music, and brought it down to the human world for use. The Divination of Qi says that the Nine Darknesses once disputed the proper order of rites and music with the Celestial Emperor in the same palace; this is why the pieces are called the Nine Songs. It also says that one must not steal the Nine Songs and bring them to the human world to establish a state. Related accounts appear in the Returning to the Hidden. This is the Wilds of Tianmu, whose height is two thousand ren. The Bamboo Annals says that Ba Gun was born in Rui, which is Ruoyang, and lived on the sunny slope of Tianmu Mountain. Qi received the musical movements of the Nine Shao there. The Bamboo Annals says that Xiahou Qi once performed the Nine Shao.

There is also a state of hill people whose inhabitants have human faces and fish bodies. The grandson of the Flame Emperor, named Lingqia (pronounced “quanqi”), fathered the Shi people. They could travel between Heaven and Earth, meaning they could ride the clouds and summon rain.

There is also a kind of fish whose body is withered on one side, called the Fish-Woman. Zhuanxu died and came back to life, it is said, because this creature could transform. The wind migrated along this route, and floods then spread across the land as springs and winds surged forth. “Dao” here means migration. The Han Feizi says that twenty-eight black cranes migrated from the south. A snake then transformed into a fish; this is called the Fish-Woman, and Zhuanxu died and came back to life. The Huainanzi says that the Houji dragon was west of Jianmu, and that when people died they came back to life, with half of them turning into fish. Perhaps this refers to the same event.

There is also a blue-green bird with a flat head, a red body and feet, and six heads, called the Chu bird (pronounced “chu”). There are also Great Shaman Mountain and Metal Mountain. In the far western corner of the Great Wilderness are Pianju Mountain and Changyang Mountain.

In the collation notes for Volume Sixteen of the Classic of Mountains and Seas, some passages are considered to have been added by scribes and are deleted, while others are revised or supplemented on the basis of other editions. For example, Tan’s collated edition treats “The Account of the Son of Heaven Who Nourishes the Heavens” as an interpolation and omits it; “the corpse of the Queen” is changed to “the corpse of Nüchou,” “Zhang Nü has no husband” to “Chun Nü has no husband,” and “in ancient times, humans and spirits mingled and troubled one another, with no…” is supplemented to read “in ancient times, humans and spirits mingled and troubled one another, with no distinction.” Elsewhere, “at the western entrance to the desolate wilderness” is supplemented to read “at the southwestern corner of the desolate wilderness,” and the phrases “the mountains have a Mount Wu” and “when an object is thrown, it immediately…” are respectively corrected to “the region has a Mount Wu” and “when an object is thrown, it immediately…”

The later headings “Classic of Mountains and Seas, Volume Seventeen,” “Guo Pu’s Commentary,” and “The Classic of the Great Northern Wilderness” mark titles and sections. The corrected wording “Ziqi’s right side is without a right arm,” among other entries, is also listed again there.

Beyond the northeastern sea, in the Great Wilderness, between the rivers, stands Mount Fuyu. Emperor Zhuanxu and his nine consorts are buried there. This was probably a tomb built in accordance with ritual and propriety by people of a different custom.

The mountain is said to contain □jiu, patterned shellfish, Liyu, luan birds, phoenixes, and creatures of every size—in short, everything one could find. Blue birds, lang birds, dark swallows, yellow birds, tigers, leopards, bears, black bears, yellow snakes, “seeing flesh” (a legendary lump of flesh that wriggles and grows), Xuangui jade, and Yaobi jade all come from Mount Weiyu and are found around its slopes.

The hill extends three hundred li in every direction. To its south lies Emperor Jun’s bamboo grove, where the bamboo grows large enough to make boats. In other words, a single stalk from Shun’s bamboo grove could be made into a boat. South of the grove is a red marsh whose waters are crimson, called Fengyuan; “feng” means great or abundant. There are three branchless mulberry trees there, each a hundred ren tall.

West of the hill lies the Deep Abyss. In the territory governed by Zhuanxu there was a state called Huyu, though this was only the name it adopted later. Even today, the Hu and Yi peoples use this name in their dialects. The local people have Lie as their surname and eat millet as their staple food.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Bu Xian, where the state of Sushen is located. Today, Sushen lies more than three thousand li from Liaodong. Its inhabitants live in caves, wear no clothes, and cover themselves with pigskin. In winter, they coat their bodies with a fairly thick layer of grease to ward off the cold wind. The Sushen people are all skilled at making red bows. These bows are four chi long and powerfully strong. Their arrows are made of ku wood, measure one chi and eight cun, and have tips of green stone. This is the arrow that was found in the state of Chen during the Spring and Autumn period. In the second year of the Tai Xing era of the Jin dynasty, Cui Kun, governor of Pingzhou, sent his deputy, Gao Hui, to present bows and arrows belonging to the Sushen people. The arrowheads were still fitted with bone clamps. When asked where they came from, he said they had been passed from hand to hand from the interior.

The place is now called the state of Yiling, and produces fine sable pelts and red jade. Could these things have come from overseas? The state of Yilou described in the Book of the Later Han is this same place. It has a kind of flying leech with four wings. The character fei is pronounced zhi. There is also an insect with the head of a beast and the body of a snake, called the qin insect; it too belongs to the snake family. There is also a man called Zhangren, as well as a state of Zhangren. Its people have the surname Li and eat millet. The place has large green snakes with yellow heads that eat deer. Today, pythons in the south also eat deer, and deer belong to the Tang category. There are also Yushan and the mountain where Xuan Gun attacked Chengzhou; these mountains were all named for events associated with them.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Hengtian. There are the mountain of the Ancients and a Pan tree that stretches for a thousand li. The state of Shuchu is there. The character chu is pronounced gan, though it is also read as chu. Shuchu is the son of Zhuanxu, with millet for a head, and commands four kinds of wild beasts: tigers, leopards, bears, and brown bears. There is also a black insect shaped like a bear, called the zhuzhu; some versions write the name as “wolf,” pronounced xi. The state of Qi is there too. Its people have the surname Jiang and command tigers, leopards, bears, and brown bears.

In the Great Wilderness there is a mountain called Mount Guangjian Dafeng. The Yellow River and the Ji River flow into the sea here, and the seawater flows northward. After entering the sea, the waters of the Yellow River and the Ji River flow out beyond the sea toward the southwest, then enter this mountain again. To its northwest lies a mountain called Mount Yusuo Jishi. There are also Mount Qingyang and Mount Shun; the Shun River rises on Mount Shun. There is the state of Shizhou, as well as Mount Dan, which produces abundant vermilion pigment, a red mineral.

The Bamboo Annals records that, during the campaign of He Jia, a Mount Dan was captured. Mountains that produce cinnabar still exist today; the cinnabar comes from underground caves.

There is a great marsh there, a thousand li across, where birds molt. The Record of King Mu of Zhou recounts that King Mu of Zhou came to the Plain Wilderness, where birds shed their feathers. He hunted there, and his catches of birds and beasts filled a hundred carts, while the feathers filled another hundred. The Bamboo Annals also says that the Son of Heaven Mu campaigned north, traveling across a thousand li of shifting sands and then through a place of accumulated feathers that stretched for a thousand li. Both accounts refer to this great marsh.

There is the state of the Mao People. Its inhabitants have human faces and bodies covered in hair. Their surname is Yi, they eat millet, and they make four kinds of birds serve them. Yu fathered the state of Jun; Jun fathered Yilai; and Yilai fathered Xunxia (pronounced Danxia). Xunxia killed a man named Chuo. The Heavenly Emperor took pity on Chuo and secretly settled him in a state, where he governed in secret. This was the state of the Mao People.

There is also the state of the Dan’er People. Its inhabitants have the surname Ren and enormous ears that hang down to their shoulders. “Vermilion Bird,” “Dan’er,” and “Loujin’er” are also names used to compare people of the present day. Yuguan’s son ate grain. On an island in the North Sea, people grew millet to feed him; this refers to Yuqiang.

There is also a deity there with a human face and a bird’s body. Two green snakes hang from its ears, and it stands on two red snakes. The deity is called Yuqiang.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called “Beiji Tianjiyinyi,” where the sea flows northward. A spirit lives on the mountain with nine heads, human faces, and a bird’s body. It is called Jiufeng. Another spirit holds a snake in its hand and another in its mouth. It has a tiger’s head, a human body, four hooves, and long arms. It is called Qiangliang. It too belongs to the class of awe-inspiring beasts: divine creatures that inspire fear.

Another mountain in the Great Wilderness is called “Chengdu Zaitian.” A person lives there with two yellow snakes hanging from his ears and two more in his hands. He is called Kuafu. Houtu gave birth to Xin, and Xin gave birth to Kuafu. Overestimating his own strength, Kuafu tried to catch up with the sun’s shadow. He pursued it as far as Yugu, where he stopped. Yugu, also called Yuyuan, is where the sun sets; its name was later written as “Yu.” Kuafu wanted to drink the Yellow River dry, but even that did not quench his thirst. He then planned to hurry to the Great Marsh, but died of thirst on the way before reaching it.

Another account says that Yinglong, the legendary divine dragon, killed Chiyou and then Kuafu. The earlier account says Kuafu died while racing the sun; this one says he was killed by Yinglong. The two accounts differ. Myths in ancient books often change from one telling to another, so they are difficult to explain through a single fixed account. Yinglong later left this place and settled in the south, which is why the south has much rain. This is because dragons belong to the realm of water, and tradition holds that things of the same kind respond to one another.

There is also a country of the No-Intestines, whose people bear the Ren surname. They are tall, have no descendants, and eat fish. In the phrase “without heirs,” the word “heirs” is written as “Qi” in some versions; one commentary suggests that it means they have no intestines.

Gonggong’s minister was called Xiangyao, also known as Xiangliu; the names differ because their pronunciations changed. He had nine heads and a snake-like body that coiled and twisted. He often foraged among nine mountains, a description of his greed and cruelty. The places where he stopped became marshes, and his breath was so fierce and foul that no beasts dared approach.

When the Great Yu controlled the floods, he dammed the floodwaters and killed Xiangyao. Xiangyao’s blood stank so badly that crops could not grow in the land. Flooding also made the area unfit for habitation. According to legend, Xiangyao’s blood and flesh flowed together into deep pools. Yu repeatedly filled them with earth, but the ground kept sinking. Later, Yu turned the place into a pond and built a raised platform on higher, drier ground. The emperors then came there and built a terrace pavilion together. This place lies north of Mount Kunlun. Nearby, Mount Youyue is home to xunzhu, a kind of giant bamboo.

In the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Buju Mountain, where seawater flows in from the north. There are also Mount Xikun and the Terrace of Gonggong. Archers dare not shoot toward the north, for fear of Gonggong.

A woman dressed in blue is called Huangdi’s daughter, Nüba. “Ba” is pronounced “ba” and means the spirit of drought. Chiyou made weapons and attacked Huangdi, who ordered Yinglong to meet him in battle on the plains of Jizhou. Jizhou lies in the Central Plain. Huangdi also taught fierce beasts—tigers, leopards, bears, and other creatures—to fight. He battled Yandi on the Plains of Banquan and defeated him, as recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian.

Yinglong stored up water, while Chiyou summoned the Wind Lord and the Rain Master, bringing on fierce winds and torrential rain. Huangdi then sent the celestial maiden Nüba down to earth, and the rain stopped. Chiyou was later killed. Nüba could no longer return to heaven. Wherever she lived, it did not rain, for the qi of drought remained there.

Shujun reported this to the Heavenly Emperor, who later settled Nüba north of the Red River and sent her far away. Shujun thus became the Ancestor of the Fields, the deity in charge of farmland. A poem says, “The Ancestor of the Fields is divine.” Nüba sometimes fled, afraid she would be driven away again. When people wanted to expel her, they would have the Ancestor of the Fields travel north, toward the water’s edge. Before setting out, they first cleared the waterways and opened the ditches. This means that when people drove out the drought spirit, they often hoped for rain, so they cleared the water channels in advance. Folk practices for driving out drought spirits today are similar.

There is also a country whose people are eating fish, called the Country of the Deep-Eyed People. Their surname is Xi, and they live on fish. They look like the Hu peoples, except that their eye sockets are especially deep. It is said that they came here during Huangdi’s time.

There is also a Mount Zhong. A woman dressed in blue lives in the mountain; her name is Xian, the Maiden of the Red River. She is a goddess.

Amid the Great Wilderness stands a mountain called Rongfu Mountain, which can be reached by following the river upstream. A people called the Quanrong live there. The Yellow Emperor fathered Miaolong, Miaolong fathered Rongwu, Rongwu fathered Bianming, and Bianming fathered the White Dogs. There were two White Dogs, one male and one female. They mated and multiplied, giving rise to the Quanrong. The Quanrong live by hunting. There is also a red headless beast there called the Corpse of King Rongxuan, a deity worshipped by the Quanrong.

This passage also mentions Qizhou Mountain, Zeng Mountain, Xianye Mountain, and Fish Mountain. Some people have just one eye, set in the center of the face. Another account says these people belong to the Wei lineage and are descendants of Shaohao, and that they eat millet. There is also a people without bones, belonging to the Ren lineage and descended from Wuguzi. They eat qi-eating fish, and are known as the Boneless People. The Shizi says that King Yan of Xu had sinews but no bones.

Beyond the northwestern sea, east of the flowing sands, lies a country called Zhonglun. It is said to be where Zhuanxu’s son lived, and its people eat millet. The countries of Laiqiu and Quanrong are also there. The Quanrong country has a deity with a human face and an animal’s body, also called Quanrong.

Beyond the northwestern sea, north of the Black River, live winged people called the Miaomin, or the people of the Three Miao. According to legend, Zhuanxu fathered Huantou, who fathered the Miaomin. The Miaomin belong to the Li lineage. A mountain called Zhang Mountain also stands there.

A red tree grows on Mount Dahuang, Mount Hengshi, Mount Jiuyin, and Mount Huye. Its leaves emit a red glow that lights the earth below. Here there is a blue ox called Kushu, as well as the state of Niu Li. The people there have no bones and are called the Dan’er people; children born to the Dan’er people also have no bones.

Beyond the Northwestern Sea, north of the Red River, stands Mount Zhangwei. A spirit lives on the mountain, with a human face and a red serpent’s body a thousand li long. Its eyes stand upright. Ancient books do not clearly explain what is meant by “riding upright.” When the spirit closes its eyes, heaven and earth grow dark; when it opens them, heaven and earth become bright. In other words, day comes when it opens its eyes, and night falls when it closes them. It eats nothing, sleeps not, and does not breathe, yet it can summon wind and rain. Because it illuminates the dark places deep within Jiuyin, it is called Zhujiumyin, or Zhulong, the Torch Dragon. The Jing of Encountering Sorrow says: “Where sunlight cannot reach, how does the Torch Dragon shine?” The Poem Containing the Divine Mandate says: “The northwest of the world has a gap, and so Yin-Yang does not change there. A dragon therefore holds a fiery essence in its mouth and goes into the Heavenly Gate to illuminate the place.”

Volume Eighteen of the Classic of Mountains and Seas

Commentary by Guo Pu

The Classic of the Regions Within the Seas

North of the Eastern Sea and around the Northern Sea there is a country called Chaoxian, also known as Tiandu. Its people live by the water. Chaoxian is the present-day Lelang Commandery. The Tianzhu kingdom, the ancient name for the region around India, valued morality and had writing, gold, silver, and currency. The Buddhist stupa also originated in this country. In the fourth year of the Tai Xing era of the Jin dynasty, the king of Tianzhu came to pay his respects and present gifts. In the phrase “draw near to people and love them,” the word “draw near” also means “love” and is pronounced the same as “wei” in “river bend.”

Amid the shifting sands of the Western Sea there is a country whose name is written in the original text as “□shi,” with its pronunciation marked as “chi.” West of the shifting sands of the Western Sea lies the country of Fanye; “fan” is pronounced like the “fan” in “overflow.” West of the shifting sands is Bird Mountain, the source of three rivers. The rivers yield gold, xuangui (a kind of jade), red minerals, and silver—in other words, precious and unusual things are found in their waters. There is also a Mount Huai, from which good water flows.

East of the shifting sands and west of the Black River are the countries of Chaoyun and Sishi. Leizu, the wife of the Yellow Emperor, gave birth to Changyi. The Shiben records that the Yellow Emperor married a daughter of the Xiling clan, called her Leizu, and had two sons with her, Qingyang and Changyi. Changyi moved to the Ruo River and had Hanliu. The Bamboo Annals say that Changyi moved to the Ruo River, and that Hanliu was Zhuanxu. Hanliu had a protruding forehead, a slender neck, and small ears. He had a human face and a pig’s snout, a body like a qilin, and feet like chequ, a kind of large shellfish. This describes his appearance and footprints. An old book also says that chequ are very large.

The River Maiden, daughter of the river god, gave birth to Zhuanxu. The Shiben says that Zhuanxu’s mother was a daughter of the Zhuoshan clan, named Changtiao.

East of the shifting sands, between them and the Black River, stands Mount Immortality, also known as Mount Fu. East of Mount Hua and the Blue River stands Mount Zhao, where Baigao, a legendary immortal, lives. Baigao could travel up and down between heaven and earth, reaching the sky. Legend says he rode the clouds and came to this mountain.

In the wilderness of Duguang, between the southwestern sea and the Black River, Houji is buried. The place extends three hundred li in every direction and is said to lie at the center of heaven and earth. It is also the birthplace of Suxian, a legendary goddess. The Li Sao mentions “the wilderness of Duguang” and says that people there call Baigao by name.

There grow rich soybeans, rich rice, rich millet, and rich broomcorn millet. This means the grains are all of high quality and become smooth as paste when cooked. The grains grow naturally, and seeds can be sown even in winter. “Sow” means to scatter seeds. Luan birds sing of their own accord, and phoenixes dance lightly. The ling-shou tree flowers and bears fruit. Ling-shou is a tree like bamboo, with jointed branches. Plants flourish there, and wild animals gather among them. The vegetation does not wither, even in winter or summer.

In the South Sea, between the Black Water and the Green Water, there is a tree called Ruomu. Its leaves are red and its branches and trunk are green. The Ruo River flows past this place. Here are the lands of Yuzhong and Liexiang.

On Spirit Mountain, a red snake coils around a tree. It is called the Rushen snake. It feeds on trees and does not eat birds or beasts. Its name is pronounced much like “soft and weak.” The land of Jianzhang is also here. Some people have bird heads and are called the Bird Clan. Accounts of these people also appear in present-day books of immortals, where they are called Wuyi.

Here are nine hills, each surrounded by water: Taotang Hill, Shude Hill, Mengying Hill, Kunwu Hill, Heibai Hill, Chiwang Hill, Canwei Hill, Wufu Hill, and Shenji Hill. “Taotang” was one of Yao’s titles, and Kunwu Hill is rich in metal. The Yinzi also mentions Kunwu metal. The commentary says that Canwei, Wufu, and the other names are mountains, whose names sound beautiful; it is said that a divine being lives on Shenji Hill.

Here is a tree with green leaves, purple stems, black flowers, and yellow fruit, called Jianmu. It is a hundred ren tall, with no side branches. Near the top of its trunk are nine crooked branches, and near the bottom are nine coiling roots. Its fruit somewhat resembles hemp seeds, and its leaves resemble silver grass. According to legend, Dahui once passed beneath this tree; Dahui refers to Fuxi. The Yellow Emperor also once governed here and yielded the throne.

Here is a monster called Xiayu, with a dragon’s head. It eats human heads and lives in the Weak Water. There is also a blue beast with a human face, called a Xingxing, which can speak.

To the southwest lies the state of Ba, in the region now called the Three Bas. Taihao fathered Xianyan, who fathered Chengli, who fathered Houzhao. Houzhao is considered the ancestor of the Ba people. There is also a state called Liuhuang Xin, which is also known as Feng. Its city extends three hundred li in every direction and is rich in dust; the commentary takes this as a way of describing the place’s prosperity. The Mianshui flows from Mount Basui.

There is also the land of Zhujuan. A black snake lives there, with a blue head, and can swallow elephants. This is the Bashe snake. Farther south is the Gan giant, also called Xiaoyang. It has a human face, long arms, and a black, hairy body, with hair hanging down to its heels. When it sees people laugh, it laughs too. Its lips can cover its entire face, giving people a chance to escape.

There are also black people with tiger bodies and bird feet, holding snakes in both hands and performing some kind of action; a character is missing from the original text at this point. Another animal, called Ying, has bird feet. There is also a Feng boar, meaning a large wild boar, which Yi once shot and killed. Another people are called the Miao, or the Three Miao.

There is also a deity with a human head and a snake’s body. Its body resembles a chariot pole, and its form also resembles the hub of a large cart. It is a deity of marshes, with a head on each side; each head is forked. It wears purple robes and a banner-shaped headdress, and is called Yanwei, also known as Weishe. If a ruler sees it and welcomes it with offerings, he can become hegemon over all under heaven. Duke Huan of Qi once saw it while hunting in a marsh, and later became hegemon among the feudal lords. Zhuang Zhou also wrote of it, saying that it wore a vermilion crown.

There are Luan birds that sing and dance of their own accord. The Feng bird has markings resembling the character for “compliance” on its head, the character for “benevolence” on its breast, and the character for “righteousness” on its back. When it appears, all under heaven is at peace. There is also a blue, rabbit-like beast called Junzhao, as well as kingfishers and peacocks.

Around the South Sea is Mount Heng, the Southern Peak, where juniper cinnamon grows. Another account says that the juniper cinnamon of Mount Heng is cylindrical, like bamboo, and is mentioned in the Bencao. There is also a mountain called Mount Santianzi Zhang.

In the deep waters of southern Cangwu lies Mount Jiuyi, traditionally said to be the burial place of Shun. It stands at the border between Changsha and Lingling. The commentary adds that it is south of Yingdao County in Lingling. The mountain has nine streams, all resembling the Nine Doubts described in ancient books; for this reason, people in antiquity called the whole region Cangwu.

In the North Sea is Snake Mountain. The Snake River flows from the mountain and runs east into the sea. A multicolored bird lives there. In flight, it can cover an entire district and is called the Yi crow; it belongs to the Feng bird kind. In the seventh year of the Yuankang era under Emperor Xuan of Han, thousands upon thousands of five-colored birds were seen flying over the subordinate counties. The commentary suggests that these were this kind of bird. The Lisao also describes riding jade snakes and mounting the Yi crow.

There is also Mount Bujü. Qiaochui was buried on its western side. Qiaochui was a craftsman renowned for his skill during the time of Yao.

In the Northern Sea there is a mountain called Mount Youdu, from which the Black River flows. Black birds, snakes, leopards, and tigers live on the mountain. The black tiger is called Tiao. There are also black foxes with bushy tails. “Bushy” means growing thickly together. The Shuo Yuan describes the fox’s bushy tail, and the leopard’s markings and fur, in these same terms. There are also Mount Taixuan, the people of Xuancu, and the secluded people of the Great Secluded State. This means that everything on the mountain slopes is black. The secluded people live in caves and wear no clothes. There are also people with red shins, whose legs are red below the knees.

The people of Dingling have hair below the knees, feet like horse hooves, and are skilled runners. The Shi Han Shen Wu says that they can propel themselves forward by kicking the ground with their hoof-like feet, running three hundred li in a day.

Bailing, grandson of the Flame Emperor, once had an affair with A Nü Yuan, the wife of Wu Quan. A Nü Yuan made musical instruments and composed music. The Yellow Emperor fathered Luoming, who fathered Baima. Baima was Gun, the father of Yu. The Shi Ben, however, records that the Yellow Emperor fathered Changyi, who fathered Zhuanxu, who fathered Gun.

Di Jun fathered Yuhao, who fathered Yinliang, who fathered Panyu. Panyu invented the boat. The Shi Ben says that Gonggu and Huoxia made boats. Panyu also fathered Xizhong, who fathered Jiguang. Jiguang was the first to make a cart from wood. The Shi Ben says that Xizhong made carts. Here, the invention of the cart is attributed to Jiguang. Perhaps father and son created it together, and so each was referred to by the other’s name.

Shaohao fathered Tian, who was the first to make the bow and arrow. The Shi Ben attributes the making of arrows and bows to different people, and its accounts vary. Di Jun gave Yi a red bow and white-feathered arrows, and charged him with helping govern the lower world. Using his skill with the bow, Yi drove away dangers and saved the people, putting an end to many disasters, such as by killing Zaichi and Fengshi. Later, Yi of the Youqiong State usurped the throne and also took the name Yi.

Di Jun fathered Yanlong, who was the first to make the qin and se zithers. The Shi Ben, however, says that Fuxi made the qin and Shennong made the se. Di Jun had eight sons, who were the first to create song and dance. Di Jun fathered Shen, who fathered Yijun. Yijun was skilled at making objects and was the first to create various crafts for the people. Houji sowed the Five Grains; his grandson Shujun was the first to invent plowing with oxen. Dachiyin was the first to establish a state and was enfeoffed as a feudal lord.

Yu and Gun began to manage the land and divide it into the Nine Provinces. “Bu” means to spread out and administer. The Shangshu says that Yu laid out and governed the land, marking the boundaries of its mountains and great rivers.

The Flame Emperor’s wife was Tingyao, daughter of the spirit of the Red River. Tingyao gave birth to Yanju, who gave birth to Jiebing, who gave birth to Xiqi, who gave birth to Zhurong. Zhurong was an official in the service of Gaoxin, in charge of fire; he held the title Zhurong. Zhurong descended to live by the Jiang River and fathered Gonggong. Gonggong fathered Shuqì, whose head was square and flat on top. Shuqì governed the land anew and lived in the Jiang River region, restoring the place where Zhurong had once lived. Gonggong also fathered Houtu, who fathered Yeming. Yeming fathered twelve children, each named after one of the twelve months of the year.

When the floodwaters surged, Gun stole the Heavenly Emperor’s self-growing soil to block them. This soil kept growing and multiplying, making it suitable for holding back floods. The Qishi records that the floodwaters surged without limit, so Gun filled them in with the self-growing soil. During the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han, the land in Xu County of Linhuai Commandery rose and extended for six li, reaching a height of one zhang. The commentators considered this kind of phenomenon an example of self-growing soil.

Gun did not wait for the Heavenly Emperor’s command. The Heavenly Emperor ordered Zhurong to kill Gun at Yujiao. Gun’s body did not decay for three years after his death. When people cut it open with a Wu blade, he turned into a yellow bear-like creature. The Heavenly Emperor then ordered Yu to continue managing the land and dividing it into the Nine Provinces. Since Gun had failed to control the floods, the Heavenly Emperor had Yu carry on and complete the work.

Volume Eighteen of the Classic of Mountains and Seas

1. “Where the Ruo River is”: The Tan critical edition supplies “the Ruo River flows out from here,” meaning “the Ruo River has its source here.”

2. “Taihao gave birth to Xian”: The Tan critical edition emends this to “Taihao gave birth to Xianwu,” meaning that Taihao gave birth to Xianwu.

3. “Xian gave birth to Chengli”: The Tan critical edition emends this to “Xianwu gave birth to Chengli,” meaning that Xianwu gave birth to Chengli.

4. “Heel-facing”: The Tan critical edition reads “backward-facing heel,” referring to a different form with the heel pointing forward and the toes pointing backward.

5. “It was named the City of the Three Heavenly Sons”: The Tan critical edition reads “the Capital of the Three Heavenly Sons,” that is, it was called “the Capital of the Three Heavenly Sons.”

6. “Boyifu gave birth to Xixianlong”: The Tan critical edition reads “Boyifu gave birth to Xiyue Xianlong,” meaning that Boyifu gave birth to Xiyue Xianlong.

7–8. “Huqiang”: The Tan critical edition emends this to “Diqiang.”

9. “Shuqi’s head is square”: The Tan critical edition reads “Shuqi’s head is square and prominent.”

10. “The Heavenly Emperor ordered the Emperor Zhurong to kill Gun in the Yu outskirts”: The character “Emperor” here appears to be an addition. The Tan critical edition emends this to “The Heavenly Emperor ordered Zhurong to kill Gun in the Yu outskirts,” meaning that the Heavenly Emperor ordered Zhurong to kill Gun in the Yu outskirts.

11. “The Heavenly Emperor then ordered Yu to finish spreading”: The Tan critical edition supplies “The Heavenly Emperor then ordered Yu to finish spreading out the soil,” meaning that the Heavenly Emperor then ordered Yu to complete the work of laying out the land.