《淮南鸿烈解》Vol. 3

At the center of Kunlun Void—the legendary Kunlun Mountains—stands a nine-tiered city, 11,000 li, 114 paces, and two chi and six cun high. “Center” refers to the middle of Kunlun Void, while “tiered” means built one level upon another. The Kuo Di Xiang describes five cities and twelve towers there, though these accounts are probably extravagant tales; in reality, no one has reported seeing them.

Wood grain grows on Kunlun Void, each stalk reaching five xun, or thirty-five chi, in height. To the west of the wood grain are pearl trees, jade trees, xuan trees, and trees of immortality; to the east are sand-pear trees and langgan, both names for jade. Another account identifies sand-pear as a kind of tree. The Lüshi Chunqiu says, “Among fruits, the finest is the fruit of the sand-pear.” South of the wood grain is the crimson tree; “crimson” means red. To the north are the green-jade tree and the precious-jade tree; “green jade” refers to blue-green jade.

Kunlun is surrounded by 440 gates, ten on each side. The gates are four li apart, and each li is divided into nine chun. A chun is a unit of measure equal to one zhang and five chi. Beside them are nine wells, with jade crossbeams above them, at the northwest corner. “Crossbeam” can also mean a shining light. Another account writes the word as “peng,” referring to a vessel for storing the elixir of immortality. When the northern gate opens, it admits the wind from Mount Buzhou.

Kunlun also has the Palace of Inclination and the Revolving Chamber. Old commentaries offer different explanations of the Palace of Inclination. The Revolving Chamber may be a room decorated with rotating jade ornaments; another account says it is named for a turning mechanism inside, shaped like a jade celestial sphere. Xuanpu, Liangfeng, and Fantong are all mountain names within Kunlun’s Changhe—the gate of Kunlun Void. The character fan is pronounced like the fan in “wheat-rice.” This place is Shuyuan, whose ponds are nourished by the Yellow River. The Yellow River circles around it three times, then flows back to its source; hence it is called the Cinnabar River. Anyone who drinks its water lives forever.

The Yellow River emerges from Kunlun’s northeastern corner, passes through the Bohai Sea, and then enters the area around Mount Jishi, which Yu the Great dredged and opened. Here, “enter” can also mean “flow out.” The Shangshu says, “The Yellow River rises at Mount Jishi.”

The Red River emerges from Kunlun’s southeastern corner, flows southwest, and empties to the east of Cinnabar Marsh in the South Sea. The Weak River lies east of the Red River and rises at Mount Qiongshi. Mount Qiongshi is in Zhangye, where the waters of the northern frontier region originate. The Weak River reaches Mount Heli; its remaining flow enters the shifting sands, crosses them, and runs south to the South Sea. Here, “cross” means to pass through, and “shifting sands” refers to sand that moves.

The Yang River emerges from Kunlun’s northwestern corner and empties into the South Sea, flowing south of the land where the Feathered People live. It passes through Shidao in Longxi, then flows east to Wudu, where it is called the Han River. Some versions call it the Yang River instead. These four rivers are all divine springs belonging to the Heavenly Emperor. They can harmonize all kinds of medicines and nourish the myriad things.

If Kunlun Hill were made twice as high—supposing its original height to be 10,000 li, it would then reach 20,000 li—it would become Mount Liangfeng. Climbing this mountain grants immortality. Make it twice as high again, and it becomes Xuanpu. Climbing Xuanpu enables one to commune with spirits and command the wind and rain. Make it twice as high once more, and one reaches the celestial realm. Climbing there makes one a deity; this is where the Great Emperor, the Heavenly Emperor, resides.

The Fumu tree grows in Yangzhou, the place where sunlight shines in the east. Fumu is Fusang, located south of Tanggu. Here, “fei” means “to shine upon.”

The Jianmu tree grows at Duguang. It has the form of a newly sprouted tree, with bark on its trunk, a shape like a coiling yellow serpent, and leaves like a net. Duguang is a mountain in the south. The many emperors of ancient legend, who were gods, traveled between Heaven and Earth from here; that is why they are said to ascend and descend. At noon, the sun shines directly overhead, leaving no shadow on the ground. When someone calls out, the direction the sound comes from cannot be made out. This is probably the center of Heaven and Earth.

The Ruomu tree grows west of Jianmu. Ten suns rest at its crown, their light illuminating the land below. “Mo” means “tip” or “top.” The ten suns at the crown of Ruomu are shaped like lotus flowers. Here, “hua” refers to radiance: the light shines upon the land beneath the tree.

The territory of the Nine Provinces is vast, measuring a thousand li from east to west and a thousand li from north to south. Chun means a boundary and can also name a measured area. Beyond the Nine Provinces lie eight outlying regions called the Yin, each likewise measuring a thousand li in both directions. Yin carries the sense of “distant”; it is pronounced like yin in the word yin, meaning “descendants.”

The northeast is called Great Marsh, or Unconnected Marsh; both are names for wetlands. The east is called Great Islet, or Lesser Sea. An islet is a place in the water where people can live. Because the east has many wetlands, it is called the Lesser Sea; Lesser Sea is also the name of a particular marsh. The southeast is called Juqu, or Original Marsh. The word yuan is pronounced like the word xue as it is spoken in the Changshan region, where bo is pronounced xue. The south is called Great Meng, or Vast Marsh. Meng refers to Yunmeng Marsh, and hao means vast.

The southwest is called Zhuzi, or Cinnabar Marsh, perhaps because it lies near the Dan River. The west is called Nine Marshes, or Spring Marsh; the northwest, Great Xia, or Sea Marsh; and the north, Great Darkness, or Cold Marsh. The north has many cold wetlands, hence the name Cold Marsh.

The eight Yin and eight Marshes refer to the clouds and rain that descend upon these places and nourish the Nine Provinces.

Beyond the Eight Extremities—the remote lands at the limits of the eight directions—lie the Eight Dimensions. “Dimension” means a boundary that holds Heaven and Earth together. These boundaries encircle Heaven and Earth and mark the limits of the four quarters, hence the name. Each quarter also extends for a thousand li in every direction.

The northeast is called Harmony Mound, or Desolate Land. It is said to be where phoenixes sing and luan birds dance, which is how it got its name. The east is called Thorn Forest, or Mulberry Fields; the southeast, Great Vastness, or Multitude of Women; and the south, Broad Capital, or Reversed Doors. Broad Capital is the name of a state, which has a mountain also called Broad Capital Mountain. It lies south of what people call the inhabited region, yet the houses there all face north; hence the name “Reversed Doors.”

The southwest is called Jiao Yao, or Fiery Land. Jiao Yao is a country of short people, said to stand less than three chi tall. The west is called Metal Mound, or Fertile Fields. In the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water), the west corresponds to Metal, hence “Metal Mound.” “Fertile” can also mean white; since the west corresponds to white, it is called “Fertile Fields.”

The northwest is called One Eye, or Place of Sand. The people of the One Eye country have a single eye in the center of the face. Place of Sand is perhaps the source of the shifting sands, though some say it is the name of a marsh. The north is called Accumulated Ice, or Plumed Mountain. Ice gathers there, hence “Accumulated Ice.” Plumed Mountain lies in the central north, near the North Pole, where, it is said, the sun cannot be seen.

The Qi of the Eight Dimensions produces cold and heat and accords with the Eight Correct Winds. This movement is invariably accompanied by wind and rain. The Eight Correct Winds are the regular winds of the eight directions; wind and rain arise within the bounds of the Eight Dimensions.

Beyond the eight directions lie eight more remote regions. In the northeast stands Fangtu Mountain, called the Gate of Azure. Wood Qi governs the northeast, the direction where the sounds of all things first emerge; hence it is called the Gate of Azure.

In the east stands East Pole Mountain, called the Gate of Dawn. “Dawn” refers to Yang Qi and is also where the sun rises; hence it is called the Gate of Dawn.

In the southeast stands Bomu Mountain, called the Yang Gate. The monthly lodgment in the southeast—the Earthly Branch used to mark months and directions—is Si, where pure Yang Qi governs; hence it is called the Yang Gate. The southeastern corner gates of cities throughout the realm are also often called Yang Gates, following the same usage.

In the south stands South Pole Mountain, called the Gate of Heat. Yang Qi is vigorous in the south, where warmth gathers; hence it is called the Gate of Heat.

In the southwest stands Bianju Mountain, called the White Gate. The monthly lodgment in the southwest is Shen, the direction where Metal Qi first appears. Metal Qi corresponds to white; hence it is called the White Gate.

In the west stands West Pole Mountain, called the Gate of Changhe. In the eighth month, the monthly lodgment in the west is You. All things have ripened and are nearing the time of gathering in. “Chang” means great, and “he” means to close. As things gather in great abundance, they draw together and are stored away; hence it is called the Gate of Changhe.

In the northwest stands Buzhou Mountain, called the Gate of the Dark Capital. “Dark” carries the sense of concealment, while “capital” means a place of gathering. Xuanming, the spirit who governs winter, is about to take charge, and all things gather in response to Yin Qi; hence it is called the Gate of the Dark Capital.

In the north stands North Pole Mountain, called the Cold Gate. Cold Qi gathers there; hence it is called the Cold Gate.

The clouds above the Eight Extremities bring rain down upon the realm, while the winds that blow through the Eight Gates regulate cold and heat. The clouds of the Eight Directions, the Eight Outlands, and the Eight Marshes bring rain to the Nine Provinces, harmonizing the central lands. The central land referred to here is Ji Province.

Among the precious products of the east is xunyu jade from Yiwulu Mountain. Yiwulu is the name of a mountain in the area of the Liaodong dependent territory.

Among the precious products of the southeast are the bamboo arrows of Mount Kuaiji. Mount Kuaiji lies south of Shanyin County in present-day Kuaiji. It is the burial place of Yu and lies within the eastern dependent territory.

Among the treasures of the southeast are the bamboo and arrow shafts produced at Kuaiji. Mount Kuaiji lies south of Shanyin County in Kuaiji, in what is now the area of Kuaiji Mountain. According to tradition, Yu was buried there. The bamboo arrows mentioned here are fine bamboo and arrow bamboo produced in Kuaiji Commandery.

Among the treasures of the south are the rhinoceros horn and ivory produced at Liang Mountain. Liang Mountain is in the Kuaiji area. Rhinoceros horn and ivory are also produced around Changsha and southern Hunan; all are valuable goods.

Among the treasures of the southwest are the gold and stone produced at Mount Hua. “Gold” means high-quality metal; “stone” means rock containing jade. Mount Hua lies south of Huayin County in Hongnong Commandery, in what is now the area.

Among the treasures of the west are the pearls and fine jade produced at Mount Huo. The region produces luminous pearls and jade of beautiful color. Mount Huo is in the area of Yong’an County in Hedong Commandery, in what is now the region.

Among the treasures of the northwest are qiulin and langgan produced at the Kunlun Mountains; both are kinds of fine jade.

Among the treasures of the north are the sinews and horns produced at Youdu. In ancient times, Youdu lay north of Yanmen. The region was well suited to raising cattle, sheep, and horses, and its fine sinews and horns could be used to make bows and crossbows.

Among the treasures of the northeast are the patterned animal hides produced at Mount Chi. The character chi is pronounced like the “chi” in “Chiqiu.” “Patterned hides” refers to leopard and tiger skins. Ancient records say that Wuzhongzi once sent Meng Le to present leopard and tiger skins through Wei Zhuangzi, seeking peace with the various Rong peoples.

The treasures of the central region include Mount Dai (Mount Tai), along with the grains, mulberry trees, and hemp that grow there, as well as fish and salt. Mount Dai is Mount Tai. It is called Mount Dai because emperors of successive dynasties performed Feng and Shan sacrifices there. The grains, mulberry, hemp, fish, and salt are all resources that sustain the people. “Produced” means grown or made in a place.

In the contours of the earth, the east–west direction is called “latitude,” and the north–south direction “longitude.” Mountains accumulate Virtue; rivers accumulate the energy of punishment. Mountains are benevolent and generous, and all things grow among them, so they are said to “accumulate Virtue.” The waters of rivers change swiftly, symbolizing wisdom and decisiveness, so rivers are said to “accumulate punishment.” This is also the meaning of the saying in the Analects: “The benevolent delight in mountains; the wise delight in water.”

High ground belongs to Yang and governs life; low ground belongs to Yin and governs death. Broad, elevated hills belong to Yang and are called “male”; low, sunken streams and valleys belong to Yin and are called “female.” Where flowing water forms a rounded bend, pearls appear; where it makes a sharp, angular turn, jade appears. The rounded bend belongs to Yang, and the pearl is Yang within Yin; the angular turn belongs to Yin, and jade is Yin within Yang. These are all outcomes of things responding to their kind. Gold is found in clear water because, when the water is limpid, gold can be seen. In the Dragon Abyss—the legendary deep pool where dragons appear—is the essence of jade; its radiance seems to arise from the transformation of vital essences.

The soil and Qi of each region give rise to corresponding things and people. Where mountain Qi is abundant, there are many men; where marshland Qi is abundant, many women. In places thick with miasma, people tend to become dull and confused; where the wind is strong, people are prone to deafness. Where woodland Qi is abundant, people are prone to paralysis; where Wood Qi is abundant, they tend to be hunchbacked. Where Qi from low-lying banks is abundant, people are prone to swelling; where the Qi of stone is abundant, people are strong, hard as stone. In rugged terrain, Qi tends to surge and knot in the throat, so people are prone to goiter. Where summer heat is intense, people tend to die young; where cold is severe, people tend to live longer. Where valley Qi is abundant, people are prone to painful obstruction; where hill Qi is abundant, they tend toward madness. Where Qi is abundant in low, level land, people are often benevolent and generous; where it is abundant on high ridges, people tend toward greed. In places with light soil, people act nimbly; where the soil is heavy, they move slowly. Clear water makes little sound, while turbid water makes much. People in places with swift currents have light, lively dispositions; those where the current is slow have weightier dispositions. The Central Plain, meanwhile, produces many sages. These claims all hold that people’s dispositions and bodies reflect the qualities of the Qi in their region, and that things of each kind respond to one another.

Thus, the south has a plant that never dies, while the north has ice that never melts. The south is warm, so its grass does not wither; the north is cold, so its ice does not thaw. In the east is a land of exemplary people, because the east belongs to Wood and governs benevolence. Its people wear clothes and caps, carry swords, eat the flesh of beasts, and keep two tigers in their service. In the west are corpse demons with mutilated bodies. One explanation says that the west belongs to Metal, and Metal governs cutting and warfare; hence the mutilated corpse demons. Their dreams while asleep correspond to their condition when awake, so these are called “direct dreams.” These demons died before their allotted lifespans were complete and can turn into monsters that bring illness to people. Another account says that these corpse demons have eyes where their breasts should be and a mouth at their navel, and dance while carrying shields and axes. A heavenly spirit cut off their hands, and later the Celestial Emperor cut off their heads; this is why, in sleep, they dream in ways that correspond to these events.

Lodestone can attract iron, mica moves with water, and a clay dragon can summon rain. During drought, people make a clay dragon in the likeness of a real one. Legend says that clouds rise with dragons, so the clay dragon can be used to pray for rain. Swallows and wild geese migrate in turn: swallows arrive at the spring equinox and leave at the autumn equinox, while geese fly north at the spring equinox and south at the autumn equinox. Thus, they are said to migrate in one another’s place.

The waxing and waning of the moon affect the growth and decline of dragonflies, crabs, pearls, and turtles. In places with hard soil, people are strong-willed; where the soil is loose and weak, people tend to be fat. Where the soil is fine and dense, like woven cord, people are tall; in sandy places, they are short and slight. People in fertile regions tend to have attractive features, while those in barren regions tend to be less attractive.

Different creatures have different characteristics according to what they eat. Those that eat water are good swimmers and endure cold, like fish, turtles, and waterfowl. Those that eat earth have no obvious organs of intelligence yet are very clever, like earthworms. Those that eat wood are strong, like bears. Those that eat grass run well but are rather dull, like elk and deer. Those that eat leaves can spin silk, like silkworms. Those that eat meat are fierce and powerful, like tigers, leopards, eagles, and hawks. Those that absorb vital essences are spiritually numinous and long-lived, like the legendary immortals Chisongzi and Wang Ziqiao. Those that eat grain may be wise, but are prone to die young. Those that consume no food of the human world are deathless and possess spiritual qualities.

Humans, birds, beasts, and all other living things each have their own ways of life and innate dispositions. Some have unusual forms, some live in pairs, some fly, and some walk; it is difficult to understand them all one by one. Only those who understand the Dao can trace them back to their origins.

Shen (spirit). Humans, birds and beasts, and all kinds of things each have their own way of coming into being. “Zhenchong” refers to various tiny creatures. Some have strange forms, and some occur in pairs; some fly, while others walk. People do not understand their habits. Only those who know how to penetrate the Dao (the Way) can trace the origins of the myriad things.

Heaven belongs to one, Earth to two, and humanity to three: one represents Yang, and two represents Yin. Humans are born from Heaven and Earth, so they are ranked as three. Three times three is nine, and nine times nine is eighty-one. One corresponds to the sun; the sun governs humans, so humans spend ten months in the womb before birth. Eight times nine is seventy-two. Two corresponds to even numbers, and even numbers follow odd numbers. Odd numbers govern the stars, the stars govern the moon, and the moon governs horses; therefore, horses spend twelve months in the womb before birth. Seven times nine is sixty-three. Three governs the Northern Dipper, and the Northern Dipper governs dogs; therefore, dogs spend three months in the womb before birth. Six times nine is fifty-four. Four governs the four seasons, and the four seasons govern pigs; therefore, pigs spend four months in the womb before birth. Five times nine is forty-five. Five governs sound, and sound governs apes; therefore, apes spend five months in the womb before birth. Four times nine is thirty-six. Six governs musical pitches, and musical pitches govern deer; therefore, deer spend six months in the womb before birth. Three times nine is twenty-seven. Seven governs the constellations, and the constellations govern tigers; therefore, tigers spend seven months in the womb before birth. Two times nine is eighteen. Eight governs the wind, and the wind governs insects; therefore, insects come into being in the eighth month.

Birds and fish are both generated by Yin Qi (vital energy), and Yin in turn belongs to Yang, so birds and fish both lay eggs. Fish swim in water, while birds fly among the clouds. Thus, the ancients believed that at the start of winter, swallows and sparrows enter the sea and transform into clams.

All things have different ways of living. Silkworms eat but do not drink; cicadas drink but do not eat; mayflies neither drink nor eat. Animals with shells and scales feed in summer and hibernate in winter. Those with shells include turtles and softshell turtles; those with scales include fish and dragons. Animals that bite and swallow have eight openings and lay eggs; these are birds and fish. Animals that chew and swallow have nine openings and give birth to live young. Four-legged animals have no wings; those with shells belong to the turtle and softshell turtle kind. Horned animals have protruding fronts and less substantial hindquarters, as with cattle, sheep, and deer; hornless animals have abundant fat and are heavier at the front of the body. The original text also says here that horned animals “point forward and lack a rear”; “point” refers to cattle, sheep, and deer, while “lack a rear” means that their hindquarters are not substantial. Animals born by day resemble their fathers, while those born at night resemble their mothers. When Yin Qi is at its height, females are born; when Yang Qi is at its height, males are born. Bears and brown bears hibernate, while migratory birds move with the seasons.

Thus, White River water is suited to producing jade, Black River water to producing whetstones, Green River water to producing green jade, Red River water to producing cinnabar, Yellow River water to producing gold, and Clear River water to producing turtles. The muddy Fen River is suited to growing hemp; the Jishui, whose waters flow evenly, is suited to growing wheat; the middle reaches of the Yellow River, muddy as they are, are suited to growing beans; the Luo River, whose waters flow gently and smoothly, is suited to growing grain; the Wei River, with its powerful current, is suited to growing millet; the Han River, steady and calm, is suited to growing bamboo; and the Yangtze, rich and nourishing, is suited to growing rice. The people who live on level land are intelligent, and the land is suited to cultivating all kinds of grain.

The East is where rivers and valleys converge, and where the sun and moon rise. The people there are slender, with small heads, high noses, and large mouths. Their shoulders rise like those of a kite, and they walk on tiptoe. Their sensory openings are linked to the eyes, as is the Qi in their sinews and vessels. Their complexion is bluish green, corresponding to the liver. They grow tall and mature early, but do not live long. Wheat grows well there, and tigers and leopards are plentiful.

The South is a place where Yang Qi gathers, bringing heat and dampness. The people there are tall and slender, with tapered upper bodies, large mouths, and wide-set eyes. Their sensory openings are linked to the ears, as is the Qi in their blood vessels. Their complexion is red, corresponding to the heart. They develop vigorously when young, but are prone to die early. Rice grows well there, and rhinoceros-like creatures known as si in ancient legend, as well as elephants, are plentiful.

In the West, highlands rise up, rivers and valleys begin, and the sun and moon set. The people there have downward-sloping faces, long necks, and a stooping posture as they walk. Their sensory openings are linked to the nose, as are the skin, sinews, and bones. Their complexion is white, corresponding to the lungs. They are brave but lack benevolence. Millet grows well there, and mao, an animal similar to a rhinoceros, are plentiful. The text says that mao is pronounced roughly like “miao,” with a short, brisk sound needed to pronounce it correctly.

The north is dark and obscure. It is where the Yang of Heaven lies concealed, where cold water gathers and winter insects lie dormant. The people there have compact bodies, short necks, broad shoulders, and low-set hips. The body’s openings connect with the genitals, while the bones and sinews are joined together. Black corresponds to the kidneys, so the kidneys predominate here. The text says that the people are slow-witted and know little, yet live as long as birds and beasts. The word chong describes someone dull and ignorant.

The phrase “their speech is muffled, so one must listen closely to understand” means that their words are indistinct and can be understood only by listening carefully. The region is suited to growing beans and produces many dogs and horses. An ancient book says, “The land north of Jizhou is where horses thrive.” This refers to the abundance of horses in the Yan and Dai regions.

At the center, the four directions connect. This is where the vital energies flow and rain and dew gather. People here have broad faces and short chins, and grow good beards, but do not like to be fat. The openings of the mouth, nose, ears, and eyes are clear, and their flesh is firm. Yellow corresponds to the stomach, so people here are predominantly yellow in complexion. They are intelligent and skilled at governing. The region is well suited to growing millet, and has many cattle, sheep, and other livestock.

The Five Phases restrain one another: Wood restrains Earth, Earth restrains Water, Water restrains Fire, Fire restrains Metal, and Metal restrains Wood. Thus, grain grows in spring and withers in autumn. Millet belongs to Wood: when Wood energy is abundant in spring, millet grows; when Metal energy is abundant in autumn, it withers. Beans grow in summer and die in winter. Beans belong to Fire, so they grow when Fire energy is abundant in summer and die when Water energy is abundant in winter. Wheat grows in autumn and dies in summer. It belongs to Metal, so it grows when Metal energy is strong and withers when Fire energy is strong. Shepherd’s purse grows in winter and withers in midsummer. It belongs to Water, so it grows when Water energy is strong and withers when Earth energy is strong.

Each of the Five Phases has its own sequence of waxing and waning. When Wood is at its height, Water declines, Fire is generated, Metal is restrained, and Earth is extinguished. When Fire is at its height, Wood declines, Earth is generated, Water is restrained, and Metal is extinguished. When Earth is at its height, Fire declines, Metal is generated, Wood is restrained, and Water is extinguished. When Metal is at its height, Earth declines, Water is generated, Fire is restrained, and Wood is extinguished. When Water is at its height, Metal declines, Wood is generated, Earth is restrained, and Fire is extinguished.

There are five tones, with the gong tone as the principal one. The five tones are gong, shang, jue, zhi, and yu. Gong lies at the center, and so holds the leading position. There are five colors, with yellow as the principal one; five flavors, with sweetness as the principal one; and five directions, corresponding to the five substances—that is, the Five Phases—with Earth as the principal one.

Thus, regulating Earth can generate Wood; regulating Wood can generate Fire; and regulating Fire can generate clouds. Clouds are generated by Metal energy. Regulating clouds can generate Water, and regulating Water returns to Earth. Regulating sweetness can generate sourness; sourness generates pungency, pungency generates bitterness, bitterness generates saltiness, and saltiness returns to sweetness. Here, “refining” means regulating and processing.

Gong, zhi, shang, yu, and jue also transform in sequence: gong transforms and generates zhi; zhi transforms and generates shang; shang transforms and generates yu; yu transforms and generates jue; and jue transforms back into gong. “Transform” means to change. Thus, Water can be used to harmonize Earth, Earth to harmonize Fire, Fire to transform Metal, and Metal to regulate Wood; Wood ultimately returns to Earth. Only through the mutual restraint and transformation of the Five Phases can the various implements be made; Earth is their root. The Jing also says that the Five Phases must generate one another in order to make the various implements.

Beyond the sea are thirty-six states. From the northwest to the southwest are the Xiugu people, the Tian people, and the Sushen people. “Xiu” means long, and “gu” means leg. Tian and Sushen are both names of states. An ancient book records: “Sushen, Yan, and Hao were all lands in the north of our country.” Here, however, Sushen is placed in the west, perhaps because there was another state in the west also called Sushen. Another explanation says that “su” means respect and “shen” means awe.

There are also the White people, the Wo people, the Women’s people, and the Men’s people. The White people are also called the White-bodied people; their skin and hair are white all over. The Women’s people have no facial hair and all look like women, while the Men’s people all look like men. They wear yellow clothes and hats with belts, and carry swords. These are all states in the west.

The Qigu people, the One-armed people, and the Three-bodied people are also states in the west. “Qi” means single, and “gu” means leg. A commentary says that the One-armed people have only one arm, one hand, and one nose. The Three-bodied people presumably have one head joined to three bodies.

From the southwest to the southeast are the Chest-bound people, the Huantou people, the Naked people, the Sanmiao people, the Cross-legged people, the Immortal people, the Chest-pierced people, and the Reversed-tongue people. Sanmiao is the name of a state, located around Pengli in Yuzhang. The Cross-legged people have feet that cross and join together. The Immortal people are said to eat nothing. The Chest-pierced people have an opening in the chest that passes through from front to back. When the Reversed-tongue people speak, they cannot understand outsiders, but they can understand one another. Another explanation holds that the root of their tongues points forward rather than toward the throat, which is why they are called the “Reversed-tongue people.” These are all states in the south.

The south is also home to the Pig-snouted people, the Chisel-toothed people, the Three-headed people, and the Long-armed people. The Pig-snouted people have mouths like pigs’ snouts. The Chisel-toothed people have a tooth that protrudes from the mouth and is three feet long. The Three-headed people have three heads on one body. The Long-armed people all have arms so long that they exceed their body length. These too are states in the south.

From the southeast to the northeast are the Great people and the Gentlemen people. The southeast belongs to Fire; the ancients believed that Fire enables all things to grow, so the people there are tall. The account of the Gentlemen people was given in the previous chapter.

There are also the Black-toothed people and the Black-thighed people. The Black-toothed people have black teeth and eat rice as well as snakes. They live in Tangshang Valley. The Black-thighed people have black thighs, and two birds accompany them; this account appears in the Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhai Jing). There are also the Hairy people and the Laomin people. Half of each Hairy person’s body is covered in hair, which curls like an arrow. The Laomin people are restless by nature and difficult to keep settled. These are all states in the east.

From the northeast to the northwest are the Heel-raised people and the Gouying people. The Heel-raised people walk without their heels touching the ground, moving on their five toes. “Gouying” is pronounced “Jiuying.” These are states in the north. The north is also home to the Deep-eyed people, the Intestine-less people, and the Rouli people. There are also the One-eyed people, whose eye is in the center of the face, and the Heirless people, who, according to a commentary, presumably have no descendants. These too are states in the north.

Luotang and Wuren both lie in the northwest corner. They are the names of mountains where the sun sets. The bong fish is south of them and resembles a carp. A divine sage travels among the Nine Fields—the vast expanse of heaven and earth in the nine directions—and lives south of the Wujimin, a country in the north. The first character of “bong” is pronounced like the character for “clam.”

Two divine beings stand guard there at night with their arms linked. They serve the Emperor as watchmen through the night, calling out with their arms joined as they patrol. The Three-Pearl Tree lies northeast of them, and a jade tree grows beside the Red River. Mount Kunlun and Mount Huaqiu lie southeast of them, also southeast of the Wujimin. There are leftover jade, blue horses, and “flesh of sight” there—a mythical meat that can regenerate. The local people cannot speak. Fruit trees such as yangtao, ganzha, and ganhua grow there, bearing various strange fruits: those growing on trees are called “fruits,” while those growing on the ground are called “melons.”

Mount Heqiu lies in the northeast corner. A raised, square-shaped place is called a qiu, or mound. Since luan birds sing there and phoenixes dance, it is called Heqiu. It lies in the northeast corner of the Wujimin.

West of Mount Sansang stands a tree without branches, with Kuafu and Dan’er to its north. Dan’er’s ears hang down to his shoulders; “Dan” is pronounced much like the character for “fold.” Another account says that Dan’er supports his ears with both hands and lives in the sea. Kuafu dropped his staff, which turned into Denglin, a peach grove. According to legend, Kuafu was a divine beast. He drank the Yellow River and the Wei River dry but was still thirsty, then set out to drink from the Western Sea and died of thirst on the way. The word ce here means “staff”; since the staff gave rise to a forest, the grove was called Denglin. Deng can also mean “wood.” Another account holds that Kuafu was an immortal.

Mount Kunwu lies in the south. Kunwu was a grandson of Zhurong, ancestor of the state of Chu, and a son of Lüzong; he once served as Xia’s regional lord. Some commentaries on the Book of Songs also link Kunwu with Xia Jie. Mount Xuanyuan lies in the west. “Xuanyuan” was the title of the Yellow Emperor when he ruled the world. Wuxian lies in the north. Legend says he understood the Way of Heaven and could discern good and ill fortune.

On Mount Dengbao are Yanggu and Fusang, both in the east. Yanggu is where the sun rises; Fusang lies northeast of Mount Dengbao. The state of Yousong lies north of Mount Buzhou. Two women live there: the elder sister, Jiandi, and the younger sister, Jianbi. Yousong is the name of a state, while Buzhou is the name of a mountain. “Song” is pronounced much like the character for “lofty.” Legend says the sisters lived on the Jade Terrace and were consorts of Emperor Ku. The Heavenly Emperor sent a black bird down with an egg. Jiandi swallowed it and gave birth to Xie, who was called the Dark King and was an ancestor of the Shang dynasty. The Book of Songs says: “Heaven commanded the dark bird to descend and give birth to Shang.”

The Queen Mother of the West lives beside the shifting sands. The Treatise on Geography records that the stone chamber of the Queen Mother of the West lies beyond the frontier, northwest of Linqiang County in Jincheng Commandery. Lemin and Nalu lie on a sandbank in the Ruoshui River within Mount Kunlun; land in a river on which people can live is called a zhou, or islet. Mount Sanwei lies west of Lemin and is a mountain in the west. Xiaoming and Zhuguang live on a sandbank in the river, and their radiance can illuminate a thousand li in every direction.

The Dragon Gate lies deep within the Yellow River, in the area of Xiayang County in Fengyi Commandery, along the river. Xuanyao and Buzhou are names of waters, though some accounts say Xuanyao is the name of a mountain. Shenchí is a marsh by the sea. “Sea’s edge” refers to lakes and marshes along the coast. Mengzhu Marsh lies in Pei. It is a great marsh in the state of Song, northeast of Suiyang County.

Mount Shaoshi and Mount Taishi lie in Jizhou. They are in Yangcheng and are other names for Mount Songgao. Jizhou was where Yao’s capital was located, and the name was also once used to refer to the whole world.

Zhulong, a divine dragon from ancient myth, lives north of Yanmen, hidden behind Mount Weiyu, so that the sun cannot be seen. It has a human face and a dragon’s body, but no feet. “Hidden” means screened from view or reached; Weiyu is the name of a mountain in the north.

One account says that Zhulong holds a flaming torch in its mouth, lighting dark places. Its body is about a thousand li long: when it opens its eyes, it is day; when it closes them, night. When it blows, it brings winter; when it breathes out, it brings summer.

The tomb of Hou Ji, the legendary god of agriculture, lies west of Jianmu, which stands in Duguang. Duguang is a marshland in the south. According to legend, its mountains and marshes extend across a vast area, about a thousand li. Day and night, winter and summer appear there in response to the transformations of supernatural beings. Hou Ji’s tomb lies west of Jianmu, which stands in Duguang.

“Long” means a burial ground and can also refer to a home. People there can return to life after death, and some even turn into fish and move about in the area around Duguang and Jianmu.

Liuhuang and Womin lie three hundred li north of Duguang, with the Dog Country to their east. In the great marsh of Leize lives a spirit with a dragon’s body and a human head, slapping its belly and playing. “Drumming” means striking or slapping; “playing” means frolicking. The Treatise on Geography records that the Leize named in the Tribute of Yu lies northwest of Chengyang County in Jiyin Commandery, where Yao’s tomb is located.

The Yangtze River rises in the Min Mountains and flows eastward. After crossing the Han River, it empties into the sea. It then turns north, reaching a point north of Mount Kaimu, before turning east again and flowing to the eastern extremity. The Min Mountains lie in western Shu, where the waters run swiftly. “Cross” means to pass over. Kaimu is the name of a mountain in the Eastern Sea.

The Yellow River rises in Mount Jishi. According to legend, its source lies in the Kunlun Mountains, where it runs underground for about three thousand li. Later, Yu the Great cleared and guided its course, and the river emerged from Mount Jishi. The mountain lies southwest of He Guan County in Jincheng Commandery.

The Sui River rises in Mount Jing. Mount Jing belongs to the northern range described in the “Tribute of Yu” and lies south of Huaide County in Zuofengyi. At its foot is Jingpiaoyuan, a marsh in Yongzhou.

The Huai River rises in Mount Tongbai. Another river called the Sui rises in Mount Yu. Mount Tongbai lies in Shangdang.

The Qingzhang River rises in Mount Jieli, and the Zhuozhang River rises in Mount Fabao. Mount Fabao is also called Mount Luku and lies in the area of Changzi in Shangdang. The two Zhang rivers meet, pass through Wei Commandery, and flow into the Qing River.

The Ji River rises in Mount Wangwu, which lies northeast of Yuan County in Hedong. The sources of the Shi, Si, and Yi rivers are Mount Tai, Mount Tai, and Mount Shu, respectively. Shi, Si, and Yi are river names; Tai, Tai, and Shu are mountain names. Their precise locations can no longer be determined.

The Luo River rises in Mount Lie. This mountain lies in the frontier region northwest of Beidi Commandery. The Luo flows southeast and empties into the Wei River. The Book of Songs says, “I gaze toward the Luo, its waters broad and surging.” This is the river it refers to.

The Wen River rises in Mount Fuqi and then joins the Ji River. Mount Fuqi lies east of Zhuxu County in Beihai Commandery.

The Han River rises in Mount Bozhong. This mountain lies on the western border of Hanyang County. From there, the Han flows south into Guanghan, then southeast, joining the Yangtze in Yongzhou.

The Jing River rises in Mount Baoluo. Mount Baoluo is also known as Mount Jitou and lies west of Linjing County in Anding Commandery. The Jing flows southeast from there to Yangling, where it joins the Wei River.

The Wei River rises in the Mountains Where Birds and Rats Share a Hole. These mountains lie southwest of Shouyang in Longxi. The Wei flows east from there and joins the Li River, then flows into the Yellow River. It is a river of Yongzhou.

The Yi River rises in Mount Shangwei. Shangwei is the name of a mountain, but its precise location is no longer known.

The Luo River rises in Mount Xiong’er. This mountain lies northwest of Zhiwei in the capital region.

The Jun River rises in Mount Huaqiao, the Wei River in Mount Fuzhou, and the Fen River in Mount Yanjing. Mount Yanjing lies in Fenyang, Taiyuan, and is the source of the Fen. The Fen flows southwest through the Fenyang area and is an important water source in Jizhou.

The Ren River rises in Mount Fenxiong. The Zi River rises in Mount Muyu; Muyu is the name of a mountain.

The Dan River rises in Mount Gaochu. Mount Gaochu is also called Mount Zhongling and lies in Shangluo, Jingzhao. It is the source of the Dan, which flows east to Jun, where it joins the Mian River.

The Gu River rises in Mount Jiao. The Hao River rises in Mount Xianyu. The Liang River rises in Mount Maolu and Mount Shiliang. Xianyu, Maolu, and Shiliang are all mountain names.

The Ru River rises in Mount Meng. This mountain is also called Mount Gaoling and lies in Dingling County, Runan. The Ru flows southeast from there to Xincai, where it joins the Huai River.

The Qi River rises in Mount Dahao. Mount Dahao lies north of Qiong County in Henei, though some say it is west of Linlü.

The Jin River rises at Jieji in the Long Mountains, and the He River rises in Mount Fengyang. “Jiejiehe” is a place name. The Long Mountains lie northwest of Jinyang. The Jin River flows from there eastward and joins the Fen River. Fengyang is a mountain name.

The Liao River rises in Mount Dishi. This mountain lies beyond the frontier, and the Liao flows south from there into the sea. The Fu River rises in Mount Jing, southwest of Handan. It flows south from there into a marsh and then joins the Zhang River. At its source, the water surges like boiling water in a pot, which is why it is called the “Fu River.” Today it is known as Fukou.

The Qi River rises in Mount Shiqiao. The Huchi River rises in Mount Luping. The Huchi is an important water source in Bingzhou; today it is the Hutu River in Hanchang, Zhongshan.

The Nitu Abyss rises in Mount Man. “Man” is pronounced the same as the “Man” in the surname Man. It flows north and emerges in Yan, eventually emptying into Northern Yan. Here, “north” means beyond the frontier.

Zhuji and Sheti are the names of celestial deities who bring the Tiaofeng, or “Branching Wind.” The Gen trigram corresponds to the Tiaofeng. Tongshi is also a celestial deity; it brings the Mingshufeng, or “Clear and Abundant Wind.” The Zhen trigram corresponds to the Mingshufeng. Chifenruo is the name of a celestial deity who brings the Qingmingfeng, or “Pure and Bright Wind.” The Xun trigram corresponds to the Qingmingfeng. Gonggong is also a celestial deity, with a human face and a snake’s body; it brings the Jingfeng, or “Scenic Wind.” The Li trigram corresponds to the Jingfeng. Zhubi is the name of a celestial deity who brings the Liangfeng, or “Cool Wind.” The Kun trigram corresponds to the Liangfeng. Gaoji is a celestial deity who brings the Changhefeng, or “Gate-Covering Wind.” The Dui trigram corresponds to the Changhefeng. Yuqiang is a celestial deity who brings the Buzhoufeng, or “Unfinished Wind.” The Qian trigram corresponds to the Buzhoufeng.

Qiongqi is the celestial deity in charge of the Guangmofeng, or “Vast and Desolate Wind.” It dwells on the road in the north, riding a rain dragon beneath its feet, and has the form of a tiger. The Kan trigram corresponds to the Guangmofeng.

Humanity’s ancestor was called Tu. Tu gave rise to the Sea People. The Sea People multiplied like fungi and later gave rise to sages. The sages in turn gave rise to ordinary people, and all embodied humans descended from this class of people.

Yujia was the ancestor of flying insects, and Flying Dragons came from Yujia. The Flying Dragons had wings and later gave rise to phoenixes. The phoenixes gave rise to luan birds, which in turn gave rise to the many kinds of ordinary birds. All feathered birds descended from this class.

Maodu was the ancestor of furry beasts. It gave rise to Yinglong, which gave rise to Jianma. Jianma gave rise to qilin, and the qilin then gave rise to the many kinds of ordinary beasts. All furry animals descended from ordinary beasts.

Jielin was the ancestor of scaly creatures, and jiaolong came from it. Jiaolong are dragons covered in scales. They later gave rise to Kun Geng, then to Jianxie, and finally to the many kinds of ordinary fish. All scaly animals descended from ordinary fish.

Jietan was the ancestor of turtles. “Jie” means turtle, and “tan” is pronounced like “Tan.” Jietan gave rise to Xianlong, which gave rise to Xuanyuan. Xuanyuan gave rise to Linggui, which in turn gave rise to the many kinds of ordinary turtles. All shelled animals descended from ordinary turtles.

Warmth and dampness gave rise to Rong. Warmth and dampness were also called Maofeng. Maofeng gave rise to Shixuan, Shixuan to Yufeng, Yufeng to Nuanjie, and Nuanjie to Linbao; Linbao in turn gave rise to Nuanjie. These categories intermixed, forming many kinds of living creatures, which multiplied from generation to generation according to similarities in appearance. “Xiao” means “resembling.”

Yuefeng was the ancestor of trees. It gave rise to Yang’e, which gave rise to Qiaoru. Qiaoru gave rise to Ganmu, which in turn gave rise to the many kinds of ordinary trees. All trees with roots, branches, and trunks descended from this class.

Genba was the ancestor of grasses, referring to the earliest grass to take root. Genba gave rise to Chengruo, which gave rise to Xuanyu. Xuanyu gave rise to Liquan, Liquan to Huanggu, and Huanggu in turn to the many kinds of ordinary grasses. All grasses with roots descended from ordinary grasses.

Hailü was the ancestor of floating plants. It gave rise to Qulong.

The roaming dragon is the hong. The poem says, “In the yang there is a roaming dragon,” but here the character “roaming” should be “bending”; it is a textual corruption. The bending dragon gives rise to ronghua, the flower of the lotus. Ronghua gives rise to piao, a rootless aquatic plant that floats on the water. Piao then gives rise to duckweed and algae, which in turn give rise to floating grasses. All grasses that float and grow without roots or stems arise from duckweed and algae.

The vital energy of the central Earth phase moves within the Dusty Heaven. After five hundred years, the Dusty Heaven gives rise to “que”; after another five hundred years, que gives rise to yellow dust. After five hundred years, the yellow dust gives rise to yellow hong, and after a further five hundred years, the yellow hong gives rise to gold. Here, “gold” is the name of a stone, and “hong” refers to mercury. The center belongs to Earth, whose number is five, so transformation occurs every five hundred years. After a thousand years, gold gives rise to a yellow dragon. The yellow dragon enters the earth and transforms into the Yellow Spring. The dusty vapor of the Yellow Spring rises into the sky and becomes yellow clouds. When Yin and Yang energies clash, they form thunder; when they surge and spread, they form lightning. The energy that rises to the heights descends, and flowing waters gather and run together, eventually converging in the Yellow Sea, the sea at the center.

The vital energy of the peripheral Earth phase, generated by the eastern Wood phase, moves within the Clear Heaven. After eight hundred years, the Clear Heaven gives rise to qingzeng; after another eight hundred years, qingzeng gives rise to green hong. After eight hundred years, the green hong gives rise to green metal, and after a further eight hundred years, green metal gives rise to a green dragon. The East belongs to Wood, its color is green, and its number is eight, so transformation occurs every eight hundred years. The green dragon enters the earth and transforms into the Clear Spring. The dusty vapor of the Clear Spring rises into the sky and becomes green clouds. When Yin and Yang energies clash, they form cloud and thunder; when they surge and spread, they form lightning. The energy that rises to the heights descends, and flowing waters gather and run together.

A clear spring emerges from within the storehouse. Its fine water vapor rises into the sky and forms azure clouds. When Yin and Yang energies press toward one another, clouds and thunder take shape; their force surges and produces lightning. The water vapor that has risen above then flows downward. As the streams gather and run freely, they ultimately flow into the Azure Sea, the sea to the east.

The energy of robust earth moves through the red heavens. After seven hundred years, the red heavens produce red cinnabar; after another seven hundred years, the cinnabar produces red mercury; and after a further seven hundred years, the red mercury produces red gold. The south belongs to Fire, its color is red, and its number is seven, so the kinds of things undergo a transformation every seven hundred years. After a thousand years, red gold produces a red dragon. The red dragon enters the storehouse and gives rise to a red spring. Fine water vapor from the red spring rises and forms red clouds. When Yin and Yang press toward one another, thunder forms; their force surges and produces lightning. The water vapor that has risen above then flows downward. As the streams gather and run freely, they ultimately flow into the Red Sea, the sea to the south.

The energy of yielding earth moves through the white heavens. After nine hundred years, the white heavens produce white arsenolite, a white mineral; after another nine hundred years, the white arsenolite produces white mercury; and after a further nine hundred years, the white mercury produces white gold. White gold and white arsenolite both belong to the class of arsenolite minerals; white mercury is quicksilver. The west belongs to Metal, its color is white, and its number is nine, so the kinds of things undergo a transformation every nine hundred years. After a thousand years, white gold produces a white dragon. The white dragon enters the storehouse and gives rise to a white spring. Fine water vapor from the white spring rises and forms white clouds. When Yin and Yang press toward one another, thunder forms; their force surges and produces lightning. The water vapor that has risen above then flows downward. As the streams gather and run freely, they ultimately flow into the White Sea, the sea to the west.

The energy of yin earth is concealed underground and gives rise to a white spring. Fine water vapor from the white spring rises and forms white clouds. When Yin and Yang press toward one another, thunder forms; their force surges and produces lightning. The water vapor that has risen above then flows downward. As the streams gather and run freely, they ultimately flow into the White Sea, the sea to the west.

The energy of yin earth moves through the dark heavens. After six hundred years, the dark heavens produce dark stone, a black rock; after another six hundred years, the dark stone produces dark mercury; and after a further six hundred years, the dark mercury produces dark gold. The north belongs to Water, its color is black, and its number is six, so the kinds of things undergo a transformation every six hundred years. After a thousand years, dark gold produces a dark dragon. The dark dragon enters the storehouse and gives rise to a dark spring. Fine water vapor from the dark spring rises and forms dark clouds. When Yin and Yang press toward one another, thunder forms; their force surges and produces lightning. The water vapor that has risen above then flows downward. As the streams gather and run freely, they ultimately flow into the Dark Sea, the sea to the north.

The phrase “what rises then descends again” means that after the energy of Heaven rises above, it flows back down to the ground. The water that forms and moves in each place ultimately gathers in the sea.

The commentary on Volume Eight of Huainan Honglie Jie concludes here.

The notes explain that the original character transcribed as “ge” was a mistaken writing of “hua”; it has been corrected on the basis of the Jijie edition. The missing character was originally “shu,” also restored from the Jijie edition. The phrase “shu yu” should be corrected to “yu shu,” again following the Jijie edition.

Huainan Honglie Jie, Volume Nine

Recorded by Xu Shen, Court Grand Commandant and libationer, Part One

“Seasonal Ordinances,” Part One

“Ze” means a rule or principle. “Seasonal Ordinances” refers to the regular principles governing the four seasons, cold and heat, and the course of each of the twelve months. This is why the chapter bears that title. It is divided into two parts.

In early spring, the handle of the Northern Dipper points toward the position of Yin. Here, “Zhaoyao” refers to the Dipper’s handle. At dusk, the Shen constellation, one of the seven lodges of the White Tiger in the west, stands at the southern meridian. Before dawn, the Wei constellation, one of the seven lodges of the Azure Dragon in the east, stands at the southern meridian.

Early spring belongs to the east and corresponds to the Heavenly Stems Jia and Yi; its flourishing virtue is Wood. Taihao, the legendary deity of the east, governs that direction. Jia and Yi belong to Wood, which flourishes in the east. The east corresponds to Lesser Yang, when all things begin to emerge from deep concealment. The Qi of Wood spreads outward and transforms into scaly creatures, of which the dragon is the foremost. The sound corresponding to the east is the Jue tone, which also belongs to Wood.

The pitch pipe for early spring sounds Taicu, one of the twelve ancient pitches. As Yin Qi declines and Yang Qi begins to grow, all things sprout in clusters from the earth; this is why the pitch is called “Taicu.” In the numerical correspondences of the Five Phases, its number is eight. Wood’s flavor is sour; sourness has a penetrating quality, describing how all things push up through the soil. Wood’s odor is called rank. At this time, people make offerings to the household spirits, first offering to the spleen. Dormant creatures begin to stir, and life passes in and out through the doorway, which is why the household spirits are worshipped. The spleen belongs to Earth. During the offering, the ritual vessels are set out and the spleen meat is placed in front. Another account holds that the spleen belongs to Wood, making it an offering to the corresponding organ.

The east wind blows, the frozen earth thaws, and dormant insects begin to awaken and move about. Responding to Yang Qi, fish swim near the surface of the ice. After catching fish, otters lay them out along the bank, as if making an offering. Migratory geese begin flying north. Setting out from the Pengli region, they pass through the Zhou and Luo areas and fly to Hanzhong to breed and lay eggs.

The Son of Heaven wears green, rides in a chariot adorned with an Azure Dragon, wears pale green jade, and raises a green banner. His food is wheat and mutton. Wheat and sheep correspond respectively to Metal and Earth among the Five Phases; according to the seasonal principle, one should eat what the season overcomes. The Son of Heaven also drinks dew brought by the winds from the eight directions, and uses a wooden fire drill to kindle a fire for cooking.

The women attendants of the Eastern Palace wear green and play the qin and se. Spring belongs to Wood and governs the east, and the qin and se also belong to Wood. The weapon is the spear, symbolizing how all things pierce sharply up through the ground. The sacrificial animal is a sheep, because sheep belong to Earth, and Earth gives birth to Wood.

On the first day of the first lunar month, the Son of Heaven receives his ministers in the Left Wing of Qingyang Hall, a chamber on the north side of the eastern court, and issues the springtime orders. The spring orders should be generous and gentle: extend benevolence, grant favors, reward those who have performed meritorious service, reduce compulsory labor, and lighten taxes.

On the day of the Beginning of Spring, the Son of Heaven personally leads the Three Dukes, the Nine Ministers, and the senior officials to the eastern outskirts to welcome the new spring. He then prepares the sacrificial grounds and sets out jade and silk, praying to the spirits for good fortune. He offers an official sacrificial animal as a sign of purity and reverence. Since trees are growing in spring, felling them is forbidden. Destroying birds’ nests, killing pregnant animals or young beasts, and taking birds’ eggs are also forbidden, so that all things may multiply and thrive. Large groups of laborers must not be assembled to build city walls, lest farming be disrupted. Exposed human remains should also be buried, and the stirrings of life protected.

If the orders for summer are carried out in early spring, wind and rain will become irregular, plants and trees will wither too soon, and troubling events will arise in the state. If the orders for autumn are carried out, the people will suffer a severe epidemic, violent winds and storms will follow one another, and weeds such as pigweed, barnyard grass, and mugwort will grow all at once. If the orders for winter are carried out, floods will cause disaster, frost and heavy hail will fall, and crops will fail to ripen and be harvested.

The Director of Works, an official responsible for land and construction, oversees the first lunar month. The representative tree for this month is the poplar, also called the pu willow. Since poplars grow vigorously in spring, they are associated with early spring.

In mid-spring, the second month, the handle of the Northern Dipper points toward the Mao position. At dusk, the Bow Star stands in the center of the southern sky; at dawn, the Jian Star stands there. The Bow Star lies south of the Yugu Ghost constellation, while the Jian Star is above the Dipper constellation.

Mid-spring corresponds to the east, the Heavenly Stems Jia and Yi, scaled animals, the musical note Jue, and the pitch pipe Jiazhong. In this month, all things shed Yin Qi and receive Yang Qi. They gather on the earth and sprout and grow, which is why the month is called Jiazhong. Its associated number is eight, its flavor is sour, and its odor is rank. The household deity is worshipped, with the spleen offered first.

Rain begins this month, and peach and plum trees begin to flower. The ice and snow that have accumulated since winter gradually melt around the spring equinox and Grain Rain, hence the saying that rain begins. Peach and plum trees also flower at this time. Orioles begin to sing, and hawks transform into cuckoos. The oriole is also called Shang Geng, Li Huang, or Chu Sparrow. In Qi it is called Bo Shu; in Qin, Huang Liu Li; and in Youzhou and Jizhou, Huang Bird. Another account calls it Zhuo Mu and says it begins singing only in this month. The saying “hawks transform into doves” means that the hawk’s beak becomes straight and it no longer hunts fiercely. The “dove” here refers to the cuckoo.

The Son of Heaven wears green, rides in a green carriage, wears green jade, and raises a green banner. He eats wheat and mutton, drinks a beverage prepared with water from the eight directions, and kindles fire with flint. The women serving in the Eastern Palace wear green. The instruments are the qin and se zithers, the weapon is the spear, and sheep are the principal livestock. The Son of Heaven holds court at the Great Temple of Qingyang. This temple is a hall facing east, with a chamber at its center.

The court orders the relevant officials to inspect the prisons, release prisoners from their leg irons and handcuffs, refrain from beating or torturing them, and halt legal proceedings. “Inspecting the prisons” means visiting and examining them, and also carries the sense of pardoning minor offenses. Zhi means leg irons, and gao means handcuffs; zhi here means to prohibit. The court also provides for young children, cares for orphans and elderly people without children, and allows plants to put forth tender shoots in accord with the spring Qi. A child without a father is called an orphan; an elderly person without a son is called du. Caring for them helps accord with and protect spring’s life-giving Yang Qi.

An auspicious day is chosen, and the people are ordered to worship the earth deity and pray for blessings on the community. Yuan means the finest and most excellent, so a favorable day must be selected for the ceremony.

In this month, day and night are equal in length. Thunder begins, and all hibernating creatures awaken and stir. In winter, Yin Qi is sealed away and thunder lies dormant, unheard. By mid-spring, Yang Qi rises and thunder begins to sound. Three days before the thunder, a wooden clapper bell is shaken to warn the people: “Thunder is about to sound.” The duo is a bronze bell with a wooden clapper, used to issue public announcements. People are cautioned to mind their conduct: if they ignore the prohibitions, their children may be born with physical deformities or suffer calamity. If a couple has intercourse amid thunder and lightning, their child may have conditions such as muteness, deafness, mental disturbance, or madness.

The government offices and markets are ordered to standardize measures and weights: lengths, capacities, and weights must all be consistent; the measuring vessels and scales must be calibrated, and the weights and measures made accurate and even. Du refers to measures of length, such as the zhang and chi; liang refers to units of capacity, such as the fu and zhong. Shi is a unit of weight, equal to 120 jin.

Rivers and lakes must not be drained, ponds must not be fished clean, and forests must not be burned, so that living things are not harmed and species are not wiped out. Major projects that interfere with farming must not be undertaken, especially wars and military campaigns.

At sacrifices, animals are not used. Instead, ritual tablets, jade discs, leather, and silk are offered. Since mid-spring is a time for growth and reproduction, livestock should not be killed. The leather usually means deer hide, and the silk offerings are bundles of black or pale red silk. In ancient ritual, these objects were also used to make offerings to ancestors.

If the autumn season’s policies are carried out in mid-spring, the state will face great floods, a sudden onset of cold, and invasion by external enemies. If the winter season’s policies are carried out, Yin Qi will overwhelm Yang Qi, the wheat will fail to ripen, and people will be more likely to harm one another. If the summer season’s policies are carried out, the state will suffer a severe drought, warmth will arrive too early, and caterpillars will damage the crops. The caterpillars referred to here bore into the hearts of plants.

In the second month, government granaries are established and apricot trees are planted. Since farming begins and grain is sown at this time, granaries are set up. The apricot pit has a hole in its center, which the ancients believed symbolized Yin Qi spreading above; the apricot tree is therefore associated with this month.

The seasonal hazard associated with the last month of spring is the borer worm eating into the hearts of grain plants. The seasonal office for the second month is the Official Granary, and its representative tree is the apricot. Farming begins in the second month, when grain is sown, so it is called the Official Granary. There is a hole at the center of an apricot kernel, symbolizing Yin Qi spreading above; for this reason, the apricot was chosen as its representative.

In the last month of spring, the Zhaoyao star points toward the Chen position. At dusk, the Seven Stars stand in the center of the sky; at dawn, the Ox star stands in the center. The Seven Stars belong to the Vermilion Bird constellation of the south and occupy the southern center at dusk this month. The Ox belongs to the Black Tortoise constellation of the north and occupies the southern center at dawn.

This month corresponds to the east, the Heavenly Stems Jia and Yi, scaly creatures, and the Jue note among the five musical notes. Its pitch is Guxi. Gu means “old,” while xi means “renewal.” At this time, Yang Qi nurtures life, and all things cast off the old and bring forth the new, which is why the pitch is called Guxi. Its number is eight, its flavor is sour, and its odor is rank. The household god is offered a sacrifice, with the spleen presented first. The paulownia begins to flower, and field mice turn into quail. “Field mouse” refers to animals such as the mole rat; quail are known by different names in different regions. The rainbow begins to appear, and duckweed begins to grow. The rainbow is also called the “rainbow arc,” while duckweed is an aquatic plant that begins growing this month.

The Son of Heaven wears green clothing, rides in a green carriage, wears green jade, and raises a green banner. He eats wheat and mutton, drinks a beverage prepared with water from the eight directions, and uses a twig of the bush clover to drill wood and make fire. The women attendants of the Eastern Palace wear green garments and ornaments, and play the zither and se. The spear is the representative weapon, and the sheep is the representative domestic animal. The Son of Heaven holds court in the right chamber of the Green Yang Hall. Green Yang is the eastern audience hall, and the right chamber is the room at its southern end.

The official in charge of boats must inspect them repeatedly, turning each over five times in each direction. Once he has confirmed that they are sound, he presents them to the Son of Heaven. This month the Son of Heaven will take a boat to fish, so the vessels must be examined carefully to prevent leaks. The Son of Heaven begins to travel by boat and offers a large fish, resembling a carp, to the ancestral temple. Afterward, he prays for a good wheat harvest. The ancestral temple is where ancestors are worshiped: the front section is called the temple, and the rear section the chamber. The fish is offered to the ancestors, along with prayers for full ears of wheat.

This month, life flourishes and Yang Qi spreads outward. Curving branches have all grown out, and buds have unfolded and begun to grow; they should not be held back or pressed down. The Son of Heaven orders the officials in charge to open the granaries and provide relief to the poor and those short of food. Those without property are called poor; widowers, widows, orphans, and the childless elderly are called destitute. Relief means aid. The treasuries are also to be opened and money and silk taken out. Envoys are sent to the feudal lords to invite people of renown and honor the worthy, so that they may help govern the state.

The Son of Heaven orders the Minister of Works, who oversees water and land projects, to inspect the regions. Rain is about to fall, and groundwater is rising. He must survey the capital and towns, examine the plains and countryside, repair embankments, clear canals, and maintain roads, inspecting everything from the capital to the borders. This is to prevent standing water from flooding and damaging the crops.

Hunting and bird-catching have come to an end. Nets and poisons must not be taken out through the nine eastern gates. The bi is a net for catching birds, and the yi is an arrow with a cord, used to shoot them. The ju is a rabbit net, and the fu is a net for catching beasts. The Son of Heaven’s city has twelve gates. The three eastern gates are where royal Qi resides, so poisons used to kill wild animals must not be taken through them. The other nine gates may be used, and this rule is set down to protect the growth of all things in spring. Officials in charge of the forests are also forbidden to cut down mulberry and paper mulberry trees, which are used to raise silkworms; the people are likewise prohibited from felling them.

The cooing dove flaps its wings, and the hoopoe flies down to the mulberry trees. The cooing dove is a bird that beats its wings and shoots straight up into the clouds; the hoopoe is also called the zai-ren. The tools for gathering mulberry leaves must be prepared: the pu is a hand-held implement, the qu is a shallow basket, the ju is a round-bottomed basket, and the kuang is a square-bottomed basket. All are used to hold mulberry leaves.

After fasting, the queen faces east and picks mulberry leaves herself. She also inspects the women’s work and encourages sericulture. The Son of Heaven orders the officials of the five storehouses to inspect the metal, leather, sinew and horn for bowstrings, arrow shafts, oil, glue, and vermilion lacquer made by the artisans, ensuring that none is defective. An auspicious day in the latter part of the month is chosen for a grand performance of music and dance, to bring joy and harmony. Music can transform customs, so an auspicious day is selected for the performance to strengthen concord.

Next, bulls and stallions skilled at leading herds of horses are brought together with females in the pastures for breeding. An exorcistic Nuo rite is held throughout the state, and dogs are dismembered at the nine gates in a rite to avert calamity, expelling all the malign Yin influences of spring. Nuo is a ceremony for driving away plague spirits: people beat drums and shout in the dark corners of palaces and chambers to banish ill fortune. The dismemberment of dogs is a sacrificial rite. If the season’s affairs are carried out in accordance with the proper order this month, sweet rain will fall within thirty days.

If the last month of spring is governed by the policies of winter, cold will strike from time to time, plants and trees will wither, and a great disaster will befall the state. If it is governed by the policies of summer, the people will be prone to epidemic illness, rain will not fall, and the vegetation on the hills and mountains will fail to grow and ripen. If it is governed by the policies of autumn, the sky will often be overcast, prolonged rains will arrive early, and wars will break out in succession. Autumn corresponds to Metal, and Metal generates Water, so imposing autumn’s order in spring brings more rain and overcast weather. Metal also symbolizes weapons, which is why warfare breaks out as well.

The seasonal office for the third month is the Official District, and its representative tree is the plum. The people’s household registrations are counted in the third month, which is why it is called the Official District. The plum kernel also has a seed, with a symbolic meaning like that of the apricot. Plum fruit ripens later, so the plum is associated with the third month.

In the fourth month of early summer, the Dipper’s star Zhaoyao points toward the Si position. At dusk, the Yi mansion, one of the seven mansions of the Vermilion Bird in the south, is directly overhead in the south. At dawn, the Wu Nü mansion, also called Xu Nü and one of the seven mansions of the Black Tortoise in the north, lies in the south.

This month belongs to the south. Its heavenly stems are Bing and Ding, its flourishing virtue is Fire, and it is governed by the Flame Emperor of the south. Bing and Ding belong to Fire, whose Qi is strongest in the south. The corresponding creatures are feathered animals, and its musical tone is zhi, one of the Five Tones, associated with Fire. Yang Qi is flourishing and in command, and scaled creatures also begin to stir. The phoenix is the leader of the feathered animals. The pitch pipe for this month corresponds to Zhonglü, whose number is seven: five is the generating number, and since Fire ranks second, its completing number is seven. This month, Yang Qi spreads outward while Yin Qi gathers within; Yang Qi extends itself and brings things to completion, which is why the pitch is called Zhonglü. Fire tastes bitter and smells scorched. The Kitchen God is offered a sacrifice, beginning with zhi meat, sacrificial flesh. Zhurong Wu Hui once served as the Fire Officer under Gaoxin and was revered as a fire deity after his death, with an altar dedicated to him at the stove. Since Fire Qi is strong this month, the Kitchen God is sacrificed to. Zhi means meat used in ritual offerings; another explanation is that the offering comes from an organ corresponding to Fire.

Mole crickets and frogs begin to call, and earthworms emerge from the ground. In the fourth month, Yin Qi begins to stir beneath the earth, so these creatures call at their appointed season. Wanggua, a kind of trichosanthes, grows, and bitter greens flower.

The Son of Heaven wears red, rides a red steed, wears red jade, and raises a red banner, thereby responding to the virtue of Fire. He eats beans with their skins and chicken. He uses water gathered from the eight directions and kindles fire with mulberry wood. He resides in the Southern Palace, where his attendants wear red and play the yu and sheng mouth organs. The south belongs to Fire, which is why he resides in the Southern Palace. The yu and sheng are hollow, symbolizing Yang Qi. The weapon is the halberd, with its prongs and long shaft symbolizing Yang Qi spreading outward; some editions instead say crossbow. Chickens are kept because they are feathered animals and belong to Yang. The Son of Heaven conducts government in the eastern room on the left side of the Bright Hall and issues the ordinances for summer. The Bright Hall faces south, symbolizing Yang Qi at its height; the room on the left is on the east side.

On the day Beginning of Summer, the Son of Heaven personally leads the Three Dukes, the Nine Ministers, and the senior officials to the southern suburb to welcome summer. The southern suburb lies seven li beyond the capital. On returning, he rewards those who have rendered service, enfeoffs the feudal lords, puts ritual and music in order, and hosts a banquet for his attendants and close ministers. Rewards and enfeoffments recognize merit. Clarifying ritual and music is intended to secure the ruler’s authority, govern the people, and transform customs. An ancient text says that rewards are given in spring and summer, while punishments are imposed in autumn and winter.

The Son of Heaven orders the Grand Commandant to recommend outstanding talent, select worthy and capable people, and put forward those who are filial and affectionate toward their siblings. The Grand Commandant is a court official; “outstanding talent” means someone whose abilities surpass those of ordinary people. Titles and stipends are granted to help Heaven nourish all things, promote their growth, and keep them from harm. No construction projects are to be undertaken, and no large trees are to be felled. Officials in charge of mountains, forests, fields, and marshes are ordered to inspect the countryside, urge on farm work, and drive away wild animals and livestock so they do not damage the crops.

The Son of Heaven tastes the new wheat with pork and first presents it to the palace shrine and ancestral temple. Wheat begins to ripen this month, so pork is paired with the new wheat for the first taste of the harvest; pigs belong to Water and are suitable to pair with wheat. Presenting it first at the palace shrine and ancestral temple expresses filial respect. Medicinal plants of every kind are gathered and stored. When the milucao, small plants such as tingli, wither, Yang Qi has reached its height and the medicinal herbs have grown, making this the right time to collect them. Once the wheat harvest season arrives, cases involving minor offenses are reviewed and decided.

Impose the penalties for minor offenses, and carry out mild punishments. In the fourth month, Yang Qi is strong above; by the fifth month, Yin Qi begins to rise from below. That is why people say, “The wheat harvest has come.” At this time, minor cases should be tried and mild punishments imposed. “Killing Qi” refers to the force of decline that makes plants wither; even plants such as tingli are affected by it.

If the ordinances of autumn are carried out in early summer, harmful rains will fall frequently. Crops will receive no nourishment, and people from the four quarters will take refuge within the city walls to protect themselves. Early summer is when Yang Qi is vigorous, and all things should be helped to grow. Yet the ordinances being carried out carry the Metal Qi of autumn and its force of decline. As a result, bitter rains damage the crops and prevent them from growing.

If the ordinances of winter are carried out, plants will wither prematurely, and great floods will later destroy the city walls. This happens because the ordinances of winter, with their cold and dormant character, have been put into effect. When the seasons are thrown into disorder and their natural rhythms are violated, the corresponding disasters follow.

If the ordinances of spring are carried out, pests such as borers and locusts will cause damage, violent winds will arrive, and plants that are putting out ears will fail to bear seed. In early summer, growth should continue to advance, with Yang Qi nourishing all things. But the ordinances of spring, which urge things to sprout and begin growing, have been put into effect instead, bringing pestilence in their wake. Spring corresponds to Wood, whose Qi is associated with strong winds; these winds hinder plants that are putting out ears from growing and bearing seed.

In the fourth month, officials should urge farmers to attend to their work. This is also the time to plant peach trees. The peach mentioned here is described in the same way as the apricot; peaches ripen later than plums, which is why they are called “fourth-month peaches.”

In midsummer, the star Zhaoyao in the Northern Dipper points toward the Wu direction, due south. At dusk, the Horn mansion, one of the seven mansions of the Azure Dragon in the east, stands at the center of the sky; at dawn, the Roof mansion, one of the seven mansions of the Black Tortoise in the north, stands at the center of the sky.

In midsummer, the Northern Dipper’s handle points to the star Zhaoyao, which is in the position of Wu. At dusk, the Horn Mansion, one of the seven lodges of the Azure Dragon in the east, stands due south; at dawn, the Rooftop Mansion, one of the seven lodges of the Black Tortoise in the north, stands due south.

This month corresponds to the south, the days of Bing and Ding, feathered creatures, the zhi tone, and the Ruilü pitch standard; its number is seven. Yin energy is now weak and remains below, like a host, while Yang energy occupies the upper position, like a guest. This is why it is called “settling the guest.” The Five Phases associate this month with the flavor bitter and the odor scorched. The Kitchen God is worshipped, with the lungs offered first.

When Minor Heat arrives, praying mantises are born. The mantis is also called the “Heavenly Horse” or “Toothed Wart”; in the regions of Yan and Yu, it is called the “Great Axe.” The shrike begins to call, while the warbler stops calling. The shrike is also known as the hundred-labor bird. According to legend, it responds to Yin energy and calls at the summer solstice, and catches snakes in trees. An ancient book says that the Bo Zhao clan was in charge of the summer solstice. The warbler is also called the many-tongued bird. It can vary its tongue and calls, imitating the cries of different birds, which is how it got its name. In the fifth month, Yang energy rises to its height, while a faint trace of Yin energy begins to emerge below. The many-tongued bird falls silent because Yin energy is still too scarce.

The Son of Heaven wears red, rides a red steed, wears red jade, and has a red banner mounted on his chariot. His food includes beans and chicken. He bathes with water drawn from the eight directions and uses mulberry wood to make fire. The attendants of the Southern Palace wear red robes and ornaments and play the yu and sheng mouth organs. The weapon is the halberd, and the chicken represents domestic livestock. The Son of Heaven holds court in the Grand Ancestral Hall of the Bright Hall. Here, “temple” refers to the central room of a hall facing south.

The Son of Heaven orders the music officials to repair the taogu and taipi drums, the zither, the se zither, the guan pipes, and the xiao flutes; tune the yu and chi flutes; and decorate the bells and stone chimes. The guan is a single-pipe instrument shaped like a flute; the xiao is a singing flute. Chi is pronounced like “chi” in “chili.” In the dance, performers hold the gan, qi, ge, and feather ornaments: the gan is a shield, the qi an axe, and the feathers are decorations carried by the dancers.

The Son of Heaven orders the officials in charge to lead the people in making offerings to mountains, rivers, and other sources of water, and to hold a grand Yu rainmaking ritual to pray for rain. Every mountain, river, and source of water capable of raising clouds and bringing rain must receive offerings. Yu is a ritual performed during drought. In this case, the people make offerings to the Supreme Lord to ask for rain, and so they perform grand music and dances: the ancient music and dances of the Six Dynasties.

The Son of Heaven performs the first tasting of the new harvest with pheasant and millet. The classic specifically mentions tasting millet because grains are the principal offerings. Cherries are also presented, first brought into the ancestral temple for worship. Cherries are called “yellow-oriole fruit,” since orioles are said to enjoy eating them. They ripen in the fifth month, so they are presented as offerings then.

This month, the people are forbidden to cut indigo plants for dyeing cloth, because the plants have not yet matured. They must also not burn plants to make ash, so as not to harm vegetation that has not yet grown fully. Cloth should not be left to bake in the blazing sun; excessive heat can make it brittle and damage it. City gates and neighborhood gates are left open, and no taxes or goods are demanded at checkpoints or markets. At this time, the people should follow the rising Yang energy by being active outdoors and coming and going freely. Punishments for prisoners serving long sentences are reduced, and their food rations increased. Care is given to widowers and widows, and aid to families left without support because their forebears died in service.

Pregnant mares are separated from the other horses, and stallions that leap about are restrained. Regulations for raising horses are issued. By this time, the mares are well into pregnancy. To prevent the stallions from injuring the unborn foals as they leap about, they are separated and restrained. According to the Rites of Zhou, a horse less than five chi tall is called a foal.

At the summer solstice, the day is at its shortest, according to the seasonal account of the waxing and waning of Yin and Yang. Yin and Yang contend, and the boundary between life and death becomes apparent. A gentleman should fast and act with care, avoid impatience, moderate his enjoyment of music and beauty, and eat lightly. The officials should conduct their work quietly and avoid shortcuts in all matters; they should first seek instructions, then carry things through carefully, in accord with the Yin energy that is beginning to take shape. Here, “late Yin” refers to the faint Yin energy newly emerging.

Deer shed their antlers, and cicadas begin to call. At the summer solstice, deer lose their antlers, and cicadas vibrate their wings to make a sound. Pinellia grows, and hibiscus blooms. Pinellia is a medicinal herb. Hibiscus flowers in the morning and withers by evening; the plant grows about five or six chi tall, and its leaves resemble those of a pomegranate. Since hibiscus blooms this month, it can be used as an offering. Around Luoyang, it is called “morning-blooming.” An ancient poem also uses “a face like the hibiscus flower” to describe beauty.

The people are forbidden to light fires. They may climb to high places, trees, hills, and terraces to look into the distance. A raised platform built of earth on all four sides is called a tai; when a building stands on it, it is called a xie. This follows the season, when Yang energy is bright and flourishing. Some also say that people climb to high places to observe the clouds and heavenly signs and judge good or ill fortune.

If winter policies are carried out in midsummer, hail and sleet will fall, crops will be damaged, roads will become impassable, and troops will suddenly invade. Winter energy is closed and stored and brings abundant rain and water, which can cause roads to collapse. The cold and frost associated with winter policies also harm crops. If spring policies are carried out, the five grains will fail to ripen, various pests will appear at irregular times, and the state will suffer famine. Spring policies urge plants to grow, delaying the ripening of the grains; locusts and other pests can also damage the crops. If autumn policies are carried out, plants will wither, fruit will ripen too early, and the people will suffer epidemics. Autumn policies govern ripening, so putting them into effect in midsummer causes plants to wither and fruit to ripen prematurely. When the seasons fall out of order, illness is also more likely to spread.

In the fifth month, the officials in charge assist the ruler, and elm trees are planted. Yang energy is growing and nourishing all things, so the officials’ duty is to assist in governing. The ancient commentary does not explain why elm trees are planted specifically at this time.

In the last month of summer, the handle of the Northern Dipper points toward the Wei direction. At dusk, the Heart mansion lies at the center of the sky. The climate at this time of year can make the people susceptible to epidemics. In the fifth month, the office of “Assistant Minister” is established, and elm trees are planted. Yang energy is growing and nourishing all things, so an Assistant Minister is appointed to help govern affairs. “Assistant” means one who provides support. The ancient commentary says that the reason elm trees are associated with this season has not yet been determined.

In the last month of summer, the handle of the Northern Dipper points toward the Wei direction. At dusk, the Heart mansion, one of the seven mansions of the Azure Dragon in the east, lies at the center of the southern sky; at dawn, the Kui mansion, one of the seven mansions of the White Tiger in the west, lies at the center of the southern sky. In the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water), late summer belongs to Earth, which occupies the center and corresponds to the days of Wu and Ji. The Virtue of Earth is in command, and the spirit of the Yellow Emperor governs the center. Wu and Ji are Earth days, and Earth occupies the center. The creature category associated with Earth is the “scaled and shelled creatures,” which correspond to the gong tone. The ancient commentary explains that these are one of the five classes of creatures and says they stand at the head of all creatures. Gong belongs to Earth and occupies the center; it is also the chief tone among the five musical tones.

The pitch pipe for this month corresponds to Linzhong. The ancient commentary calls it “Hundred Bells” and says its number is five. “Hundred Bells” refers to Linzhong: at this time, Yang energy is flourishing and Yin energy is beginning to arise, while all things grow and reproduce, hence the name. Five is the ordinal number of Earth among the Five Phases. Earth’s flavor is sweet, and its scent is fragrant. Sacrifices are performed at the center of the interior, to the Lord of Earth. Since Earth is in command, offerings are made at the central chamber of the house, in other words, the indoor place of sacrifice. The heart is offered first. One explanation is that the heart belongs to Fire, and the offering is directed to what Fire overcomes; another is that the heart also belongs to Earth, so it is the organ corresponding to Earth.

Cool breezes begin to blow, and crickets take shelter in the corners or deeper parts of houses. Crickets are also called qinglie and quzhi. The ancient commentary cites the Book of Odes, “In the seventh month, they are in the fields,” and says that by this time the crickets have already entered the house, though this does not fully accord with the text. Hawks begin practicing their strikes, and decayed grass turns into the qian insect, which the ancient commentary says is called “Qinqu” in the regions of Youzhou and Jizhou.

The Son of Heaven wears earth-yellow clothing, rides in a carriage drawn by yellow horses, wears yellow jade ornaments, and raises a yellow banner, in keeping with Earth’s color. He eats millet and beef, since both millet and cattle belong to Earth. Water from the Eight Winds is used, and fire is kindled with mulberry wood. The women serving in the central palace wear yellow garments. The weapon used is the sword. Late summer occupies the center, and a sword has two edges. One explanation says this symbolizes that there is no place from which things can sprout; another says that the center governs the four directions, and there is nowhere beyond its jurisdiction. The sacrificial animal for this month is the ox, and the Son of Heaven goes to pay court in the central palace, which is the Great Chamber.

The Son of Heaven orders the fishing officials to kill jiao dragons, capture tuó (Yangtze alligators) and yuan (large softshell turtles), and bring in turtles. The ancient commentary explains that jiao dragons have scales and armor, can injure people, and are difficult to catch, so the text says “strike down.” Tuó and yuan are easy to obtain: tuó can be made into drums, and yuan into soup. Turtles are considered spiritually endowed, can be used to divine good and ill fortune, and are also offered in the ancestral temple; therefore the text says “present,” a word that expresses respect. The Son of Heaven then orders the officials in charge of ponds and marshes to bring in reeds and other materials for state use.

He also orders the four supervisory ministers to notify the counties and collect hay according to the customary quota, to feed the animals used in sacrifice. Under the Zhou system, the land directly governed by the Son of Heaven was divided into one hundred counties. The “four supervisors” were ministers overseeing four commanderies, and “quota” refers to the supplies required by regulation. The animals are to be used in sacrifices to the August Heaven and the Supreme Thearch, famous mountains and great rivers, the spirits of the four directions, the ancestral temple, and the altars of Soil and Grain, to pray for blessings and benefits for the people.

The Son of Heaven also orders officials to mourn the dead, visit the sick, and care for the elderly. He provides relief and supplies thick mats, enabling all things to pass smoothly into decline and storage. He then orders the women’s officials to dye and weave cloth and make patterns such as fu, fu, wen, and zhang, ensuring that colors including blue-green, yellow, white, and black are all vivid and beautiful. Women are skilled at distinguishing the five colors, so they are responsible for dyeing. The ancient commentary explains: black and white together are called fu; blue-green and red together are called fu; black and red together are called wen; red and white together are called zhang. “Fine and good” means exquisite and excellent. These textiles are for the ritual garments of the ancestral temple, and their colors must be vivid throughout.

At this time, trees are flourishing and must not be cut down. It is not suitable to convene the feudal lords or to break ground for construction. If large numbers of people are mobilized or troops sent to war, Heaven will punish those responsible. The weather is hot and humid, and rain is frequent, making this a suitable time to remove weeds and use them as fertilizer to enrich fields and improve the soil.

If the governing order of spring is carried out in late summer, grain kernels will fall from their husks, winds will be frequent, and the people will be prone to coughs and may migrate. The ancient commentary explains that spring belongs to Wood, whose energy governs sprouting and growth. If the spring order appears in late summer, the wind energy will become excessive, causing the grain kernels to fall; the people will also cough and suffer rebellious Qi due to wind pathogens. Migration resembles the outward spreading of spring energy.

If the governing order of autumn is carried out, both high and low ground will become waterlogged, crops will fail to ripen, and women will suffer calamities. The ancient commentary explains that an imbalance in Yin energy causes “disaster for women,” meaning that women give birth but are unable to raise their children to adulthood.

If the governing order of winter is carried out, abnormal cold winds will arise. Hawks and falcons will strike their prey early, while people in settlements throughout the border regions will enter walled towns to seek safety.

In the sixth month, the office of “Junior Treasurer” is established, and catalpa trees are planted. Crops ripen at this time, so the Junior Treasurer is appointed. The ancient commentary says that the reason catalpa trees are associated with this season has not yet been determined.

End of Fascicle Nine of Explanations of the Great Brilliance of Huainan.

The collation note at the end of the fascicle explains that words were missing or mistaken in the main text; the editors supplied or revised them on the basis of the Collected Explanations edition.

Fascicle Ten of Explanations of the Great Brilliance of Huainan

Recorded by Xu Shen, Minister and Libationer to the Grand Commandant

“Instructions on Seasonal Order,” Part Two

In the first month of autumn, the seventh lunar month, the handle of the Northern Dipper points toward the Shen position. At dusk, the Dipper constellation, one of the Seven Lodges of the Northern Black Tortoise, stands at the center of the southern sky; at dawn, the Net constellation, one of the Seven Lodges of the Western White Tiger, stands there.

This month corresponds to the West. Its days are Geng and Xin, and the virtue of the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water) flourishes in Metal. Shaohao, the legendary deity who governs the West, rules over it. The month corresponds to hairy creatures and the Shang musical tone; the weather turns cold. Animals covered in hair belong to this category, with the tiger as their chief. The Shang tone belongs to Metal, whose direction is West. The pitch pipe corresponds to Yize, one of the Twelve Pitch Standards, and its number is nine. Yi means injury or damage, while ze means law or order. At this time, Yang Qi declines and Yin Qi grows stronger. All things begin to wither and suffer damage, taking shape in accordance with the season; hence the name Yize. In the numerical sequence of the Five Phases, Metal is fourth and is assigned the number nine. Metal’s flavor is pungent, and its odor is rank.

This month, people sacrifice to the Door Spirit, first offering the liver. As autumn begins, things are gathered and stored; people enter and leave through doors, so the door is honored with a sacrifice. The liver belongs to Wood, which Metal overcomes, and is used in the offering for that reason. Another explanation is that the liver’s rank odor can make Metal Qi descend and return to its proper place.

Cool winds rise, white dew falls, and cold cicadas call. Eagles begin to hunt birds and lay out their prey, a practice people call “making offerings of birds.” At this season, punishments and executions begin, in keeping with autumn’s force of killing and decline.

The Son of Heaven wears white, rides a white camel, wears white jade, and raises a white banner, using white to accord with Metal’s color. A white horse with a black mane is called a luo. Food includes hemp and dog meat, the drink is water from the Eight Winds, and fire is kindled with mulberry wood. In the Western Palace, the Son of Heaven is attended by women dressed in white and adorned with white ornaments, while white bells are struck. Metal Qi flourishes in the West, so the Son of Heaven resides in the Western Palace.

The weapon is the dagger-axe, and the sacrificial animal is the dog. The Son of Heaven hears petitions and conducts affairs of state in the left chamber, on the southern side of the Hall of the Vermilion Brightness, which faces west, and issues autumnal commands. The hall symbolizes how all things are brought to completion and made manifest in the West. The dog belongs to Metal. The court searches out those who are unfilial, disrespectful to their elder brothers, violent, arrogant, or fierce, and punishes them, thereby strengthening Yin Qi.

On the day Autumn Begins, the Son of Heaven personally leads the Three Dukes, the Nine Ministers, and the senior officials to the western suburbs to welcome autumn. On returning to court, he rewards military commanders and those who have distinguished themselves through bravery. He appoints commanders, selects soldiers, sharpens weapons, trains outstanding talents, and gives special appointments to those who have earned merit, so that he may punish injustice, eliminate violence and arrogance, and bring order to the world in all four directions.

The Son of Heaven orders the relevant officials to put the laws and institutions in order, repair the prisons, prohibit wrongdoing, and hear cases so that legal disputes are resolved fairly. The forces of Heaven and Earth begin their solemn work of killing and decline, but this force must not be allowed to grow excessive. This month, farmers begin harvesting grain. Before the Son of Heaven tastes the new grain, it is first offered to the ancestral temple. Officials, too, begin to bring their affairs to a close. Dikes and dams are repaired, and barriers to control the water are made secure against floods; city walls and palaces are also repaired. This month the moon passes through the Net constellation, and heavy rain may fall, so preparations must be made in advance against flooding.

This month is not a suitable time to enfeoff nobles, grant high rank to senior court officials, present lavish gifts, or send important envoys. Enfeoffing means granting a fief; “senior court officials” here refers to high-ranking nobles; “lavish gifts” means generous presents of gold and silk; and an “important envoy” is a minister dispatched on a mission. Metal Qi governs the gathering and contraction of things at this time, so these actions are out of season.

If winter commands are carried out in the first month of autumn, Yin Qi will become excessive, shell-covered pests will damage the grain, and warfare will break out. If spring commands are carried out, the state will suffer drought. Yang Qi will rise again, and the five grains will fail to produce full kernels. If summer commands are carried out, there will be many fires in winter; cold and heat will be out of balance, and the people will suffer many…

Malaria, a disease marked by recurring chills and fever, arises when cold and hot Qi (vital energy) invade one another and fall out of harmony. In summer, Fire is in season and follows the order of that season, so fires are more likely to break out.

The seventh month corresponds to the official armory, the place where weapons are stored. Since military equipment is put in order in autumn, it is called the official armory. The tree associated with the seventh month is the chinaberry. Its fruit is said to be eaten by the phoenix, and at that time chinaberry trees grew beside the city of Luoyang. The fruit ripens in autumn, which is why the chinaberry corresponds to the seventh month. The character for “chinaberry” is pronounced like the “lian” in “to dye.”

In mid-autumn, the Dipper’s Yaoyao star points toward the You position. At dusk, the Oxherd Star stands at the southern meridian; at dawn, the Zuiwei stars stand there. The Oxherd Star belongs to the seven lodges of the Northern Black Tortoise, and in this month it passes the southern meridian at dusk. The Zuiwei stars belong to the seven lodges of the Western White Tiger, and in this month they pass the southern meridian just before daybreak.

Mid-autumn belongs to the West and to the Metal phase of the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water). It corresponds to the heavenly stems Geng and Xin, to the hairy creatures, to the Shang pitch, to the Lü pipe for Nanlü, and to the number nine. Here, “Nan” means to sustain and support: as Yang energy gradually withdraws and hides, it begins to assist Yin energy, which receives and nourishes the myriad things. Geng and Xin both belong to Metal. The flavor associated with this season is pungent, its odor is rank, and the liver is offered first when making sacrifices to the door gods.

Cool winds arrive, the wild geese begin their southward migration, the dark swallows depart, and the birds spread their wings and fly high. The wild geese, arriving in their proper season, set out from the northern desert regions, pass through Zhou and Luoyi, and fly south toward the area around Pengli Lake. After the autumnal equinox, the swallows return to their sheltered place. As the weather turns cold, the birds grow plump, test their wings, and rise into the sky. “Soaring” means that a bird glides without beating its six large flight feathers; some versions instead read “tending,” meaning that the birds groom their feathers.

The Son of Heaven wears white, rides a white-maned horse, wears white jade, and raises a white banner. He eats hemp and dog meat, drinks water from the Eight Winds, and makes fire with mulberry wood. The women serving the Son of Heaven in the Western Palace wear white garments and white ornaments. In the palace, white bells are struck, halberds are used as weapons, and dogs serve as sacrificial animals or symbolic livestock. The Son of Heaven holds court in the Grand Ancestral Temple of Zongzhang. Zongzhang is a hall facing west, and the Grand Ancestral Temple is the ancestral shrine at the center of the palace.

The Son of Heaven orders the relevant officials to restate and enforce the various punishments. Death sentences must be justly imposed, without distortion or undue leniency. “Distortion” means bending the facts; “yielding” means being weak or giving way. The point is that judgments must be fair. Those who enforce the law will also invite misfortune if they decide cases improperly.

In this month, the elderly are to be cared for and provided with armrests, walking sticks, and food such as gruel. The chief steward and the ritual official are then ordered to inspect the sacrificial animals, compare the animal-raising records with the tax accounts, and check whether the livestock are of suitable weight, whole and unblemished, and of pure color. Each is assessed by kind, size, and age to ensure that all meet the required standards.

The Son of Heaven conducts the Nuo rite to drive away the evil influences and calamities brought by autumn. Nuo is a ceremony for dispelling disease and misfortune. In this month, dogs and hemp are used in a first-fruits offering, and the new produce is presented first in the bedchamber and ancestral temple. Walls and outer defenses may also be built, towns established, drainage channels and grain-storage pits dug, and round granaries repaired. The channels carry off water and prevent dampness at ground level; the pits are used to store grain.

The government orders the people to hurry the harvest, gather and stock supplies, build up their reserves, and plant winter wheat. Anyone who misses the proper agricultural season is to be punished according to law. At this time, thunder gradually subsides, hibernating insects seal their burrows, and the force of autumn’s decline grows stronger. Yang energy weakens day by day, water begins to dry up, and day and night become equal in length.

In this month, units of measure are to be standardized, scales and balances calibrated, weight standards such as the jun and shi corrected, and measuring instruments such as the dou and the scale checked. Passes and markets are to be opened up and trade travelers welcomed, so that goods can circulate and people’s daily lives are made easier. People from all four directions gather, and those from distant places arrive as well. Then goods will not be scarce, the state will have sufficient resources, and its affairs can proceed smoothly.

If the spring ordinances are carried out in mid-autumn, the autumn rains will fail to come, while plants and trees will flower and grow, and frightening disasters will befall the state. Spring ordinances belong to Yang; the weather is warm, so plants and trees flourish. When the climate of one season conflicts with another, disaster follows. If the summer ordinances are carried out, the state will suffer drought, hibernating insects will refuse to retreat into hiding, and the five grains may even sprout again. If the winter ordinances are carried out, wind disasters will occur frequently, thunder will cease prematurely, and plants and trees will wither early.

In the eighth month, the official in charge is the Commandant, and the tree associated with this month is the mulberry. The Commandant oversees military affairs, and the army is put in order during this month, so the month is paired with that office. An old text records that the grandee Yangshe served as Commandant of the Central Army. As for why the mulberry is associated with this month, the traditional commentary says that no definite explanation is known.

In the ninth month of late autumn, the Dipper’s Yaoyao star points toward the Xu position. At dusk, the Xu Lodge, one of the seven lodges of the Northern Black Tortoise, stands at the center of the southern sky; at dawn, the Willow Lodge, one of the seven lodges of the Southern Vermilion Bird, stands there.

This month belongs to the West and corresponds to Geng and Xin, the Metal phase of the Five Phases. Its associated animals are furry creatures, its musical note is Shang, and its pitch pipe is Wushe, one of the twelve ancient pitch standards. Yin energy rises while Yang energy descends. As Yang energy contracts and retreats into hiding, all things follow suit and cease to show themselves outwardly. The number for this month is nine; its flavor is pungent and its odor rank. When offering sacrifice to the Door God, liver is presented first.

The migratory wild geese arrive from the deserts of the north and travel south to Pengli, around present-day Poyang Lake. It is said that the geese arriving in the eighth month are their parents, while those arriving this month are the young, delayed because their feathers and wings have not yet matured. “Guest sparrows” refers to old sparrows. They roost beneath the eaves and near the halls of people’s homes, like guests, and so are named. An ancient book says that when sparrows enter the sea, they transform into clams. Chrysanthemums open with yellow flowers. Jackals begin killing wild animals and arranging their prey around them, a practice people call “offering to the beasts.” A jackal resembles a dog, with a longer tail and yellowish fur; “slaughter” means killing.

The Son of Heaven wears white, rides in a chariot drawn by white horses, wears white jade, and raises a white banner. He eats hemp seeds and dog meat, drinks water prepared with water from the eight directions, and kindles fire by drilling into mulberry wood. The women serving in the Western Palace wear white. In the palace, bells tuned to the white pitch are struck, weapons such as halberds are used, and dogs are kept. The Son of Heaven holds court in the western-facing hall of the Zongzhang Palace, seated in the northernmost chamber, which is therefore called the “Right Chamber.”

The court orders the officials in charge to proclaim the directives anew and requires all officials, high and low alike, to make every effort to wind down their affairs. In this way, they accord with Heaven and Earth as they gather and store all things, allowing nothing to disperse outward. The Son of Heaven then orders the Grand Steward, a senior official in charge of government affairs, to inspect whether all the farming work has been completed, compile the records of the grain harvests, and store the grain from the Son of Heaven’s ceremonial fields in the sacred granary.

Frost begins to fall, and the various artisans suspend their work. In cold weather, vermilion lacquer is difficult to make, so the artisans temporarily stop producing implements. The official in charge announces that the cold has arrived all at once and is hard for the people to endure; everyone should go indoors. The poem says, “Enter this house and dwell within”—it describes just such a situation.

On the first Ding day of the month, students enter the school to learn to play musical instruments. The Son of Heaven holds a grand sacrifice, offering sacrificial animals to the Supreme Deity, then summons the feudal lords and sets down the regulations for their territories. The lords’ chariots, horses, and clothing are prescribed according to their rank. “The hundred counties” means the counties within the capital region; “hundred” is a rounded number. The counties mentioned in the classic are counted according to their administrative divisions, each comprising roughly 2,500 households.

The feudal lords also come to receive the calendar for the coming year and to agree on the level of taxes levied on the people and the quantities of tribute. The specific standards are determined by each place’s distance and by the products suited to its land. The Son of Heaven also teaches the practice of the hunt, using it to train people in the five weapons: knife, sword, spear, halberd, and arrow.

The Son of Heaven orders the Grand Equerry, an official in charge of chariots and horses, and the Seven Grooms, who drive the chariots and handle the horses, to prepare them all. Vehicles are assigned to their drivers according to rank and lined up neatly beside the screen wall outside the palace gate. The Minister of Instruction, an official responsible for education and the affairs of the people, tucks the teaching tablets into his belt and faces north to help put the people’s appearance and etiquette in order. The Son of Heaven then dons his martial attire, with all his ornaments in place, takes up his bow and arrows, and goes hunting.

The Son of Heaven also orders the officials in charge of sacrifices to use the captured birds and beasts in offerings to the four directions, in repayment for their service. Since the specific location of the associated spirits is unknown, offerings are made to the four directions.

This month, plants and trees turn yellow, wither, and fall. People cut wood and burn charcoal, while the hibernating insects all hide away. The court should speed up the hearing of criminal cases and not let the guilty remain in custody for long. It should also reclaim stipends from those not entitled to them and withdraw support from those who should no longer receive it. These include people who draw stipends despite lacking virtue, and those who are unfilial, as well as people who have rendered no service to the state and whose ancestors were not virtuous. Roads should be repaired starting at the borders and continuing all the way to the capital. This month, the Son of Heaven tastes the season’s first dog meat and hemp seeds, first offering the food to the sleeping chambers and ancestral temple, in fulfillment of filial piety.

If the directives of summer are carried out in the last month of autumn, the state will suffer floods, stored goods meant for winter will be damaged, and people will be prone to illnesses such as nasal congestion. Yin energy is strong in this month; if the rainy-season directives of summer are carried out, they will bring floods. Excessive Fire energy will damage what has been stored for winter. Fire and Metal also disturb one another, causing people’s nasal passages to become blocked.

If the directives of winter are carried out, bandits will multiply within the state, the borders will become unsettled, and neighboring states may seize and divide the territory. Winter is rich in Water energy and heavy in Yin energy, conditions that easily give rise to plots and schemes. Bandits therefore multiply, and the people living along the borders lose their peace.

If the directives of spring are carried out, warm winds will arrive early, the people will grow lax and idle, and armies will be raised one after another. Spring’s Qi is warm, so warm winds arrive and the people become slack. Wood energy overcomes Metal energy, and warfare follows. Here, “army” refers to a force of 2,500 men, while “brigade” refers to a force of 500.

In the ninth month, the official who observes the seasons keeps watch and stands guard. The tree associated with this month is the locust tree. “Observe” carries the meaning of keeping watch; because the defenses are repaired this month, the official is called the Watch Officer. The word for locust tree, huai, sounds like the word for “cherish” or “welcome,” suggesting that people from distant lands will be welcomed in.

In the first month of winter, the Dipper’s Yaoyao star points toward the Hai sector. At dusk, the Wei lunar mansion, one of the seven mansions of the Northern Black Tortoise, stands due south; at dawn, the Seven Stars mansion, one of the seven mansions of the Southern Vermilion Bird, stands due south.

The first month of winter belongs to the north and corresponds to the days Ren and Gui. Water’s De (Virtue/Power) is at its strongest, and the spirit of Zhuanxu, the legendary Northern Celestial Emperor, governs the north. Ren and Gui are associated with water; when water’s De is flourishing, water is in season in the north. The creatures of this time are shelled animals, and its musical note is Yu. The hard shells of these creatures symbolize how all things close and withdraw in winter; the tortoise is their characteristic representative. The Yu note, too, belongs to water.

This month’s musical pitch corresponds to Yingzhong, one of the ancient twelve pitches, and its number is six. Yin and Yang respond to one another and transform, bringing their work to completion; all things gather and take shape. Hence the name “Yingzhong,” meaning “responding bell.” Five is the number of the Five Phases; water ranks first, so its number is six. Water’s flavor is salty, and its odor is that of decay. In sacrifice, the kidneys are offered first because they belong to water. Another account connects the rites with well water or the ground inside the gate: in winter, one should remain indoors, so the sacrifice is performed inside. The kidneys belong to water, and water opens the place where it is stored of its own accord.

At this time, water begins to freeze and the ground begins to harden. Pheasants enter the great waters and transform into shen, or clams; the rainbow also withdraws and no longer appears. The “great waters” here refer to the Huai River. The rainbow is regarded as Yang contained within Yin. Since Yin is strong in the first month of winter, the rainbow does not appear.

The Son of Heaven wears black, rides a black horse, adorns himself with black jade, and raises a black banner, thereby aligning himself with water’s De. The banner is painted with a bear and a tiger. For food, he eats millet and pork; he uses water from the Eight Winds and pinewood to kindle fire, and resides in the Northern Palace. The palace attendants wear black and play stone chimes. Since water is in season in the north, the Son of Heaven resides in the Northern Palace. Weapons are made by forging, and the chief domestic animal is the pig. Forging involves gathering inward, symbolizing Yin’s closure and storage. The pig, too, belongs to water.

The Son of Heaven receives his ministers in the room on the left side of the Dark Hall and issues the seasonal directives for winter. The Dark Hall is a palace facing north; its left-side room is at the western end. The Son of Heaven resides there and carries out the directives for the month.

The Son of Heaven orders the officials in charge to put the various prohibitions in order, in keeping with winter’s Yin energy closing and withdrawing. Travel and migration are prohibited; city gates and neighborhood gates are shut and heavily guarded, and a large-scale search is made for outsiders. Longstanding guests are kept under restraint so they cannot leak information; newcomers are searched to prevent anyone from spying for an opportunity to exploit.

Punishments that have not yet been decided are also suspended, while offenders are dealt with according to the law. Those who curry favor with the ruler, submit to his wishes, and disrupt the laws are punished. On the day winter begins, the Son of Heaven personally leads the Three Dukes, the Nine Ministers, and the Great Officers to the northern suburb to welcome the new year. On his return, he rewards the families of those who died serving the state and provides relief to orphans and widows.