《道德真經廣聖義》Vol. 36

The Broad and Sagely Meaning of the True Scripture of the Dao and De, Volume 35, Section 11

Commentary by Du Guangting, Master Guangcheng of the Tang

The Chapter “When the World Has the Dao,” Section 46

(The previous chapter discussed the functions of the “Five Greats.” This chapter first points out the benefits and harms of having or lacking the Dao, then explains where guilt and blame arise, and finally treats knowing contentment as De (Virtue), warning against the harms of greed.)

Meaning: When sages govern the world, they sit behind the axe screen, facing south. Shamans stand before them and historians behind; diviners, musicians, ritual attendants, and others take their places to either side. The ruler holds to what is most upright through Wuwei (non-action). The Three Dukes serve at court, the Three Elders teach in the school, and every official attends to their duties. The ruler cultivates civil virtue to embrace distant peoples and spreads the transformation of the Dao to nurture the people. Customs become harmonious, and households esteem courtesy and humility. Peoples from beyond the four borders come bearing precious gifts; conscription and garrison duty cease at the frontiers. Weapons are carried upside down, and oxen and horses are returned to rest. Then the people delight in plowing and weeding, diligently fertilize their fields, and grow crops as abundant as clouds, with surplus grain piled along the field ridges. If this Dao is abandoned, resentful enemies invade from every side, warhorses gallop across the land, and armor and weapons are taken up again. Why? Those in high positions harbor insatiable greed and desire things beyond their rightful share. They recklessly expand their territory and wage endless wars, inevitably bringing ruin upon themselves. Laozi uses the teaching of “knowing contentment” as a warning, wishing people to be content with their proper share. Only when that share is always enough can one speak of understanding the Dao.

Scripture: When the world has the Dao, warhorses are sent back to fertilize the fields.

Note: A ruler who has the Dao governs through Wuwei, and transformation takes effect. Since there is no greed for more, there is no fighting. The ruler can therefore set aside the use of warhorses, allowing the people to clear and fertilize their fields.

Explanation: “Set aside” means to send away; “fertilize” means to tend the fields. “When the world has the Dao” means that the Dao guides governance and transformation takes effect through Wuwei. The ruler keeps watch over the four distant peoples, and there is no trouble on the frontiers. There is no need to covet more land and burden the people. War chariots and horses can therefore be sent away, allowing the people to begin work in the southern fields and tend their land with manure.

Meaning: The ancients said, “The ruler is like a boat, and the people like water.” Without a ruler, the people cannot be governed; without water, a boat cannot move. Boat and water depend on each other and cannot be parted even briefly. Thus the foundation of governing a country is to care for the people first. A ruler who has the Dao keeps watch over the four distant peoples. There are no enemies beyond the borders, no need to use spears and shields or loose arrows. Armor is set aside, and troops are disbanded.

(Continuing the positive interpretation of “Warhorses are bred in the borderlands.”)

Use horses to campaign against the three frontier regions, and open fields across the four directions, plowing deeply and sowing lightly, so that every household is self-sufficient and the state prosperous. Food is a great concern for individuals and states alike. “They begin work in the southern fields” comes from “Fu Tian” in the Minor Odes of the Book of Songs. Chu means “to begin,” and zai means “to undertake a task”: when spring plowing begins, work starts in the southern fields. “Southern fields” is the name of a kind of plot. The Book of Songs says, “The furrows run south and east.” A mu is a hundred paces long and six chi wide, and can nourish all things; hence the name.

For those who cultivate the Dao, intention is the horse and desire is the field. When the horse of intention is stopped from galloping, Shen grows still; when the field of desire is kept from lying wild and overgrown, the heart becomes tranquil. Only then can the Dao be cultivated. The Book of Rites says that human beings embody the De of Heaven and Earth, arise from the union of Yin and Yang, are where spirits and ghosts converge, and possess the finest qualities of the Five Phases. Therefore, when the sages established laws, they took Heaven and Earth as their foundation, Yin and Yang as their starting point, the four seasons as their measure, and the sun and stars as their guiding pattern. They enlisted spirits and ghosts as assistants, took the Five Phases as their substance, ritual and righteousness as their instruments, human feelings as their field, and the four numinous creatures as their livestock. Human feelings, then, are the field cultivated by sage kings. When this field of human feelings can abide in Wuwei, it comes close to the Dao. Here, “all under Heaven” refers generally to the principles of governing a state.

The Classic: When the world is without the Dao, warhorses are bred in the borderlands.

Commentary: Rulers who govern without the Dao indulge their desires, wage war, and seize territory. As a result, soldiers and warhorses multiply along the frontier.

Explanation: “Borderlands” refers to the junction between territories, where the borders of two states meet and troops are stationed to hold their positions. Under rulers who lack the Dao, hostile forces that refuse to pay tribute are often found at the frontier. Armies and warhorses are therefore born and stationed there, a sign that a prolonged war keeps them from returning home.

Interpretation: When a state is governed without the Dao, it expands its borders and attacks foreign peoples. Its territory remains unsettled and military service never ends. A ruler might covet fermented shrimp paste and launch a campaign in Panyu, or prize fine horses and send an army to Dayuan. The dead are left in remote wilderness, blood soaks the grass, and souls drift in foreign lands. Chariots bog down in distant borderlands; campaigns drag on year after year, and the troops have still not returned by the time the melons ripen. Supplies continue to be transported, the state’s resources are drained, the people grow resentful, and the country is endangered. These calamities do not descend from Heaven; they should serve as a grave warning.

How much better it is when there is no alarm within the borders, the feudal lords all come to court, and ruler and people live in harmony, each protecting the other. Then the strong have no occasion to display their strength, the eloquent no occasion to show off their rhetoric, warriors no occasion to brandish their swords, and the wise no occasion to offer strategies. Weapons can be melted down and made into farm tools. (This contrasts with the idea that when the Dao prevails, horses return to the fields, food is plentiful, and no warhorses are bred in the borderlands.)

In the opening four lines, swords and spears are turned into plows and hoes, and swords are sold to buy ox calves for farming. Only by governing through Wuwei (non-action)—without forcing the people into labor—can one preserve plans for the long term.

“No crime is greater than finding things desirable”

Note: To let greed arise in the heart and see things as desirable is the greatest crime.

Commentary: Lawbreaking is crime; covetous pursuit is desire. “Warhorses are born in the countryside”—that is, wars break out frequently. Often this happens because a ruler covets territory, sees land as desirable, and is stirred to greed. This is the greatest of crimes, which is why the text says, “No crime is greater than finding things desirable.”

Interpretation: Law is used to restrain the people, quell disorder, punish evil, and correct violations. The character for “crime” combines “net” and “wrong,” as if wrongdoing were caught in a net. The greatest kind of crime is greed taking root in the heart: coveting wealth and status, building carved walls and towering halls, trading in illicit goods and raising armies, hunting outside and indulging in sensual pleasures at home, then losing oneself in excess and never turning back. Campaigns at Yan-sai and Long-dui exhaust the people without end, until all under heaven turn against the ruler and the boat becomes a nest of enemies; then comes collapse. One may also become covetous of one’s own advancement: racing after profit and fame, indulging in music and sensual pleasures, delighting in fine sights and pursuing wine for amusement. One never comes to one’s senses throughout life, until the body is worn out and the ears and eyes are deafened and blinded, and then one loses one’s life.

In the twentieth year of Duke Xi of Lu during the Spring and Autumn period, Duke Xiang of Song wanted to convene the feudal lords. Zang Wenzhong said, “It is acceptable to follow others’ desires with your own; few succeed when they make others follow their desires.” To set aside one’s own desires and follow the common good is acceptable. At the alliance of Lu Shang the following year, Ziyuanyi said that a small state was fortunate to have lost only after contending for leadership in the alliance. In autumn, Chu captured the ruler of Song and attacked Song. This was a case of “making others follow one’s desires” and going against the Dao. Laozi’s teaching makes clear what gives rise to this crime. If one can cut away the heart’s covetous desires, one may hope to govern a state well and attain the rank of the Nine and Five; in cultivating oneself, one may aspire to become an immortal.

“No calamity is greater than not knowing contentment”

Note: Unceasing covetousness is a great calamity.

Commentary: Calamity means harm and the gods’ withholding of protection. Where does the calamity of great ruin and defeat come from? It comes from coveting territory, seeking without satisfaction, and not knowing when to stop or be content, thereby causing the Way of the spirits… The text that follows is incomplete in the surviving fragment; its general meaning continues with admonitions such as “contentment prevents disgrace” and “knowing when to stop prevents danger.”

Note on terminology: Here, Wuwei refers to governing and self-cultivation: not acting recklessly, not forcing people into labor, and not indulging desire. It does not mean doing nothing at all. “Finding things desirable” means the heart becoming attached to external things, fame and profit, territory, and the like. “Warhorses are born in the countryside” comes from chapter 57 of the Dao De Jing and is a metaphor for warfare breaking out within the realm.

This passage teaches that calamity need not come from divine punishment; it is often brought on by people’s own greed. It also distinguishes degrees of severity among transgression, calamity, and blame, and explains that knowing contentment is the way to avoid disgrace over the long term.

Meaning of the passage

When calamity strikes, it is not necessarily because Heaven has deliberately withheld its protection. Often, people have brought it upon themselves through their own failings. There are many kinds of failing, but the greatest calamity arises from greed.

Interpretation: Transgression and calamity both arise from within oneself. Evil thoughts take root in the body, but their source is the heart. For this reason, bodily actions, speech, and thoughts are called the Three Karmic Actions. From these three arise the Ten Evils. Of the Ten Evils, greed is the gravest transgression; struggles over life and death therefore often begin with greed. Greed is one of the karmic actions of the mind. When a ruler is greedy, he harms the lands around him and makes the people below him suffer. His demands from above are endless, while those below cannot supply what he asks. This brings resentment among the people and anger from the spirits, and the state is bound to fall. When a person cultivating himself is greedy, his desires are hard to satisfy; his hun and po souls wander and his spirit scatters, so blessings and goodness cannot protect him. His lifespan is shortened and his body harmed. If he can restrain the source of greed within and cease grasping outwardly, there will be no resentment or enmity, his body will be at peace, and the state will prosper. This is what it means to be content and always have enough, and to live one’s whole life without disgrace.

“No blame is greater than wanting to obtain.”

Commentary: Of all calamities and failings, none is greater than desire. Desire means wanting; once one wants something, one insists on having it all. Obtaining everything brings even deeper calamity, which is why it is called “blame.”

Explanation: Blame means calamity. The greedy grow ever more desirous: even after obtaining something, they do not stop but seek more, using improper means to get it. Ruin is then just around the corner. They bring calamity and blame upon themselves—is this not only to be expected? “That which is desirable” refers to what one wants but has not yet obtained, when greed has just begun; at this point, transgression is still less serious than calamity. Those who are never content obtain something and then want more, so calamity becomes more serious than transgression. “Nothing is worse than wanting to obtain” refers to having already obtained something and still being unsatisfied; at that point, blame is more serious than calamity.

Interpretation: When people obtain something and then keep seeking more without end, the people will answer with anger, and soldiers, bandits, and enemies will rise up. When calamity and blame reach this point, they are at their greatest. “Transgression” refers to a person violating a prohibition and committing an offense for the first time; this is called a transgression. The Scripture of Lord Lao on Repenting of Transgressions says: a first offense is a transgression, also called a fault; a fault is a mistake. A thousand and eighty faults constitute a calamity, which is more serious than a transgression. A thousand two hundred and sixty faults constitute blame, which is more serious still. Among human desires, none exceeds lust, meaning attachment to beauty and sexual desire. Among calamities, none exceeds wealth, meaning greed without contentment. Among forms of blame, none exceeds fame, meaning the painful pursuit of recognition, whether one fails to obtain it or remains unsatisfied after gaining it. People commit many kinds of transgression, but wealth, lust, and fame are among the most important.

Chapter 29: Commentary on “Acting with Three Intentions,” and Other Matters

Commentary: This chapter discusses acting with three intentions, meditation, eating, dressing, caring for others, and worship, among other things.

Commentary: This chapter discusses acting with three intentions, meditation, eating, dressing, caring for others, and worship, among other things.

Commentary: This chapter discusses acting with three intentions, meditation, eating, dressing, caring for others, and worship, among other things.

“Without Going Out the Door” (Chapter 47)

Commentary: The previous chapter explained that a ruler who follows the Dao should know contentment and always be content. This chapter explains that teaching and transformation need not require going out: they can be achieved through Wuwei (non-action). The opening couplet says that by “not going out” one can know; the next couplet clarifies that when people are in harmony, Heaven responds favorably; the following couplet shows that the farther one goes, the more one loses; and the last four lines conclude with “transforming through non-action.” The meaning is this: sages understand things deeply without leaving their doorways, while superior practitioners quiet their minds and enter into mysterious accord with Heaven and Earth. In that accord, nothing is too distant to be perceived. But if one relies only on the ears and eyes, even what is far away remains beyond true understanding. This is what “knowing without traveling” means.

“Without going out the door, one knows all under Heaven.”

Commentary: A sage ruler who follows the Dao governs through Wuwei. Teaching and transformation do not go beyond the gates, yet a simple and wholesome way of life naturally spreads throughout the realm. This is called knowing the Way of governing the world. Another interpretation is that when a ruler teaches well, people throughout the realm respond in kind. There is then no need to trouble oneself by going out: the feelings of all under Heaven can still be known. Thus the Book of Changes says, “When a gentleman speaks well, those a thousand miles away respond”—how much more so those nearby? That is the meaning here.

Meaning: A sage governs the world by observing himself through his own person. When he is upright, all under Heaven becomes upright, so there is no need to seek far afield. Laozi’s saying, “Without going out the door, one knows all under Heaven,” counsels rulers to preserve the center and hold fast to the One, using stillness to guide action. If they exhaust their minds pursuing things outside themselves, the roots will be shaken. Even if they travel throughout the four seas, they will still fail to grasp the world’s true condition.

“Without traveling, one knows.”

Commentary: To know what is far away without traveling there means that one need not go there in person; one can understand it by reasoning from its principles. The sage observes mind through mind and the world through the world, so nothing is beyond his reach.

Meaning: Knowledge lies in the mind, not in travel. When the mind is clear, ten thousand miles seem as near as what is before one; when the mind is clouded, even traveling throughout the world leaves one bewildered.

“Without peering through the window, one sees the Way of Heaven.”

Commentary: One can see the Way of Heaven without peering through a small window opening. A you is a small window; to peer is to look through it. The point is that one need not lean by a window and gaze into the distance: the Way of Heaven is already present in the human heart and in the patterns of things.

Meaning: The window represents narrow vision, while the Way of Heaven represents the great root. If one looks only through a crack in the window, one sees just a small part. By keeping still and observing the return, the Way of Heaven reveals itself.

“The farther one goes, the less one knows.”

Commentary: The farther one rushes outward, the less one knows. Wang Bi’s commentary says: “If one follows borrowed paths, one becomes confused by what is crooked; if one busies oneself with too many things, one exhausts the spirit. Thus one knows less.”

Meaning: This warns against the harm of going ever farther afield. If a ruler delights in outings and distant inspections, his essential duties will be neglected and he will become estranged from the people’s circumstances. Though he may seem broadly informed, in truth he knows little.

(The later commentary cites Miu Chang’s explanation of the chapters on filial devotion and compassion, among others. Their point is that the sage knows all under Heaven without leaving home to teach rulers to govern inwardly by first governing the mind, rather than rushing about outside. It also reads “Without going out the door, one knows all under Heaven” alongside “The farther one goes, the less one knows,” showing how the teaching of keeping to one’s place and knowing contentment follows from the chapter on contentment.)

A Plain-Language Interpretation of the Scripture

When one’s own conduct is upright, all under Heaven is set in order. When a ruler follows the right path in his own conduct, the affairs of the realm also become orderly. Thus it is said, “He need only make himself upright and face south”—that is, he need only set himself right and preside over the court—“what more need he do?” Besides, since all things arose when the primal chaos was opened, they have gathered into their kinds: fish sink beneath the water, birds soar through the air, and distinctions of rank have already been established; the positions of Heaven and Earth are already clear. Though the world within the six directions is complex and the Nine Provinces vast, they are like a person’s limbs and body, which can be observed with the mind. Must one really walk everywhere on foot? “Without stepping outside the door, one can know”—this is surely true.

A noble person “speaks words that are good.” The Commentary on the Appended Phrases of the Classic of Changes says: words issue from oneself and reach the people; actions begin nearby and become visible far away. Words and actions are the hinges of a noble person. Once the hinge turns, it determines honor or disgrace. If this is true of what is far away, how much more so of what is near?

“Without peering through the window, one sees the Way of Heaven.”

Commentary: Through Wuwei (non-action), the ruler governs with folded hands and issues no commands beyond his own household. From this one can understand the way to govern all under Heaven: when human affairs are harmonious, the celestial signs follow suit. There is no need to peer through the window; the Way of Heaven can already be inferred.

Expanded commentary: Humanity and Heaven respond to one another, and Jing (essence) and Qi (vital energy) communicate between them. When a ruler governs through De (Virtue/Power), the celestial patterns and their portents do not fall into confusion. If he defies and insults the Five Phases (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal, Water), Yin-Yang becomes disordered and their signs fall out of due sequence. Thus the Classic of Documents says: when there are auspicious signs, reverence brings timely rain; when there are ominous signs, obscurity brings constant winds. Once we know that actions arise from the heart and that their signs appear in Heaven, why wait to peer through the window before we can see? The Classic of Changes says: “Words and actions are how the noble person moves Heaven and Earth.”

Explanation: The rule of emperors and kings takes Heaven as its model in covering all things and Earth as its model in bearing all things. They track the sun and moon and respectfully set the seasons for the people; they use the armillary sphere and jade crossbar to bring the seven celestial regulators into order. In this way, they follow the Way of Heaven. Heaven displays its signs, and the sages take them as their model; this is how they emulate Heaven’s workings. Once rulers model themselves on the celestial signs, set themselves right, and act accordingly, what they do responds in turn to the Way of Heaven. Good fortune and misfortune lie with them; order and disorder begin in the heart. How, then, could they fail to remain vigilant and watchful, day and night?

“Celestial patterns and portents” means the signs displayed in the sky, called patterns, and the methods used to interpret and assess them, called portents. To act with arrogant disregard for the laws is to defy and insult them; when the celestial bodies deviate from their prescribed courses, their signs are out of sequence. All these conditions are brought about in response to a ruler’s actions. The Great Commentary on the “Great Plan” in the Classic of Documents explains “timely rain” and “constant winds” as follows: with auspicious signs, reverence brings timely rain—“auspicious” means good, and when a ruler acts with reverence, rain comes at the proper time; “reverence” means respect. With ominous signs, obscurity brings constant winds—“ominous” means inauspicious, “obscurity” means darkness, “constant” means regular, and “brings” means that the sign corresponds with the ruler’s conduct.

It is also said that when a ruler is benighted and unclear, the prevailing atmosphere often becomes disorderly as well. The saying, “A gentleman’s words and actions are enough to move Heaven and Earth; how could he fail to be careful?” means that whether a gentleman serves in office or withdraws, remains silent or speaks, he never departs from the Middle Way. His outward conduct may differ, but when the Dao is one, Heaven and Earth respond of their own accord.

“The farther he goes, the less he knows.”

Commentary: Unable to practice Wuwei, he insists on issuing commands. The farther his commands reach, the less he understands the Dao of governing the world.

Exegesis: This describes a ruler who has lost the Dao. Unable to remain in Wuwei, govern himself, and maintain his own conduct, he tries instead to transform the people through instruction and commands. The farther his commands extend, the more he has already departed from Wuwei—and the less he understands the affairs of government.

Meaning: When the ruler’s conduct is upright, things are done without commands; when it is not, people will not obey even if commands are issued. If a ruler cannot remain quietly humble, let his mind harmonize with the Dao, and govern the world through Wuwei, then even extensive displays of authority will not make the people obey. Would it not be better to entrust matters to worthy ministers without suspicion, follow what is good without weariness, govern himself humbly above, and act with sincerity below? Then people would be transformed without words and things would be done without commands.

“Therefore, the sage knows without traveling.”

Commentary: He does not go out through the door or window, hence “without traveling.” Through Wuwei and simplicity, he knows the Dao of governance.

Exegesis: This further explains “Without going out the door, he knows the world.” There is no meddling or forced action, and no commands are issued; hence “without traveling.” By taking what is near—the self—as his guide, he knows what is to come. “I practice Wuwei, and the people transform themselves.” Why wait until one goes out to instruct the people or leaves home to handle affairs before calling it knowledge?

Meaning: The sage who governs the state practices the Dao in his own person. The Dao accords with Heaven, and he is inwardly attuned to the highest mystery. The many regions respond as an echo answers a sound; he need not travel out to teach and transform them in order to know. “Taking what is near—the self—as his guide” refers to the Appended Statements of the Book of Changes: In ancient times, when Fuxi ruled the world, he looked up to observe the patterns of Heaven and down to examine the forms of Earth. He observed the markings of birds and beasts and what suited the land. Taking examples near at hand from his own person and those farther away from other things, he created the Eight Trigrams to communicate the Virtue of the spirits and classify the nature of the myriad things. Here, the ears, eyes, mouth, and nose of the body correspond to the Eight Trigrams: when one’s conduct is auspicious, they respond; when it is inauspicious, they turn away. Calamity and blessing have no set gate; people bring them upon themselves. “I practice Wuwei, and the people transform themselves” is a saying from chapter seventeen of this classic.

“He perceives without seeing.”

The general meaning of the passage is this: Because there is no need to peer outside through a crack in the window, one may “know without seeing.” When people and Heaven respond to one another, it is possible to speak of peace and prosperity.

Commentary: This passage looks back to explain “without peering through the window, one sees the Dao of Heaven.” When a crane calls, its young answer. Human conduct evokes a response, and Heaven, too, is moved. From the small one may understand the great; from oneself, one may understand other things. Great good fortune is summoned by the person, and the transformation that brings peace and prosperity can then be spoken of. Why must one see it with one’s own eyes before giving it a name? Hence, “one names it without seeing.”

Interpretation: The Dao of Heaven is broad and open, and never far from us. Heaven and humanity respond to each other without fail; good and ill fortune accord with one’s actions. When one’s own life is put in order, Heaven responds in turn; there is no need to wait until one peers through a window to see.

“The crane calls, and its young answer” comes from the Xici (Appended Statements) of the Yijing (Classic of Changes): a crane calls from a shaded place, and its young respond. This illustrates how changes arise through anticipation and deliberation. When one anticipates and deliberates on good, good comes in response; when one anticipates and deliberates on evil, evil follows as well. If even a crane’s young answer its call from a hidden, shadowed place, then things respond when people cultivate sincerity. Even if someone deceives their own heart in a dark room, things will surely know. Worry, regret, and shame arise from the slightest beginnings; gain and loss are decided at the pivot. A noble person therefore reflects before speaking and deliberates before acting: this is the principle of taking care over the smallest things. Even the slightest cause must draw a response. How far away could it be?

“To name it without seeing”: Since the Dao is mysteriously one with all things, the mind is joined with the Dao, and all things accord with it. There is no need to wait until one sees before naming it.

“Without acting, all things are accomplished”

Commentary: Without relying on instruction through words, all under Heaven transforms of itself and reaches completion.

Explanation: This sums up the meaning of “not going out the door” and “not peering through the window.” When those above take action, those below must respond. Here, the sage gathers the spirit and sits upright behind the screen, maintaining mysterious silence in the court. The ruler practices Wuwei (non-action), the people have nothing to trouble them, and every household is provided for; the transformations of all things unfold of themselves.

Interpretation: “Gather” means to become still and settled; “upright” means dignified; an yi is a screen; and the court is where the ruler conducts affairs of government. Through Wuwei, the sage brings order; by leaving matters undisturbed, the sage transforms people. Without going out the door, the sage knows; without peering through the window, the sage sees. The spirit merges with the subtle and observes its wonders; creation and transformation arise within the self. With hands folded and the ceremonial crown hanging low, the sage holds the universe in hand. The people do not know that they have a ruler above them, and the ruler makes no demands of the people. Granaries are full, and every household has enough. Why? Because Wuwei above brings peace to the state. The spirit is still and quiet, so transformation is accomplished without words. The yi is a screen one leans against, shaped like a dragon screen.

A screen painted with axe-shaped designs is placed at the center of the Bright Hall, where the window opens.

According to tradition, when the Duke of Zhou assisted King Cheng, he once received the feudal lords in an assembly at the Bright Hall. King Cheng stood facing south with his back against a screen painted with axe designs—a practice known as “leaning against the axe-patterned screen.” This established a ritual order in which ruler and subject each kept to their proper place, and distinctions of rank were observed.