《道德真經廣聖義》Vol. 41

Classic: Guangshengyi on the True Classic of the Way and Its Virtue

Scripture:

Volume Forty (Section Three) of Guangshengyi on the True Classic of the Way and Its Virtue

Composed by Master Guangcheng, Du Guangting, of the Tang dynasty

Governing the State by Means of Government, Chapter 57 (Commentary: The preceding chapter discussed what those who awaken to the Dao can come to understand. This chapter discusses how rulers who govern through “government” depart from Wuwei (non-action) and cannot allow things to transform themselves. The first three lines state the theme and its meaning; the next ten raise questions to clarify the principle; the final five argue in reverse that only by “taking no action” can one gain the realm.)

Explanation: Governing a state through policies and orders leaves visible traces; using troops depends on stratagems and involves many schemes. Both depart from the Dao. It is better to gather the people of all directions through “taking no action.” If taboos and prohibitions multiply, manipulations and schemes expand, clever contrivances run rampant, and laws and orders are made explicit, the state moves ever farther from the Dao and grows ever more precarious. The only way is to lead the people without meddling, cast off desire and return to stillness, refrain from taking up arms, avoid stratagem and deceit, keep policies and orders simple, and make punishments and laws nearly unnecessary. This is the chapter’s central meaning.

Governing the State by Means of Government

Commentary: The three lines that follow all state the central theme. “By means of” means relying on or putting something into practice. “Government and instruction” means policies, orders, and moral teaching. A ruler who acts deliberately relies on government and instruction in an attempt to govern the state, but cannot practice Wuwei or let things transform themselves. Since ancient times, no one has been heard of who achieved peace and order in this way.

Explanation: Those who govern the world through the Dao do not speak, yet the people trust them; they issue no orders, yet the people follow; they impose no punishments, yet the people stand in awe; they give no rewards, yet the people strive toward what is good. Why? Transformed by those above them, the people all turn toward goodness and need no reward to strive for it. Receiving harmony, they cast off their wrongs of their own accord and need no punishment to be restrained. Returning to simplicity, they follow without being ordered; becoming upright and true, they trust without being addressed. This is governing without words. To order and instruct the people through speech involves deliberate action and is not the Dao.

Using the Unorthodox to Command Troops

Commentary: “Unorthodox” refers to expedient changes and deceptive stratagems. Weapons are inauspicious instruments, detested by the noble person. How much more so when one relies on unorthodox changes without restraint? Troops are like fire: if not brought under control, they consume those who use them. Thus we know that employing troops through unorthodox changes is no way to achieve victory.

Explanation: Using troops through deception and stratagem runs counter to the Great Dao. Government rests on policies and punishments; its policies should be simple and follow the natural course of things. Warfare puts changes and deception first; its changes should respond to circumstances and accord with what is reasonable. When government departs from the Dao, punishments and rewards become excessive; when deception departs from the Dao, killing and harm multiply. To claim merit through excessive punishments and rewards, and to indulge in killing and harm—this is what it means to use the unorthodox to command troops.

This passage links the idea of governing a state by harming others and seeking victory through war with the story in the Spring and Autumn Annals of Zhouyu of Wei murdering his ruler. Its general meaning is as follows.

Is it not difficult to hope to strengthen a state and bring about peace by invading other countries and seeking victory in war? Compared with the state of letting all things transform of themselves, where punitive expeditions take place without drawing a blade, this falls far short. War is like fire—the events in Wei below illustrate its calamities.

In the spring of the fourth year of Duke Yin, Zhouyu, a prince of Wei, killed his ruler, Duke Huan. Earlier, Duke Zhuang of Wei had married Zhuang Jiang, the sister of Dechen, heir to the eastern palace of Qi. She was beautiful but had no children. The people of Wei composed the poem “Shuoren” in her praise. Duke Zhuang later married Lisi, a woman from Chen, who bore Xiaobo, but he died young. Lisi’s younger sister, Daisi, who had accompanied her as part of the marriage, bore Duke Huan. Zhuang Jiang treated Duke Huan as her own son.

Zhouyu was the son of a favored concubine. He was indulged and fond of warfare, and Duke Zhuang did not restrain him. Zhuang Jiang detested him. Shi Que remonstrated with Duke Zhuang, saying, “I have heard that one should teach a beloved son according to the Way, and not lead him onto an evil path. Arrogance, extravagance, licentiousness, and indulgence all arise from straying from the right path; excessive favor and rewards invite these four evils. If you intend to make Zhouyu heir, you should establish his status early. Otherwise, you are handing him the steps that lead to disaster. Few people can be favored without becoming arrogant, become arrogant and then be humbled, be humbled without resentment, and feel resentment yet improve themselves.

“Besides, when the lowly hinder the honored, the young oppress their elders, outsiders sow discord among those close to one another, newcomers divide the old, petty people dominate their betters, and sexual misconduct destroys proper relationships, these are called the Six Reversals. When a ruler acts justly, a minister carries out his duties, a father shows affection, a son is filial, an elder brother is caring, and a younger brother is respectful, these are called the Six Harmonies. To cast aside the harmonious Way and imitate what is contrary to it is to hasten disaster. Surely it is unwise for a ruler to make disaster his chief concern and rush to bring it upon himself.” Duke Zhuang did not listen.

Shi Que’s son, Hou, often associated with Zhouyu, and Shi Que could not stop him. After Duke Huan took the throne, Shi Que retired from office. On the day Wushen in the second month, Zhouyu killed Duke Huan and made himself ruler. He planned to avenge old grievances between his predecessor and Zheng, and sought favor from the other lords to secure his position at home. He sent word to Song: “If your ruler attacks Zheng to remove your enemy, our state is willing to become your vassal and levy contributions from Chen, Cai, and the other states to assist you. This is the wish of Wei.” The people of Song agreed. At the time, Chen and Cai were on friendly terms with Wei, so Song joined with Chen, Cai, and Wei to attack Zheng. They besieged Zheng’s eastern gate for five days and then withdrew. The Duke of Song asked Lu for troops, but Lu declined.

Duke Yin asked Zhong Zhong, “Can Zhouyu succeed?” Zhong Zhong replied, “I have heard of governing the people through De (Virtue/Power), but never of governing them through disorder. To govern them through disorder is like trying to straighten tangled threads and only tangling them further. Zhouyu relies on military force to make trouble and is cruel and without kinship ties. Relying on force means he has no support among the people; cruelty means he has no trust among his kin. With the people turning against him and his kin abandoning him, he cannot succeed.”

Plain-Language Interpretation

I. A Story from the Zuo Tradition (A Historical Account Cited in the Commentary)

Waging war is like using fire: if it is not kept under control, it will end up burning you.

Zhou Yu killed his ruler and mistreated the people. Rather than work to establish virtue, he tried to achieve his aims through disorder, and in the end he could not escape defeat and death.

Zhou Yu failed to win the people’s loyalty. Shi Hou asked his father, Shi Que, how he could gain an audience with a ruler. Shi Que replied, “Chen Huan Gong is currently favored by the King of Zhou, and the states of Chen and Wei are on good terms. If you pay court to Chen and ask Chen to make the request, it will surely succeed.” Shi Hou then went with Zhou Yu to Chen. Shi Que sent word to Chen: “The state of Wei is small, and I am old and powerless. These two men are in fact murderers who killed their ruler. I ask your state to deal with them there.” Chen detained the two men and asked Wei to send someone to carry out the lawful punishment. In the ninth month, the people of Wei sent Shi Zai Chou to kill Zhou Yu at Pu. Shi Que also had his retainer Nu Yang Jian kill Shi Hou in Chen.

A gentleman said, “Shi Que was a true minister. He hated Zhou Yu so much that he would not spare even his own son, Shi Hou, when he became involved. This is what is meant by ‘upholding the greater principle even at the expense of family ties.’”

(The commentary’s point is that a son who sides with the murderer of his ruler commits the gravest crime against the state and must be eliminated. Hence the saying “upholding the greater principle even at the expense of family ties.” If one clung only to lesser loyalties, one would end up shielding even one’s own son.)

II. The Main Idea of the Scripture: “Take the World Through Noninterference”

Scripture: Take the world through noninterference.

Commentary: When it comes to preserving the world, the most valuable thing is Wuwei (non-action). Governing and securing the state through political instruction, or using deceptive stratagems in war, both depart from the Dao (the Way). Only through noninterference and Wuwei can one take the world and bring it stability. These three lines state the general principle and identify the subject.

Exegesis: This line points out the chapter’s central idea. A ruler who follows the Dao governs through Wuwei. With Wuwei, there is no turmoil; when there is no turmoil, people are not burdened. When people are not burdened, they naturally develop and flourish, and the world naturally becomes peaceful.

Explanation: Seeking good order through political instruction and relying on deception in warfare can never bring the people to rally around the ruler or secure the state as “noninterference and Wuwei” can. They cannot achieve genuine peace.

III. “How do I know that the world is like this? By this.”

Commentary: The lines beginning “By this” explain how one knows.

Exegesis: “How do I know” poses a question; “is like this” means “is just so”; “by this” gives the answer. Lao Jun asks: How do I know that taking the world requires “noninterference”? The following lines say: the more prohibitions there are, the poorer the people become; I practice Wuwei, and the people transform of themselves. This is the evidence.

Explanation: Seeking order through political instruction and using deception in warfare cannot bring peace. When those above impose many taboos, those below accumulate weapons and implements, unusual goods proliferate, and laws become ever more numerous; none of these is a foundation for peace. Only noninterference and Wuwei are the right path.

Brief notes on proper names and terms:

• Zhou Yu, Shi Que, and Shi Hou were figures in the state of Wei during the Spring and Autumn period; they are mentioned in the Zuo Tradition.
• Wuwei and noninterference are Daoist ideals of governance: intervene and disturb as little as possible, allowing things to transform naturally.
• Lao Jun is an honorific title for Laozi, traditionally regarded as the author of the Daode Jing.
• Guangshengyi and Commentary on the Dao De Jing are titles of commentaries on the Daode Jing. The passage here presents three layers of interpretation: commentary, exegesis, and explanation.

Governing the State: Prohibitions, Political Schemes, and Extravagance

The gist of the passage

Look at how all things are brought into being and transformed, and at how the world passes from order into disorder: the principles behind order and disorder then become clear at a glance.

The more prohibitions there are under Heaven, the poorer the people become

When a state is governed through harsh punishments, severe laws, and burdensome regulations, prohibitions and taboos multiply. Ordinary people then risk breaking the rules at every turn and dare not act freely. Their livelihoods are disrupted, and life grows increasingly difficult. That is why it is said, “The more the prohibitions, the poorer the people.”

Principle

When those above impose too many taboos and laws, people can break a rule and be punished with every action. The people cannot make a living; resentment, rebellion, and anxiety grow; farming and sericulture are neglected; and the people become poorer still. Poverty means having no wealth. If the ruler does little and keeps the laws few and lenient, people need not be wary at every turn. Each can follow their own nature, drinking from wells they dig and eating food they grow. Then the people prosper, and the state flourishes.

The more people rely on schemes and sharp tools, the more confused and disorderly the state becomes

Here, “sharp tools” refers to political schemes and ingenious stratagems. If the ruler treats such schemes as routine and cannot return to simplicity, those below will answer with deceit, and the state will sink further into confusion and obscurity.

Principle

Political schemes are useful when the time is right, and should be used only when necessary. If the ruler relies on them too often and cannot remain true to what is plain and genuine, those below will inevitably respond with deceit. When those above and below deceive one another, the right way becomes obscured, and disorder follows. If the ruler delights in novelty and political maneuvering, the people will prize cunning; as those above and below deceive one another, the state grows ever more confused.

The more people prize technical ingenuity, the more strange objects arise

If the ruler esteems skillful techniques and outward display, instead of remaining plain and embracing simplicity, the people will follow suit and become extravagant. Strange and extravagant objects will then appear in endless succession.

Note

“Skillful techniques” refers to crafts, carving and inlay, precious jades, and other rare luxuries. When the ruler does not esteem simplicity but favors outward display, the people imitate those above, competing to indulge in extravagant adornment, which grows more excessive by the day.

Principle

Extravagant craftsmanship pleases the eye, while rare treasures unsettle the mind. If those above remain absorbed in their amusements and do not change, those below will adorn themselves ever more lavishly. Simplicity will vanish, and extravagance will grow day by day. This deserves caution. For example, in the Spring and Autumn period, Duke Huan of Lu had the palace pillars painted red and the ends of the rafters carved. The historical records cite this as a warning against excess.

The Broad Commentary on the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue: A Plain-Language Interpretation

(Context from the preceding passage) The commentator cites Confucius’s criticism of Zang Wenzhong, a worthy minister of Lu in the Spring and Autumn period, for excessive decoration such as carving mountain patterns into pillars and painting water plants on beams. He, too, regarded this as excessive, intending to urge rulers to value frugality and shun ostentation.

“As laws and decrees grow more conspicuous, thieves and bandits multiply.”

Commentary: Once the Dao of Wuwei (non-action) is lost, people increasingly rely on laws and decrees to make up for it. People exploit loopholes in the law to do wrong; anyone can become a thief. Is this not precisely what it means for “thieves and bandits to multiply”?

Subcommentary: “Law” refers to criminal statutes, and “decrees” to government orders. The ruler governs the people according to personal desires, yet also tries to bring everything into order through strict laws and decrees. The people seek only to escape punishment and have no sense of shame, so they “steal from the law” to commit wrongdoing. Those above and below deceive one another, and thieves and bandits consequently increase day by day.

Explanation: Laws and decrees are originally meant to bring the people into order. When they become too numerous, deceit and fraud arise. Once deception takes hold, thieves and bandits multiply; this is called misrule. The Book of Rites: The Conveyance of Ritual says that when the Great Dao fell into obscurity, the realm became a family possession. Cities, walls, moats, and ponds were built for defense, and ritual and righteousness were used to govern. From this came plots and warfare, and laws and decrees grew more conspicuous while thieves and bandits multiplied. The Spring and Autumn Annals says that disorderly government in the Xia dynasty led to the creation of the “Punishments of Yu”; disorder in the Shang led to the “Punishments of Tang”; and disorder in the Zhou led to the “Nine Punishments.” The penal codes of all three dynasties arose in their declining years, causing the people to “escape disorderly rule but have no shame.”

In the Analects, “Making Government” chapter, Confucius says: “Guide them with government orders and regulate them with punishments, and the people will evade punishment but have no sense of shame.” Those who govern use laws to guide the people and punishments to regulate them. The people fear authority and do everything they can to evade responsibility for their offenses, with no thought for shame. Hence the commentary says they “merely seek to escape”—they want only to avoid punishment. Once the people evade punishment without feeling shame, they will inevitably exploit the legal system to deceive and commit wrongdoing, manipulating the law and distorting its wording to harm others. Zhuangzi says that when a great bandit arises, he steals even the laws of the sages and the wise in order to seize the state; what, then, of ordinary thieves? “Deceive one another” describes those above and below cheating each other: those below deceive those above, while those above harm those below. The transforming influence of benevolence does not reach the people, and this is the root of great disorder.

“Therefore the sage says: ‘I practice Wuwei, and the people transform themselves.’”

Subcommentary: This explains “take the realm through doing nothing.” “I” refers to the sage. The sage’s De (Virtue/Power) does not prize clever contrivance; one who embodies the Dao values Wuwei. Wuwei does not mean having no restraints. It means that those above do not act, while those below transform themselves; hence the saying, “the people transform themselves.”

Explanation: Through Wuwei, people are transformed and naturally return to what is right. When there is purposeful intervention, affairs multiply and clever schemes proliferate. With Wuwei, the people transform themselves and return to simplicity. The sage transforms the people through Wuwei, and they follow without being ordered; they govern themselves without waiting for government orders or punishments.

A Plain-Language Interpretation

The Scripture:

When there are too many affairs, government becomes burdensome; when government is burdensome, the people fall into greater disorder. With Wuwei (non-action), affairs are simple; when affairs are simple, government is clear. When government is clear and affairs are simple, people naturally turn toward goodness without waiting for instruction or commands.

When I do not interfere, the people grow prosperous of their own accord.

Commentary: When those above do not levy taxes and those below are not harassed, people can till their fields and draw water from their wells. Every household has enough, and every person is provided for. That is why it says the people prosper of their own accord.

Interpretation: To have abundant wealth is to be prosperous. When the ruler does not burden the people with labor, they can devote themselves to farming. Their agricultural work is unhindered, and their crops grow plentifully, so the people become prosperous. “Drawing water from wells and tilling fields” refers to the old poem that says, “We draw water from wells and drink; we till fields and eat.” This describes the time when Tang Yao ruled above: the people lived naturally, unaware that they had a ruler or that he provided for them. They drank and ate on their own, free from trouble and worry, so every household had enough and every person was provided for.

I cherish stillness, and the people become upright of their own accord.

Commentary: People are born still; this is their nature given by Heaven. When the ruler cherishes stillness and is not stirred into action by affairs, those below receive his De (Virtue/Power), follow their own nature, and become upright of their own accord.

Interpretation: The Book of Rites says, “People are born still; this is their nature given by Heaven.” This means that people’s lives originate in the Qi (vital energy) of the Dao (the Way). Before the six sensory influences have touched them or the six desires have intruded, they are left to their original harmony and embody clarity and stillness. But once they have passed beyond infancy, likes and dislikes arise, and joy and anger take shape. If the ruler governs through stillness, people throughout the realm return to simplicity and ease, and so become clear and upright of their own accord.

I have no desires, and the people return to their natural simplicity.

Note: Wuwei brings clarity and stillness, so people transform of their own accord. Not meddling in affairs avoids disturbing them, so the people prosper of their own accord. Cherishing stillness allows people to find their nature, so they become upright of their own accord. Having no desires preserves what is whole, so the people return to simplicity of their own accord. Here, “not interfering in affairs” is the means of governing the realm.

Commentary: If the ruler can truly maintain inner composure and harmony, and harbor no ambitions or desires outwardly, those below will be moved by his example and become genuinely simple and sincere.

Interpretation: When the ruler has no desire to possess things, those things can fulfill their proper nature. When he has no desire to control the people, they become simple of their own accord. This is the natural order. In cultivating oneself, nothing is more important than having no desires and knowing contentment; in governing a state, nothing is more important than leaving affairs alone and practicing Wuwei. If one truly puts these principles into practice, the self will be at ease and the state will be well governed. Another version includes two lines: “I have no feelings, and the people become clear of their own accord.” These lines also accord with the meaning, but they are absent from the imperial commentary, so I have included them here in full.

Notes:

• Wuwei: Refraining from reckless action and avoiding burdensome government that disturbs the people.
• Inner composure and harmony: A calm, even-minded heart.
• The six sensory influences and six desires: Buddhist terms; here they refer to external attractions and various desires.
• Original harmony and clarity and stillness: The primordial Qi and the clear, still nature.
• Beyond infancy: The time after a child’s earliest days.
• Tang Yao: The legendary sage ruler Yao, used here as an image of ideal governance.

The Main Idea of Chapter 58: “When Its Government Is Dull and Unobtrusive”

This chapter continues the previous discussion: ruling a state through harsh laws and unconventional military tactics will fail. Fortune and misfortune depend on each other and have no fixed form, leaving people confused. The sage then urges people to cultivate themselves through De. The central point is that quiet, unobtrusive government that is broad-minded and follows Wuwei (non-action) is the right course. Scrupulous, harsh rule turns government into deceit; clinging to “goodness” can produce strange distortions, while clinging to “government” can turn into political manipulation. What matters is not becoming fixed or attached: by not possessing, not forcing, not cutting off, not defiling, not indulging, and not showing off, one can dispel long-standing customs born of confusion.

“When its government is dull and unobtrusive, its people are simple and genuine”

Commentary: When government and instruction are quiet, broad-minded, and follow Wuwei, the people respond with simplicity and honesty.

Explanation: “Dull and unobtrusive” means unassuming and generous; “simple and genuine” means plain and sincere. A ruler who follows Wuwei governs with a light touch, allowing things to develop on their own. Because there is no harshness or violence, customs remain simple and genuine.

Meaning: Simple government makes people simple; when people are simple, there is less to manage; when there is less to manage, punishment can be dispensed with and there is no need to exhaust oneself with rewards and encouragement. The ruler remains quiet and entrusts affairs to worthy officials; ministers follow circumstances and allow things to proceed naturally. In this way the state enjoys peace, and the principle of Wuwei gradually takes effect. Harshness means laws are detailed and enforced urgently; brutality means punishing people without first giving them instructions. If people are instructed before they are punished, they understand what they have been taught. With simple laws and a light touch, they understand what is forbidden. If someone breaks a prohibition and is then punished, punishing one person can make a thousand fear. But if an order is issued in the morning and punishment follows by evening, the people still have no time to learn the law—how is that not brutal? Punishing people without issuing instructions first is even more harmful.

“When its government is scrutinizing and exacting, its people are worn down”

Commentary: When government and instruction are interventionist, strict, and harsh, the people respond by becoming worn down.

Explanation: “Scrutinizing and exacting” means interventionist and severe; “worn down” means impoverished and scattered. An interventionist ruler governs harshly and urgently, using the law to constrain people. The more prominently laws are displayed, the more thieves there are; thus the people become worn down and scattered.

Plain-language exposition: Laozi sets two approaches against each other: quiet, broad-minded government → simple and genuine people; scrutinizing, harsh government → people who are worn down and alienated. The Guangsheng commentary also connects this contrast to the art of ruling: excessively detailed laws and brutal punishments are not “enlightened government”; they drive the people into a state of constant alarm. The truly less burdensome path is to keep government simple, entrust affairs to worthy people, and follow the natural course of things. This matches the phrasing in the Dao De Jing—“When its government is dull and unobtrusive” and “its people are worn down”—and focuses on criticizing rule that substitutes cleverness and harsh laws for Wuwei.

Interpretive explanation: Governing through harsh laws and severe punishments will unsettle the people. When the people are unsettled, the state will be ruined and depleted. Such things often unfold step by step in this way. The Book of the Plain Writings (Sushu) says: When a state is about to decline, its people are the first to fall into disorder. When the roots wither, the branches rot; when the people are worn down, the state is ruined. Therefore, one should govern with leniency and nurture the people so that the state may be peaceful and secure.

“Scrutinizing” means fixing one’s gaze on other people’s faults, enforcing rules with rigid scrutiny, and acting too hastily. “Depleted” means withered, damaged, incomplete: harming and injuring things.

Scripture: Misfortune! It is what good fortune depends upon. Good fortune! It is where misfortune lies hidden. Who can know where they will end?

Commentary: “Depends upon” means to be the cause of something; “lies hidden” means to be concealed. The passage above says that when government ordinances are subdued and unshowy, ordinary people think they lack the proper way of governing, yet the people become simple and genuine. This is how good fortune takes root within misfortune. When government ordinances are exacting and minutely scrutinizing, ordinary people think they show skill in governing, yet the people become depleted and impoverished. This is how misfortune lies hidden within good fortune.

Explanatory commentary: “Misfortune! It is what good fortune depends upon”: Earlier, the text spoke of subdued government. Ordinary people think it is bad, yet the people become simple, genuine, and honest. Does this not mean that good fortune grows out of misfortune? “Good fortune! It is where misfortune lies hidden”: “Hidden” means concealed. Under exacting, scrutinizing government, ordinary people think things are going well, yet everything becomes depleted and withered. Does this not mean that misfortune lies hidden within good fortune and eventually emerges? “Who can know where they will end?” When people lose the Dao and abandon De (Virtue/Power), cultivating artifice and esteeming outward display, good fortune and misfortune cycle endlessly, with no fixed pattern of dependence or concealment. Who can know where they will end?

Interpretive explanation: Heaven and Earth have times of rest and obstruction; the sun and moon wane and wax. These are all patterns of mutual dependence and concealment. Misfortune lies hidden within good fortune: when good fortune reaches its limit, misfortune arrives. Good fortune lies hidden within misfortune: when misfortune runs its course, good fortune comes. Those entangled in worldly conventions take this to be the constant way of things. Only people who possess the Dao and rulers of great De embody the Dao and harmonize Yin-Yang. They are not controlled by external things; they preserve their true nature and return from worldly conventions. Good and evil cannot move their hearts, so misfortune cannot befall them and good fortune cannot benefit them. They stand apart from gain and loss, honor and decline.

As for the fortunes of states, even the wise cannot predict how misfortune and good fortune depend upon and conceal one another; their ultimate course cannot be fully known. Qi suffered the upheaval caused by Zhong Sun, yet Duke Huan rose and became hegemon. Jin suffered the upheaval caused by Li Ke, yet Duke Wen rose and came to lead the feudal lords. Both states prospered through misfortune. Wei was at peace when the Di people destroyed it; Xing was secure when the people of Wei destroyed it. Both states fell without any preceding misfortune. Thus, no one can know the ultimate course of what lies hidden and what depends upon what.

Plain-language interpretation (continuous version):

This passage concerns lenient and strict governance and the interdependence of good fortune and misfortune.

When government and punishments are too severe, the people become unsettled and the state is ruined. One should therefore govern leniently and nurture the people. Here, Laozi’s terms “subdued,” “scrutinizing,” and “depleted” are interpreted as follows: when government ordinances are unshowy and do not flaunt their force, they seem to ordinary people like “non-action” in governance, yet the people become simple and genuine. What ordinary people regard as “misfortune”—government that does not look like government—is actually the cause of good fortune. When ordinances are exacting and minutely scrutinizing, they seem effective to ordinary people, yet the people become depleted. What they regard as “good fortune” is actually where misfortune lies hidden.

“Misfortune! It is what good fortune depends upon. Good fortune! It is where misfortune lies hidden. Who can know where they will end?” Misfortune and good fortune conceal one another and transform into one another. When people lose the Dao, their cycle has no fixed course. Who can say where it ends? Those who possess the Dao hold to unity and keep to the center. Their hearts are not moved by the good or evil of worldly circumstances, and neither misfortune nor good fortune can touch them.

Consider the fortunes of states: Qi and Jin produced hegemons amid crises, while Wei and Xing were destroyed when they seemed secure. This shows that the way misfortune and good fortune depend upon and conceal one another is hard to predict; one cannot judge by whether the present moment appears to bring “misfortune” or “good fortune.”

The saying cited from the Spring and Autumn Annals:

When disaster strikes, one may instead expand one’s territory; when there is no disaster, one may instead lose one’s defenses. When defenses are present or lost is often hard to predict. Can it really be that fortune and misfortune have no fixed standard?

Commentary (clarifying the meaning):

This asks whether, when fortune and misfortune reach their extremes, there is no proper and stable standard. In fact, people lose that standard because they cannot understand the Dao (the Way), cannot practice Wuwei (non-action), and instead cling blindly to things and lose their way.

Interpretation:

Ordinary people are confused by fortune and misfortune. They rejoice when favored and panic when humiliated. The more they react this way, the further they stray from the proper Way, and the more they invite strange and ominous signs. They do not realize that if one cultivates De (Virtue/Power) while remaining humble, even “a male pheasant crying in a cauldron”—once considered an ill omen—need not truly bring disaster. If one keeps an open mind and does not brood over setbacks, then even “the old man at the frontier losing his horse” need not be a misfortune. Regret and reluctance have no fixed standard; people bring fortune and misfortune upon themselves.

“What is proper turns into strange; what is good turns into ominous” (note):

When fortune and misfortune reach their extremes, can there really be no proper standard? It is only that people cling to their confusion: they see what is proper as cunning and extraordinary, and what is good as strange and ill-omened. Thus fortune and misfortune depend on one another and continually rise and fall, as though they had no fixed standard.

Commentary:

This explains how confusion and the proper arise. People are confused about fortune and misfortune. They encounter what is proper without recognizing it, and regard it as strange and deceptive. They do not understand goodness, and regard what is good as ominous. So it seems that there is no “proper” standard.

Interpretation:

The key to cultivating the Dao is to respond to changing circumstances without a fixed agenda, adapting one’s shape to the vessel, whether square or round. One must not be bound by fortune and misfortune or led about by judgments of right and wrong. Clinging to good fortune can turn goodness into something ominous; confusion about what is proper can make the proper seem strange. When an emperor responds to the times in appointing people, each person is put to use according to their abilities. But if he pursues what is “proper” too rigidly, people who overcorrect will inevitably appear; if he pursues “goodness” too rigidly, people who are affected and artificial will inevitably follow. If he can remain open-minded and unconfined, act for the public good, and appoint the worthy, then cunning and ominous signs can nearly be brought to an end.

“The people’s confusion has lasted a long time” (note):

This reversal—taking what is proper for what is strange, and what is good for what is ominous—has persisted for a long time.

Commentary:

This laments that people are confused about what is proper and good, and instead treat the strange and ominous as normal. This has been the case for a long time; hence the phrase “has lasted a long time.”

Interpretation:

The delusions of ordinary people have become ingrained through long habit, and they have never awakened to the truth. The Old Master sighs over these confused people and instructs them repeatedly in order to dispel their confusion. To be “confused” is to lose one’s sense of proportion. If one is not misled by fortune and misfortune or constrained by judgments of right and wrong, but remains broad-minded and even-handed about gain and loss, how could one be confused by what is proper or good and lose one’s sense of proportion?

“Therefore, the sage is square but does not cut” (a line from the Dao De Jing):

The sage acts with integrity but does not harm others or divide things apart—that is, does not cling to one side. This passage concludes by turning to the sage’s state, in contrast with the people’s confusion described above.

《Expanded Commentary on the True Scripture of the Dao and Its Virtue》: A Plain-Language Interpretation

Commentary (notes): “Square” means “upright.” Here, the text describes the conduct of a sage and encourages people to cultivate it.

The sage proclaims the Great Dao, aids the people of the age, and guides all things toward what is upright. Because the sage acts uprightly, all things naturally respond in kind. The sage does not set up a separate system of teachings to cut down and remake the world, forcing everything to conform to personal standards.

Explanation: The sage holds themself to uprightness, and the people become upright of their own accord, following this example. Once people lose what is “upright,” they lose their way: they can no longer tell right from wrong, and good fortune becomes entangled with misfortune. The sage is not shamed by misfortune or made proud by good fortune. The sage does not put on a show of “uprightness” to adorn the heart, nor follow what is wrong and become absorbed in it. Standing distinct above all things and holding fast to the Great Mean, the sage leads everyone toward what is “square” and in accord with what is “upright.”

Pure Yet Unstained

Commentary: “Pure” means clean and honest; “stained” means polluted. The sage follows their nature in being pure, and so naturally influences those below. The sage does not set off their own purity by pointing to others’ pollution, or praise their own purity by disparaging others as impure. Treating “purity” as a means to cut others down and set oneself apart only harms people. The sage cultivates virtue through purity without harming anything outside themself.

Explanation: The sage purifies themself through honesty, and the people become honest of their own accord, following this example. Why would there be any need to slander or besmirch others? People often try to guide others through restrictive laws, threats of punishment, inducements, and rewards. Fewer than two or three in ten may actually comply. The sage uses neither rewards and punishments nor legal controls, but simply purifies themself and acts honestly. People are moved to change on their own. Why wait until they are forcibly cut and reshaped, as if by a butcher, before trying to encourage them?

Straight Yet Not Overbearing

Commentary: “Overbearing” means to assert oneself or show off. The sage acts without deviation, and others naturally follow suit and become upright. The sage does not assert themself to straighten others out simply because they are crooked.

Explanation: The sage is naturally upright, and so does not “assert” themself to correct others. Instead, the sage leads by upright example, and everyone becomes honest and upright. Then those above are upright, those below are upright, and all under Heaven is upright. If those in high positions act wrongly while those below flatter them, how can there be any distinction between right and wrong? The Book of Documents, in “The Mandate to Jiong,” says: “If the servants and ministers are upright, their ruler can be upright; if they are flattering, their ruler will be biased.” The Analects likewise says: “When those above are upright, people act without being ordered; when those above are not upright, no one obeys, even when ordered.” These passages show how those in high positions, through their example, shape the conduct of those below.

Bright Yet Not Dazzling

Note: The sage is skilled at influencing others: without cutting things down to force them into “square” form, without staining them to make them “pure,” without stretching them to make them “straight,” and without dazzling them to make them “bright.” The sage cultivates themself, and all under Heaven is transformed of its own accord.

Commentary and explanation (in keeping with the passages above): The sage has light within, yet does not dazzle or blind others. The sage cultivates only themself, and the radiance of virtue shines forth on its own, without overpowering people. Thus, as with being “square,” “pure,” and “straight,” the sage holds themself to account without cutting down what lies outside.

A Plain-Language Interpretation

What does “concealing the light” mean?

Here, “concealing the light” means possessing wisdom and insight inwardly, yet keeping them in reserve instead of showing them off. Even when a sage is intelligent and perceptive, they deliberately remain modest and keep their brilliance hidden. As the ancients put it, “bright, but not dazzling”: there is light, but it neither hurts the eyes nor calls attention to itself. When a sage’s De (Virtue) reaches this point, the people naturally become simple and sincere, and willingly follow the teaching.

An explanation of the “righteousness” passage:

The sage’s wisdom and clarity are not put on display or used for self-praise. The four qualities described above are models for how a sage conducts themself; they serve as metaphors to guide and instruct the world. Only by governing the world and ruling as a king in accordance with such De can one be said to possess true sagehood.

The deeper principle, however, is to understand that good and ill fortune often depend on one another and transform into each other, and that strange or abnormal events do not remain unchanged forever—as suggested by the scripture’s phrase, “The strange and the uncanny: their day is surely there.” In dealing with others, one may soften an outwardly rigid, angular manner while keeping the heart clear; one may be reserved and unobtrusive in appearance while inwardly remaining perceptive. Set aside harsh and violent methods, and cultivate a clear, generous heart. In this way, one lets go of the conditions that cause people to become deluded and rigid, and naturally accords with the Dao’s subtle qualities of quiet simplicity and the ineffable, nearly non-active.