《南華真經義海纂微》Vol. 78

Nie Que met Xu You, an ancient recluse, and asked, “Where are you going?” Xu You said, “I’m going to escape from Yao.” Nie Que asked, “Why?”

Xu You said, “Yao presents himself as so benevolent and considerate that I fear people throughout the world will laugh at him. I also fear that later generations will use this as a reason to harm one another and compete without end. The people are not hard to gather: care for them, and they draw near; give them benefits, and they come over; praise them, and they are encouraged; make them face what they dislike, and they scatter. Care and the giving of benefits come from benevolence and righteousness. Few abandon benevolence and righteousness, but many use them to pursue profit. Actions of benevolence and righteousness often do not come from sincerity; they may instead be a disguise. The greedy treat benevolence and righteousness as tools for gaining advantage. So for one person to decide unilaterally what benefits the whole world is like seeing only a tiny part of things. Yao knows that worthy people can benefit the world, but does not know that they can also harm it. Only those who stand outside the reputation of worthiness can see this clearly.

“There are three kinds of people: Nuan Shu, Ru Xu, and Juan Lou. ‘Nuan Shu’ describes someone who learns a single phrase from a teacher, then takes private delight in it and congratulates himself, thinking it is enough, without realizing that he still does not understand things at all. That is Nuan Shu.

“‘Ru Xu’ is like a louse on a pig. It chooses a place where the pig’s hair is sparse and thinks it lives in a spacious palace. It hides in the bend of the pig’s hoof, between its teats, or beside its legs, and thinks it has found a safe and comfortable home. It does not know that when the butcher spreads out the straw with a sweep of his arm and takes up a torch, it will be burned along with the pig. Such a person adjusts to the circumstances at hand but does not know of the dangers beyond them. That is Ru Xu.

“‘Juan Lou’ refers to Shun. Mutton does not envy ants, but ants envy mutton because its smell is strong. Shun was able to govern on his own, and the people all liked him. He moved three times, and wherever he went, settlements grew around him. Later, at the ruins of Deng, a hundred thousand households gathered. When Yao heard that Shun was worthy, he recommended him from his remote homeland, hoping to benefit from his influence. By the time Shun was appointed from that remote place, he was already old, and his hearing and sight had begun to fail, yet still he could not retire and rest. That is Juan Lou.

“Thus the spirit-like person dislikes crowds gathering around him. When people are numerous, they cannot be close to one another; when they cannot be close, it is hard to benefit them. So he is neither especially intimate with anyone nor especially distant from anyone. He holds De within, nurtures harmony, and accords with the world. This is what is called a True Person.

“Ants give up their cleverness, fish find a way, and sheep abandon their fixed ideas. See with the eyes, hear with the ears, and let the heart return to its own nature. Such a person is ordinarily as straight as a carpenter’s line, and when things change, follows the patterns of things…”

Guo Xiang’s commentary says: Benevolence and righteousness are the roots of what people compete to esteem. Once put into practice, they may be disguised as tools for pursuing profit. When their outward traces become visible, those driven by greed can use these labels to achieve their aims. If benevolence and righteousness arise from each person’s genuine feelings, then the standards used to judge and restrain people cannot be confined to one person. Applying a single measure to cut and shape all things and forms will instead cause harm. Only by not presenting oneself as worthy or capable can one avoid becoming false. If both one’s intentions and one’s outward conduct are confined by moral instruction, how could one know that all things each transform and come into being on their own in a profound and mysterious realm?

Unless they possess the wisdom to comprehend change and stand apart from the world, those who seek only temporary comfort and gain are like lice on a pig. The sage’s body is no different from that of ordinary people; thus, even when the senses of sight and hearing decline, the spirit remains whole. If the sage was not fully formed in youth, and then grew old in later life, could his sagely wisdom really have taken shape between morning and evening? People naturally turn to him; he does not deliberately seek or attract them. Shun’s possession of All under Heaven, too, was probably a matter of necessity. If he took upon himself every task that benefited the people, then although they received his kindness, Shun would wear out his body. Ants, fish, and sheep still cannot escape the distinctions made by their senses and minds. They therefore cannot free themselves from worldly conventions and attain natural calm, nor can they sever the traces of human contrivance and meet the Mysterious Dao.

Lü Huiqing’s commentary says: I know the deeds of Shun and Yu; those deeds became tools for the greedy to exploit. Calling something benevolence and righteousness still leaves one caught in distinctions and knowledge. Once there is knowledge, one is divided by bodies, objects, and boundaries. If one person judges all matters, even for the sake of All under Heaven, it amounts to no more than a fleeting glance. It is not a way of following the nature of all things, responding to circumstances, and bringing each thing to completion without omission.

The saying that “the roots of great disorder must have arisen in the age of Yao and Shun, while its lingering effects endured for a thousand years afterward” refers to this. To regard warmth as the standard of what is right is to miss the realm of fullest abundance in All under Heaven; to regard goodness as the standard is to miss its highest beauty. Thus, one learns the words of a certain master and thinks oneself satisfied, without knowing the realm of “that which has never existed.” Once soaked in something, one cannot leave it; dependent on something else, one must wait upon it. At ease in lowliness and filth, one fails to recognize the danger. That is why such people are described as “pig lice.”

They draw themselves in, curl up, and cluster together, yet do not conceal their rank stench. They cause all under Heaven to admire them and rally to them; that is why such people are spoken of as “Shun.” They study a certain master’s teachings without understanding the principle of “that which has never existed.” When they encounter profit, they sink into attachment; when they encounter danger, they shrink back to protect themselves. Looking at Shun’s deeds, what could All under Heaven add to me? They would only make my body more weary… The original text ends here unfinished.

Shun was embraced by the people. Yet even when all under Heaven rallied to someone like Yao or Shun, such a person was still detested by the spirit-like person. The spirit-like person neither compares himself with him nor regards this as a personal gain, yet the people naturally rally to him. This is how a True Person—one who has realized the Great Dao (the Way)—acts: he makes no distinction between those near and far, cherishes De (Virtue/Power), cultivates calmness, and responds to all under Heaven. The people rejoice and rally to him, and Shun rejoices in responding to them. Shun regarded all under Heaven as lightly as a worn-out shoe; in his own eyes, becoming Shun was no more significant than dust or chaff. What could such a person be, if not a spirit-like person and a True Person?

Ants make trouble because their awareness is narrow; fish preserve their lives by hiding in deep water; and sheep, being full of schemes, give rise to much cruelty. Observe the eye with the eye, and you will see clearly; listen to the ear with the ear, and you will hear; turn the mind back upon itself, and you will know what is within. Set aside clever perception and subjective intention, and settle yourself in what is deep and subtle: then you can reach the state called “seeing clearly what is seen, hearing distinctly what is heard, and knowing what is known.” In this way, wherever you go, your mind remains at peace, helping the myriad things follow their own nature without presumptuously acting upon them. This is the Dao’s return to what is genuine.

Yidu’s commentary says: The system of laws began with Fuxi, but its governance was not complete until the time of Yao. What Yao established were the first signs of the way of benevolent people: love those close to you and the people will gather; bring them into harmony through benefits and they will rally to you; honor them through reputation and they will be encouraged. But if you force them to do what they do not wish to do, they will scatter. Thus, few in the world abandon benevolence and righteousness, while many exploit them for gain. They chase fame, imitate old precedents, turn away from their nature, and fall into falseness.

If someone tries to practice benevolence and righteousness without sincerity, then people in the world who are greedy as beasts will use them as tools for scheming and profit. Everyone will steal the reputation of benevolence and righteousness to deceive all under Heaven, and in the end people will devour one another. Besides, to set up a standard of benevolence and righteousness through one person, then use it to judge all under Heaven and pursue gain, is like glancing once and expecting to see the whole world. The intention may be to benefit all under Heaven, but one does not realize that this instead brings calamity.

For a worthy person to possess the reputation of benevolence and righteousness is, in Laozi’s view, precisely a way of failing to honor the worthy. Warmth makes itself warm; beauty makes itself beautiful. What is moistened becomes moist; what must wait waits. What is curled naturally bends, and what is bent inward naturally folds back. These sayings use invented names to satirize the customs of the time. Those who study a certain master’s teachings become confused about the Way of the sages if they cling to old precedents. They take satisfaction in warmth and beauty, yet do not know that the Great Dao exists before the myriad things have divided. Kui’s form resembles the curved parts of a hoof and body, between the breast and the thighs.

Lice depend on the warmth of a pig’s body to live, and need its dampness too. They take these things as security and comfort, unaware that when the butcher arrives, they will be burned to death along with the pig. The lice on the pig serve here as a metaphor for people who cannot rise beyond their circumstances and must rely on certain conditions to make themselves secure: they are bound to meet with disaster.

So, when circumstances are favorable, they press forward; when they turn against them, they retreat. Unless one has the gifts of someone beyond the world, anyone who covets only temporary ease and advantage is like a louse attached to a pig. Shun received his mandate from Heaven, and his true De was within him. He did not deliberately display his abilities and virtue or engage in needless action, yet the people admired him. To avoid Yao’s son, he moved several times, but the people still followed him of their own accord. He once lived in a barren place without trees or grass, laboring for all under Heaven without respite. This was the state called “juanlou”—being constrained and unable to stretch out freely. None of these situations is the true state of the Great Dao.

The spirit person, one who has attained the Dao and transcended the world, does not welcome crowds gathering to follow them. Even when people come to their side, they show no special affection for anyone. Treating those near and far alike, they nurture De and harmonize body and mind, thereby responding to all under Heaven. This is the true state.

Ants have shallow understanding, fish make far-reaching plans, and sheep are stubborn in their intentions. The sage abandons narrow understanding, takes up deep-reaching plans, and sheds stubborn intent. The sage lets the eyes see what they ought to see and the ears hear what they ought to hear, and returns the mind to its own nature, so that it can know itself. In this way, the mind becomes balanced and upright, and when things change, it can move with the circumstances. “Xunxun” means that one has not yet entirely escaped the tracks of conventional conduct or become self-reliant and steadfast.

Bixu, the commentator on this passage, says: “Warmth, softness, comfort, and beauty make people content with themselves. Depending on dampness and finding temporary security is what is meant by ‘being moistened and sustained.’ ‘Juanlou’ describes being constrained and unable to stretch out. These images are metaphors for people with shallow understanding, narrow and stubborn views, and a sense of self-satisfaction, who do not know that, in the view of those who comprehend the Great Dao, once things have been fully investigated and one’s nature fully expressed, all things are originally without any fixed, unchanging substance.

“To hold a position without fulfilling its responsibilities, while coveting only comfort and enjoyment, is called ‘yujin.’ If one refuses to settle in a place, even temporarily, disaster will soon arrive; this is called ‘yutui.’ E Lai followed King Zhou and was ultimately executed with him. How is that any different from the lice on a pig?

“The sage regards all things as straw dogs used in sacrifice—objects fashioned from straw for temporary ritual use—and leaves no traces nearby for others to rely on. The people attach themselves to the sage as ants pursue the smell of something savory and rank. Thus, wherever the sage goes, a market forms in a year, a town in two years, and a capital in three. Dengxu is a place name. Shun once lived in a place without trees or grass. Yao put Shun forward as his successor in the hope that all under Heaven would benefit. After Shun’s work was done, he was old and still could not rest; this was because the fame of his benevolence and righteousness drew people together. Once the work was accomplished, people came to seek his company and praise him. Over time, this closeness and praise narrowed their relationships and could even bring fear and contempt, which was harmful. Only by treating those near and far alike and standing apart from the reputation of being worthy can one keep the people from attaching themselves in admiration, like ants pursuing a scent.

“Abandon cunning intelligence, and one can forget all things together in the rivers and lakes…”

Fish find contentment in water. Calm, detached, and inactive, they are at ease, and their Virtue naturally influences the people. The people know that there is a ruler, but they do not admire and cling to him as a flock of sheep gathers at the scent of mutton. Draw in the gaze, still the hearing, and dispel stray thoughts so the mind returns to calm. Acting in accord with one’s own nature then naturally accords with the measure; responding to the changes in things, one’s actions follow their principles without fail.

The Commentary on the Meaning of the Yanzhai says: “People of shallow understanding often assume they are right and mock those who seek to learn. They do not grasp the mystery of ‘before there were things’—the fundamental principle from before the myriad things took shape—and remain stuck on external things, dependent on them at every turn. Those who covet fame and wealth are like lice gathered in the curves of a horse’s hoof or the recesses of a wall. They think themselves secure, unaware that what they depend on cannot be trusted. ‘Domain’ means confining the mind within wealth and rank. ‘Bent, hunched, and stooped’ describes the look of someone bowed down by toil. If a person who cultivates Virtue considers themselves a celebrated figure, with everyone coming to attach themselves to them, they will instead find it burdensome and never know peace throughout their life. This passage satirizes rulers who govern through deliberate action.”

“To embrace Virtue and warm harmony” means to nurture Virtue and foster harmonious Qi without displaying it. Ants are tiny, yet have not entirely reached a state of insensibility; sheep may be foolish, but they have not entirely become free of intention. Only the True Person is truly without knowing or intending. Fish find contentment in water, and the True Person is the same. “Water” is a metaphor for the Creator; “fish” is a metaphor for oneself. The True Person’s mind, ears, and eyes are like those of ordinary people, but they use them without contrivance: the eyes see naturally, the ears hear naturally, and the mind rests in its own nature. The “carpenter’s square and ink line” are the standards of nature. When things change, one responds to their changes, and one’s actions are naturally fitting.

Nie Que and Xu You both valued their true nature and used it to cultivate themselves, but did not take governing the world as their responsibility. Judging by their words, they did understand how to govern a state; they simply believed that matters such as sacrifices and banquets should not be taken over from those responsible for them. Moving within or beyond worldly society brings different kinds of ease and toil. Benevolence and righteousness are the foremost of the Five Constant Virtues, the five ethical norms often emphasized by Confucians, and should not be casually disparaged. But when later generations put benevolence and righteousness into practice, they often recognized only outward forms and mistook those forms for genuine practice, thereby losing what was authentic. If one departs from one’s nature and lets private feelings take charge, benevolence and righteousness cannot arise willingly and at ease. When the mind harbors thoughts of personal gain, one is bound to use false displays to pass oneself off as benevolent and righteous. This truly damages the Dao. For this reason, Laozi and Zhuangzi advocated returning to simplicity and recovering the root, rejecting and criticizing such practices. But what is there to criticize in true benevolence and great righteousness, when they can encompass Heaven and Earth, nurture the myriad things, accord with Dao and Virtue, and establish the fundamental standards of human life?

By the time of Yao, benevolence and righteousness were already thought to have become shallow. Xu You feared that he would be mocked by everyone in the world. Perhaps, seeing the body’s approach through its shadow, he wanted to evade it and avoid the trouble that might follow. Governing the world should mean letting it transform naturally through Wuwei (non-action); if…

If someone devotes themselves entirely to caring for and benefiting the people through benevolence, their strength may still prove insufficient. If they then try to make up the difference through deliberate contrivance, hypocrisy will arise, and all kinds of calamities will follow.

Those in high office, if they can truly take the people’s concerns as their own, will accord naturally with the people’s original nature, even without deliberately promoting benevolence and righteousness. If they cannot do this, they are like greedy beasts setting bows and snares to catch their prey, causing even greater harm to all things. It is impossible for one person, guided by their own judgment, to understand the circumstances and dispositions of all things under Heaven in a moment, and then use that understanding to seek the world’s benefit. One may know only that honoring the worthy has advantages, without knowing that this practice may also bring harm to later generations. Only by moving beyond the bias toward honoring the worthy can one see this.

The passages that follow cite examples such as Nuanshu, Juanlou, and Ruxu to illustrate the preceding point in considerable detail, and the various interpretations are all thorough. The text says, “The spirit-like person dislikes crowds,” then speaks of the people’s allegiance to Yao and their wholehearted acceptance when Yao recommended Shun. These things all followed the natural course of things; they were not deliberate attempts to please the people or win them over through benefits. Thus, responding to the world through De (Virtue/Power), without distinguishing between those near and far, is proof that the “True Person”—one who follows the Dao without artifice—meets worldly affairs using only their surplus capacity.

The three comparisons of ants, sheep, and fish develop the idea that Shun had what is called a “musky conduct,” a way of behaving that drew people to him like the scent of musk. The argument is strikingly original. It should be presented in this order: first the ants, then the sheep, and finally the fish. Ants leaving a foul smell behind means abandoning cunning and calculation; moving the people without using conduct designed to attract them means abandoning deliberate contrivance. In this way, those above and below each remain in their proper place, with no trace of admiration for sages or reverence for the worthy—like fish that do not tire of deep water, each forgetting the other in rivers and lakes. Is this not the proper way?

When this is achieved, the eyes see through the eyes and are not misled by colors; the ears hear through the ears and are not misled by sounds; the heart responds through the heart and is not ruled by cunning knowledge. Then the eyes of all under Heaven can share a common view, their ears and eyes can communicate, and each person’s heart can be whole. Conduct will be as fair as a carpenter’s line and serve as a standard for the world. In responding to change, one follows only the natural course of things, with no desire for private gain and no calamities brought on by going against the myriad things. Since this is so, why worry that the world will not transform and flourish of its own accord? Why deliberately set out to govern it and impose order by force?

Ordinary people are confined by the bounds of fame and profit, like lice living on a pig and confined by its body. A person’s advances and retreats, gains and losses, are no more than changes between success and failure.

Collected Subtle Commentaries on the True Classic of the Southern Flower, juan 80