《南華真經義海纂微》Vol. 99

Confucius said, “The human heart is more treacherous and harder to fathom than mountains and rivers, and more difficult to predict than the signs of Heaven. Heaven has fixed seasons—spring, summer, autumn, and winter—and regular patterns such as morning and evening. People, however, appear honest and sincere while concealing their true feelings. Some seem humble but are all the more arrogant within; some seem generous and kind but are unworthy within; some seem eager to comply but are inwardly aloof and calculating; some seem firm but are inwardly lax; and some seem slow-moving but are inwardly impatient.

“Some pursue what is right with the urgency of someone parched with thirst, yet turn away from it as swiftly as someone fleeing scorching heat. Thus, a noble person can assess others in nine ways: send someone far away on an errand and observe whether they are loyal; keep them close at hand and observe whether they are respectful; entrust them with complicated tasks and observe their ability; question them without warning and observe their understanding; set a deadline under pressure and observe whether they keep their word; entrust them with money and observe whether they are generous; tell them of a perilous undertaking and observe their integrity; let them get drunk and observe whether they remain composed; and let them mingle with others and observe their bearing. Through these nine assessments, even an unworthy person can be recognized.”

Guo Xiang’s commentary: From “the human heart is more treacherous than mountains and rivers” to “turning away from what is right as swiftly as someone fleeing scorching heat” describes how people’s inner feelings may sometimes be the opposite of their outward appearance. The human heart is difficult to understand, but it is not entirely without signs. A noble person can readily discern them, while an unworthy person may not; still, by examining the reasons behind someone’s actions and what brings them inward composure, one can follow the clues and come to understand them.

Lü Huiqing’s commentary: “Humility” and “arrogance,” “generosity and kindness” and “unworthiness,” and “eagerness to comply” and “aloofness and calculation” are all opposing appearances. “Being calculating” here means being crafty and crooked; someone with malicious intent cannot be called eager to comply. Firmness and laxity, too, as well as slowness and impatience, are opposites. Therefore, people cannot be assessed by just one method.

Yidu’s commentary: The dangers of mountains and rivers can be seen, but the depths of the human heart cannot. The movements of the heavens follow a regular sequence, but changes in the human heart have no fixed schedule. Even though the dangers of mountains and rivers and the changes in the heavens are hard to fathom, the human heart is harder still. “People appear honest and sincere while concealing their true feelings” describes how difficult they are to read. From “seeming humble while being inwardly arrogant” to “seeming slow-moving while being inwardly impatient,” the text shows that outward appearance and inner feelings may be at odds. This does not mean that there are no signs, only that they are hard to recognize. Zhuangzi’s “nine tests” use a person’s conduct to observe their inner nature and distinguish the noble from the base.

Bixu’s commentary: The text says that the dangers of mountains and rivers can be seen, while the depths of the human heart are hard to measure. Some people appear strict but are even more arrogant within; some appear generous but are unworthy within; some appear eager to comply but are inwardly aloof…

Some people appear relaxed and unhurried on the outside, yet are scattered within; others seem slow and gentle, yet are impetuous and fierce by temperament. When inner and outer can diverge this far, a person cannot be judged by a single standard. So the junzi (the exemplary person) tests others through the "Nine Examinations" (jiuzheng), nine ways of assessing a person:

• Send a loyal person far away, and his resolve does not change.
• Keep a respectful person close at hand, and he never grows careless.
• Give a capable person heavy responsibilities, and he does not spoil the work.
• Present a wise person with sudden change, and he is never at a loss for solutions.
• A trustworthy person keeps even a modest agreement, unchanged to the end.
• A benevolent person, faced with money, does not cheat.
• A person of integrity, in danger and hardship, does not waver in his purpose.
• A person of principle, even when drunk and carousing, does not fall into disorder.
• An upright person, living amid filth and corruption, remains untainted.

If one does not test people through concrete conduct, and chooses them only by appearance and bearing, one cannot see clearly the true condition of the exemplary person and the petty person.

Yuzhai (Lin Xiyi of the Song dynasty, styled Yuzhai, a commentator on the Zhuangzi) says: Some people look honest and kindly, yet are wholly bent on profit; some hold real strengths within but look like unpromising material; some seem pliant but are in fact hasty, and yet grasp the principles of things; some seem strong but are in fact weak; some seem easygoing but are in fact narrow and impatient. This shows how hard it is to see through a person. "As if thirsting" describes the keenness of advance, and "as if scorched" describes the swiftness of retreat. Test with the Nine Examinations, and the worthy and the unworthy come into view. This passage is entirely sound in its reasoning. That it is attributed to Confucius shows that Zhuangzi was not disrespectful toward him.

The author of this book elaborates further: Heaven has its changes of cold and heat, clear and rain, which can be predicted by calendrical calculation; Earth has its dangerous mountains, rivers, and ravines, which can be crossed with ladders and boats. Only in the narrow space of the human heart-mind (xin) are change and peril hard to fathom and hard to cross. Why is this? Hold the heart-mind and it remains; let it go and it vanishes. It comes and goes at no fixed time, and so it is hard to know and hard to see. Yet the heart-mind must attach itself to outward things before it shows any trace, so observing a person's countenance and discerning their words can reveal six or seven parts in ten. Some people cloak their inner thoughts in depth and gravity, and then one cannot avoid probing their hearts through actual affairs. In one whose heart is upright, every movement is upright; in one whose heart is crooked, every movement is crooked, and however skilled the disguise, something will in the end remain uncovered. This is the difference between the exemplary person and the petty person. The key lies with those in high position: if their own desires do not overstep the bounds of propriety and they are approachable and easy with others, then the hearts of all under Heaven will be as one heart, and the customs of all under Heaven as the customs of one household. Why then worry that people are hard to know or the common people hard to transform?

From "outwardly sincere" (mao yuan) through "as if scorched" (ruo re), the passage speaks of cases where inner and outer are opposed. From "send him far away" to "place him in a disorderly setting," the aim is to test, across all kinds of circumstances, whether what a person holds to is truly firm. This is the intent of the Nine Examinations.

It is certainly useful to recognize the character of worthy and unworthy people, but doing so can also be exhausting. It is better to wait until a situation arises, meet it with an empty and still mind, and observe the other person gradually. Look at whether their gaze is steady or shifting, as if you could see their lungs and liver; besides, they will speak and reveal their true intentions. How could these escape careful assessment?

Zheng Kaofu, a high official of the state of Song in the Spring and Autumn period, bowed lower each time he received an appointment. At the first appointment, he bent at the waist; at the second, he stooped; at the third, he bowed so low that he walked along the foot of the wall. Who would dare disobey the rules in the presence of such a person? Ordinary people are the opposite: at their first appointment, they hold their heads high; at the second, they dance in their carriage; at the third, they call their elders by their personal names. Which of the two is closer to people like Yao and Xu You? Nothing damages De more than deliberately putting it on display. When the mind harbors the intention to show itself off, it is as though eyes have grown in the heart. Once those eyes begin peering into others, then turn inward to peer into oneself, things are already going wrong.

There are five kinds of harmful De, and “middle De” comes first. What is middle De? It is believing oneself to be right and mocking what one refuses to do. There are eight kinds of adversity, three kinds of good fortune, and six kinds of physical attributes. A fine beard, great height, a strong build, handsome features, courage, and firmness—when these qualities exceed the ordinary, they can themselves bring hardship. Going along with things, relying on external forces, and being unable to control one’s movements up or down are three further kinds of difficulty. Adversity, timidity, and having less ability than others are conditions that can bring a person good fortune. Intelligence that reaches outward invites trouble; bold, restless action brings resentment; and a reputation for benevolence and righteousness invites criticism. Those who understand the realities of life appear lofty and exceptional. Those who understand cleverness appear ordinary and easygoing. Those who understand the Great Mandate—the major destiny of a person—follow their fate; those who understand lesser destinies, the particular circumstances they encounter, accept their lot with equanimity.

Guo Xiang’s commentary: “Tang” in the text refers to Yao, and “Xu” to Xu You. The question is which way of acting—the ordinary person’s or Zheng Kaofu’s—is in accord with Yao and Xu You. Someone who deliberately turns De into a display does not truly possess De. True De is acquired naturally, without one knowing why one is as one is. Acting in accordance with one’s original nature may be acceptable; but if one focuses the mind on one’s facial expressions and deliberately peers into others, one is already being false. To probe for hidden secrets and make a point of penetrating insight will cause both one’s own mind and the matters one handles to fall into ruin.

Those who believe themselves right and condemn others will naturally have no shortage of attackers, which is why this is called the foremost of harmful forms of De. If the mind is free of attachment to its own preferences, and allows the myriad things to reveal themselves as they are, so that none loses its nature, then everyone under Heaven will willingly come to it. “Adversity” here means being constrained by serving everyone under Heaven. People are not necessarily brought low by their shortcomings; often they are burdened by their strengths. Those who rely on external things, cannot control their movements up or down, or are timid and distressed may be unable to take on affairs by themselves, yet may therefore be appointed and supported by others. Unrestrained outward ability can damage what is inward, while timidity and stillness help preserve oneself. People under Heaven place their hopes in those who practice benevolence and righteousness, expecting them to care for everyone. But their care cannot reach all without exception, so they are often criticized. “Kuiran” means lofty and exceptional.

“Great serenity” refers to a quiet mind and spirit. “Dissolving and dispersing” means loosening and melting away. “Following along, becoming indistinct, and reaching a state of shared transformation” means moving with change, gradually letting go of distinctions, and becoming attuned to the transformations of all things.

If a person can settle the mind and spirit at every critical point, understanding can arise from this.

Lü’s commentary says that Zheng Kaofu rose from scholar to grandee and then to minister, yet as his rank increased, his conduct became ever more humble. When Tang Yao offered the realm to Xu You, Xu You refused to accept it. These examples show that people differ in how much they can contain and bear. Only by not deliberately seeking knowledge or clinging to distinctions, and by following the patterns of Heaven, can one avoid harming one’s nature. To go against those patterns is to injure oneself.

Once De (Virtue/Power) is mixed with self-interest, the mind begins to distinguish and judge. Too much knowledge and experience can also lead a person away from their nature. Nothing causes greater harm. To peer inward and repeatedly calculate and weigh things is what is meant by self-injury. When the senses encounter external things, the mind and spirit become lost and cannot return; all of this bodes ill.

“De with a self at its center” means that when private concerns are mixed into De, a sense of self arises. Believing oneself right and others wrong leads one to favor what one likes and mock what one is unwilling to do. When someone surpasses others in eight respects, they are likely to become complacent; falling short in three respects may spur them to strive harder. Mencius, speaking of isolated ministers and disfavored sons—ministers left without support and sons born to concubines—also said that their anxieties and hardships often made them resolute. This is close to the principle discussed here.

When intelligence and talent are displayed outwardly, external things are apt to crowd in. Bold action often brings resentment, while proclaiming one’s benevolence and righteousness easily invites criticism. This passage says that what society considers beautiful may not truly be beautiful, and what it considers hateful may not truly be hateful. What matters is to cultivate oneself with effort and hold to an aspiration, while not becoming attached to one’s body or self. A person who understands life no longer assumes that everything innate must be mastered through knowledge, but simply lets things follow their natural course. One who understands knowledge sees that what they know ultimately has its source in not knowing. Yet until one reaches the state of true not-knowing, one can only draw gradually closer to it.

“Mandate” is what transformation confers. Since people are born through transformation, one who understands the Great Mandate follows it rather than straying from it. One who understands the lesser mandate knows that adversity and advancement depend on Heaven’s decree and are not entirely under one’s control, and so accepts whatever befalls them without refusing or evading it.

The Yidu commentary explains that in ancient times “mandates” had ranks: the first mandate made one a scholar, the second a grandee, and the third a minister. Gestures such as “bending the back” and “keeping to the wall” were forms of humility and deference; the higher one’s office, the more one should yield to others. “Acting without restraint” means treating others with contempt; “straightening the back” means standing upright; dancing in a carriage is the height of frivolity, while addressing one’s elders by name is the height of arrogance. Yao offered the realm to Xu You, who refused it; hence the question, “Who could accord with Tang Yao and Xu You?” A gentleman grows more humble as his position rises, while a petty person grows more insolent.

The commentary further says that “De with a self at its center” is a lower form of De; the highest De is without a self and does not cling to selfhood. “The mind has eyes” means that the mind is stirred by external things; when the mind is still, external things do not pull it along. Private concerns within De harm the Dao (the Way); distinctions arising in the mind harm De. Once Dao and De are lost, artificial contrivances follow. When contrivance proliferates, the mind busies itself with scrutiny, deliberation, and calculation, and in the end harms its own nature.

True nature … What is meant by “harmful virtue” is the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and mind. The mind resides at the center and governs the other faculties: when the mind stirs, the other four stir with it. If the mind harbors partiality, it deceives itself. When others do not accord with its preferences, it disparages them. This is the harm within the mind. When a person exerts themselves excessively in all eight areas, they cannot help being ruled by external things and so fall into hardship. Those who are inferior to others in three areas can preserve themselves and so find ease.

People have eight extreme tendencies, while the three tendencies necessarily follow their own natural principles, just as the body has six organs. Displaying cleverness and talent outwardly damages one’s inner nature. Acting with force and often going against others invites resentment. Advocating benevolence and righteousness leads others to expect care and affection, and so to blame one more readily. Those who understand the realities of life appear lofty and apart from ordinary people. This loftiness and apartness comes from their difference from others: they are close to the divine. Those who understand the realities of destiny are in communication with the divine. Those who understand ordinary principles appear plain and awkward on the outside; this is because their Dao is great, and so they seem at odds with convention. Those who understand the greater destiny forget life and death and are not burdened by them; they gladly follow the Way of Heaven. Those who understand lesser destiny accept and calmly meet such circumstances as poverty or wealth, long life or early death.

Bixu’s Commentary: The Wenzi says, “Once cleverness enters the Dao, De becomes disordered; once the mind becomes fixated, it is endangered.” When the mind is led by the eyes, it becomes confused. “Having a mind” means adding likes and dislikes, and distinctions between right and wrong. “Having eyes” means pursuing things in the external world. “Turning inward to observe” means using the mind to discern and distinguish, deciding what to accept and reject. The “harmful virtue” discussed here refers to the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and mind. The mind resides at the center, judging what it likes and what it considers right, and disparaging those who differ from it. This is called turning inward to observe. Persisting in this kind of inward observation instead damages one’s nature.

Those who contend for superiority over external things over a long period inevitably end up in hardship. Those who long fear they are inferior to others eventually find ease. This is the principle by which things diminish and grow, and transform into their opposites. Displaying cleverness and talent outwardly, acting with force and inviting resentment, and failing to apply benevolence and righteousness fully all result from using them at the wrong time and failing to preserve oneself through them. Thus, those who understand the realities of life awaken fully and are bound by nothing; those who understand ordinary principles appear foolish and awkward; those who understand the greater destiny follow the course of life and death; and those who understand lesser destiny calmly accept whatever circumstances they encounter. How, then, could hardship and ease become burdens?

Yanzhai’s Commentary: These lines about “De having a mind” are especially relevant to those who cultivate the Way. In Chan Buddhism, this is called a “leaking mind”; it is also said that “the second thought is De.” When a thought arises in the mind and one knows that one is upholding a certain virtue, one is attached to De. Within that attachment, one then begins calculating what came before and what may come after, thereby opening another “eye.” Looking inward with this mind that has an eye, one sees countless distinctions and no longer knows the original state of undivided wholeness. The “harmful virtue” here refers to the mind. The “self-approval” of the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth means considering oneself to have some particular strength, and … (The original text ends here.)

Mocking others for failing to do what you can do is an attitude unsuited to learning the Dao (the Way). The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment says not to look down on those who have practiced for a long time, nor on those who have only just begun to learn. It means the same thing.

“Eight Extremes” means that anyone who relies on something will eventually reach its limit. “Three” means always feeling inwardly that one has too little: even when one sometimes gains recognition and status, one remains unsatisfied. “Following along in accord” describes yielding and going with the flow; “rising and falling at ease” describes responding to circumstances and moving with change. The “Six Storehouses” are six places in the human body where things gather and are stored. Here they refer to wisdom, courage, benevolence and righteousness, understanding life, understanding knowledge, and understanding one’s fate. “Encountering” means gaining something and also losing something; “entrusting oneself to fate” means handing one’s gains and losses over to destiny. “Following” means letting things be as they are, without selfish intent. The “Six Storehouses” are mentioned earlier, and the word “fate” is used later to tie the passage together and bring it to a close in two lines. This is a feature of the text’s composition.

Zheng Kaofu was Confucius’s tenth-generation ancestor and served as a high official in the state of Song. This passage follows the exchange between Duke Ai of Lu and Yan He, continuing the idea of the “subtle art.” Its general point is that the sages lived in the world without letting poverty or prominence burden their minds. Zheng Kaofu was appointed to office three times, and each time he walked close to the wall, regarding high status with apprehension. Another man, after receiving three appointments, grew proud of his status and called others his elders. Both kinds of people cannot help being alarmed by favor or disgrace. How could they approach the lofty state of Tang Yao and Xu You? Though Tang Yao had a splendid imperial carriage, he paid it no mind. Xu You refused to take up the ladle and replace Yao in governing the realm. The two men chose different paths of engagement and withdrawal, yet their state of mind was the same. They are therefore invoked here to bring the preceding chapter’s meaning to a close.

The text then turns to the fault of worldly people who assume they are in the right: they do not understand that poverty and prominence are arranged by fate. If one practices De (Virtue/Power) with a deliberate desire to gain something, distinctions arise and wisdom cannot remain broad. If one schemes and tries to display one’s discernment at every turn, thoughts become tangled and the mind loses its calm. Narrow wisdom harms De, while a restless mind harms one’s nature. This is a grave danger.

“Looking inward” means repeatedly turning over in one’s mind what one intends to do, planning it as though it were right before one’s eyes, and assuming the undertaking will surely succeed. Yet failure and ruin often follow one another as a result. Buddhism speaks of five kinds of sight: the heavenly eye and the physical eye belong to the eyes, while the wisdom eye, Dharma eye, and Buddha eye belong to the mind. The mind’s eye in Buddhist teaching reveals the results of perfected De; the mind’s eye described here warns people to guard against the roots of its corruption. If one does not prevent De from being corrupted, how can one attain its perfection? The two teachings complement one another.

Evil De has five forms: seeing, hearing, speaking, bearing, and thinking. If these do not follow the right path, the mind takes the lead and becomes the source of trouble. When people assume they are right and believe no one can surpass them, they mock and disparage others. This is where the corruption of De begins. Add the other four kinds of wrongdoing, and what evil could they not commit? If people can set their own De straight and turn back to correct themselves, their mistakes need not carry them too far.

Turning misfortune into good fortune depends entirely on people’s efforts to put these principles into practice. The Eight Extremities—the farthest reaches in the eight directions—and the Three Necessities, whose meaning is unclear here and may be a specialized term from the text, also seem strange.

Things generate one another and cycle endlessly, much as a person’s internal organs function in accord with the waxing and waning of Yin-Yang, though the person may not be aware of it.

Wisdom can be used to cultivate De (Virtue/Power). But when it is used to deal with external affairs, bold action may bring many grievances. Benevolence and righteousness can spread kindness widely and help others universally, but putting them fully into practice is difficult. When they are not carried out thoroughly, they can instead invite criticism.

Those who understand the principles of life have open, peaceful minds and can calmly let go of attachments. Those who understand the principles of wisdom can set aside preconceived ideas and forget their attachment to “wisdom.” As for the great destiny that concerns the longevity of life, they follow nature and let change take its course. As for the lesser destiny that shapes an individual’s circumstances, they accept the conditions in which they find themselves. This is why worthy people and exemplary gentlemen remain content in hardship and prosperity alike, untouched by the world’s anxieties.

○ The two passages “予颐” and “予” are difficult to interpret. Perhaps they should be read as “汝肖”; “肖” and “消” have the same pronunciation and the same meaning.