《南華真經註疏》Vol. 5

Yan Hui paid a visit to Confucius and asked permission to travel.

The commentary says: Yan Hui’s name was Hui and his courtesy name was Ziyuan. He was from the state of Lu. Among Confucius’s three thousand disciples, he was the one who delved most deeply into his teacher’s teachings, and he was counted among the four categories of disciples. Confucius’s surname was Kong, his personal name Qiu, and his courtesy name Zhongni. He, too, was from Lu and was a descendant of King Tang of the Shang dynasty. Though he was born in the declining Zhou dynasty, he possessed the Virtue of a sage and taught Yan Hui. Their backgrounds and deeds are described in detail in Confucian historical records. This commentary on the Zhuangzi aims to clarify its subtle principles, so it does not recount those details one by one.

The affairs of human life are tangled and difficult to manage. It is inherently hard to understand how to approach and help other people. Zhuangzi therefore uses a dialogue between Yan Hui and Confucius to explain how to guide others, and draws on these two sages to illuminate the method of cultivating “fasting of the mind.”

Confucius asked, “Where are you going?”

The commentary says: “Xi” means “where,” and “zhi” means “to go.” Confucius asked Yan Hui where he intended to go.

Yan Hui replied, “I am planning to go to the state of Wei.”

The commentary says: Wei had once been the capital of King Zhou of Shang; it later became the fief of Kang Shu. Here Yan Hui tells Confucius where he plans to go.

Confucius asked, “What will you do there?”

The commentary says: Confucius pressed Yan Hui about his purpose in going to Wei, making a serious inquiry into his plans.

Yan Hui said, “I have heard that the ruler of Wei is in the prime of life and acts entirely as he pleases.”

The note says: He refuses to heed the people’s wishes.

The commentary says: The ruler of Wei was Kuai Kui, son of Duke Ling. He was licentious and corrupt, indulged himself without restraint, and, young and headstrong, wielded a frightening power. He acted arbitrarily, was violent, and paid no heed to what the people wanted. Yan Hui tells Confucius what he has heard about him.

“He governs the state recklessly, yet cannot see his own mistakes.”

The note says: No one dares to remonstrate with him.

The commentary says: The people are the foundation of a state. When its foundation is secure, the state can be at peace. If a ruler fails to cherish and value the people, and instead treats them lightly and forces them into labor, how can the state avoid ruin?

His power and influence were great enough to let him reject admonitions, and his eloquence was sharp enough to conceal his faults. Everyone was afraid and could only swallow their words. Even when the ruler did wrong, no one dared to remonstrate with him.

He recklessly sent the people to their deaths.

【Note】He carelessly sent them to a place of death.

【Commentary】When a ruler acts without regard for what is fitting, whether in stillness or activity, and cares only for his own ease, he will recklessly cast the people of his country into a place of death.

The number of the dead was so great that it had to be measured by the whole country, as if they were weeds.

【Note】He sent the people of the entire country to their deaths. The dead were too numerous to count, and he regarded them as if they were weeds.

【Commentary】“Jiao” means grass. “Weeds” refers to plants and grasses. Frequent wars or heavy taxes can cause an enormous number of deaths. To say how many people died, one would have to count an entire country; counting them one by one would take too long. The ruler indulged himself, heedless of whether the people lived or died, and regarded the people of the whole country as if they were weeds in a marsh.

The people, in turn, had nowhere to turn for support.

【Note】They had no place to rely on or to which they could turn.

【Commentary】The ruler was without the Dao, while his ministers and people were also suffering famine. They were not only helpless; they had nowhere to go and nothing to rely on.

Yan Hui once heard his teacher say, “A well-governed country can be left behind; a chaotic country is one you can go to. There are many sick people in a doctor’s household. I would like to reflect, in light of what I have heard, on how to govern it. Perhaps I could help that country recover?”

【Commentary】“Perhaps” means hope; “nearly” means coming close to; and “recover” means to be cured. A country at peace and well governed does not need anyone else to correct or support it. When a country is chaotic and in danger, someone should step forward to remonstrate. Yan Hui was about to go to the state of Wei, so he recounted what he had heard before and considered how to put his teacher’s teachings into practice, hoping to bring Wei closer to the right way. This is like having many sick people in a doctor’s household: a worthy person should also be able to rescue those in danger. Surely the ills caused by excess and dissipation could be cured?

Confucius said, “Ah! If you go there, you will likely suffer punishment.”

【Note】Your Dao is not enough to cure the troubles there.

【Commentary】“Xi” is an exclamation of surprise; “you” means Yan Hui; “likely” means perhaps, or close to. Confucius laughed at Yan Hui’s shallow approach, saying it was not enough to transform the ruler. If he went to Wei, he would likely suffer punishment.

The Dao must not be applied in a confused way.

【Note】The principle should be applied correctly and to the right person.

If it is applied in a confused way, the threads of the matter multiply. When they multiply, the mind becomes unsettled; when the mind is unsettled, it becomes troubled. Amid such distress, the problem cannot be resolved.

【Note】If the right person is not found, then even if a hundred doctors gather around the patient, they will only make the patient more confused and will never make them well.

【Commentary】The key to applying a flexible and penetrating principle is to remain correct and focused. If it is presented in a confused way, the threads of the matter multiply; when there are too many matters, the mind becomes agitated; when the mind is agitated, it becomes troubled…

This is how calamity begins: when methods of treating an illness are misapplied, everyone involved falls into difficulty. If you cannot even establish yourself, how can you help others?

The perfected people of antiquity—those whose moral cultivation had reached the highest level—always settled themselves first, and only then set about settling others.

Note: Only after you have the means to settle yourself can you deal with external things and provide for others.

Commentary: “Zhu” is a contracted form of “zhi yu” (“in relation to”); “cun” means to establish oneself. People of the highest virtue in antiquity met the world with open minds. They first established their own Dao, and only then rescued others. If you cannot even settle yourself, how can you deal with external things? The text cites the ancients as an example and a warning.

If your own way of establishing yourself is not yet settled, how can you find time to correct the conduct of a tyrant?

Note: One who cannot meet things with an open mind instead exhausts the heart in anxious thought and risks danger. That is why the way of establishing oneself is said to be unsettled. Only by keeping cleverness from the mind and thereby nurturing one’s true nature, entrusting affairs to the people, attributing merit to things outside oneself, and keeping oneself free of worry and anxious thought can one then correct a tyrant’s conduct.

Commentary: Only those who meet affairs with an open mind, forget cleverness in order to nurture their true nature, entrust matters to the people, and attribute merit to the myriad things can live in the world, respond to the times, and put their teachings into practice. Yan Hui, Confucius’s disciple, had not yet settled himself. Disputes over right and wrong, along with feelings of joy and anger, still churned within him. How could he have the leisure to rush off to the state of Wei and admonish its tyrant? Such an undertaking would still be premature.

Moreover, do you know why virtue disperses and cleverness arises?

Virtue disperses through the pursuit of reputation; cleverness shows itself through the struggle to prevail.

Note: Virtue disperses because one prides oneself on one’s reputation; cleverness runs rampant because one competes to show how capable one is. Even people like Jie and Zhi valued nothing beyond what is called a good reputation.

Commentary: Do you know why virtue disperses and cleverness becomes conspicuous? Virtue disperses and one loses one’s true nature because one prides oneself on reputation. Cleverness oversteps its bounds and shows itself because one competes to display one’s superiority. Only by treating good and evil alike with detachment, and letting go of reputation as well as gains and losses in practice, can one prevent the various virtues from dispersing and the highest wisdom from becoming conspicuous.

Reputation invites people to undermine one another; cleverness is a tool for contention. Both bring calamity. Neither is a way to put the Great Dao into practice.

Note: Reputation and cleverness are commonly used in the world. Once people pursue reputation, they undermine one another; once they wield cleverness, conflict arises. So reputation and cleverness must be set aside before one can fully put the Great Dao into practice.

Commentary: “Undermine” means to harm. When people boast of their reputations, they damage one another; when they display their cleverness, they provoke conflict…

“Competing for fame and profit, and trying to outdo others” are both sources of calamity and should never be promoted in the world.

Moreover, your virtue is profound and your word is trustworthy, yet people do not understand you. Your reputation is good, and you do not contend with others, yet you still have not won their confidence.

Commentary: Here, “firm” means genuine and steadfast. Yan Hui, a disciple of Confucius, was pure in character, steadfast in keeping his word, and widely renowned; he also did not contend with others. But the ruler of Wei was by nature unruly and foolish, fierce and perverse, and lacking in insight. Since he did not understand Yan Hui’s aims, how could he understand Yan Hui’s desire to correct and assist him?

If Yan Hui insists on speaking of benevolence and righteousness and establishing rules before a violent person, that person will instead resent the virtues he displays.

Note: Someone may offer another person a shining treasure at night, only for the recipient to reach for a sword in alarm, not understanding where it came from or what it means. The ruler of Wei could not understand Yan Hui’s virtue, integrity, or reputation for not contending. If Yan Hui insists on using benevolence and righteousness as standards by which to judge the ruler, the ruler will think Yan Hui means to belittle him and exalt himself. Therefore, the Perfected Person does not impose his own will on the affairs of the world. He stills his mind and responds to external things as they are. His integrity is evident between Heaven and Earth, and his virtue of non-contention reaches all things. Only then will all things turn toward him, and Heaven and Earth will not oppose him. Once his virtue and reputation have spread, the world has responded, his example has become clear, and the four quarters have joined in resonance, he can then pass through the seasons and enter into times of disorder without offending those who must not be challenged, like a dragon’s vulnerable scales.

Commentary: “Words marked by the carpenter’s line” refers to moral standards such as benevolence and righteousness, as well as the way of sagacity and wisdom. The ruler of Wei did not yet understand Yan Hui’s inner virtue, yet Yan Hui would force the methods of benevolence and righteousness upon such a violent person. What Yan Hui said about the virtues of the ancient kings would surely provoke the ruler’s hatred, so he should not act this way.

This is called “bringing harm to another.” Whoever seeks to bring calamity upon someone else will surely have calamity brought upon them in return.

Note: If the other person does not believe or accept what you say, they will think you are competing with them for fame, and may then harm you in return.

Commentary: “Naming” means assigning a name or making a claim. The ruler of Wei does not understand your intentions and instead thinks you are harming him. Once you become the object of suspicion and hostility, you will inevitably face retaliation.

If this journey may make you a source of trouble for others and bring trouble upon yourself, then even if the ruler of Wei truly likes the worthy and despises the unworthy, why seek a reputation for being exceptional?

Note: If the ruler of Wei can truly cherish the worthy and despise the foolish, and can accept words that accord with the Way, then he is an enlightened ruler. There would be nothing especially praiseworthy in your going to see such a ruler. If he is not such an enlightened ruler, going to him will instead bring you harm. So if you go with a definite purpose, no course of action will be suitable; if you go without preconceptions and respond to circumstances, good fortune will come of its own accord, and then you may go anywhere.

Commentary: “Near” means approaching, and “indeed” expresses exclamation. If you go to the state of Wei, you may be approaching danger and becoming a source of trouble for others...

The harm caused by a tyrant is truly lamentable. Besides, if the Marquis of Wei really valued worthy people and despised the unworthy, then naturally there would be more gentlemen at court and fewer petty men.

You already have loyal ministers of your own, so why should you ask me for help? As for the Marquis of Wei, he is no different. Since going there would accomplish nothing, leaving would be no better.

If you do not heed this advice, the Marquis of Wei will surely use his power to contend with others and indulge in sharp-tongued arguments.

[Note] “Admonish” means to offer advice. “The lord” refers to the Marquis of Wei. If you go to Wei, you will have to remain silent; if you offer counsel, you will be killed and humiliated. The Marquis of Wei relies on the authority of a ruler of a state with a thousand chariots, using a feudal lord’s imposing status to conceal his faults and reject remonstrance, while arguing and asserting his strength. Since you are already afraid, how could you find the presence of mind to set him right?

Your eyes will be dazzled by his quick-witted, eloquent words.

[Commentary] “Dazzled” means confused and disoriented. Though the Marquis of Wei is licentious and tyrannical, he is also clever and skilled in argument. He relies on a ruler’s authority to oppress loyal people who offer remonstrance. Yan Hui would therefore feel apprehensive, as though everything before his eyes were in a whirl.

Your expression will become mild, so that you can no longer show that you differ from him.

[Commentary] Even if you wish to admonish him inwardly, you will not dare let your face reveal any disagreement. You will have to follow his mood and appear to be in harmony with him.

Your mouth will be busy making excuses for yourself.

[Note] You will have no time to extricate yourself or defend yourself.

[Commentary] The Marquis of Wei is high in status and overwhelming in power. Afraid of bringing trouble upon himself, Yan Hui will be consumed by anxiety and use his words only to protect himself. He will have no time at all to offer remonstrance.

Your bearing, too, will reveal your submissiveness.

[Commentary] “Bearing” means what is outwardly expressed. Fearing misfortune, you will have no choice but to submit and outwardly agree with him. Your manner will show deference and compliance.

Your heart, too, will come to approve of what he does.

[Note] By then, you will have set aside your own views and turned to following his lead.

[Commentary] This is not merely outward submission; your heart will come to agree as well. Not only will you be unable to persuade him to do good, you will end up approving of his wicked conduct.

Thus, using fire to put out fire or water to control water will only bring greater disaster.

[Note] This will not save him; it will only embolden him.

[Commentary] Fire used to fight fire only makes the flames burn more fiercely, while water used to fight water only makes the waters rise higher. Yan Hui’s actions would only intensify the Marquis of Wei’s tyranny, rather than correct or guide him. That is why it is said they would “increase the harm.”

If you follow the course he has begun, it will never end.

Note: Ordinary people cling to their old ways and refuse to change.

If the other person does not trust you in the first place, yet you insist on speaking words of loyalty and sincerity, you will likely die at the hands of a brutal ruler.

Note: Before the other person trusts you, even counsel offered out of loyalty and sincerity can bring disaster.

Commentary: Since your loyal words have lately gone untrusted, even if you offer advice in good faith, you will surely be punished before a brutal ruler, perhaps even losing your life.

In ancient times, Xia Jie killed Guan Longfeng, and Shang Zhou killed Prince Bigan. Both men cultivated themselves and cared for the people while serving as ministers, yet for this they went against their rulers.

Note: Though he held the position of a minister, he took on his ruler’s burdens. What Bigan did was not his proper duty.

Commentary: The Posthumous Titles says that one who harms the people and kills many is called “Jie,” while one who harms what is right and destroys good conduct is called “Zhou.” Guan Longfeng was a worthy minister of Xia Jie. He gave his utmost loyalty, yet was beheaded. Bigan was the younger uncle of Yin Zhou. He offered loyal remonstrance, yet his heart was cut out. “Yu fu” means to care for and nurture; “fu” means to go against. Both men were worthy ministers of ancient times. They cultivated themselves and practiced loyalty, and, as ministers, worried on their rulers’ behalf about the people. The ministers had virtue, but their rulers lacked the Way. They opposed their rulers and were ultimately killed and humiliated. These ancient events demonstrate the principle at issue and are sufficient to serve as a warning. From this, we can see that Yan Hui’s plan to transform and govern the state of Wei was unworkable.

Thus a ruler uses a minister’s cultivation of virtue as a pretext to harm him. This is because the ruler covets a reputation for virtue.

Note: The ruler does not want his ministers to have a better reputation than he does.

Commentary: “Ji” means to push down, entrap, or poison. Rulers without the Way, such as Xia Jie and Yin Zhou, overestimated themselves yet remained greedy for a good name. They therefore used their worthy ministers’ cultivation of virtue as a pretext to harm them. Their aim was to contend for fame and pursue profit, and this brought about such disasters.

In ancient times, Yao attacked Congzhi and Xu’ao, while Yu attacked the state of Youhu. Those states became ruins, and their rulers were killed. They never ceased making war, and they were never satisfied in their pursuit of material gain. These were all people who sought fame and profit. Have you alone never heard of these events?

Note: Tyrants seek not only to satisfy their own desires but also to acquire a good name; they simply pursue that name by improper means.

Commentary: The two rulers Yao and Yu were explained earlier. Congzhi, Xu’ao, and Youhu are names of states. Youhu was in the area of present-day Hu County in Yongzhou. “Ruins” means a desolate place without inhabitants; “li” means a ghost with no descendants to offer sacrifices. The passage says that the rulers of all three states lacked the Way and enjoyed waging war against other states. They were not merely greedy for material gain; they also… (The original text ends here.)

So he pursued empty fame alone, and as a result his realm fell into ruin and its people were wiped out. He himself suffered punishment and death, and his ancestral temples were overthrown and destroyed. Craving renown and striving for achievement could bring one to such an end. People have known this from ancient times to the present. Could you alone have never heard of it?

Fame and achievement are difficult even for sages to handle. How much less so for you?

[Note] If a ruler is enamored of fame and driven by strong desires, even the virtue of Yao or Yu cannot by itself change him. That is why people join together to attack him, call him to account, and quell the resulting disorder. How much less could Yan Hui, an ordinary man, go empty-handed and hope to transform him through the Dao?

[Commentary] Mediocre people and tyrannical rulers crave profit and pursue fame. Even enlightened rulers such as Yao and Yu cannot win their submission through virtue alone; they must also raise an army to attack them and punish the wicked. How much less could Yan Hui, a commoner, go empty-handed to instruct and transform the ruler of Wei? This clearly cannot work; there is no doubt about it.

Confucius said, “Still, if you are certain there is a way, why not try telling me?”

[Commentary] “Try” means to make an attempt. You want to instruct and transform the ruler of Wei. Though you may not succeed, since you have asked to go, you must have some idea of how to proceed. Try telling me what you have in mind.

Yan Hui said, “I will make my bearing correct and keep my mind empty and still.”

[Note] Correct your outward bearing and keep your mind empty and still.

[Commentary] Correcting one’s bearing fulfills the respect owed by a minister; keeping the mind empty and open means offering counsel with all one’s heart and sincerity. Since my teacher has asked me so earnestly, I will venture to explain my approach.

“I will strive with all my strength and remain steadfastly single-minded.”

[Note] Speak humbly, and do not waver in your resolve.

[Commentary] I will spur on my body and mind, sincerely devote myself to the state, and remain loyal and careful in word and deed without changing.

“Would that do?”

[Commentary] Could these two approaches just mentioned be put into practice?

Confucius said, “How could that work? It still won’t do.”

[Note] It means that this is not yet acceptable.

[Commentary] “How” here means “how could it be?” In other words, it still won’t do.

“The ruler of Wei is full of a forceful, fierce temperament, which surges within him and shows itself with great force on the outside…”

[Note] The ruler of Wei’s forceful, excited temperament fills his heart and shows itself intensely in his outward appearance. He is extremely overbearing.

[Commentary] “Yang” means forceful and fierce; “full” means filled; “great” means very much. The ruler of Wei is filled with a fierce temperament, and his violent energy is strongly apparent both within and without.

“His expression is always changing.”

[Note] His joy and anger have no consistency.

[Commentary] If people follow his wishes, he is pleased; if they oppose him, he becomes angry. His expression and complexion are never the same.

“Ordinary people dare not oppose him.”

[Note] No one dares contradict him.

[Commentary] His nature is violent and his authority intimidating. How could ordinary remonstrating officials or worthy men dare to oppose him?

“If you cater to his feelings and find a way to put him at ease…”

People who are hard-hearted and domineering to the extreme, when someone tries to persuade or move them with something they might find agreeable, will instead oppress and attack that person. They care only about indulging themselves freely and satisfying their extravagant desires.

Explanation: “Suppress” means to restrain, while “give free rein” means to indulge oneself. When someone offers well-meant advice to persuade and move him, the ruler suppresses that person for his loyal remonstrance, caring only for his own pleasures and indulgence and satisfying his debauched desires.

This is called having failed even to develop Virtue through the gradual accumulation of good conduct over time. How much less, then, could one expect great Virtue?

Note: This means that even after a long period of advice, there has been no sign of change or improvement.

Explanation: The Marquis of Wei has long been without the Dao. If gradually nurturing and cultivating his Virtue is already difficult, how could one expect him to attain the expansive, enlightened Virtue of a sage?

He will cling tightly to his old ideas and refuse to change.

Note: In other words, he remains fixed in his original intentions.

Explanation: A benighted ruler who covers up his faults and denies his wrongs cannot heed others’ advice. He stubbornly clings to his own views; who could make him turn from evil to good?

How can it work if he complies outwardly but dares not criticize inwardly?

Note: Outwardly, he goes along with things, but inwardly he dares not criticize. He merely puts on a show of propriety and respect. This is not enough to change him.

Explanation: Outwardly, one bows respectfully and does one’s best to appear humble; inwardly, one complies and dares not offer criticism. What good is it to seek the adoption of one’s proposals in this way? How could this be a way to change the Marquis of Wei? Here the text points out that the method of maintaining an empty and humble bearing mentioned earlier—responding with humility and deference—is not suited to this situation.

Then I will remain upright within, be tactful in my outward manner, and adapt myself to those in high positions.

Note: Yan Hui now proposes three more methods.

Explanation: The two methods proposed earlier have both been rejected. Yan Hui now offers three more, hoping they may fit the situation. They are listed here and explained below. Yan Hui is stating his ideas and asking Confucius for guidance.

“Upright within” means taking Heaven as one’s companion. Those who take Heaven as their companion know that both the Son of Heaven and they themselves were born of Heaven. Why, then, cling to one’s own words and insist that others praise one—or insist that they not praise one?

Note: All things, regardless of rank, share the same gift of life. Therefore, whether others praise or criticize, one leaves that to impartial principle and asks nothing of them.

Explanation: Here the text begins to explain “upright within.” “Seek” means “to pray for.” The meaning is: I am plain and sincere within, and follow the natural order, taking the Dao of Heaven as my companion. Once I know that both the ruler and I received life from the Qi of nature, I can forget the distinction of rank between ruler and subject and stop attaching so much importance to praise or criticism. Why should I ask anything of others to avoid criticism or win their praise? This is what it means to be open and free of preconceptions.

This, more or less, accords with reason.

If so, people would call this way of acting “childlike”—pure and direct like an infant. This is called keeping company with the Way of Heaven.

The commentary says: Follow the principles of nature and inquire into your own nature and life, proceeding directly like an infant.

In outward conduct, follow worldly customs: this is keeping company with the people of the world. Raising the hands, kneeling, bowing, and bending are all the proper rites for a minister. Since everyone does these things, how could I dare not? If I do what others do, they will not blame me.

The commentary says: Outwardly, act with tact and deference, following the human relations of the world. This is keeping company with the people of the world. Raising the hands, kneeling, bowing and bending, and performing prostrations are all proper rites for a minister. Accommodate worldly customs and act in keeping with changing circumstances. Since everyone does this, how could I alone refuse? By doing what everyone else does, I will not incur their resentment or blame.

This is called keeping company with the people of the world.

Once an undertaking is complete, compare it with the ancients: this is keeping company with the ancients.

The commentary says: The undertaking is completed in the present, while its guiding principles are modeled on the ancients.

The subcommentary gives loyal remonstrance as an example: the act of remonstrating takes place in the present, but the duty between ruler and minister can be compared with that of ancient times. Thus, this way of acting can be likened to such loyal ministers of antiquity as Bigan.

Though these words may seem on the surface to offer instruction, in truth they are a veiled remonstrance and admonition.

The commentary says: “Rebuke” means to blame. Although the words seem to explain principles and offer instruction, their real purpose is to use them for veiled remonstrance and admonition.

This practice has existed since ancient times; it is not something unique to me.

The subcommentary says: Loyal remonstrance has existed since antiquity. I am not the only one offering counsel today.

In this way, even if I speak frankly, I will not suffer harm as a result.

The commentary says: By grounding frank speech in the precedent of the ancients, I leave nothing that can be used to reproach me.

The subcommentary says: If the principle of loyal remonstrance has existed since ancient times, then I need not fear that speaking candidly today will bring misfortune upon me.

This is called keeping company with the ancients.

If so, would that be acceptable?

The subcommentary says: These three ways of acting are proposed to ask whether they are workable.

Zhongni said, “How could that be? When too many rules and regulations are set in place, they cease to be compatible with one another.”

The commentary says: There is originally only one way of acting that accords with reason, yet you have devised three sets of rules to govern conduct. This does not fit the actual circumstances.

“Shu” means order and principle. If one acts in accordance with what is reasonable, there is no need to lay out many methods. Proposing three methods instead makes things seem complicated; and if they do not accord with reason, they cannot put anyone at ease. So what, then, should one do?

Although these methods are certainly crude, they have not yet been put into practice, so no fault has been committed.

The “Shu” says: Although Yan Hui’s three proposed methods were crude, they had not yet been acted upon, and so, fortunately, he had incurred no blame.

Yet all this means is that he has done nothing wrong. How can one say he has already reached the point of transforming others?

The “Zhu” says: Being free of blame does not mean that one has already transformed another person.

The “Shu” says: “Hu” means “how.” Yan Hui wanted to transform the state of Wei, but these were the only methods he proposed. At best, they might keep him from coming to harm; they could not save the troubled age. So how can one say he had reached the point of transformation? Another interpretation is this: if he simply stopped and did nothing, that might make sense in theory; but if he actually went to Wei, he would probably still face danger. This, too, would mean he was being governed by his own subjective ideas.

This is like taking one’s own mind as the standard.

The “Zhu” says: To go to Wei with these three methods is not to leave things to unfold naturally throughout the world, without a fixed intention.

The “Shu” says: The sage meets the times with an empty mind and does not impose an intention in advance, like a clear mirror reflecting things or an empty valley echoing a sound. Yan Hui, however, has already devised a method of instruction and gone over it repeatedly. Clearly, he has not yet forgotten distinctions or become detached and free of intention. We can therefore see that he is still governed by his own preconceptions.

Yan Hui said, “I can go no further. Please tell me, Master, what I should do.”

The “Shu” says: Yan Hui’s three earlier proposals were all shown to be flawed at once. He had no idea how to proceed in transforming the state of Wei, so he asked the sage again, hoping to hear a more profound and subtle method.

Confucius said, “First, fast. Then I will tell you. If you act with a mind set on making something happen, is this easy?”

The “Zhu” says: Acting with one’s own intention in mind is indeed not easy.

The “Shu” says: Yan Hui asked sincerely, so Confucius was about to explain “fasting of the mind”—a practice of making the mind empty and still, so it is not led by preconceptions or external things. Only when you have become empty and still, and let go of attachment, can I tell you. To seek the mysterious Dao while carrying a subjective intention runs counter to the essential purpose of fasting the mind. Thus, seeking the Great Dao with a mind bent on making something happen is indeed not easy.

If you think this is easy, then even the vast brightness of the summer sky would not approve.

The “Zhu” says: It is not right to regard acting with deliberate intention as easy.

The “Shu” says: The Erya says that the summer sky is called “Haotian,” describing the brightness and openness of the weather. Here, the point is that if one cultivates the Dao with a mind bent on making something happen, one cannot find a fitting principle for it even beneath the Haotian sky. Fasting the mind must not be accomplished through subjective contrivance.

Yan Hui said, “My family is poor. I have simply abstained from wine and from pungent foods such as onions and garlic for several months. Does that count as fasting?”

The “Shu” says: “Ru” means to eat, and “hun” refers to pungent vegetables. “Zhai,” or fasting, carries the sense of making oneself orderly and pure: the body and mind are to be kept free of worldly contamination. Everyone knows that Yan Hui’s family was poor; he had no wine to drink…

Yan Hui said, “There is no meat left to eat at home, and for several months I have eaten only coarse grains and vegetables. Can this be considered fasting?”

Confucius said, “That is the fasting practiced for sacrifices, not what is called ‘fasting of the mind.’”

The commentary explains: Confucius replied that Yan Hui was describing the fasting people observe when making offerings to spirits and ancestors. It was not the fasting of the mind discussed here.

Yan Hui asked, “May I ask what fasting of the mind is?”

The commentary explains: Yan Hui said that his family was poor and that he was currently preparing for a sacrifice, so he asked Confucius to show him how to practice fasting of the mind.

Confucius said, “Concentrate your intention.”

The note explains: Set aside distracting thoughts and let the mind and spirit become wholly focused.

The commentary explains: Keep your intention concentrated, no longer drawn along by stray thoughts, and enter a state of stillness and emptiness, in harmony with the natural transformations of all things. Confucius then explains the method of fasting of the mind to Yan Hui in detail.

“Do not listen with your ears; listen with your mind.”

The commentary explains: Do not cling to sounds with your ears. Instead, gather your spirit and use your mind to attend to what is silent.

“Do not listen with your mind; listen with Qi.”

The commentary explains: The mind produces perceptions and thoughts, so it can still be stirred by things outside it. Qi has no such thoughts; it is empty, supple, and able to adapt to all things. So set aside perceptions and thoughts, and instead remain empty, still, and gentle, gradually entering a mysterious state.

“Hearing stops at the ears; the mind’s activity stops when it responds to things outside.”

The commentary explains: Not clinging to sounds means not listening with the ears. When the mind no longer stirs in response to the outer world or reacts to things outside, this means not listening with the mind.

“Qi is empty and still, and can receive things from outside.”

The note explains: Set aside the senses of eyes and ears and the thoughts in the mind, allowing Qi’s nature to unfold freely. This is receiving external things with an empty and still mind.

The commentary explains: Qi is gentle and empty. The mind, too, must be calm and detached, free of preconceptions, in order to adapt to things outside. This explains what it means to “listen with Qi.”

“Only the Dao gathers in emptiness and stillness. When the mind is empty and still, that is fasting of the mind.”

The note explains: When the mind is empty and still, the Dao gathers within it.

The commentary explains: The true Dao gathers in an empty and still mind. Thus, emptying the mind is the key to fasting of the mind.

Yan Hui said, “Before I learned to practice fasting of the mind, I truly felt that I existed as a solid self.”

The note explains: Before practicing fasting of the mind, he still clung to himself.

The commentary explains: Before receiving instruction in fasting of the mind, Yan Hui still held on to attachments and could not let go of his body and self. He therefore felt there really was a “Yan Hui.”

“After learning to practice fasting of the mind, I no longer feel that there is a Yan Hui.”

The note explains: Once he had mastered fasting of the mind, he no longer clung to himself.

Commentary: Yan Hui received Confucius’s teaching and practiced “fasting of the mind” (xinzhai) with an empty, still heart. He was then able, when encountering things outside himself, to keep his mind clear and unattached, as though he had forgotten himself and no longer clung to whether things existed. Could this be called emptiness and stillness? Confucius said, “That says it all.”

Commentary: Confucius had already spoken of the subtle power of “fasting of the mind”; here, he has fully explained its principle.

Confucius said, “Let me tell you: if you can enter the territory of Wei without being moved by its reputation…”

Note: Let your mind rest calmly in a state of natural ease. When something arises, follow only what the actual circumstances and reason require, and stop there.

Commentary: Confucius is explaining how Yan Hui might influence the Marquis of Wei: above all, do not try to seize the key to power. Once inside Wei, you should act within its affairs, yet keep a low profile and conceal your reputation. Do not try to move the Marquis through your fame or intelligence. The character fan is sometimes written as fan and means a fence or boundary; here it refers to the territory of Wei.

“When it is time to speak, speak; when it is not, stop.”

Note: This is like the notes of the gong and shang scales sounding in response to one another. They do not sound because of deliberate arrangement, which is why the text says “sound.” To respond without intention is to follow the other person’s situation, without forcing a reply.

Commentary: If you get along well with the Marquis of Wei, you may speak up, offer advice, and correct his faults. If he does not heed your counsel, you should keep silent. Do not force yourself to display loyalty, or you will surely invite trouble.

“Set up no gates and impose no punishments.”

Note: Let things follow their natural course. “No gates” means allowing all things under Heaven to settle as they will. “Poison” in “no poison” means governing; in other words, do not govern them.

Commentary: “Poison” means governing. Respond to things as water and a mirror do: in emptiness and stillness, reflecting what they encounter, without making plans in advance.

“Make the One your dwelling, and lodge your person in what cannot be avoided.”

Note: “What cannot be avoided” refers to what is necessary according to the way things are. Rest in the Dao of the One and follow the necessary moment.

Commentary: “Dwelling” means a place to live. Let your mind rest in the Dao of the One. When a situation arises that you must respond to, follow it; this response accords with the Dao without having been planned in advance.

“That is about as far as one can go.”

Note: The principle is complete here.

Commentary: “Near” means “complete.” The principles for responding to things outside oneself have been fully explained here.

“To leave no trace at all is easy; to move without touching the ground is hard.”

Note: Not acting is easy; trying to act without touching the ground is impossible. Wuwei (non-action) is easy; trying to accomplish something without harming one’s nature is difficult.

Commentary: It is not difficult to remain calmly still and leave no trace. But it is certainly hard to move without touching the ground. This is like responding to things outside oneself through Wuwei and stillness, which is relatively easy; once you deliberately act and use thought to interfere with them, it becomes difficult. This is simply how things must be, and the metaphor is used to explain the principle.

“Serving other people is easy to do falsely; following Heaven’s natural course is hard to fake.”

Note: What the eyes and ears can perceive is relatively superficial, so it is easy to deceive. The responses that arise from nature’s own workings are extremely subtle and therefore difficult to counterfeit. The less one loses of one’s true nature, the less it is harmed.

The more one loses one’s true nature, the more one becomes impaired. The consequences brought about by gain and loss always correspond to one’s own actions.

Everyone has their own proper place, yet they want to violate their nature and act falsely. Is that not difficult?

【Commentary】Human desires are driven by external things, and the methods they employ are crude, so they are easy to deceive. The principles of following nature and mastering things, however, are exceedingly subtle and therefore difficult to feign. From this we can see that, when people engage with things in the world, they must follow their nature and let things take their natural course.

We have heard of flying by means of wings, but not of flying without wings. We have heard of knowing things by means of knowledge, but not of knowing things without knowledge.

【Note】To do something, one must have the conditions required to do it. Without a state of utmost emptiness, one cannot truly resolve or respond to the myriad things.

【Commentary】Without wings, a bird cannot soar through the sky; without the corresponding wisdom, a person cannot respond to external things.

Consider the realm of emptiness and clarity: within the still, empty chamber of the heart, a bright light arises.

【Note】Regard what is concretely present before you as empty, and the chamber of the heart will be vacant. Once it is vacant, a pure and luminous realm will appear of itself.

【Commentary】“Gazing” means observing; “that” refers to the realm before you; “empty” means vacant. Observe the myriad things and understand that they are all empty and still, and the heart can become completely vacant. When the chamber of the heart reflects its true source, wisdom becomes clear and luminous, and the bright Dao reveals itself through its activity.

Auspicious Qi abides in stillness and concentration.

【Note】Auspiciousness gathers where there is utmost emptiness and stillness.

【Commentary】“Good” refers to blessings and virtuous deeds; “auspicious” refers to favorable signs; and “abiding” means the concentrated stillness of wisdom. The meaning is that blessings and auspiciousness abide in a concentrated, still heart; such a heart can also bring about auspicious responses.

If the heart cannot become still, this is called “sitting and galloping”—the body sits while the heart races without rest.

【Note】If one cannot settle in the present or return to the ultimate, one will keep rushing about inwardly even while sitting still. Before any external adversary arrives, the heart is already exhausted. How, then, can one resolve or respond to the myriad things?

【Commentary】If the body cannot become like withered wood and the heart like dead ashes, then even when one sits with a composed bearing, the spirit still races. This is called sitting while the heart gallops.

Let the senses, such as the ears and eyes, turn inward and reach through to their nature, no longer drawn along by external things. Then even ghosts and spirits will come and dwell there—how much more so will people?

【Note】Close off the ears and eyes so they are no longer drawn along by external things, and the nature that manifests of itself can be realized; the workings of the mind will then recede to the outside. In this way, by following one’s nature and reaching through without obstruction, even subtle, imperceptible things will pose no obstacle—how much less will the entanglements of the world?

【Commentary】“Direct” means to cause or make. One who can direct the senses, such as the ears and eyes, inward so they no longer cling to things in the external world…

When the spirit is still and the mind rises beyond ordinary mental activity, one can set aside the outward form. When the heart no longer clings to cleverness, one can forget the body’s constraints and clear away the disturbances of the ears and eyes, meeting the myriad things with an empty, tranquil mind. Then ghosts and spirits attach themselves silently and remain at ease—is this not fitting? People admire and turn toward this state for good reason. Thus the Outer Chapters say: “One incurs no punishment from ghosts and spirits and arouses no resentment among people.” This is the principle by which the myriad things transform, and the crucial guide by which Yu and Shun governed. Fuxi and Jiqu are said to have practiced it as well. How much more, then, should ordinary, undisciplined people do so?

Note: The myriad things have no distinction of worth or lowliness, and people cannot understand them apart from the mind, ears, and eyes. But when people speak of “knowing,” did they first decide that they wanted to know and only then acquire knowledge? When they speak of “seeing,” do they see because they intend to see? If knowledge and experience could both be obtained by sheer will, would anyone who wished to become a worthy person or a sage then be able to do so? Clearly not. People do not understand that knowledge arises naturally, yet they insist on pursuing it; that seeing and hearing happen naturally, yet they insist on pursuing them. They do not realize that life grows of itself, yet deliberately seek longevity. They see the eye and demand that it have Li Zhu’s vision; they hear of the ear and demand that it have Shi Kuang’s hearing. As a result, the mind and spirit race about within, while the ears and eyes are exhausted without. The body, too, loses its ease and can no longer merge with the myriad things. If it cannot merge with them, how could it adapt to the changes of human life and accord with the seasons of the world? This cannot be done.

Commentary: Here, “commentary” means to criticize or discuss. The methods mentioned earlier, such as fasting of the mind, enable one to accord with the transformations of the myriad things and nurture all living beings. Fuxi’s surname was Feng, and his title was Taihao. Jiqu was a legendary ruler from before the Three Sovereigns, with no written records of his time. The point here is that the Way of fasting the mind was the guiding principle and pivot by which Yu of Xia and Shun of Yu dealt with the myriad things; Fuxi and Jiqu are also said to have practiced it throughout their lives. How, then, could ordinary people of the world, shallow and undisciplined, readily transform the myriad things and bring them into accord simply by following this Way?

Ye Gong Ziqi was about to travel as an envoy to the state of Qi and sought advice from Zhongni: “The ruler has entrusted me with a mission of great importance…”

Note: “Great importance” means that the mission carries a heavy responsibility. Ye Gong hopes to gain something from the journey.

Commentary: Ye Gong was the great-grandson of King Zhuang of Chu. His name was Zhuliang and his courtesy name was Zigao. His fief was in Ye, which is why he was called Ye Gong. He called himself “Gong,” though this was an overstepping of rank. At the time, the rulers of Chu were called “Zi” in the Spring and Autumn Annals, yet they themselves claimed the title of king. Qi bore the surname Jiang and was descended from the Grand Duke. Its ancestor was Yu’s…

Because one of the Four Sacred Peaks was enfeoffed in the land of Lü, Taigong came to be known as “Lü Wang.” King Wu of Zhou enfeoffed Taigong at Yingqiu, where he founded the state of Qi. Qi and Chu were on friendly terms, sending envoys back and forth and exchanging gifts without interruption. Sometimes one side faced an urgent crisis and asked the other for help; sometimes it called the other to account and requested troops. These matters were of great importance, and the responsibilities entrusted to those involved were heavy. For this reason, Zhuliang was troubled and sought Zhongni’s advice.

The Marquis of Qi appeared to deal with Chu, but his intentions might not have been sincere. Now he was welcoming Chu’s envoy with particular courtesy, yet he had not agreed to Chu’s request or carried out its instructions. Since he bore a weighty responsibility, he felt anxious in advance.

Even ordinary people cannot easily be swayed; how much less so the feudal lords? This fills me with deep concern. Even when ordinary people have modest aspirations, they cannot simply be made to change their minds. From this, one can infer that the lords of the five ranks could hardly be persuaded with ease. That is why I am so troubled.

You once said to Zhuliang, “In any undertaking, great or small, few people fail to feel pleased when it succeeds.” Zhongni had said this to Zhuliang. Plans and proceedings often have many strands. Though undertakings differ in scale, most people take their successful completion as a source of joy. Zhuliang therefore quoted these earlier words to introduce the reasoning that follows.

If an undertaking fails, it will surely bring worldly calamities. When success is taken as a source of joy, failure brings anger; the King of Chu is no exception. If circumstances go against them and the undertaking cannot succeed, this will bring calamity in human relationships and the threat of punishment.

If an undertaking succeeds, it will surely bring the trouble of Yin and Yang contending. Even when worldly calamities have been averted, joy and fear still mingle in the heart, as though ice and charcoal had formed within the five organs. When the undertaking succeeds and things go as desired, past anxiety turns into present joy. Yet joy and fear also gather in the heart at the same time, while Yin and Yang energies surge through the five organs like ice and charcoal at war. How could this not count as a calamity? Thus the scripture continues:

Whether an undertaking succeeds or fails, afterward there is no further trouble. Only a person of De can achieve this.

Note: When faced with success or failure, can one hand the matter over to the other person without feeling anxious about the outcome? Perhaps only someone of profound De (Virtue/Power) can do this.

Commentary: With success and failure staring one in the face, one can still calm the mind, leave the matter to the other person to handle, and keep worry and joy from burdening the heart. Perhaps only someone of deep virtue can manage this.

The food I eat is coarse and plain, so the cook need not worry about how to keep the fire cool.

Note: “Zang” means fine or excellent, and “qing” means cool. This shows that I eat simply.

Commentary: “Zang” means good, and “qing” means cool. I have been ordered to serve as an envoy, and am so apprehensive that I can manage only coarse food, with no thought for preparing a fine meal. Since the food is plain, the cook need not worry that the fire is too hot or find ways to cool it down. The fire is barely burning; it is not so hot that anyone needs to avoid it.

I accepted the mission in the morning, yet by evening I was drinking ice water. Could it be that my heart was burning?

Note: Though the food was plain, I drank ice water because I was anxious about the difficulty of the mission, not because I craved fine food.

Commentary: Ziliang (that is, Ziqi) received the imperial command in the morning and was drinking ice water by evening. This shows how fear and worry had left him inwardly agitated. The earnestness with which he asks about the reason makes his state of mind clear.

I have not yet learned how things actually stand, but already my heart is suffering the affliction of Yin-Yang. If the mission fails, I will also face calamity at human hands. Thus I am burdened by two kinds of worry.

Note: Before the matter is settled, I can only worry that it may fail. If it does fail, fear will take hold within me, while punishment and legal entanglements will descend upon me from without.

Commentary: The outcome is not yet settled, and it is unclear whether the mission will succeed or fail, yet worry and joy have already arisen in the heart. This is the affliction of Yin-Yang. If something goes wrong and the mission ultimately fails, the minister may be caught in the net of punishment. These are two calamities at once. How could one escape blame?

I, your minister, cannot possibly bear this responsibility. What can you advise me? Please tell me.

Commentary: I occupy the position of a minister only by undeserved favor, and have presumptuously taken on this lowly role as envoy. My virtue is shallow, and I truly cannot bear such a heavy responsibility. You are a sage, and wish to help others; surely you have a way. Please tell me.

Confucius said, “There are two great principles in the world: one is destiny, and the other is duty.”

Commentary: “Jie” means principle or rule. Though there are many teachings in the world, these two are the most important. Their meanings will be explained one by one below.

A child’s love and respect for their parents is ordained by destiny; it cannot be cast off from the heart.

Note: This affection is rooted naturally and deeply in the heart, and cannot be undone.

Commentary: A filial child serves their parents with wholehearted love and respect. This natural disposition arises of itself, and the heart follows it in action; therefore, it cannot be cast off.

A minister’s service to the ruler is a duty grounded in social role and moral obligation. Wherever one may be, one cannot leave the ruler behind or escape the order that governs heaven and earth.

Commentary: When many people gather, if no one takes charge, they will fall into disorder and may even scatter. Therefore, no matter how many worthy and capable people there are, there cannot be several rulers. A capable minister is indispensable, and so is a ruler. This is the constant principle of the Dao of Heaven and human relations, and it is inevitable.

Explication (commentary on the classic): The relationship between ruler and minister, and between those above and below, is inherently necessary. A loyal minister therefore serves the ruler and, even at the cost of his life, fulfills his moral integrity. This is where duty accords with moral obligation; it does not arise from inborn nature. Though heaven and earth are vast, no state can be without a ruler. If one has committed an offense, where can one flee? So when the ruler gives an order, one carries it out at once, without hesitation or retreat.

This is called the “Great Prohibition”—a vital principle that must not be violated.

Commentary: If a ruler could be evaded, and parents could be left uncared for, this would not deserve to be called an important prohibition.

Explication: This sums up the major principles discussed above concerning service to one’s ruler and parents.

Thus, those who serve their parents do not choose where they live: wherever they can make their parents comfortable is the fullest expression of filial devotion.

Explication: The key to a dutiful child’s care for their parents is to meet their needs. When taking office and earning a stipend, one should be content with whatever position one receives, high or low. That is what it means to be supremely filial.

Those who serve their ruler do not choose what tasks they undertake: to accept them calmly is the highest expression of loyalty.

Explication: A minister serving the ruler should devote himself wholeheartedly and be loyal. Whether a task is difficult or easy, he should accept it calmly, as though it were fated. How could he first weigh its benefits and dangers, then decide whether to carry it out? This is the most prized quality of a loyal minister.

Those who cultivate their own minds do not let sorrow or joy readily sway them. Knowing that some things cannot be helped, they accept the course of fate: this is the highest level of De (Virtue/Power).

Commentary: To know that something cannot be helped is to understand that it has been decreed by fate. Once one accepts fate, sorrow and joy can no longer sway the mind—what emotions, then, would need to be changed? The mind is therefore deep and still. It regards whatever comes as part of fate and does not allow private desires to intrude. It dissolves distinctions and accords with what is fitting, leaving no room within for either grief or delight. Even among ordinary people, one can remain at ease in every situation; how much more so in the presence of one’s ruler and parents?

Explication: Those who cultivate the Dao settle their minds. They understand that favorable and adverse circumstances have no essential difference, and see that gain and loss can be brought into unity. Thus, they are not readily swayed by sorrow or joy. They know that hardship and success each have their inevitability and cannot be controlled by human wishes. They therefore settle the mind, follow fate, and do not violate the principle of Heaven. Who could achieve this without the profound attainment and deep De of a Perfected Person?

Those who are ministers and children sometimes have no choice but to act. Even if this means forgetting themselves, they must fulfill their responsibilities.

A minister serving his ruler, or a son serving his father, must give everything he has, even at the cost of his life. When something needs doing, he should act at once, without picking and choosing. To set aside his own interests in carrying out his duties is simply what is expected of him. If the situation cannot be avoided, he should leave the outcome to fate.

What time is there to cling to life or recoil from death? Confucius could act this way.

The Way is never beyond understanding, so one should accept the circumstances one encounters and go straight to doing what needs to be done. If one’s commitment to what is right is not firm, and one still clings to life and recoils from death, unable to devote oneself fully to what must be done, but instead concerns oneself only with finding a way to survive and fearing death, then it will be difficult to get anything done.

Since an envoy should not cling to life or fear death, once he has accepted his ruler’s command, he should simply set out for Qi. What time is there to ponder life and death?

Confucius said, “Let me tell you again what I have heard: when people who are in contact live near one another, they draw close through sincerity; when they are far apart, they convey their loyalty through words.”

The commentary explains that when people are near one another and can meet directly, they treat each other sincerely and come to trust one another. When they are far apart, they rely on words to convey their intentions. Confucius quotes what he has heard in order to advise Zhuliang.

“Words sometimes have to be carried by someone else. To convey words that will please both sides, or anger both sides, is one of the most difficult tasks in the world.”

The commentary explains that talk about joy and anger easily goes too far. The messenger must convey both sides’ meanings without distorting their proper measure, which is very difficult. Whether expressing one’s intentions in words or asking someone to convey the views of both sides, it is no simple matter to carry messages between people who are pleased with each other or angry with each other.

When both sides are pleased, they often offer excessive praise. When both sides are angry, they often speak with excessive contempt.

Here, “excess” means going beyond what is appropriate. When people are happy or angry, their words often become biased.

Words that go too far are often untrue. If they do not sound like what the people involved really meant, others may suspect that the messenger made them up.

Once people think a message may have been invented, its listeners will not believe it and will grow doubtful.

When people have no doubts at all, they will take a message they have heard as true. If they are suspicious of a rumor, the person who passed it on may bring trouble upon himself.

Guo Xiang’s commentary says that when someone repeats another person’s words and they sound absurd or untrue, the listener will naturally doubt them. The messenger may then be punished for misrepresenting what was said or for getting the tone or emphasis wrong. The subcommentary explains that if the listener becomes suspicious and refuses to believe the message, the messenger will suffer as a result.

That is why an old saying advises: “Repeat what accords with ordinary understanding; do not spread exaggerated words. This is the way to come close to keeping yourself safe.” Even if you hear someone make an extreme remark in the heat of the moment, do not pass it on carelessly. Instead, convey what is credible and appropriate, guided by what you know of that person’s true intentions over time. Only then can you come close to handling the matter well.

The subcommentary says that living among people and carrying messages for them is truly difficult. First, learn what is usually the case, then weigh your words carefully between guest and host. Do not pass along words spoken in a moment of anger or delight, lest they create a rift between the two sides. To manage this is to come close to keeping yourself safe. Here, a saying of the ancient sages is cited as a guide for later generations.

Next, those who pit skill against strength often begin in good spirits.

The commentary says that at first, both sides simply enjoy the game.

But often, by the end, their feelings turn to anger.

The commentary says that once the desire to win arises, thoughts of secretly harming the other person take hold.

The subcommentary explains that “Yang” refers to delight and “Yin” to anger. A contest of strength may involve some skill, but at first it is only play, and everyone is in good spirits. By the end, anger and the desire to win may lead one side to secretly harm the other. Feelings of delight and anger in the world often change in much the same way. The contest of strength is used here as an analogy.

When a situation reaches an extreme, all kinds of deceitful tactics emerge.

The commentary says that at this point, people no longer follow what is proper.

The subcommentary says that when anger reaches its height and the desire to win grows especially strong, the situation becomes treacherous, and people resort to all kinds of cunning tricks.

Drinking according to ritual begins in good order.

The commentary says that distinctions of rank are observed: people offer and return cups in turn, each according to the proper sequence.

But often, by the end, everything descends into disorder.

The commentary says this is the result of drinking to excess and abandoning restraint.

The subcommentary explains that when host and guest offer and return cups, there is an established order of ritual. But after drinking too much, people stop observing distinctions of rank, and the rules that were followed at first are eventually broken. Drinking is used here as an analogy.

When a situation reaches an extreme, all kinds of strange and unrestrained pleasures emerge.

The commentary says that when people indulge in lust and excess, anything may happen.

The subcommentary says that as feasting and entertainment grow more exciting, indulgence intensifies. People sing and dance without regard for restraint or ritual, seeking all kinds of novel stimulation, until their pleasure has no bounds.

All kinds of things follow this pattern: they may begin with sincerity and moderation but end in vulgarity. Matters often start out simple, yet as they near their conclusion, they inevitably become complicated and weighty.

The commentary says that complexity often grows out of simplicity, and events often arise from the smallest beginnings. This is the inevitable course of things as they reach their end.

This is often how people behave in ordinary life: at first they are sincere and trusting, but in the end they become dismissive and resentful. A matter may begin with a very small step and later grow into something much greater. Thus, confusion often arises from small things, and trouble often begins in subtle ways. This is how the scripture uses a small matter to explain a great principle.

Words are like waves stirred up by the wind; actions, in turn, may cause people to lose their true nature.

The commentary says: Words are like wind-driven waves. If one acts on the basis of such words, one may lose one’s true nature.

The subcommentary explains: Water forms waves when the wind blows, just as words stir joy and anger in the human heart. If one is swayed by words like these wind-driven waves and then acts out of joy or anger, one will lose the true Way.

Wind-driven waves easily disturb the surface of the water; losing one’s true nature can just as easily put matters in danger.

The commentary says: If one does not chase after these wave-like words or act on them, one’s true nature will not be lost. When things accord with reality, danger can turn to safety and turmoil can be brought to rest.

The subcommentary explains: Wind easily stirs waves across the water’s surface. In the same way, words can lead people away from what is true, and matters can readily become dangerous.

Anger often arises for no other reason than clever, extravagant words, exaggerations, or biased and inappropriate speech.

The commentary says: People usually become angry because they are provoked by unrealistic, artful words or biased and inappropriate remarks.

The subcommentary explains: Hollow and affected speech, flattering words, or biased and improper remarks often provoke anger.

When a wild animal is driven into a desperate plight, it does not choose its cries as death approaches. Its breath becomes hurried and disordered, and a violent disposition arises with it.

The commentary uses this as a metaphor: When a wild animal is driven into a desperate plight and its life is nearly over, its heart is agitated and its strength exhausted. It can no longer make a calm sound; its breath becomes disordered and urgent. Rage and the desire to cause harm arise together, and it turns to fight its opponent.

The subcommentary explains: This is another example. The wild animal is trapped, its life hanging by a thread. Its cries lose their measure, its breath grows constricted, and resentment arises in its heart. It suddenly flies into a rage and lunges at others with its teeth.

Overly harsh scrutiny and questioning are bound to give rise to unkind thoughts, though people may not know why they feel that way.

The commentary says: If one generously makes room for all things, they will naturally be willing to draw near. Scrutiny and questioning that are too exacting and severe give rise to mean and miserly thoughts, often without people realizing it themselves. A person of great De is broad-minded and lets all things find their proper place. They are not troubled by others’ abilities, nor do they drain away others’ joy. In this way, they preserve harmony in all relationships throughout the world.

The subcommentary explains: Finding fault and investigating too strictly and aggressively will bring forth unkind thoughts. This reaction arises suddenly, as circumstances interact and things follow their natural course. From this we can see that impatience loses people’s goodwill, while generosity wins them over.

If people do not even know how things came to be this way, who can foresee how far they will ultimately go?

If people cannot even recognize their own situation, how can they know where blessings and calamities will come from together?

[Commentary] Responding impatiently in defiance of others is bound to meet with their rejection. This is the result of things resonating with one another according to principle. If you do not understand this and respond to them in the moment without good judgment, how can you know what troubles you will bring upon yourself later?

Thus an ancient saying goes: “Do not alter an order on your own.”

[Note] Convey the other person’s true meaning.

[Commentary] When carrying out a ruler’s order, convey it truthfully. Do not change it at will because of a passing fit of anger or pleasure.

“Do not press for things to be completed.”

[Note] Let things come to completion naturally.

[Commentary] Simply state the ruler’s order clearly, then let the other person act according to the nature of the matter. There is no need to expend effort urging or forcing them to finish.

“Do not add too much.”

[Note] Add too much, and things can no longer retain their original character.

[Commentary] Be content with what Heaven has ordained, and act in keeping with one’s nature and with reason. There is no need to say anything extra or go beyond the original bounds.

Altering an order or pressing for something to be completed puts the matter in danger.

[Note] This means that the matter will become precarious.

[Commentary] Change the ruler’s order and then force the other person to carry it out, and the matter can easily become dangerous.

Good results take time to form.

[Note] A good result comes when things are allowed to take shape as circumstances change. Crops, for example, cannot grow in a single day.

[Commentary] Let what you regard as good come about in keeping with its own course. Do not rely on urging or force, and it will endure.

Force something you dislike to happen, and before long you will want to undo it.

[Note] If you force someone to complete a task they dislike, regret and the desire to change course will soon follow.

[Commentary] Even if something you dislike is forced to completion, it will not be long before you regret it and want to change it.

Can one afford to be careless about this?

[Commentary] When living among people and carrying out a mission under orders, one should be especially careful to follow the sayings handed down by the ancient sages.

Now, settle the mind by following external things.

[Note] Entrust one’s intentions to external things.

[Commentary] Those who truly understand independent self-transformation can move freely through the human world by way of external things. With a quiet, empty mind, they respond to worldly affairs. What danger could there be?

Entrust yourself to what must be done, and use it to cultivate the heart: this is the utmost.

[Note] By accepting what must happen according to the principles of things, one accords with the way of balance and harmony. This is the highest level of responding to external things.

[Commentary] “What must be done” means what is inevitable according to principle. Settle the heart in these inevitable matters and cultivate a balanced, harmonious mind: this is the utmost understanding of the truth and the highest skill in responding to things.

Why plan in advance how to respond?

[Note] Let things respond according to their own nature. Why deliberately scheme about this?

[Commentary] Follow your circumstances and act in accordance with principle. Why speculate and calculate in advance … [The original text ends here unfinished]

They are equal to one another because each is repaying old debts of gratitude and resentment.

It is better to follow Heaven’s mandate in one’s actions; that is the truly difficult part.

Note: Simply following Heaven’s mandate and acting in accordance with one’s nature should be the easiest thing. But people are often moved to act by their likes and dislikes, so it is hard to do.

Commentary: To follow one’s nature directly and entrust oneself to Heaven’s mandate is naturally simple. What could be difficult about that? When the text says, “That is the truly difficult part,” it really means that it is not difficult.

Yan He, a worthy man of Lu during the Spring and Autumn period, was about to become tutor to the crown prince of Wei, Duke Ling’s son.

Commentary: Yan was his family name and He his given name; he was a worthy man of Lu. The crown prince was named Kuai Kui. Yan He was traveling from Lu to Wei to take up the post of the prince’s tutor.

Yan He sought advice from Qu Boyu, a worthy minister of Wei, saying, “There is a man whose inborn nature is violent and who delights in killing. If I do not try to restrain him, the state of Wei will be in danger. But if I restrain him with rules and laws, I will be in danger myself.”

Note: If a petty man is guided to follow proper standards, he will resent the person who restrains him. If he is left entirely unchecked, he will throw the state into disorder.

Commentary: Here, “standards” means rules and laws. The crown prince was naturally unruly and did not follow benevolence and righteousness. If Yan He restrained him by law, the prince would resent his tutor and put him in danger. If he let the prince go unchecked, the prince would indulge himself without restraint and behave perversely, bringing the state to ruin.

“His intelligence is sufficient to see other people’s faults, but not to see why they make them.”

Note: He does not know that the roots of the people’s wrongdoing lie in himself. So he blames the people but does not correct himself.

Commentary: He himself acts without the Dao, yet never regrets or changes his ways. When the people make mistakes, he punishes them severely. He sees only their offenses, without realizing that those offenses stem from him. If a ruler recognizes this, he will understand that the people are like grass bent by the wind, and that the responsibility lies with the ruler.

“What should I do with a man like this?”

Commentary: “A man like this” refers to the situation just described. Yan He is asking Qu Boyu for advice about the difficulty he faces.

Qu Boyu said, “A good question! Be alert and cautious, and set yourself in order.”

Note: In thinking matters through and adapting to changing circumstances, the foundation must be to set oneself in order.

Commentary: “Alert” means to be vigilant and keep oneself in check. You must not act carelessly: be cautious, stay on guard, and avoid offending the crown prince lightly. You should walk the right path yourself while adapting to the moment and responding to circumstances. The passage first praises Yan He for being good at seeking advice, then tells him what to do.

In outward conduct, it is best to go along with the other person; in one’s inner attitude, it is best to remain at ease with them.

Note: Outwardly, do not set yourself against the other person. Inwardly, remain accommodating without giving up your own principles.

Let your outward form accord with the other person, without violating the rites governing ruler and subject. Let your inner mind remain calm and accommodating. Use these two ways to deal with the affairs of the world.

Even so, each of these approaches carries its own dangers.

Commentary: The two points above give only a broad outline of how to conduct oneself in the world. They are not fully adequate and can still bring trouble.

Note: “Following” means yielding outwardly in one’s conduct; “joining” means going further and falling in with the other person.

Commentary: Guo Xiang’s note says: “Following” means yielding outwardly in one’s conduct; “joining” means going further and falling in with the other person.

Keep your inner mind calm, but do not display yourself.

Note: “Harmonizing” means helping the other person in an appropriate way; “displaying” means putting oneself forward and showing off.

Commentary: Be inwardly clear-minded and able to harmonize. Guide and support the other person by suitable means, attribute the achievement to the ruler, and do not display your own abilities. This is what it means not to “display” yourself.

If you yield outwardly and go further by falling in with the other person, you will bring on ruin, annihilation, collapse, and defeat.

Note: If you go further and fall in with the other person, you will fail to help when they are in danger and will perish alongside them. You should therefore take the standards of Heaven and Earth as your model, while simply avoiding any deliberate display of your own difference.

Commentary: “Overturned” means brought down; “annihilated” means destroyed; “collapsed” means broken apart; “defeated” means brought to ruin. If you yield outwardly, follow the other person in doing wrong, and fail to help when danger comes, you will ultimately be brought down, destroyed, broken apart, and defeated, perishing alongside them.

If you harmonize inwardly but display yourself, you will invite praise, fame, trouble, and disaster.

Note: Even if you display yourself out of a wish to harmonize, people may accuse you of chasing fame. Your help may also make the other person feel that you are taking the credit from them. They may resent you for outshining them and rashly create trouble. You should therefore remain still and concealed, like something dark and without form, blending in with the common world. Then others will be unable either to draw close to you or to distance themselves from you, to profit from you or to harm you.

Commentary: Things that defy the natural order are called “monstrous portents”; the term also refers to calamities. Even if you can blend your light with the dust—that is, restrain your sharpness and merge with the common world—if you still display your intelligence and cannot conceal your brilliance or hide your tracks, your help may earn you a reputation for stealing credit. Kuai Kui, a person’s name, resented others for outshining him. He therefore regarded that person as having needlessly brought disaster upon himself and used an incident as a pretext to harm him.

If the other person is like an infant, then follow along and appear like an infant. If the other person has no bounds or restraints, then follow along without drawing boundaries. If the other person is boundless, then follow along without showing where your limits lie. Only then can you deal with them freely and bring yourself to a place beyond fault.

Note: Do not deliberately show sharp edges, lest you provoke the other person.

Commentary: “Field boundary” means the edge of a field; “ridge” means the raised bank between fields. “Together with” means in company with, or following; “joining” means coming together. Dealing with people in the world is truly difficult: you cannot simply fall in with the other person, nor can you suddenly distance yourself and create friction. At times, you may appear as simple and unknowing as an infant, for the moment… (The original text ends here unfinished.)

To give free rein to greed as though there were no dikes or boundaries, and to let brutal killing run its course, then afterward try to guide people through virtue and regulate them through ritual and law will not work. Only by understanding this can one know how to avoid entanglement.

Do you know the mantis? It raises its forelegs to stop a wheel, unaware that it cannot possibly hold it back. It simply thinks its own abilities are exceptional.

Note: There is nothing unattractive about the mantis raising its forelegs; the problem is that it faces a wheel with vastly greater force. To know you are powerless and still insist on taking on what you cannot manage is like a mantis trying to stop a wheel.

Explanation: The mantis is an insect with forelegs shaped like axes. It summons its courage and raises them to stop the wheel of a large cart. Though it prides itself on its exceptional ability, it cannot bear this task. How is Yan He’s attempt to use his own talent to resist the power of the heir apparent any different from a mantis raising its forelegs to stop a wheel?

Be wary and cautious. To build up your abilities, boast of your excellence, and use these to provoke the other person is already extremely dangerous.

Note: You are building up your talents and boasting of your strengths. By provoking that person in this way, you are on a dangerous path.

Explanation: “Build up” means to accumulate; “boast” means to praise oneself; “danger” means peril. Since you have been ordered to assist the heir apparent, you should act with caution. Yet you are building up your talents, relying on your own excellence, and provoking someone with power. This will surely bring danger.

Do you know how a tiger keeper does his work? He does not give the tiger live prey directly, because he fears the tiger might become enraged after killing it.

Note: The keeper fears that killing its prey will stir the tiger’s bloodlust and make it angry.

Explanation: Do you know how to keep a tiger? One cannot feed a fierce animal live pigs, sheep, or other creatures, for fear that killing its prey will make it angry.

Even when giving a tiger an intact carcass, one must first cut it into pieces, so that the tiger does not become angry from the effort of tearing it apart itself.

Note: If the tiger has to bite into and tear apart its food, it may become angry from the exertion.

Explanation: You must understand when the tiger is hungry and when it is full, know what makes it angry, and act in keeping with its moods.

Though tigers and humans belong to different kinds, tigers grow attached to and treat kindly those who accommodate them; they kill those who go against them.

Note: When one follows the way things are, even those of different kinds can grow close. When one opposes another, even close kin may take up arms against each other.

When you follow its nature, it will be glad to draw near to you, and even tigers and wolves can be tamed. Go against it, and you may bring disaster upon yourself. Even those closest to one another may come to blows. The principles for caring for yourself are much the same, and there is no difference in how one should deal with people and things.

A man who loved horses used a bamboo basket to hold their dung and a large clam shell to hold their urine. Dung and urine are among the lowliest things, yet he kept them in precious vessels. This shows just how much he loved his horses.

When mosquitoes suddenly gathered on a horse, he hurried to swat them away. Though he meant to spare the horse discomfort, he struck without warning while it was unprepared. The horse was so startled that it bit through its bit and broke its reins; it even kicked in the man’s chest and trampled his skull.

The man intended to protect the horse, but his love for it led him to lose it. Could one be too cautious? Here, “lose” means to lose possession. The horse lover was bent on removing the nuisance, yet because he swatted so suddenly, he injured the horse and lost what he cherished. The same is true when people deal with things outside themselves: when their responses are out of step with the moment, disaster may follow. Thus, the story of the man swatting the horse reminds us to act with care.

Carpenter Shi—whose name was Shi—was traveling to the state of Qi. Passing Mount Quyuan, he saw an oak tree used for worship at a shrine to the earth god.

“Carpenter” was a general term for a woodworker; “Shi” was this carpenter’s name. Quyuan was the name of a mountain, with a winding, twisting road. The oak is a kind of tree; “shrine” refers to a place where the earth god was worshipped. The character for “shrine” also carries the sense of giving life and bringing things into being. People believed that the earth gave rise to all things, and so it was called a “shrine.” This account of Carpenter Shi encountering an extraordinary great tree illustrates how, in dealing with the world, one may sometimes preserve oneself by being “useless.”

The oak shrine tree was so large that it could shelter an ox. Its trunk measured a hundred feet around. The character xie means to measure or encircle; here it refers to measuring the trunk’s circumference.

This tree’s shade is broad enough to shelter thousands of oxen. Measured with a rope, its trunk is a hundred feet around. The Jiangnan edition (one version of the Nanhua Zhenjing) more often reads, “Its shade shelters countless oxen,” but the character “thousand” here is probably an error. The tree at Shangqiu was already large enough to tether thousands of carts to; how could a tree with a curved trunk like a cart shaft shelter only one ox? By that measure, the version reading “several thousand oxen” must be correct.

It rises so high that it passes a thousand ren (an ancient unit of length, equal to seven chi) before putting out branches. Its straight trunk stands more than seventy feet tall before its limbs spread out, covering the sky and blocking the sun. Its trunk is large enough to build a boat, and more than a dozen trees nearby are just as tall.

So many people come to see the tree that the place is like a marketplace. Yet the master carpenter Shi does not even look at it. He walks straight past without stopping.

After the disciple has looked his fill, he runs after the carpenter and says, “Ever since I began following you with an axe, I have never seen such fine timber. Yet you refuse to look at it and keep walking. Why?”

The carpenter Shi says, “Enough. Don’t speak of it.”

This tree is “useless wood,” unfit for making things. A boat made from it would sink; a coffin made from it would soon rot; an object made from it would quickly break; doors and windows made from it would leak resin; and beams and pillars made from it would be eaten by insects. It is timber of no use, and that is why it has lived so long. Since it falls outside the category of usable timber, it is called “useless wood.”

The carpenter Shi understands that this great tree is unsuited to ordinary needs, so he scolds his disciple for saying more. Its wood is loose and brittle, unable to serve practical purposes, and so it is judged useless. For that very reason, it escapes the axe and lives out its full span.

Carpenter Shi, a man named Shi who was a carpenter, went home and lay down to sleep. In his dream, the sacred oak of the village altar (Lì Shè, the oak that served as the local shrine's guardian spirit) asked him: "What do you intend to compare me to? Do you mean to treat me as useless scattered timber, or to call me fine wood with grain, fit for lumber?"

The tree continued: "Fruit trees such as hawthorn, pear, tangerine, and pomelo, along with melons and gourds, are plucked and stripped once their fruit ripens. Their large branches are broken off and their small branches are pulled down. This is because their fruit is useful, and so it brings them suffering. They cannot live out their natural span and die halfway, struck down by the world while still in its midst. There is nothing in the world that is not like this."

The commentary says that all things are harmed because they are useful. The subcommentary explains that the fruit is sweet, so people pick it, and the trees are therefore wounded and humiliated. They grow in spring and wither in autumn, and could have lived out their full heavenly span, but they are struck down halfway. This is called an untimely death from calamity. Ordinary people do not see this, and they all take usefulness as the root of their own harm. For this reason the passage concludes that nothing in the world is not like this.

The tree went on: "I have long pursued uselessness, and I nearly lost my life over it. Only now have I finally attained it." The commentary points out that many people in the world have sidelong glances for me, and only Carpenter Shi today has seen clearly. What the tree calls "great use to me" means that accumulating uselessness is the greatest use for preserving one's life.

The subcommentary further explains that only what is unfit for timber and useless can preserve its life. The Lì-oak has sought this uselessness for a long time. Mediocre and clumsy craftsmen, suspecting it of being good timber, came again and again to inspect it, intending to cut it down. The tree feared being felled by axes and dying beneath the blade. Now that it has met a craftsman like Shi, who can tell the true from the false and sees that it is unfit timber, it is able to preserve its life. This is the meaning of "great use to me," and the principle is roughly the same.

Finally, the tree said: "If I were useful, fine timber, how could I have grown so tall and lived so long?" The commentary says that if it were useful timber, it would have been cut down long ago.

Besides, you and I are both merely things among the transformations of Heaven and Earth. How could either of us see through the other? This is only a hypothetical question.

You, a “scattered man” nearing death, how could you understand that I am a “scattered tree”? In his dream, the carpenter Shi speaks playfully through the oak tree’s mouth: Shi thinks that a tree unfit for timber is a “scattered tree,” while one with useful qualities has value. When you display your talents to the world, you invite an early end; I am dispersed and useless, and so I have preserved my life. You, a “scattered man” close to death, how could you understand that I am a “scattered tree”?

When the carpenter Shi awoke, he considered the dream’s meaning and told it to his companions.

A disciple asked, “The oak seeks only to be useless. If so, why does it serve as the community altar tree?”

The disciple still thought that, by becoming the community altar tree, the oak seemed to have gained honor. He did not understand why it would seek only uselessness in order to preserve its life, so he asked this question.

The carpenter Shi said, “Do not speak so hastily. The community altar tree was simply placed here as a dwelling for the altar spirit; the tree itself did not seek to become one.”

The oak regarded the role of community altar tree as something that failed to understand it. It even thought that this had insulted it. How could it take the role as an honor?

“It already makes use of its dispersed, useless nature. Even if it did not serve as a community altar tree, it might not be cut down.”

Trees preserve their lives by being dispersed and unfit for timber. Even if this tree had not been made the community altar tree, how would it have come close to the calamity of being felled?

Besides, what the oak holds to is different from what people hold to. It takes having nothing to depend on as its way of preservation, while people take having something to depend on as theirs.

The loosely branched trees survive because they are of no use, while trees with good timber die young because they are useful. This is why their fates differ. To praise the community tree as a tree of righteousness—isn’t that far removed from the truth?

The tree is called righteous because it benefits people, nurtures living things, and prevents the people from doing wrong. In fact, useless things are calm and untroubled, without deliberate action. The many talents each serve their own purpose in orderly fashion, while the useless thing takes no part in it. That is why it is able to survive. To praise it as righteous simply because people call it the community tree is very far from what it truly means.

The unfit tree is naturally as it is; this is what the creator bestowed upon it. Precisely because it is of no use, it can preserve its life. People entrust the community tree with a divine spirit and make offerings to it, bringing it praise, blame, and trouble in turn. To praise it further as righteous is an even more distant interpretation.

Nanbo Ziqi was traveling in Shangqiu when he saw a great tree. Its shade was astonishingly vast, enough to shelter thousands upon thousands of chariots.

The shadow cast by its branches and leaves was enough to shelter many chariots and horses.

Nanbo is an honorific title for an elder. Ziqi is Nangua Ziqi. Shangqiu is a place name in the region of Liang and Song. A “chariot” here is drawn by four horses, and “shade” means the shadow of the tree. As Ziqi passed through Shangqiu in the state of Song, he came upon an extraordinary tree: its trunk was thick and tall, its branches and leaves lush, and its shade so broad that it could shelter thousands upon thousands of chariots and horses.

Ziqi said, “What kind of tree is this? It must have some special quality.”

Seeing the tree but unable to identify it, Ziqi guessed that it must possess something unusual to have grown so large.

He looked up at its slender branches and saw that they were crooked and twisted, unfit for beams. He looked down at its thick roots and found their grain loose and scattered, making them unsuitable for coffins or outer coffins.

“Axle-like looseness” describes wood whose interior is so loose that it seems to turn like a wheel axle—that is, the heartwood can turn easily. A coffin must be made of whole, solid planks; the outer coffin is placed around the coffin. Beams must be straight, so crooked branches are unsuitable. Coffin wood must be firm, so loose roots lack the necessary strength.

Licking its leaves made the lips and mouth break out in sores. Smelling its odor made people feel dazed and delirious, unable to recover for three days.

If you licked the leaves, your lips and mouth would break out in sores. If you smelled the odor, you would feel drunk and unwell for a long time. “The discomfort after drunkenness” refers to the malaise that follows intoxication.

Ziqi said, “It truly is a useless tree. That is exactly why it has grown so large.”

The whole tree is unsuitable as timber. It is precisely this “uselessness” that has enabled it to preserve its life and serve a greater purpose.

This is precisely how it works its subtle aid to all things: it escaped death by the axe, and instead provides shade and shelter for the people of a realm of ten thousand chariots.

Alas, the spirit-like person puts “uselessness” to work. The Son of Heaven does not personally attend to the affairs of all the officials, so each official takes responsibility for their own duties. Those with keen eyes observe on his behalf; those with sharp ears listen on his behalf; the wise plan for him; and the brave defend him. What, then, does the Son of Heaven need to do? He need only remain empty, still, and in Wuwei (non-action). In this way, people of every talent can make full use of their abilities. What seems “useless” is precisely what allows everyone else’s talents to flourish. That is why people throughout the world gladly support him and do not grow weary of him. He governs all things without harming them.

Commentary: The Perfected Person, one who has reached the highest state, is wondrous and unfathomable; even the transformations of Yin-Yang cannot fathom his depths. He moves among ordinary people, concealing his brilliance rather than displaying it. Thus he can put down deep roots and endure, carrying all things like a boat and sheltering the people. Consider the oak that serves as a local altar tree, worshipped in ancient times as the dwelling place of the Earth God: it is unlike other trees. The text therefore praises the spirit-like person for achieving great usefulness through “uselessness.” What is called useless is, in truth, great usefulness.

In the state of Song, there was a place called Jingshi, where catalpa, cypress, and mulberry trees grew well.

Commentary: Jingshi is a place name. The area around Jingshi in the state of Song was suitable for growing catalpa, cypress, and mulberry. All three kinds of tree grow straight and true, making them suitable for lumber. These useful trees are introduced to show that they meet an early death because their timber can be put to use. They contrast with the trees mentioned earlier, whose crooked, irregular branches make them useless and allow them to preserve their lives.

When a tree grew thick enough for a person to encircle with both arms, or just one hand, people would cut it down to make a stake for tethering monkeys.

Commentary: A tree that can be encircled with both arms is called “an embrace” (gong); one that can be grasped with one hand is called “a handful” (ba). “Monkey” here refers to the macaque, and “stake” means a wooden post, which could also be used as a barrier or obstruction. A tree of this size is not very large, making it just right to cut down for a stake to tether or restrain a macaque.

When a tree grew to three or four girths around, people would cut it down to make tall, beautiful roof beams.

Commentary: “Li” refers to a roof beam, though some commentaries explain it as a small boat. “High renown” means status and honor. Once a tree had grown to a girth of three or four chi, it was already fairly large. People would cut it down to build grand, beautiful houses and enhance their reputation, or to make boats.

When a tree grew to seven or eight girths around, nobles and wealthy merchants would cut it down for the side boards of their coffins.

Commentary: “Chanbang” refers to the side boards of a coffin. Another interpretation is that it means a single continuous board forming one entire side of the coffin, without being joined to a lower section. A tree with a girth of seven or eight chi was already very large, yet nobles and wealthy merchants would still cut it down to obtain broad planks for coffins.

Thus, before these trees could live out their allotted years, they were felled midway through their lives by the axe. This is the misfortune that befalls trees with useful timber.

Note: Trees whose timber can be put to use cannot easily escape being noticed and cut down.

The commentary says: Because these things were useful, they could not enjoy the full span of life nature had given them, and instead died prematurely at the hands of craftsmen. They all brought misfortune upon themselves because they had talent and were useful. Therefore, when making offerings to the river god, people must keep away cattle with white patches on their foreheads, pigs with upturned snouts, and people suffering from fistulas near the anus; none of them may go to the riverbank.

The note says: When ritual specialists—shamans and officiants who preside over sacrifices—perform a “dispelling rite,” a ritual offering meant to avert misfortune and seek blessings, they reject these three kinds of animals and people. They must carefully select the invocation and the offerings before daring to use them.

The commentary explains: “Forehead” means the brow, “raised” means high, and “fistula” refers to a draining disease around the anus. The ritual specialists set out a dog made of straw as an offering, and select cattle and pigs for the dispelling rite. The offerings must be carefully chosen, with pure coat colors; only the finest are selected. They approach the rite with such reverence that it is as though the spirits were before them, hoping to reach them through their sincerity. If a pig has an upturned or sunken nose, a cow has a white patch on its forehead and a coat that is not red, or a person suffers from fistulas or other unclean diseases, then all three are impure and must not be taken to the sacred river to make offerings. In ancient times, people drowned someone in the river as an offering to the Earl of the River. Ximen Bao put a stop to this practice when he served as magistrate of Ye; this is the kind of thing being referred to. The ritual specialists also know about these practices.

Another note says: The ritual specialists know that animals and people who do not meet the requirements for sacrifice should be rejected. In their view, these are inauspicious. But the spirit-like person, who accords with all things and has no private interests, sees that precisely because these things are unsuitable, they are able to preserve their lives. This is the greatest good fortune.

The commentary explains: Women are called “wu,” and men “xi.” A “zhu” is the person who holds a tablet and reads the sacrificial text. “Auspicious” means good and blessed. When ritual specialists perform a dispelling rite, they know these three kinds are unsuitable for sacrifice, so they reject them as inauspicious. Yet the sacred person can commune with the transformations of nature and understands that being useless and unfit for a purpose can preserve one’s life. This shows that calling the white-foreheaded cow, the high-nosed pig, and the person with fistulas “inauspicious” reflects only the shallow view of lesser ritual specialists. How could it compare with the expansive wisdom of a great person? Being unfit for use is precisely what the spirit-like person regards as auspicious and good.

The chin of Shuli Shu is drawn in beside his navel, while his shoulders rise above the top of his head.

The commentary explains: “Shuli” means that the limbs are uneven and the body loosely formed. Shuli Shu’s cheeks and chin are drawn in between his navel, while his shoulders rise above his head. He was named “Shuli” for this appearance.

His head rises into a high, prominent hump, and the acupuncture points linked to his five organs all face upward. His thighs bend and curl inward, pressed close against his ribs.

He makes his living by sewing and washing clothes, barely supporting himself.

He can also shake a small winnowing basket to separate the rice, producing fine rice enough to feed ten people.

When the state calls up able-bodied men for military service, he waves his arms among those being summoned. Since his disability makes him unfit to fight, he has no need to hide.

When the state imposes major labor duties, his long-term illness exempts him from the required service.

When the authorities distribute grain to the sick and weak, he can receive three zhong of grain—an ancient measure of capacity that the commentaries say equals six shi and four dou—and ten bundles of firewood. The commentators explain that he need not perform labor when men are drafted, while he can receive relief when aid is distributed.

Even someone whose body is so severely impaired can support himself and enjoy a long life. How much more so for someone whose Virtue is impaired and who is free of worldly constraints?

The commentators explain that the Perfect Person is not used by external things; rather, all things each fulfill their own function. He does not claim the credit for his achievements, but attributes it to everyone. Blending with all things, he leaves no trace of himself. In this way, he avoids the harms of the world and rests in his original nature. “Impairing his Virtue,” they say, means not clinging to Virtue. The commentaries further explain that “impairing his form” can be understood as forgetting the body, while “impairing his Virtue” means forgetting Virtue.

Therefore, those who can forget their reputation for De may understand all things through wisdom yet return to a simple, unknowing state. Though they see all things clearly and shine like the sun and moon, they can draw in their radiance and return to obscurity. Such people can accomplish things without claiming credit and act without relying on their achievements. They yield fame and recognition to others, blend with all things, and leave no trace of themselves. This is what is meant by “forgetting De.”

Forgetting the body is already enough to preserve oneself and remain free from worldly harm throughout one’s life. How much more so, then, to forget one’s reputation for De? The two differ in rank and depth and cannot be compared. From this we can see that perhaps only a sage can let go even of De.

Confucius came to the state of Chu. The Chu eccentric Jieyu (surname Lu, personal name Tong, courtesy name Jieyu) passed near the place where Confucius was staying and sang, “Phoenix, O phoenix, how has your De declined to such a state?”

Note: One should respond to the times, move straight ahead, and do one’s best to accord with the circumstances at hand. The rise and decline of the age are not enough to disturb a sage’s mind; hence the question, “How has it declined to such a state?”

Commentary: Here, “how so?” means “How could it have come to this?” At the time, Confucius had traveled from Lu to Chu and was staying at an inn. Lu Tong, courtesy name Jieyu, was a worthy man of Chu. Knowing that Confucius was traveling among the states in search of a chance to put his aspirations into practice, he sang “Phoenix, O phoenix” to mock him. The phoenix is an auspicious bird symbolizing the sage: when the world is governed by the Dao, the sage appears; when it is not, the sage should withdraw. Jieyu was lamenting: Confucius possessed the De of a sage, so why had he come to a state in decline and disorder?

The age to come cannot be waited for, and the age that has passed cannot be brought back.

Note: One need only focus on responding to the circumstances at hand.

Commentary: A ruler who cherishes the Dao may appear in the future and call upon worthy people to serve, but time flies, and one cannot simply wait. The rulers of the past, like Yao and Shun, are long gone and cannot be brought back. One should accord with present circumstances rather than continually looking toward the future or dwelling on the past.

When the world has the Dao, the sage can accomplish things; when the world lacks the Dao, the sage can preserve life.

Note: Leave everything to the transformations of things, and matters will unfold and come to completion naturally. Accomplishment does not come from me personally, so why should I alter my principles according to whether the age is well governed or chaotic? When the world is at peace, things naturally seek completion, so the sage does not cling to success and does not thereby bring about failure. When the world is in turmoil, things naturally seek preservation, so the sage does not cling to the pursuit of life and thereby avoids ruin.

Commentary: When a sage encounters an enlightened ruler and a peaceful age, the sage spreads the Dao and guides the people, bringing the world toward accomplishment. When the ruler is benighted and the years are troubled, the sage finds a way to preserve life and avoid harm, drawing in their radiance and concealing their traces.

In the present age, one can only manage to avoid punishment.

Note: There is no need to look back or ahead. One need only do one’s best to adapt to the circumstances at hand, silently accord with the age, and so preserve oneself appropriately and avoid the dangers of criminal laws and penalties.

“Commentary”: The present age is one of upheaval, when the Zhou dynasty is in decline. Jieyu, the hermit of the Spring and Autumn period, spoke with humility and restraint, and only just managed to escape punishment and death. Confucius, however, still wanted to insist on his own views and enter government service. Was that not reckless? This is Jieyu’s mockery of Confucius.

Good fortune is as light as a feather, yet people do not know how to bear it.

“Annotation”: Feet are naturally able to walk, so let them walk of their own accord. Hands are naturally able to grasp, so let them grasp of their own accord. Let the ears hear what they hear, and the eyes see what they see. Recognize the limits of your understanding and do not force yourself to know what you do not know. Recognize the limits of your abilities and do not compel yourself to do what you cannot do. Let your nature unfold naturally, doing only what is yours to do, and give no thought to what lies beyond your proper place. This is the easiest way to practice Wuwei (non-action, following nature without contrived effort).

Those who preserve their lives through non-action have never failed to be blessed. Nor has anyone ever heard of someone whose life was preserved but who was not thereby blessed. What is called good fortune, then, is the wholeness of life described above; it is not borrowed from external things. How could it be something like a goose feather that must be borne by another?

To act in accordance with one’s nature, without going beyond one’s proper place, is the easiest thing in the world. To let oneself lift oneself naturally, and bear oneself naturally, is the least burdensome thing in the world. Yet people damage their nature by pursuing knowledge without limit, and let desires and aversions disturb their true nature. They abandon the ease of non-action and undertake the difficulty of deliberate action; they cast aside the lightness of naturally lifting themselves and instead shoulder the heavy burden of carrying external things. This is a failing common among people.

Misfortune is as heavy as the earth, yet people do not know how to avoid it.

“Annotation”: If you act only within the bounds of your nature, you will not feel burdened even if you carry a thousand jun. But if you let external things weigh upon you, even a burden of less than one zhu or one liang will feel unbearable. Inner good fortune is therefore exceedingly light; misfortune that comes from outside is exceedingly heavy. Misfortune is already so weighty, yet people do not know to avoid it. This is the greatest delusion of the world.

“Commentary”: Human sight, hearing, understanding, and ability each have their limits. Staying within one’s proper place preserves life; pursuing what lies beyond it inevitably brings premature death. Preserving life is good fortune; dying prematurely is misfortune. Yet the good fortune gained by keeping to one’s proper place is as light as a goose feather, and those who covet and compete fail to see that it is already within them. The misfortune brought on by going beyond one’s proper place is as heavy as packed earth, yet those stubbornly refusing to understand fail to see that it has already come upon them. This is probably a failing common among people in the world. The text therefore uses Confucius and Lutung to make this entanglement clear.

Enough, enough! To transform others through one’s De (Virtue/Power) is perhaps to invite danger. Danger, indeed! Drawing a line on the ground and telling people to follow it leaves traces that, in the end, cannot be concealed…

Once things have stopped, if you still personally supervise and control all things, you cannot become one with them. Therefore, the great person does not use their own brightness to illuminate others, but lets others understand for themselves. They do not personally interfere with others, but allow them to achieve things through their own strength. Only then can one connect with all things, become one with them in their subtle principles, dissolve the boundary between self and the external world, and be at peace within and without.

Commentary: Here, “stop” means to cease, and “danger” means peril. Confucius lived in the declining years of the Zhou dynasty, when social customs had grown lax. He upheld the teachings of the sages, traveled among the various states seeking employment, and was repeatedly rejected and slandered. That is why the author says again and again, “Stop.” Rather than continue rushing about, one should cease one’s efforts. If you try to govern the people through your own virtue and understanding, abandoning yourself to imitate external things, you may instead invite danger. It is like leaving footprints on the ground in broad daylight and telling people to run after them: you waste your strength and cannot hide your tracks. The same holds for using yourself to guide and control all things.

“Confusing sunlight, confusing sunlight, do not hinder my walk.”

Note: “Confusing sunlight” is explained here as “sunlight that has vanished”—that is, light that is not displayed. Draw in your outward brilliance and keep to your inner self; then external things will not sway you, and your own comings and goings will remain unharmed. If all things under Heaven can preserve themselves, then what is called “I” can likewise be complete in its own way.

Commentary: “Confusing” means vanished; “sunlight” means brightness, and also suggests setting things in motion or making them conspicuous. Through these words, the author urges Confucius to restrain his sharpness and conceal his brilliance, letting all things follow their own transformations instead of clinging to the use of wisdom to respond to and control external things. Keep to your proper place, and you will not hinder the comings and goings that preserve life.

“My path winds and turns; do not wound my feet.”

Note: When the path winds and turns in response to change, each can find secure footing.

Commentary: “Empty” means open and unoccupied; “bend” means to follow. Make the mind empty and still, and follow the nature of all things; then what is called “I” can each find secure footing.

Trees in the mountains invite the axe, and oil is consumed by the flame of the lamp.

Commentary: “To be plundered” means to be cut down. Trees in the mountains, such as the catalpa and the zelkova, are cut down because their timber is useful. Oil can give light and serve as lamp fuel, yet for that very reason it is burned away. Oil and trees are not the only things like this; people are too.

The cinnamon tree can be eaten, so it is cut down; the lacquer tree can be put to use, so it is tapped.

Commentary: Cinnamon is cut down for its fragrant, pungent heartwood; lacquer is tapped because it can be used to make utensils. Both are destroyed too soon by axe and saw because their useful qualities make them desirable.

Everyone knows the benefit of being useful, but no one knows the benefit of being useless.

Note: When something is useful, external things put it to work and make it serve them. When it is useless, it can preserve itself. Everyone knows that harming one’s own body to benefit the world is praised. If one can…

“Nature” refers to each person’s inborn character. If a person does not harm their own nature, but can preserve themselves and live at ease with others, they will be wholly content without even realizing it.

The subtle workings of the Dao are manifested in people.

Commentary: Catalpa, cypress, orange, and pomelo trees, along with trees that yield oil or lacquer, are felled because they are useful. Trees with crooked branches that can serve as yokes, great trees at Shangqiu, oxen with white foreheads, and pigs whose nostrils turn upward are preserved because they do not suit ordinary uses. People always want to display their abilities and strive to be useful, unaware that leaving their De (virtue) imperfect and appearing useless can also help preserve them. Thus Guo Xiang’s commentary says: “To be useful is to serve others; to be useless is to preserve one’s own life.”

Nanhua Zhenjing Zhushu, fascicle five.