《圖經衍義本草》Vol. 20

Cinnamon is sweet and pungent in flavor, very hot in nature, and slightly toxic. Its main uses are to warm the middle burner and regulate the Qi of the liver and lungs, as well as to treat cold affecting the heart and abdomen, alternating chills and fever, chronic cold disorders, cholera, muscle spasms, headaches, and lower back pain. It promotes sweating, relieves restlessness, reduces excessive salivation and coughing, and is also used for nasal congestion. The ancients believed that cinnamon could induce miscarriage, strengthen the bones and joints, open the blood vessels, and address patterns of deficiency and weakness. It could also guide the effects of other medicines. Classical books say that taking it over a long period can prolong life and prevent aging.

Cinnamon grows in Guiyang. Its bark is gathered in the second, eighth, and tenth lunar months and dried in the shade. Combined with ginseng, Ophiopogon, licorice, rhubarb, and baical skullcap, it can harmonize the Qi of the middle burner and replenish Qi and blood. Combined with bupleurum, purple fluorite, and dried rehmannia, it can treat vomiting.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says that jun-gui grows in the mountain valleys of Jiaozhi, mu-gui in the mountain valleys of Nanhai, and gui in Guiyang. Earlier materia medica texts record distinct flavors and effects for these three kinds of cinnamon. The Erya mentions only one cinnamon tree, called “qin.” Guo Pu says that people in the south call cinnamon with thick bark “mu-gui”; Su Gong, however, holds that mu-gui is the same as male cinnamon, or simply “gui.”

Today, cinnamon from the Lingnan region goes by names such as tube cinnamon, cassia bark, cinnamon heart, official cinnamon, and slab cinnamon, but physicians rarely distinguish among them in practice.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says that cinnamon heart is also called purple cinnamon and can counteract poisons from plants and trees. It should not be taken with raw scallions. It is bitter and pungent, and nontoxic. It can treat various kinds of heart pain, expel parasites, invigorate the blood and open the channels, and treat absent menstruation, weakness and numbness in the legs and feet, failure to expel the placenta, coughing with rebellious Qi, stagnation and obstruction of Qi, unbearable cold pain in the abdomen, dysentery, and nasal polyps.

Tao Hongjing says that, according to the Basic Classic, there are only two kinds of cinnamon: jun-gui and male cinnamon. They are much alike overall, with only minor differences. The cinnamon used by people today is divided into three kinds. The one whose bark curls into a half-tube and contains more oil is simply called “gui.” It is the most commonly used medicinal kind, and its properties accord with those described above. Daoist texts also record three kinds of cinnamon. They often describe mixing cinnamon with scallion juice and then steaming and refining it with mica into water; this refers to that same kind.

Cinnamon from Guangzhou is of good quality. Small cinnamon also grows around Shixing and Guiyang in Xiangzhou, but it is inferior to that from Guangzhou. Cinnamon from Jiaozhou and Guizhou comes in smaller pieces and contains more oil; it too is considered top grade.

Chen Cangqi says that the names jun gui, mu gui, and gui xin refer to different parts or forms of the same substance.

As for its place of origin, the cassia tree takes its name from Guilin and the Gui Ridge. Cassia trees produced today also come from this region. They grow from Lingnan all the way to the coast, and are especially plentiful around Liuzhou and Xiangzhou. The cassia bark gathered there has a pungent taste and is thick and hard.

Thick cassia bark is usually young, while thin bark is usually old. The old, thin bark is one kind; the thick, young bark is another. Young cassia is pungent and fragrant, and readily curls into a tube. Old cassia has a milder taste and naturally spreads out into flat sheets. The thin, flat sheets are mu gui: they are old and large in form, hence the name. The pieces that curl into tubes are jun gui: they are young and curl easily.

The Rihuazi Bencao says that gui xin treats various wind and Qi disorders; replenishes the damage caused by the Five Taxations and Seven Injuries; opens the heart orifices and benefits the joints; replenishes Jing and brightens the eyes; warms the waist and knees; disperses accumulations such as xuanpi and zhengjia; resolves stagnant blood; and treats wind impediment, stiff and contracted joints, injuries to the sinews and bones, and failure of the muscles to grow.

Lei Gong says that when selecting cassia, do not use thin pieces; choose those that are purple and thick. Remove the coarse outer bark and use the pungent middle layer. From each pound of large, thick purple cassia, only five liang of suitable material can actually be obtained. Select the part with a rich fragrance and use it fresh. If it will not be used right away, press it firmly under a heavy weight, wrap it carefully, and enclose it in paper to protect it from the wind. Some places produce only cassia grass, not gui xin; there, cassia grass is boiled with Danyang wood bark to make what is called gui xin. Pound it separately before use.

The Shenghui Fang, an ancient medical text, records the following uses:

To treat wind-related headache that flares up when the weather is about to turn rainy or when the wind rises: grind one liang of gui xin into a fine powder, mix it with wine to make a paste, and apply it to the crown of the head and both temples.

Another remedy treats nine kinds of heart pain and oppression in the chest: grind gui xin and the other ingredients in equal parts into powder. Simmer them in one large cup of wine until it is reduced by half, strain out the dregs, and drink while warm.

Another remedy treats heart pain caused by cold shan, icy limbs, and complete loss of appetite: take one liang of gui xin, remove the bark, pound it, and sift it into powder. Take one qian and seven fen at any time, mixed with hot wine.

Another remedy treats the upward surging of lochia after childbirth, heart pain, and labored breathing so severe that death seems near: take two liang of gui xin, pound it, and sift it into powder. Mix it with dog bile to make pills the size of cherries. Take two pills at any time, dissolved in hot wine.

The Waitai Miyao Fang, an ancient medical text, records a remedy for children who wet the bed while asleep without realizing it: mix equal parts of cassia powder and rooster liver, pound them into pills the size of small beans, and swallow with warm water, daily…

One prescription treats the twisting of the face and eyes to one side after a stroke, a tightly clenched jaw, and inability to move the tongue: boil cinnamon bark (the bark of the cinnamon tree after its outer layer has been removed) in wine, take the liquid, soak a cloth in it, and apply it to the affected area. If the face twists to the left, apply it to the right side; if it twists to the right, apply it to the left. It is said to work very well when used regularly.

Another prescription is for sudden heart pain: take eight fen of cinnamon bark, chop it finely, and boil it in four sheng of water until one sheng remains. Divide the liquid into two doses.

The Zhouhou Fang records that if the heart and abdomen are distended and painful at the same time, with shortness of breath and a feeling of impending death, or even loss of consciousness, take two liang of cinnamon, chopped, and boil it in one sheng and two ge of water until eight ge remain. Strain out the dregs and drink the liquid in one dose. Another prescription is for cold limbs, vomiting clear fluid, and tossing about and crying out after a stroke: take two liang of cinnamon, chopped, and boil it in three sheng of water until two sheng remain. Strain out the dregs, let the liquid cool to a suitable temperature, and drink it all at once.

The Meishi Fang says that after accidentally eating closed-mouth Sichuan pepper (a kind of pepper that the ancients considered poisonous), a person may be close to losing their breath, foam at the mouth, and feel cold. Quickly decoct cinnamon juice, drink it, and then drink one or two sheng of cold water. If accidentally eating it causes vomiting of a liquid resembling rice gruel, decoct a strong fermented-bean liquid and drink it all at once. Another prescription is for persistent bleeding after childbirth, when the lochia has not cleared and abdominal pain worsens with blood clots: grind equal amounts of cinnamon bark and dried ginger into powder, and take one fangcun spoonful (an ancient measure for medicinal powder, roughly a small spoonful) mixed with wine on an empty stomach.

The Baopuzi says that cinnamon can be steamed with scallion juice to make a liquid, or mixed with bamboo sap (liquid obtained by heating bamboo) or turtle brain and taken. After seven years of taking it, one can supposedly walk on water and live forever. The book also says that after Zhao Tazi took cinnamon for twenty years, hair grew on the soles of his feet; he could walk five hundred li a day and had enough strength to lift a thousand jin. These are legends recorded in ancient texts.

Mu-gui (a kind of cinnamon) tastes pungent and is warm in nature, with no toxicity. It is used to treat upward surging of Qi, coughing with rebellious Qi, Qi stagnation, obstruction of the throat, vomiting and difficulty breathing, heart pain, wind affecting the ribs, and pain in the sides. It also warms the sinews and vessels, opens the channels, relieves vexing heat, induces sweating, benefits the joints, and supplements the center Qi and strengthens the primal Qi. Long-term use is said to open communication with the spirits and make the body light and free from decline. It grows in mountain valleys in the Nanhai region.

Jun-gui (another kind of cinnamon) tastes pungent and is warm in nature, with no toxicity. It is used to treat many illnesses, nourish the spirit, and give the complexion a lustrous appearance. It also serves as a guide for other medicines, helping their effects reach throughout the body. Long-term use is said to make the body light and free from visible signs of aging, give the face a radiant glow, and preserve a youthful, childlike appearance. It grows among rocks in mountain valleys around Jiaozhi and Guilin. Its branches and trunk have no distinct joints, and are straight and rounded like bamboo. It is gathered at the start of autumn.

The Tujing says that the related material can be found under the entry “Gui.” The Liexian Zhuan says that Fan Li enjoyed eating cinnamon and drinking water, and sought medicines from herb gatherers.

It is said that Guifu was from Xianglin. He regularly took the bark and leaves of the cassia tree, mixing them with turtle brain before swallowing them. Han Zhong’s “Poem on Gathering Medicinal Herbs” says: “The cassia fruits of the hidden river are as large as millet grains; eat them once obtained, and you can live forever without growing old.”

The Bieshuo says: Among the cassia sold by merchants today in the regions of Jiaozhou and Guangzhou, and the cassia used by physicians, only Chen Cangqi’s account comes close to the truth. Cassia with a thick, solid body and a strong aroma is suited to treating illnesses of the internal organs and the lower burner. Cassia that is light and thin is suited to treating disorders of the head and eyes, and is used in medicines that disperse. Thus, the Bencao Jing says that jun-gui, one kind of cassia, nourishes the spirit, while mu-gui, another kind, opens and benefits the joints. The cassia twig used to induce sweating in the Treatise on Cold Damage is a branch of the cassia tree, not its trunk. It is chosen because its branches are light and thin and can disperse. There is also liu-gui, the tree’s still younger and finer branches, which are especially suited for inclusion in medicines that treat disorders of the upper burner.

The Yanyi says: Cassia is extremely hot in nature. The Suwen says that pungent and sweet flavors can disperse and are Yang in nature. Thus, when Zhang Zhongjing of the Han dynasty used cassia twig decoction to treat exterior deficiency patterns in cold damage, he always used this medicine, drawing precisely on its pungent, sweet, dispersing effects. The Bencao also states at the outset that hot medicines are used to treat cold patterns. From this we can understand that jun-gui and mu-gui are only warm in nature and are not strong enough to treat wind-cold illnesses. Only the kind simply called “cassia,” which the Bencao Jing describes as sweet, pungent, and extremely hot, accords with the Suwen’s statement that pungent and sweet flavors disperse and belong to Yang. Jun-gui and mu-gui are therefore both weaker in nature than this kind.

The Bencao Jing calls it only “cassia,” whereas Zhang Zhongjing calls it “cassia twig.” He was probably referring to the bark on the tree’s branches; the thicker parts of the trunk are unsuitable. Today it is also called “official cassia,” though it is unclear where this name came from. I record this here to keep later readers from mistaking it for something else. There is also “cassia heart,” meaning the inner wood of various kinds of cassia, but it is inferior to the kind simply called “cassia.”

Pine Resin

Pine resin tastes bitter and sweet, is warm in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats carbuncles, malignant sores, sores on the head, white scalp ringworm, scabies, itching, and pathogenic wind, and can calm the Five Zang organs. It can also clear stagnant heat in the stomach and relieve dry throat, wasting thirst, wind impediment, and tissue decay. Refine it until it turns white; red pine resin treats severe impediment disorders. It is said that taking it for a long time makes the body light and strong, slows aging, and prolongs life. Pine resin is also called pine paste or pine fat. It grows in the mountain valleys around Mount Tai and is gathered in the sixth month.

Pine Seeds

Pine seeds taste bitter, are warm in nature, and are non-toxic. They treat wind impediment, cold pathogens, bodily weakness and emaciation, and shortness of breath; they can also replenish deficiencies. Gather them in the ninth month and dry them in the shade.

Pine needles taste bitter and are warm in nature. They are used mainly to treat sores caused by wind-dampness, and are also said to promote hair growth, calm the Five Viscera, and protect the body’s vital Qi. Taking them can also ward off hunger and prolong life. Yuxi notes: According to Rihua Zi, pine needles are nontoxic.

Pine knots are warm in nature. They are used to treat joints long afflicted by pathogenic wind, wind deficiency, and numbness and pain in the feet.

The white inner bark of pine roots can be used for fasting, that is, reducing or stopping ordinary meals while taking medicines, grain substitutes, or similar foods.

The Illustrated Classic says: Pine resin grows in the valleys around Mount Tai, though it is now found throughout the country. The best pine resin is clear and transparent, with granules resembling frankincense, a fragrant tree resin. Daoist practitioners sometimes combine it with poria, the fruits of pine and cypress, and chrysanthemum to make pills. Each ingredient must first be refined.

To refine pine resin, fill a large pot with water and place a steamer over it. Line the bottom of the steamer with white cogon grass, then cover the grass with yellow sand about an inch thick. Put the pine resin on top and steam it over a fire of mulberry wood. Add hot water whenever the level drops, keeping the pot well supplied with water throughout. When all the resin has flowed into the pot, remove it and plunge it into cold water to solidify, then steam it again. Repeat this process three times, until the resin is as white as jade. It can then be used as medicine or taken on its own.

In ancient times, people also had methods for taking pine cones and the white inner bark of pine roots. Today, however, pine cones are mostly eaten as fruit, and are rarely said to be used as medicine. The yellow pollen on pine blossoms is called “pine yellow.” People in the mountains gather it in season and use it to make a drink or sprinkle it into tea. It tastes very good, but does not keep well.

Tao Hongjing says that methods for gathering and refining pine resin also appear in formulas for nourishing life. Pine resin can be softened by boiling it in an ash solution made from mulberry wood, or in wine. Knead it, then put it into cold water, repeating this dozens of times. Once it becomes white and smooth, it is ready to use. Resin that flows naturally from the tree is better than the paste obtained by cutting into the tree and boiling the resin. Pine cones are difficult to obtain. Pine needles are chiefly suited to fasting: cut them into grains the size of millet and swallow them with water or a flour-based drink. Some people also dry the needles in the shade, grind them to powder, and make pills to take. The text says that even those suffering from severe illnesses recover after taking them. Recently, some people with weak legs have brewed pine knots into wine and taken it, and they too have recovered.

Pine and cypress trees are both nourished by resinous fluids and remain green through winter. In principle, they should make excellent medicines, but people often look down on them because they are found everywhere.

Yuxi says: According to the Treatise on Medicinal Properties, pine resin is sweet and neutral in nature, and can be used to kill parasites. For example, in cases of deafness or when teeth have cavities eaten by worms, hold a little pine resin in the mouth and the worms will die on their own. Pine resin can also be applied to various sores; when made into an ointment by boiling, it promotes the growth of new flesh and relieves pain.

Xiao Bing says: There is also a kind of pine with five needles in each cluster. Its shape resembles a hairpin, so it is called “five-grain pine.”

Pine seeds are used by Daoists for ingestion and for abstaining from grain. They are about the size of croton seeds. Silla often presented these pine seeds as tribute.

The Rihua Bencao says: “Pine resin moistens the heart and lungs, lowers Qi, and dispels harmful influences. Boiled down into a salve, it can treat fistulas, sores, ulcers, and pus.” It also says: “Pine needles are warm in nature and non-toxic. Heated and applied to chilblains, they are also effective for sores caused by wind-dampness. Pine knots are non-toxic and can treat weak, powerless feet and joints affected by wind. The white bark of pine roots is bitter, warm, and non-toxic; it replenishes the damage caused by the Five Exhaustions and strengthens the body’s energy.”

The Shenghui Fang records a method for warding off hunger by abstaining from grain: pound pine seeds into a paste, mix three qian with wine, and take it three times a day. It is said to keep one from feeling hunger or thirst. Drink only water and eat nothing else. The text says that after taking it for one hundred days, the body will become light and strong, and one will be able to walk five hundred li in a day. Another prescription says that taking pine needles can prevent aging, cause fine green hair to grow on the body, and make the body light and strong. Taken over a long period, they are said to enable one to abstain from grain without feeling hungry or thirsty. Use any quantity of pine needles: chop them finely, grind them to a powder, and take two qian with wine before meals each day. They may also be taken with rice porridge water. At first, one may find them unfamiliar, but with time one will get used to them.

The Waitai Miyao Fang records a tested remedy for tooth decay: shape pine resin into a cone and insert it into the cavity. After a short while, the tooth worms will come out along with the resin. The Meishi Fang gives the same account. Another prescription treats “malignant wind disease,” an ancient term for severe wind-related illnesses and similar conditions: refine pine resin twenty times, then plunge it into cold water. Shape the refined resin into honey pills and take three liang at a time when hungry, three times a day. It is said that even someone whose nose bridge has been destroyed can recover after taking it for two hundred days. During this period, avoid salt and sexual activity.

Another prescription treats “joint wind,” a class of illnesses involving shifting joint pain, with symptoms of severe aching throughout the body’s joints. Refine thirty jin of pine resin fifty times; if fifty refinings are not possible, twenty will suffice. Separately, warm three sheng of refined butter and combine it with three sheng of pine resin, stirring thoroughly until very thick. Each morning, take one fangcunbi measure—an amount held by an ancient measuring spoon—with wine on an empty stomach, three times a day. One may eat some flour porridge, but must avoid meat and fish, cold foods, pickled fish, and fruit. The text says this will cure the illness. Another prescription uses pine-knot wine for joint wind and pain in the limbs: soak twenty jin of pine resin in five dou of wine for twenty-one days. Take one he each time, five or six times a day.

The Qianjin Fang records a remedy for beriberi and twelve kinds of wind impediment—numbness or pain in the limbs caused by wind influences—which can make walking impossible. For people who have taken several doses of Gengsheng Powder and tried various other treatments without success, one dose of this prescription is said to restore the ability to travel long distances; no more than two doses should be needed. The prescription is called “Pine Needle Wine”: finely chop sixty jin of pine needles as one would medicinal herbs. Add four shi of water and boil until four dou and nine sheng remain, then use this to ferment five dou of rice…

Prepare the wine by the usual method: boil pine needles separately and use the liquid to soak rice. Steam the rice, then mix it with the pine needle liquid to brew the wine. Seal the vessel for seven days. Once fermentation has finished and the wine has cleared, it is ready to drink. This wine causes intoxication easily, and many people can feel its effects after drinking it.

The Mei Master’s Formula records a treatment for long-term deafness: take three liang of pine resin and one liang of refined badou, mix and pound them together, and form the mixture into pills. Make the pills small enough to pass through the ear canal. Wrap one in thin cotton and place it in the ear opening, changing it once a day.

Sun the Pharmacist records a treatment for sudden cramping, pain, and stiffness in the tendons and channels of the feet: take two liang of pine knots and chop them finely, to the size of grains of rice. Add one qian of frankincense. Place both ingredients in a silver or stone vessel and stir-fry over low heat until they turn brown, leaving only a little of their medicinal potency. Remove them from the heat and grind them into a fine powder. Take one to two qian at a time, mixed with hot quince wine. The text says this formula can treat all kinds of tendon and channel disorders.

The Ghost Bequeathed Formula records a treatment for scabies and ringworm: grind pine resin into a fine powder and add a little qingfen. First apply oil to the affected area, then sprinkle on the powder. Usually the area will dry within a day; stubborn cases require two or three applications.

The Essentials of Cold Damage records a way to treat epidemic illness and prevent pestilence: chop pine needles, grind them into powder, and swallow the powder with wine. The dose is one square-inch spoonful, a measure used in ancient times for medicinal powders. The text says that taking it for seven consecutive days can ward off pestilence for five years.

The Master Who Embraces Simplicity says that Zhao Qu had suffered from leprosy for many years without success from treatment. His family took provisions and abandoned him in a mountain cave. A month later, an immortal passed by the cave and saw him. The immortal took medicine from his pouch, gave it to Zhao Qu, and taught him how to take it. After a little over a hundred days, his sores had healed; his face looked cheerful, and his skin had become smooth and lustrous. When the immortal passed by again, Zhao Qu asked him for the prescription. The immortal said, “This is pine resin. You can refine it and take it.” With prolonged use, the body gradually becomes light and nimble, and one’s strength increases a hundredfold. One can climb dangerous heights and remain untired all day. Even at a hundred years of age, one’s teeth do not fall out and one’s hair does not turn white. At night, while sleeping, one often sees a light as large as a mirror.

The Wild Man’s Casual Notes records a method for refining pine resin from the Venerable Master Who Subdues Tigers: take ten jin of pine resin and boil it in water five times, until its bitterness is gone. For each jin of refined pine resin, add four liang of Poria powder. Every morning, swallow one daogui measure, an ancient unit of medicinal dosage, with water. The text says this allows one to go for years without eating, prolongs life, and makes the body light and nimble and the spirit clear and refreshed.

Sophora Fruit (the fruit of the sophora tree)

Sophora fruit tastes bitter, sour, and salty. It is cold in nature and non-toxic. It treats pathogenic influences and heat conditions in the five viscera, and can also stop excessive frothy saliva and drooling. It replenishes and treats the five kinds of deficiency, and treats the five types of hemorrhoids and burns. It may also be used for lumps in women’s breasts and acute uterine pain. Pick the fruit on the seventh day of the seventh month, pound it and extract the juice, then place the juice in a copper vessel and heat it in the sun until it thickens enough to form pills. Make the pills about the size of mouse droppings and insert them into the body’s openings. After changing the medicine three times, the condition will be cured. The text goes on to mention its use in inducing abortion, but the sentence is incomplete here.

Taking the fruit of the pagoda tree can improve eyesight, replenish Qi (vital energy), keep the hair from turning gray, and promote longevity. Its branches can be used to wash sores and treat dampness and itching beneath the scrotum. Its bark can treat ulcerated sores, and its roots can treat throat obstruction and swelling, as well as illnesses marked by alternating chills and fever. The pagoda tree grows on plains and in marshes in Henan; stonecrop can be used to assist the medicine.

The Illustrated Classic says: The fruit of the pagoda tree grows on plains and in marshes in Henan. Today, pagoda trees are found everywhere, and some grow very tall. According to the Erya, there are several kinds of pagoda tree: one with large, dark leaves is called the “huai pagoda tree”; one whose leaves close during the day and open at night is called the “guardian pagoda tree”; and one with fine, blue-green leaves is simply called the pagoda tree. Their medicinal effects do not differ noticeably.

The pagoda tree flowers in the fourth and fifth months, and bears fruit in the sixth and seventh. On the seventh day of the seventh month, pick the tender fruits, pound them, and extract and simmer the juice into a paste. Collect the ripe fruits in the tenth month for medicinal use. The bark and roots may be gathered at any time. Physicians today often use the pagoda tree as medicine. In spring, gather tender branches and burn them to black ash; rub the ash on the teeth to remove worms. Burn fresh green branches and collect the juice to apply to ringworm. Take old pagoda-tree flowers, sift them into a fine powder, and swallow it to treat bleeding from the lower body. Break off tender pagoda-tree pods and boil them into a tea; drinking it can treat head wind, improve eyesight, and nourish the brain. Boil the white inner bark and take the juice to treat diseases of the mouth and teeth, and bleeding from the lower body. Pagoda-tree fruits dyed black with water are said to turn white hair black. Grind the wood ear fungus that grows on the pagoda tree into powder and take one square-inch spoonful at a time; it can treat bloody stool, the five kinds of hemorrhoids, rectal prolapse, and similar conditions. These remedies are commonly used, and some have indeed proved effective.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals says: Pagoda-tree seeds are classified as ministerial medicine and are used to treat intense heat and difficult childbirth. Boil the bark and use the liquid to wash the scrotum; this can treat sagging and swelling of the scrotum, as well as pain caused by Qi. It also says that the white bark is bitter and non-toxic, and can treat wind-heat in the mouth and teeth, as well as bleeding gums. Boil it in fermented grain water and rinse the mouth with it; it can also be made into a decoction for washing, to treat male inguinal hernia and swollen testicles.

Tao Hongjing says: Pagoda-tree seeds with many fruits joined together in clusters are best, and should be gathered before the tenth month. Put the seeds in a new basin, seal it with clay, and leave it for one hundred days. When the outer skin has rotted and turned to liquid, take out the kernels, which are about the size of soybeans, and swallow them. They are said to enrich the brain, keep the hair from turning gray, and promote longevity. Pagoda trees are now found everywhere. Another account says to pick the pagoda-tree seeds in the seventh month, before they have hardened, then pound them, squeeze out the juice, and drink it.

The Daily Flower says: Pagoda-tree seeds can treat sores and dampness and itching in the genital area of both men and women. To hasten childbirth, swallow seven seeds. It also says that pagoda-tree bark is neutral in nature and can treat numbness of the skin after a stroke and throat obstruction. Washing with an infusion can treat the five kinds of hemorrhoids, various malignant sores, itching and pain at the birth canal in women, and scalds and burns. Simmer the bark into a paste to relieve pain, promote the growth of new flesh, and disperse abscesses.

Lei Gong says: After gathering Sophora seeds, discard those with one or five seeds in a pod, and keep only those with two or three. Crush them with a copper hammer, soak them overnight in the milk of a black cow, then steam them before use.

The Qianjin Fang says: To treat a fetus with red eyes, take a Sophora branch about as thick as a riding whip and two chi long. Cut it in half and align the cut ends. Put a spoonful of sesame oil in a copper bowl, and in the morning have a boy grind it with the Sophora branch until the oil becomes completely opaque. Have the patient lie on their back and apply the oil to the inner corners of the eyes three times a day. The condition will be cured.

The Qianjin Yifang says: To treat intestinal hemorrhoids with bleeding at every bowel movement, grind the wood ear fungus growing on a Sophora tree into powder. Take one square-inch spoonful, about a small teaspoon, three times a day.

The Baiyi Fang says: To treat stiffness of the body after a stroke, when the person cannot bend, stretch, or turn over, take the yellowish-white layer beneath the Sophora bark and chop it. Boil it in six sheng of wine or water until only two sheng remain, then strain out the dregs.

The Jingyan Fang says: To treat blood in the stool, grind equal amounts of Sophora flowers and Schizonepeta spikes into powder, and take one qian and seven fen mixed with wine.

The Meishi Fang says: To treat hemorrhoids with worms biting the anus, causing itching or discharge of pus and blood, simmer white Sophora bark into a strong decoction. Pour it into a basin and sit over the hot liquid to fumigate and wash the anus. Reheat it when it cools, and continue fumigating and washing for some time. When the urge to defecate comes, the worms will be expelled; the condition is cured in at most three treatments. Alternatively, wrap the powdered medicine in cotton cloth and insert it into the anus.

The Shiyi Xinjing Fang says: To treat “pheasant hemorrhoids,” a kind of hemorrhoid, blood in the stool, and intestinal wind, and also to improve eyesight, take one jin of tender Sophora leaves. Steam them as one would prepare roasted leaves, pound them into a tea-like powder, then boil and drink them as one would brew tea.

The Guangli Fang says: When labor is difficult during pregnancy, swallowing seven Sophora seeds will help the birth proceed smoothly.

The Guangji Fang says: To treat toothache, chop a handful of white Sophora bark and boil it in one sheng of vinegar. Strain out the dregs, add a little salt, and rinse the mouth when the liquid has cooled to a comfortable temperature. Replace it three times a day.

The Zimu Milu says: If labor begins before the fetus has reached full term, have the pregnant woman hold a Sophora branch that faces east; this will help the birth proceed smoothly.

The Chanbao Fang says: To treat persistent uterine bleeding, whether longstanding or recent, burn Sophora wood ear fungus to ash and grind it into powder. Take one square-inch spoonful with wine.

The Taiqing Caomu Fang says: The Sophora tree is formed from the essence of the Xu star. Gather and take its seeds on the Shangsi day in the tenth month to drive away all illnesses, prolong life, and attain communion with the spirits.

The Yanyi says: The text mentions only “Sophora fruit,” but nowadays two kinds should be distinguished. Sophora fruit naturally grows inside a pod; if the pods are pounded and boiled into a paste, the result should be called “Sophora pod.” The seeds inside the pods are larger…

The fruit of the pagoda tree is hard as a bean and purple in color. Modern materia medica entries do not list the pod and the seeds inside it separately, but their effects differ. Both can open and disperse wind-heat.

Pagoda tree flowers taste bitter, are neutral in nature, and are non-toxic. They can treat the five kinds of hemorrhoids, heart pain, and red eyes; kill intestinal worms; and treat skin disorders caused by wind-heat, intestinal bleeding, and red or white dysentery. The flowers are taken after being stir-fried.

Pagoda tree leaves are neutral in nature and non-toxic. Taken as a decoction, they can treat childhood convulsions, high fever, scabies, and boil-like swellings. The leaves may also be used together with the bark and stems.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says that related information appears under “Pagoda Tree Fruit.”

The Concise Formula for Helping the People records: To treat persistent uterine bleeding in women, take pagoda tree flowers and “goose not,” in any quantity, burn them to ash, and grind them finely. Before meals, take two qianbi (an ancient measure of medicine) with warm wine.

Goji

Goji tastes bitter and is cold in nature; its root is very cold, while its fruit is slightly cold. It is non-toxic. It treats pathogenic influences in the five internal organs, internal heat with excessive thirst, generalized painful obstruction, wind-dampness, counterflow Qi in the chest and flanks, lingering heat, and headaches. It can also replenish depletion caused by internal injury and overexertion, help regulate the breath, strengthen the sinews and bones, nourish Kidney Yin, and promote urination and bowel movements. Taken over a long period, it strengthens the sinews and bones, makes the body feel lighter, helps prevent premature aging, and increases tolerance to cold and heat.

Goji is also known as qi root, earth bone, gouji, earth support, sheep’s milk, summer-repelling plant, Immortal’s Staff, and Queen Mother of the West’s Staff. It grows on level ground and in marshes in Changshan, as well as on hills and slopes in many places. The roots are gathered in winter, the leaves in spring and summer, and the stems and fruit in autumn; they are then dried in the shade.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: Goji grows on level ground, in marshes, on hills, and along slopes in Changshan, and is now found everywhere. It sends up shoots in spring, with leaves like those of the pomegranate: soft and thin, and edible. In everyday speech they are called “sweet greens.” Its stems grow in clumps and reach three to five feet in height. In the sixth or seventh month, it produces small reddish-purple flowers, followed by red fruit, slightly elongated and shaped like date pits. Its root is called earth bone. The leaves are gathered in spring and summer, the stems and fruit in autumn, and the roots in winter.

A study of the Erya shows that goji is also called ji. Guo Pu’s commentary says this is the goji known today. The Book of Songs, in “The Four Stallions” from the Lesser Odes of the Kingdom, says, “They gather beneath the clump of goji.” Lu Ji explains that goji is also called bitter goji or earth bone. Its tender spring shoots can be cooked into a soup dish and taste slightly bitter; its stems resemble brambles, and its fruit ripens in autumn, turning a deep red. Taking its stems, leaves, and fruit can make the body feel lighter and increase strength.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals says: Goji is classified as a minister and seed medicine, and its leaves are discussed alongside it. It tastes sweet and is neutral in nature. It can replenish deficiencies of Jing and blood, improve the complexion, turn white hair black, brighten the eyes, and calm the Shen…

A soup made by cooking long-life leaves—that is, goji leaves—with lamb is highly beneficial. It can also dispel wind and brighten the eyes. When thirsty, the leaves may be boiled into a drink and taken in place of tea. The best leaves are pale in color and thornless.

Tao Yinjū said: This plant now grows around Dangyi, especially in abundance below the Shitou Beacon Tower. Its leaves can be cooked into soup, though they taste slightly bitter. A folk saying goes, “Travel a thousand li from home, and do not eat luomo or goji.” This means that they can nourish Jing and Qi and strengthen the body’s functions. Luomo is also called kumaru. It has thick, broad leaves and trailing vines; when picked, it too exudes a white, milky sap. It is commonly cultivated and can be eaten raw or steamed and boiled. Goji roots and fruit are both widely used by those who take foods for health and longevity, and many claims are made about them. There is perhaps some reason for calling it the “Immortal’s Staff.”

Yuxi said: According to the Commentary on the Erya, qi is also called gouji. Guo Pu considered it to be the goji of today. The “Si Mu” poem in the Classic of Poetry mentions “gathering beneath the clusters of qi.” Lu Ji said that goji is also called kuqi or digu. In spring it sends out tender shoots that can be cooked as a vegetable soup; they taste slightly bitter. Its stems resemble those of bramble plants, and its fruit ripens in autumn to a bright red. Taking its stems, leaves, and fruit can make the body light and nimble and replenish its original Qi.

The Baopuzi says: Jiachai is also called tuolu, tianjing, quelao, and digu.

The Rihuazi says: Goji is also called the “Immortal’s Seedling.” It can dispel vexation and lift the spirits, nourish the Five Taxations and Seven Injuries—that is, many kinds of exhaustion and debility—strengthen the heart Qi, dispel wind-evil from the skin and joints, clear heat toxins, and reduce sores and swellings.

Lei Gong said: To prepare goji root, dig it up and first soak it in flowing water from the east. Then scrub away the soil with a tool and dry it in the air. Split it open and remove the woody core. Next, soak it overnight in a decoction of boiled licorice, then roast it dry for use. Roots shaped like animals or people are of the finest quality. Eat the leaves in spring, the fruit in summer, and the roots and fruit in autumn and winter.

The Dietary Therapy text says: Goji is cold in nature and non-toxic. Its leaves and fruit can strengthen the sinews and bones, delay aging, dispel wind, and nourish the body; the root can relieve heat in the bones and ease thirst. A soup of the leaves and lamb is especially beneficial. Boiling the leaves into a juice and drinking it in place of tea may also help strengthen sexual function. If the eyes itch or redden from wind-evil, or develop a red film, pound the leaves to extract their juice and apply it as eye drops.

The Qianjin Fang records a treatment for recently developed symptoms of liver deficiency, including tears brought on by wind: Take two sheng of the plumpest goji berries and pound them open. Put them in a silk bag, place the bag in an earthenware jar, and add one dou of wine. Seal the jar so no air can escape and steep for twenty-one days. After that, open it each morning and take some. Continue your usual activities, but do not drink to the point of intoxication.

“Golden Essence Decoction” in Experiential Prescriptions: Use an unrestricted quantity of goji berries. Each day, pick the ripe, red fruit, remove the soft fruit stems, and sort it clean. Place the berries in a clean earthenware jar and soak them for two months in ash-free wine (wine without ash or other impurities). Seal the jar tightly with waxed paper to keep air out. When the soaking period is over, strain out the berries and put them in a new bamboo vessel. Set this in a sand basin and grind the berries until fine and pulpy, then strain them through fine cloth. Once all the berries have been ground and strained, discard the residue. Mix the wine used to soak the berries with the strained juice, then divide the mixture into batches and pour them into a silver pot. Simmer over low heat until it thickens into a paste, stirring constantly to prevent it from sticking or cooking unevenly. When it reaches the right consistency, transfer it to a clean bottle and seal it for storage. Each morning, take two large spoonfuls with warm wine, and take another dose before bed. The book says that after one hundred days the body will become light and strong; with long-term use, one can “take wing and ascend”—the Daoist attainment of immortality.

Supplementary Prescriptions from Experience records a remedy for weakness caused by the “five labors and seven injuries” (a general term for various forms of overexertion and bodily damage): take half a jin of chopped goji leaves and two ge of polished rice, cook them together into porridge in a stone vessel, then season with powdered medicines from the Five Flavors, scallion whites, and other ingredients.

Sun the Perfected’s Emergency Prescriptions records a remedy for bleeding in the mouth and gums: grind goji root into powder, prepare a decoction and use it to rinse the mouth, then swallow it. The same remedy is also used for vomiting blood from above the chest and diaphragm; the book says it works very well.

Shen Cunzhong records that goji in Shaanxi can grow one or two zhang tall, with trunks several cun around and no thorns. Its root bark resembles magnolia bark and tastes sweet, unlike that of goji grown elsewhere. The fruit resembles cherries and has almost no pit. When dried, it looks like a cake, with a soft texture and a good flavor.

Essential Secrets from Beyond the Official Library records a remedy for eyes that suddenly become red, swollen, itchy, and painful during an epidemic: take three jin of ground bone bark (the root bark of goji), add three dou of water, and boil it down to three sheng. Strain out the herbs, add two liang of salt, and continue boiling until the liquid is reduced to two sheng. Use it as an eye wash. Two liang of dried ginger may also be added.

A prescription for treating deep sores records that when an abscess or malignant sore continues to discharge pus and blood, an appropriate quantity of ground bone bark should be washed clean. First scrape off and keep the coarse outer bark, then scrape away the fine, white inner layer. Boil the coarse bark together with the ground bone bark, and wash the opening of the sore with the decoction until the pus and blood have drained away. Then apply the fine white layer to the affected area. The book says this method is effective.

The Elucidation of Materia Medica says: for goji stem bark, use the bark from the stem; for ground bone bark, use the bark from the root; and for goji berries, use the ripe, red fruit. One plant thus has these three uses. Its bark is cold in nature…

The roots of the goji plant are extremely cold in nature, while its fruit is slightly cold. There are several varieties. This is the “qi” in the “qi willow” mentioned by Mencius. Later generations took pains to distinguish the plants and coined the name “gouji,” but this was merely an artificial name created to set them apart. Goji plants are never without thorns: even when they grow large, with their branches interwoven like a frame, they still bear thorns. Young plants simply have more thorns, and mature ones fewer. This is similar to sour jujube and thorn trees, whose fruits also belong to the same category. People today often treat goji berries directly as a kidney tonic, without carefully examining the original meaning of the classics. They should be used with judgment, according to a person’s patterns of deficiency or excess, and cold or heat.

Bo Seeds from Qianzhou

Bo seeds—the kernels of the bo tree—taste sweet, are neutral in nature, and are nontoxic. They treat palpitations and fright, harmonize the five viscera, replenish original Qi, and dispel wind-dampness and painful obstruction. They also treat disorientation, bodily weakness, shortness of breath, wandering joint pain, and a heavy, aching lower back. They replenish Qi and blood and stop sweating. Taken over a long period, they moisten the skin, improve the complexion, sharpen hearing and eyesight, reduce hunger and slow aging, strengthen the body, and prolong life. Bo seeds grow in the valleys of Mount Tai; the leaves are especially good.

Bo leaves taste bitter, are slightly warm in nature, and are nontoxic. They treat vomiting of blood, nosebleeds, bloody dysentery, uterine bleeding, and red or white vaginal discharge. They also strengthen the body, replenish original Qi, improve resistance to cold and heat, dispel damp painful obstruction, and lessen hunger. Leaves may be gathered in any season, according to the direction in which they grow, then dried in the shade.

The white bark of the bo tree treats ulcerated wounds caused by burns and promotes hair growth. Bo seeds are used with oyster shell, cinnamon, and melon seeds. Avoid combining them with chrysanthemum, sheep’s-foot herb, certain mineral medicines, or qu made from fermented flour.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says: Bo seeds grow in the valleys of Mount Tai, but are now found throughout the country; those from Qianzhou are the best. The bo tree flowers in the third month and bears fruit in the ninth. Gather the fruit when ripe, steam it, and then dry it in the sun. In spring, use the mature bo kernels. Bo leaves are also called arborvitae leaves, and those from Mizhou are especially good. Though the tree resembles other bo trees, all its leaves grow facing one side, and its medicinal effects differ as well. The leaves may be gathered at any time.

Among Zhang Zhongjing’s prescriptions is Bo Leaf Decoction, used for persistent vomiting of blood. Take a handful of fresh green bo leaves, three slices of dried ginger, and one piece of roasted donkey-hide gelatin. Simmer them in two sheng of water until reduced to one sheng, then strain out the herbs. Separately squeeze one sheng of horse-manure juice and mix it with the decoction. Simmer again until reduced to one sheng, strain through cotton cloth, and drink it all at once.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals says: Bo kernels may serve as the chief ingredient. Avoid chrysanthemum and beware of sheep’s-foot herb. They taste sweet and pungent and treat deficiency and cold in the lower back and kidneys, cold in the bladder, and retained fluids. They also warm and support Yang, prolong life, dispel head wind, drive away harmful spirits, and treat convulsions in children.

The leaves of the Chinese arborvitae are the principal medicinal ingredient. They are suitable for use with wine and can stop blood in the urine. Their flavor is bitter and pungent, and their nature is … (the original text is unfinished here). They are used to treat joint pain caused by cold wind, including conditions marked by painful joints and difficulty bending and extending the limbs.

The Tang Ben Zhu says: Boil the branches and knots of the cypress tree and use them to brew wine. This can treat wind impediment—numbness and pain in the limbs caused by wind—and joint pain caused by wind. Burn cypress wood to ash and grind it into powder to treat scabies and sores resembling leprosy; it is highly effective. Today, cypress from Shanzhou and Yizhou is considered the best.

The Ri Hua Zi says: Cypress seeds can treat wind disorders and moisten the skin. The seeds referred to here are those of the Chinese arborvitae. Before using them as medicine, lightly roast them.

Lei Gong says: To prepare cypress seeds, first soak them in wine overnight. The next morning, remove them and dry them in the sun. Then add the natural juice of huangjing (a Chinese medicinal herb), cook the seeds in sunlight, and stir constantly. If the weather stays overcast, put water in a pot, place the seeds in a bottle, and simmer them in a water bath until they form a paste. Each time, cook three liang of seeds, soaking them in five liang of wine until the wine has dried away.

The Sheng Hui Fang records: To treat seasonal miasmatic epidemics—illnesses caused by seasonal pestilence or miasma—take the southeastern branch of a cypress tree growing southwest of a community shrine. Dry it, pound it, and sift it into powder. Mix one qian with water and take it three or four times a day for seven consecutive days. The Zhou Hou Fang gives the same instructions.

Another prescription treats severe skin disease. Take Chinese arborvitae leaves, steam and dry them nine times, then pound and sift them into powder. Mix the powder with refined honey and form pills the size of parasol-tree seeds. Take them three times during the day and once at night, washed down with warm water; each dose should be five to ten pills. The original text says that after taking them for one hundred days, the eyebrows and sideburns will grow back.

The Jing Yan Hou Fang records: To treat cholera with muscle spasms—vomiting and diarrhea accompanied by tightening of the sinews—first wrap the feet in cloth. Then finely chop cypress wood, boil it into a decoction, and pour it over the affected area.

The Sun Zhenren Zhen Zhong Ji says: To gather pine and cypress, pick newly grown pine needles regularly between the third and fourth months, when they are about three or four cun long, and also gather the flower buds. Dry them in the shade, then grind them finely into powder. Gather cypress leaves from the year’s new growth in deep mountain ravines; they should be about two or three cun long. Dry them in the shade and grind them finely into powder. Use white honey to form pills the size of small beans.

On the fifteenth day of each month, burn incense before dawn and face east. Hold eighty-one pills and swallow them with wine. The original text claims that taking them for one year adds ten years to one’s lifespan, and taking them for two years adds twenty years. To increase muscle, add hemp and giant sesame (sesame seeds). To strengthen the heart and make the body robust, add poria and ginseng. The text further claims that this medicine can dispel every illness, increase original Qi, nourish the five organs and six bowels, sharpen hearing and vision, keep the body strong and free from decline, and extend life.

For therapeutic effects beyond the ordinary, the best cypress seeds are made into pills using dew gathered on the seventh day of the seventh month. When taking them, recite:

“Divine Immortal medicine, its substance in harmony with nature.

When the medicine enters the belly, may Heaven and Earth endure together.”

After reciting the incantation, take the medicine. While taking it, abstain from all kinds of meat other than the permitted kinds, and from the Five Pungent Plants (such as scallions, garlic, and chives). Be especially careful about this.

A prescription from the Yao family: To treat painful lumps caused by mouse fistula—a condition involving swollen lymph nodes—before they have suppurated, apply cypress leaves to the swollen area. Alternatively, heat salt in a pan and apply it to the area as a hot compress, so that the warmth penetrates. It is said that the lump will then disperse.

The Baopuzi records that during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, a hunter saw someone on Mount Zhongnan who wore no clothes and was covered in black hair. She leapt over pits and ravines, moving as swiftly as if she were flying. The hunter secretly followed her tracks, then surrounded and captured her. He discovered that she was a woman. When asked how this had happened, she said: “I was a palace woman in the Qin dynasty. When bandits from east of the passes arrived, the Qin king left the city and surrendered, and I fled in terror into the mountains. With nothing to eat, I was about to starve to death when an old man taught me to eat pine and cypress leaves and fruit. At first they were bitter and astringent, but gradually I grew accustomed to them and no longer felt hungry. I did not feel cold in winter or hot in summer.” This woman had lived in the Qin dynasty; by the time of Emperor Cheng of Han, she had lived for more than three hundred years.

The Liexian zhuan says that Chisongzi enjoyed eating cypress fruit, and that after his teeth fell out, new ones grew in their place.

There is another account. I have carefully examined Tao Hongjing’s statement that cypress should not be gathered from tombs. People now say that cypress from Qianzhou is the best, probably because the trees there grow lush and tall, and these great trees all come from the area around the Qianling Mausoleum. No other place has trees so large. Still, cypress seeds may be gathered wherever the trees grow well and their fruit has a sweet aroma. The cypress trees at Qianling differ from those elsewhere: their trunks all have grain, and the patterns often clearly depict Bodhisattvas, clouds, people, birds, and beasts, making them a pleasure to look at. Someone once stole a piece of cypress wood a foot in diameter, worth as much as ten thousand coins. People in the Guanyou region also consider it a treasure. This suggests that the cypress seeds from this area are probably the best as well. Some people burn cypress knots and branches to make a salve for chronic, stubborn sores infested with worms. For livestock such as cattle and horses, scabies sores—called “serious illness”—are treated with the same salve.

The Yanyi says that cypress chu, a resin or resinous substance from the wood, can be used to treat skin sores on horses. But nowadays I have not seen anyone use it this way. For an elderly person whose weakness causes constipation, grind cypress seed kernels, hemp seeds, pine nuts, and similar ingredients together, then melt them into white wax and form pills the size of parasol tree seeds. Take two or three dozen at a time, swallowed with a little decoction of yellow lead, before meals.

When I once served in Shaanxi, I often climbed to high places and looked out over thousands upon thousands of cypress trees. Their branches all pointed west. It is said that this wood is exceptionally hard…

It can withstand frost and snow, and it takes in the pure Qi of trees; no other tree can compare with it. For this reason, it is governed by Metal Qi, and all the branches turn toward it.

Poria from the Western Capital

Poria tastes sweet, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It is used to treat rebellious Qi in the chest and flanks, grief and anger, fright and fear, pathogenic influences, palpitations, knotted pain below the heart, alternating chills and fever, agitation, cough with rebellious Qi, a scorched and dry mouth and tongue, difficulty urinating, wasting thirst, excessive saliva, abdominal distension, dribbling urination, phlegm and fluid in the diaphragm, edema, and urinary obstruction or painful, difficult urination. It can open and clear the chest and diaphragm, harmonize the Qi of the viscera, dispel pathogenic influences from the kidneys, nourish Yin, strengthen the vital energy, calm the spirit, and protect the body’s upright Qi. Taken for a long time, it is said to calm the hun souls and nourish the spirit, reduce hunger, and promote longevity. It is also called “Futu.” When it grows beside a pine root and clings to it, it is called “Fushen.”

Fushen is neutral in nature. It is used to ward off ill omens and treat wind-induced dizziness, wind-related deficiency, the five kinds of exhaustion, and dry mouth. It can also stop palpitations caused by fright, ease irritability and forgetfulness, and is said to open the orifices of the heart, increase wisdom, calm the hun and po souls, and nourish the spirit.

Poria grows beneath large pine trees in the valleys of Mount Tai. It is usually gathered in the second and eighth months and dried in the shade. Horse-mount can serve as an assistant herb, helping other medicines work in a formula. Combined with licorice, saposhnikovia root, peony, purple fluorite, and dwarf lilyturf, it can be used to regulate disorders of the five viscera. It is considered incompatible with baiji, moutan, garden burnet, realgar, gentian, and tortoise shell—that is, according to traditional rules of medicinal combination, these substances should not be used together.

The Illustrated Classic says: Poria grows in the valleys of Mount Tai, and today it is also found on Mount Tai, Mount Hua, and Mount Song. It grows beneath large pine trees, close to their roots. It has no shoots, leaves, flowers, or fruit, and resembles a fist as it grows underground. Large specimens weigh several jin. Those shaped like a person or a tortoise are considered superior. The outer skin is black, and the interior may be either white or reddish.

Some say that poria forms when pine resin, accumulated over many years, seeps into the earth and changes. Others say that it grows by drawing on the Qi of pine roots. Today, herb gatherers in the eastern regions go into the mountains to search beneath old pines. Where a tree was felled many years ago, its stump has dried and broken, and no branches or leaves have grown back, they believe poria may be found.

Recipes of the immortals often prescribe poria on its own. One method is to take five jin of white poria, remove the black skin, pound it and sift it, then place it in a cooked, fine-silk bag beneath three dou of rice and steam it until the rice is done. Remove the bag and dry the poria in the sun. Steam and dry it three times in this way. Then take two dou of cow’s milk, mix it with the poria, and simmer the mixture in a bronze vessel over low heat until it becomes a paste. Store it. At mealtimes, cut off a portion with a bamboo knife and take as much as suits you. It is said to keep hunger at bay. If you wish to eat other foods, first boil water with mallow leaves and drink it; afterward, you may eat as usual.

An old account says that amber forms from poria after a thousand years and is also called “river pearl.” Zhang Maoxian …

Amber is produced in Yongchang, Yizhou, but Fuling is not. Another account says that amber is made by burning honeycombs. Zhang could not determine which of these accounts was true. The Gazetteer of the Southern Barbarians records that amber is commonly found in villages in the Southern Barbarian region. It says amber forms from transformed pine resin, though some say it comes from maple resin. The local people do not know that amber lies underground. No plants or trees grow beside it. Shallow deposits are five chi underground, while deeper ones are eight or nine chi down. Large pieces are the size of a hu, an ancient unit of capacity. When its outer layer is scraped away, it initially resembles peach gum; only after a long time does it harden and solidify. The local people make it into pillows. Since accounts passed down from ancient times to the present connect amber with pine trees, it is discussed here alongside Fuling.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals says: In a prescription, Fuling serves as a ministerial herb and should not be taken with rice vinegar. It can stimulate the appetite, stop nausea and vomiting, and calm the mind and spirit. It is used to treat lung wilting and phlegm obstruction, as well as convulsions in children, distension and fullness in the chest and abdomen, and painful, hot urination with blood in women. It can also disperse stagnant Qi.

The text also says: Fushen—the part of Fuling that encloses a pine root—is sweet in flavor and nontoxic. It treats convulsions, calms the spirit and steadies the will, and replenishes deficiency. It may be used for acute pain below the heart, hard swelling and fullness, bodily weakness, and impaired bowel function. The central part of Fushen is called Huang Songjie. It is especially used to treat wind-stroke with hemiplegia, a crooked mouth and eyes, wind toxin causing the sinews and vessels to contract, inability to speak, fright and twitching of the heart and spirit, and weakness with forgetfulness.

Tao Hongjing says: I have checked the books on materia medica, and none lists a medicinal called “ma jian.” Perhaps the original text said “ma jing,” which sounds similar. Some of the Fuling now produced in Yuzhou is imitation, made by local people grinding pinewood. These pieces are generally small, loose in texture, reddish, and of poor quality. Naturally formed Fuling can be as large as a vessel holding three or four sheng. Its outer skin is black and finely wrinkled, while the inside is hard and white. Those shaped like birds, beasts, turtles, or tortoises are the finest. Fuling is said to communicate with the spirits and bring about numinous efficacy, harmonize the hun and po souls, refine and nourish the Jing and po, open the body’s orifices, nourish the flesh, strengthen the stomach and intestines, and bring ease to the mind and spirit. It is a superior immortal medicine. When Fuling encloses a pine root and forms a paired shape, it is called Fushen, which is of a lower grade. Fushen is a mass that solidifies after Fuling has formed. Immortal prescriptions mention Fuling but not Fushen; since their effects are similar, there should be no harm in using Fushen.

Fan Zi says that Fuling is produced in the Songgao region, the Three Fu area, and Huainan. The Huainanzi says: “Fuling is beneath the earth; Tusizi is above it.” The commentary says that Fuling is formed from pine resin after a thousand years. Tusizi grows above it without roots and is also called Nüluo. The Treatise on Methods says that pine resin becomes Fuling after a thousand years underground. Where a pine tree appears red, Fuling lies beneath it.

The Guangzhi says that Fushen forms from the sap of pine trees and is more potent than Fuling. Some also say that it is formed from pine roots…

Poria grows in places such as Zhuti and Hanyang, spreading along and clinging to pine roots.

Ri Hua Zi says: Poria can restore and strengthen the body after the “five labors and seven injuries,” a general term for many kinds of strain and weakness. It can stabilize pregnancy and warm the lower back and knees. It also clears the mind, improves wisdom, and eases forgetfulness. Sour foods should be avoided.

Lei Gong says: After harvesting poria, remove the outer skin and the central part, grind it into a fine powder, and stir it in a basin of water. When the water turns cloudy, remove whatever floats to the surface: this is the fibrous part of the poria. Accidentally taking it can cause the pupils to shrink and spots to appear in the boundary between the black and white of the eyes, and may even lead to blindness. It must therefore be avoided especially carefully.

The Shenghui Formula records: To treat facial sores and the dark spots on a woman’s face after childbirth that resemble the color of sparrow eggs, mix white poria powder with honey and apply it to the affected area.

The Experiential Formula for Later Generations records a method of taking poria to nourish life and prolong one’s years: Cut poria into pieces the size of dates, with four angular sides. Put them in a new porcelain jar, soak them in good wine, and seal the mouth of the jar with three layers of paper. After one hundred days, open it; the poria should be the color of maltose. Take two pieces each day. After one hundred days, the skin will become moist and lustrous; after taking it for a year, one will be able to see at night. The text claims that long-term use will turn the intestines into sinews, prolong life, and preserve a youthful appearance.

The Perfected Sun’s Record Kept at the Pillow says: After taking poria for one hundred days, all illnesses will disappear; after two hundred days, one will see at night as clearly as in daylight. After two years, one will be able to command ghosts and spirits; after four years, a Jade Maiden will come to attend to the practitioner.

The Baopuzi says that after Ren Ziji took poria for eighteen years, a Jade Maiden followed him. He could also make himself invisible or appear at will, live without eating grain, lose the scars left by moxibustion, and have a bright, lustrous complexion.

The Method for Immortals to Take Poria says: Peel white poria and soak it in wine for fifteen days. Remove it and grind it into powder. Take three qian at a time, mixed with water, three times a day.

The Yanyi says: Poria forms inside the roots of pine trees that have been felled for many years. The pine root’s Qi gathers and remains there, eventually forming poria. Whether poria forms also depends on the suitability of the soil: where the pine root has abundant sap, its Qi and fluids can spread outward and condense into poria. Poria does not cling to the root, which is why it is called “ling.” What is called fushen forms when the sap in the pine root is not abundant enough to condense away from it, so it remains attached to the original root; hence the name “fushen.” Poria has a strong water-draining effect and also benefits the heart and spleen, making it an indispensable medicine. Someone asked: If the pine tree has already been felled, how can its root still produce anything?

Someone replied, “Things such as puffball fungi, the Five Mushrooms, wood ear, and stone ear all grow on decaying wood, rocks, or dung. The essence of plants and trees has not dissipated, so how can you say they are not living things? As for the claim that ‘where dodder grows above, tuckahoe grows below,’ that is simply too credulous.”

Amber tastes sweet, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It is chiefly used to calm the Five Viscera and the hun and po souls, drive away essence-demons and evil ghosts, disperse stagnant blood, and unblock the Five Strangury disorders (five conditions that impede urination). It is produced in Yongchang.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: For related information, see the entry on “tuckahoe.”

The Treatise on the Nature of Drugs says: Amber is a chief ingredient. It can be used to treat various malign influences, as well as blood stagnation and pain after childbirth.

Tao Hongjing says: An old account holds that amber is pine resin that sank underground and transformed over a thousand years. When amber is burned today, it gives off the smell of pine resin. Folk tales tell of a bee inside amber, preserved in lifelike form. The Treatise on Natural Things also says that amber is made by burning beehives, but this is probably untrue. Perhaps a bee became stuck in pine resin, then fell underground and was buried in the soil, where it formed amber. Others say amber is made by boiling shrimp, eggs, or the otoliths of black carp; these claims are also untrue. To identify genuine amber, see whether it can attract tiny mustard seeds. People commonly wear amber to ward off evil, and also scrape off powder and take it to treat stagnant blood; it is indeed effective.

Chen Cangqi says: Amber can stop bleeding and promote the growth of flesh, and is applied to wounds caused by metal objects. Mix amber with rhubarb and softshell turtle shell to make a powder, then take one square-inch spoonful with wine; this can expel bad blood. Once the stagnant blood in a woman’s abdomen has been expelled, the medicine should be discontinued. During the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Song, Ningzhou presented an amber pillow as tribute. The court had it pounded into powder and distributed to soldiers to apply to weapon wounds. The Book of Han says that amber comes from the kingdom of Jibin. At first it resembles peach gum; only after hardening does it become amber.

Lei Gong says: Amber used as medicine is classified under names such as red pine resin, stone amber, water amber, patterned amber, amber with natural inclusions, and black amber. Red pine resin resembles amber but is cloudy and brittle, with yellow markings. Water amber is generally not red; it is pale yellow, with a rough, wrinkled surface. Stone amber is heavy like rock and yellowish in color, and is unsuitable for medicinal use. Patterned amber has markings like the heartwood of fresh red pine, with one streak red and another yellow. Amber with natural inclusions contains living creatures that appear almost able to move, and is therefore considered wondrous. Black amber is the finest kind of amber, which is why it is called “black amber.” Genuine amber is blood-red; when rubbed against cloth until warm, it can attract mustard seeds.

Before using amber as medicine, first mix powdered arborvitae seeds with water and spread the mixture in a porcelain pot. Bury the amber in the powder and heat it over a low flame from the hour of the Snake to the hour of the Monkey (about nine in the morning to five in the afternoon). At this point, it will display unusual colors. Then remove the amber, pound it separately into a fine powder, and sift it repeatedly before use.

The Yanyi says: Amber (fossilized resin) is now also produced in the western regions of the Rong people. It is lighter in color, clear and translucent. Amber from the south is darker, denser, and cloudier. Local people often grind it into objects of various shapes.

The claim that amber forms from poria that has transformed over a thousand years is highly implausible, since some pieces of amber contain sphecid wasps, bees, and ants, their bodies intact and clearly visible. The Treatise on Geography says that Linyi produces amber in abundance and holds that it forms from pine resin. This account is more credible. Yet soil conditions differ from place to place, so amber forms in some regions but not in others.

The Tongdian says: Linyi, a kingdom in the southern sea—specifically, Linyi County in Xiang Commandery during the Qin dynasty—produces amber in abundance. Pine resin flows underground, and no plants grow nearby. Buried eight or nine chi deep, it accumulates in quantities as large as a hu. Once its outer layer is cut away, it becomes amber. At first it resembles peach gum; only after it solidifies does it harden, taking on a very beautiful luster.

The Waitai Miyao records that if a fish bone or other bone becomes lodged across the throat, an amber bead can be threaded onto a cord and pushed inward to the obstruction. Pulling the cord then draws the object out. Another prescription says that for bruising caused by a fall from a height or by being crushed under a heavy object, amber can be scraped into powder and taken with wine, in a dose of about one square-inch spoonful (an ancient measure for a spoonful of medicinal powder). One may also take two or three qian of cattail pollen, four or five times a day.

Elm Bark

Elm bark is sweet in flavor, neutral in nature, and non-toxic. It treats difficulty or inability to urinate or defecate, promotes the flow of urine, dispels pathogenic influences, treats pathogenic heat in the stomach and intestines, and reduces swelling. Its slippery, lubricating nature makes long-term use capable of lightening the body and reducing hunger. The fruit of the elm is especially effective medicinally; it treats sores and scabs on children’s heads.

Elm flowers treat childhood epilepsy, difficulty urinating, and illnesses caused by pathogenic heat. The elm is also called “Lingyu” and grows in the mountain valleys of Yingchuan. In the second lunar month, collect the bark and take its white inner layer, then dry it in the sun. In the eighth month, collect the fruit. Neither should be allowed to get damp after harvesting, or it may cause harm.

The Yaoxing Lun says that elm’s white inner bark is slippery and can help urination. It treats the Five Stranguries (various conditions involving painful or obstructed urination), as well as insomnia and snoring. Take the white inner bark, dry it in the shade, then roast it and grind it into powder. Each morning and evening, simmer two qian of the powder in five he of water until it becomes thick and gelatinous, then take it. Stop once the illness is cured.

Tao Hongjing says: This is the elm tree known today. After stripping off the bark, one can scrape away the red outer layer and use the inner bark when needed. Elm bark is very slippery. People use the young elm fruits to make porridge or soup. Eating them tends to make one drowsy, which is why Ji Kang said, “Elm makes one sleepy.” During bigu (a health practice of abstaining from ordinary grains), one can grind elm bark and sandalwood bark into powder and take it to lessen hunger.

Meng Shen says: Fresh elm bark can treat sudden redness and swelling. Take three liang of elm bark, pound it, then mix it with …

The juice of elm bark can be used to treat breast swelling and pain. Applying vinegar lees to the affected area for three years, changing the dressing six or seven times a day, can also treat women’s breast distension and pain.

People who develop swelling after taking mineral medicines can pick and eat fresh elm leaves; after one or two meals, they should feel some improvement. Elm fruit can be made into a paste and eaten. It helps Qi move through the lungs, dispels various kinds of parasitic accumulation, brings Qi downward, and stimulates the appetite. It is also effective for foul Qi between the chest and abdomen and for sudden attacks of heart pain.

The Waitai Miyao records a method for treating thirst and frequent urination without dribbling or pain: take two pieces of elm bark, scrape away the black outer layer, and boil them in one dou of water until five sheng of liquid remain. Take three he each time, three times a day.

The Qianjin Fang records that the five-colored dan condition, commonly called “oil swelling,” can be fatal if neglected and should not be taken lightly. Grind elm white bark into a powder, mix it with egg white, and apply it to the affected area.

The Beiji Fang records that for sudden swelling of the body, take as much elm bark as needed, pound it into small pieces, add it to rice, and cook it as porridge. Eating it can help urine flow freely.

The Zimu Milu Fang records that if a fetus dies in the womb during pregnancy, or the mother is ill and needs to expel the fetus, elm white bark may be boiled to make a juice, of which two sheng should be taken.

The Bieshuo says: On the basis of observation, elm white bark can be roasted dry and ground into powder. Women nearing their due date may take one square-inch spoonful of the powder each day; it is said to help ensure an easy delivery. After the child is born, the powder can be mixed into a paste and applied over the child’s whole body; some people consider this genuinely effective. In addition, damp elm bark can be pounded into a paste that firmly binds tiles and stone. In the eastern and northwestern parts of the capital region, people use stone for the pestle heads of grain pounders and often use elm-bark paste to secure them.

The Yanyi says: In early spring, the elm first puts out its pods. Remove the rough, withered outer bark, then chop the tender inner part, dry it in the sun, and grind it into powder. In years of poor harvests, farming families often use it in place of grain. Young, green elm leaves can also be gathered and stored for making soup or greens. During the Jiayou era, when food was scarce around Feng and Pei, most local villagers survived by eating elm bark and sour jujubes.

Sour Jujube

Sour jujube tastes sour, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats cold and heat in the heart and abdomen, accumulated pathogenic influences, Qi that gathers and fails to disperse, aching pain in the limbs, damp Bi (numbness and pain in the limbs caused by dampness), restlessness and insomnia, pain above and below the navel, disordered Blood and Qi, chronic diarrhea, deficiency sweating, and vexing thirst. It replenishes the central Qi, strengthens Liver Qi, fortifies the sinews and bones, and supports Yin, making the body strong. Taken over a long period, it calms the Five Organs, lightens the body, and prolongs life. Sour jujube grows in the river valleys and marshes of Hedong. Gather the fruit in the eighth month and dry it in the shade for forty days. It is incompatible with fangji.

The Tujing says: Sour jujube grows in the river valleys and marshes of Hedong; today it is also found near the capital and in the northwestern prefectures. Wild sour jujube often grows on hillsides, earthen slopes, and around city walls. The tree resembles the jujube tree, but has finer bark and a red heartwood; its stems and leaves are green, and its flowers are shaped like…

The jujube tree bears fruit in the eighth month. The fruit is purplish red and resembles a jujube, but is rounder and smaller, with a sour taste. Gather it when ripe, remove the kernel from the pit, and dry it in the shade for forty days before use. The Erya records that among jujubes, those with small, sour fruit are called “er-jujube.” The Mencius mentions “nurturing one’s er-jujube”; Zhao Qi’s commentary says this refers to sour jujube.

Tao Hongjing says that sour jujube now grows in the eastern mountains and is the fruit of the wild jujube tree. Its fruit resembles Wuchang jujube, but is extremely sour. People in the east eat it to refresh themselves and stay awake.

The Tang Ben Cao commentary says that sour jujube is the fruit of the er-jujube. The tree is about the same size as a large jujube tree, and its fruit varies in shape. Sour-tasting fruit from large jujube trees is also called sour jujube. The Ben Jing says only that the fruit of sour jujube treats sleeplessness; it does not mention using the kernel’s seed. Prescriptions today use the seed to tonify the middle and boost Qi (vital energy). The effects described in the Ben Jing and later texts, such as tonifying the middle and benefiting the liver, refer to the action of sour jujube seed.

Under the entry for “white thorn” in its lower grade, the Ben Jing also mentions using its fruit. Some physicians today identify thorn fruit as sour jujube; this is a serious mistake. Tao Hongjing says sour jujube can keep one awake, while the Ben Jing says it can treat insomnia. Perhaps the sour flesh makes a person less inclined to sleep when eaten, while the seed inside the kernel treats insomnia when taken. This is like the stem of ephedra inducing perspiration, while its root nodes stop it. What is described here is in fact the fruit of the thorn tree, not something else. It is also incorrect to identify it as large jujube with a sour taste. Sour jujube fruit is small and round, and its seed is slightly flat; the seed of large jujube is large and long. The two have different shapes.

Rihua Zi says that sour jujube seed can treat distension and pain below the navel.

Lei Gong says that to prepare sour jujube seed, first gather and dry it in the sun, then mix it with jujube leaves and steam it for half a day. Remove it, take off the tips and outer skin, and it is ready to grind and use.

The Sheng Hui Fang records: To treat weakness of the gallbladder Qi, restless sleep, and frequent palpitations from fright, take one liang of sour jujube seed, dry-fry it until fragrant, and pound it into a fine powder. Take two qian at a time, mixed with a decoction of bamboo leaves, at any time. Another prescription treats steaming-bone fever, vexation, and insomnia: take one liang of sour jujube seed and one and a half large cups of water. Grind the seed and strain out the juice. Add two he of rice and cook it into porridge; when nearly done, add one he of Rehmannia juice and cook briefly before eating. Take it at any time.

The Wai Tai Mi Yao records: To treat teeth decayed by worms, take two hundred thorn needles—that is, thorns that have fallen to the ground from a dead and decayed jujube tree—and boil them in two sheng of water until reduced to one sheng. Hold the liquid in the mouth and rinse; this is said to bring a cure.

Essential Prescriptions for Helping the People: A formula for treating drowsiness and lethargy caused by wind-toxin in the gallbladder and an imbalance of deficiency and excess.

Take one liang of raw Suanzaoren (the kernel of the sour jujube) and two liang of Jinting wax tea, a type of tea. Coat the tea with ginger juice, roast it until lightly scorched, then pound it and sift it into a fine powder. Take two qian at a time. Boil it in seven fen of water until reduced to six fen, and drink it warm at any time.

The Extended Materia Medica says: Suanzao is slightly warm in nature. Ancient medical books do not explicitly say to use its kernel, but it can also treat insomnia. Sour jujube grows throughout the land, though its quality varies from place to place. Songyangzi says that Suanzao County belonged to Huazhou. There, sour jujube trees can grow several zhang tall. Their fruit tastes sour, and physicians prize it as a medicinal ingredient. What is sold in markets nowadays is all jizi, or thorny jujube. This account is incomplete: people do not know that when the tree is young it is called ji, and only when it grows tall is it called suanzao. Trees grow readily on level ground but are less likely to take root on mountain cliffs and ravines. Thus, jizi often grows on the slopes and ledges halfway up a mountain. If left uncut for a long time, it develops a trunk, and people then call it suanzao rather than ji.

In fact, these are the same kind of tree. It is not much in demand and can obstruct roads, so few are allowed to grow into large trees; they are often cut down. Yet a tree of this kind will flower and bear fruit when it reaches about three chi in height. Small trees bear little fruit, with a faint flavor and aroma; large trees bear more fruit, with a stronger flavor and aroma. That is the difference between them. The sour jujube that grows wild in the mountains around Lintong, Shaanxi, is also excellent, because the local soil and water suit its growth. Its kernels may also be used.

The “white thorn” mentioned below refers to the thorns on sour jujube branches before the tree has grown tall. As the tree matures, its thorns become fewer and its fruit grows larger. So, when choosing jujubes, select the large ones. If choosing sour jujubes with woody thorns, small fruit is fine; there is no need to force a distinction between them.

Bo Tree (huangbo, or huangbai): Bitter in taste, cold in nature, and non-toxic. It primarily treats accumulations of heat in the Five Viscera and the stomach and intestines, as well as jaundice and intestinal hemorrhoids. It can stop diarrhea and dysentery, treat red or white vaginal discharge and sores or ulceration of the genital area in women, and is also used for startled Qi beneath the skin, hot and reddened skin, red, hot, painful eyes, and mouth sores. It is said that prolonged use can open communication with the spirits.

The root of the Bo Tree is also called tanhuan. It primarily treats various ailments of the heart and abdomen, calms the hun soul and po soul, and keeps a person from feeling hungry or thirsty. It is said that prolonged use can make the body light and strong, prolong life, and open communication with the spirits. The Bo Tree grows in the mountain valleys of Hanzhong and around Yongchang. It should not be taken together with dry lacquer.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: The Bo Tree is huangbo. It grows in the mountain valleys of Hanzhong and around Yongchang, and is now produced in many places, with that from Shu considered the best. The tree can grow several zhang tall, and its leaves…

The leaves of huangbo resemble those of dogwood, chinaberry, and catalpa, and do not fall even through the winter. The bark is white on the outside and deep yellow within. Its root resembles fuling growing beneath pine trees and forms into clumps. It is harvested in the fifth and sixth months.

Scrape away the rough outer layer of bark, then dry it in the sun before use. Its root is called “tanhuan.” There is another thorny tree with small leaves called “cibo,” which is not used as medicine. Another kind, “xiaobo,” is listed among the inferior-grade medicines. It resembles a pomegranate tree, has yellow bark and red fruits like wolfberries, pointed at both ends. People often mistake it for huangbo, and physicians today rarely use it.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says: As an assistant ingredient, huangbo has a mild medicinal nature. It treats impotence in men and bleeding from below. If sores develop on a man’s penis, grind huangbo into a fine powder and apply it.

Tao Hongjing says: The huangbo now produced in Shaoling is light in texture and dark in color, and is of good quality; that produced in Dongshan is thicker and paler. Daoists class huangbo root among the “Wood Mushrooms,” but people today do not know to gather and consume it. There is also a small tree resembling a pomegranate tree, with yellow, bitter bark, commonly called “zibo,” which can also treat sores in the mouth. Another small tree is thorny and has yellow bark; it too can treat sores in the mouth.

The Ri Hua Zi says: Huangbo calms the spirit, dispels fatigue, and treats bone steaming, a kind of internal heat described in Chinese medicine. It can also be boiled in water to wash the eyes, brighten vision, and treat excessive tearing. It treats dry mouth and heat in the heart, kills roundworms, and treats pain in the heart and abdomen caused by roundworms, as well as scabies. Roasted with honey, it can treat nosebleeds and intestinal bleeding. The bark of huangbo is less potent medicinally, and its effects are inferior to those of the root.

Lei Gong says: Before use, scrape off the coarse bark with a knife and soak it for half a day in water mixed with raw honey. Take it out and dry it in the sun, then coat it with honey and roast it, alternating low and high heat, until the honey has been used up. For every five liang of huangbo prepared, use three liang of honey.

The Essential Secrets from the Imperial Library says: For sores or ulcers in the mouth or on the tongue, chop huangbo into pieces and hold them in the mouth.

The Thousand Gold Pieces Formula says: Huangbo can treat “double tongue” in children, a swelling beneath the tongue that makes it appear doubled. Soak huangbo in bitter bamboo sap, then drip the sap onto the tongue.

The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies says: If the throat suddenly swells so that the person cannot eat or drink, spread a thin layer of huangbo over the swelling and replace it when it cools. The effect is better if the huangbo powder is mixed with bitter wine (vinegar).

The Ge Family’s Formula says: For sudden throat impediment, with swelling and blockage that hinder breathing and swallowing, hold a slice of huangbo in the mouth. Alternatively, pound one jin of huangbo, boil it in one dou of wine until it has boiled three times, strain out the herbs, and drink as desired; this is said to cure the condition.

The Proven Formula says: To treat vomiting blood, take fine-quality huangbo, coat it with honey, dry it in the sun, and pound it into powder. Take two qian mixed with prepared water in which maidong has been boiled; it is said to work quickly.

The Mei Family’s Formula says: To treat carbuncles, sores on the back, or breast sores, if they have only just begun and there is slight redness and swelling…

If it is not treated promptly, it can be fatal. Pound the bark of huangbo (Phellodendron) into a fine powder, mix it evenly with egg white, and apply it to the affected area.

The Shenshi Formula says: To treat mouth sores caused by the heat of a febrile illness, take huangbo bark, scrape away the rough outer layer, and use the finer inner part. Shave it into thin pieces and soak them overnight in cliff honey—honey gathered from among the mountain cliffs. Make the liquid concentrated. Hold it in the mouth for a long time, then spit it out and continue holding it in the mouth. If there is heat in the chest as well as sores in the mouth, drinking five he (a measure of volume) each time is especially effective. The Shenghui Formula gives the same advice.

The Yanyi says: Today, the bark of the bo tree is used. Mix the bark evenly with honey and roast it. Then take equal parts of this and Qingdai, grind them together into a fine powder, add one zi (about one-quarter qian) of raw borneol, and grind until well blended. This treats heat in the Heart and Spleen that causes sores on the tongue: sprinkle the powder on the sores, and spit out any saliva. In addition, Zhang Zhongjing’s decoction of bo bark has repeatedly proved effective; it is already recorded in the Treatise on Cold Damage.

Paper Mulberry Fruit

Paper mulberry fruit tastes sweet, is cold in nature, and is non-toxic. It is used to treat impotence and edema, and can boost Qi, nourish the skin and flesh, and improve eyesight. Taken over a long period, it can keep a person from feeling hungry or growing old, and make the body light and strong. It grows on Mount Shaoshi and is also called gu shi; it is found throughout the country. Gather the fruit in the eighth or ninth month and dry it in the sun. Its medicinal properties are considered mature only after forty days.

Paper mulberry leaves taste sweet and are non-toxic. They are used to treat children who have a fever but do not gain flesh despite eating. The leaves can be boiled into a bath. They can also treat malignant sores and help flesh grow back.

Paper mulberry bark can dispel water and promote urination.

The paper mulberry’s stems can treat rashes such as wind rash and relieve itching. They may be boiled on their own and used for bathing.

The white sap between the layers of bark can treat ringworm.

The Illustrated Classic says: Paper mulberry fruit grows on Mount Shaoshi and is now found throughout the country. There are two kinds of paper mulberry. One has patterned bark and is called ban gu; people today sometimes use it to make caps. The other has unpatterned bark, with branches and leaves like those of the first kind. The best kind has leaves resembling grape leaves, divided into lobes, and bears fruit. The fruit first appears in early summer, about the size of a pellet and green. In the sixth or seventh month, it gradually turns dark red; when ripe, it can be gathered. Collect the fruit in the eighth or ninth month, soak it in water, remove the outer skin and pulp, and take out the seeds to dry in the sun.

The Immortals’ Formulas use only the fruit of the paper mulberry: gather it when it is bright red, remove the seeds, dry them in the shade, and sift them into powder. Take two qian with water. The effects become apparent only after taking it for a long time. Medical formulas chiefly value the fruit and rarely use the other parts. Among the people, the white sap from paper mulberry branches is sometimes applied to ringworm, with very good results.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says: The bark and wood of the paper mulberry may also be used on their own. They taste sweet, are neutral in nature, and are non-toxic. They can treat edema and abdominal distension. The leaves may be dried, stir-fried, and ground into powder, then mixed with flour and made into cakes to treat watery diarrhea.

Tao Hongjing says: This is the gu tree known today. In the Immortals’ Formulas, there is a method of gathering it, pounding it, and extracting its juice…

When used together with elixirs, it may also be dried and taken directly. The book says it can enable people to communicate with spirits and see ghosts. In the south, people call the paper mulberry tree “gu,” and paper made from its bark is also called gu paper. People in Wuling make clothing from paper mulberry bark; the material is exceptionally tough and durable.

Rihua Zi says that paper mulberry fruit strengthens the sinews and bones, supports Yang energy, replenishes deficiency and fatigue, benefits the lower back and knees, and improves the complexion. Bark with markings is called paper mulberry bark, while the white-colored bark is called gu bark. Rihua Zi also says that paper mulberry leaves are cool in nature and non-toxic, and can treat itching of the skin caused by pathogenic wind. Here, he is referring to the paper mulberry tree with marked leaves.

Lei Gong says that before using paper mulberry fruit, it should first be gathered and soaked in water for three days, stirring it as it soaks. The parts that float should be discarded. Then dry it in the sun, soak it in wine overnight, steam it from the hour of the Snake until the hour of the Boar, and take it out to dry by heating before use.

The Shenghui Formula records a treatment for the damp itching caused by ringworm: take half a jin of paper mulberry leaves, chop and mash them, and apply them to the affected area.

The Baopuzi says that taking red paper mulberry fruit can make the elderly young again, and enable them to see clearly at night and behold spirits and ghosts. The Daoist Liang Dun reportedly took this substance at the age of seventy and became young and strong again. At the age of 140, he could still travel at night, riding his horse at a gallop. The Secret Essentials for Cultivating Perfection, however, says that taking paper mulberry fruit makes the bones soft.

Locust tree resin is said to treat various wind disorders and dissolve phlegm and saliva. It may be used for spasms of the sinews and vessels caused by wind affecting the liver; locked jaws caused by acute wind; inability to move the limbs; persistent numbness; the sensation of insects crawling over the body caused by toxic wind; and the twisted mouth and eyes and stiff lower back and spine caused by tetanus. It can be combined with other medicines and prepared as a decoction, powder, pill, or boiled medicinal preparation. It may also be boiled in water and mixed with other medicines to make pills, which are then taken with a decoction.

Yi, pronounced “yi,” is sweet in flavor, neutral in nature, and non-toxic. According to an old account, after a thousand years pine resin becomes poria; after another thousand years it becomes amber; and after yet another thousand years it becomes yi. Since both substances give off the smell of pine resin when burned, some believe they can be used together with amber to nourish the heart, calm the spirit, and break up stagnant blood.

Yi is shaped like black jade but is lighter. Yi from the Western Regions is said not to be found in places where poria grows. Yi found today around Wangqi, three hundred li south of Xizhou, can be as large as one chi square; it is black and lustrous, and light in weight. When burned, it gives off a rank odor. People of Gaochang call it “wood yi,” and call black jade “stone yi.” Yi found among the earth and stones in Hongzhou gives off the smell of pine resin when burned. It is said to break up stagnant blood and promote the growth of flesh, with effects like those of amber. But this yi cracks when exposed to the wind and cannot be made into objects. Taken together, these accounts suggest that yi from the Western Regions, yi from Hongzhou, and amber may not all be formed from pine resin, which could explain their differences.

The character “chuan” will be discussed only briefly here. It is newly attested in the Tang Materia Medica.

After his entry on amber, Chen Cangqi separately recorded “yi.” Research indicates that, in addition to its original medicinal uses, yi could be worn by children to ward off evil influences. Ground into powder and applied as drops to the eyes, it could treat eye ailments such as corneal opacities and red film.

The Taiping Guangji, quoting The Account of the Four Lords of Liang, says that yi amber could be found by digging about ten feet down into the flat marshlands around Jiaohe. Its color was darker than pure black lacquer, and some pieces were as large as cartwheels. Taken as a powder, it could treat illnesses in women such as masses, swelling, and pain in the small intestine.

Illustrated and Annotated Materia Medica, juan 20