《圖經衍義本草》Vol. 21

Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica with Explanatory Notes, juan 21, Lordly Medicinals, Part Two

Compiled by Kou Zongshi, a Court Gentleman for General Service and official responsible for examining medicinal materials in the Song dynasty; revised by Xu Hong, Assistant Instructor at the Imperial Medical Academy and official responsible for examining medicinal materials in the Song dynasty.

Superior-grade wood: dried lacquer

Dried lacquer tastes pungent and is warm in nature. Medical accounts differ on whether it is non-toxic or toxic. It is used to treat traumatic injuries and fractures, strengthen the body, and mend sinews and bones. It replenishes the marrow in the bones and brain and regulates the five viscera. It relieves sinews and vessels that are either slack or tense, as well as painful impediments caused by Wind, Cold, and Dampness. It also treats coughs, disperses stagnant Blood and accumulations, eases lower-back pain and women’s shan-jia—abdominal accumulations or masses—and promotes the flow of the small intestine. It also expels roundworms.

Fresh lacquer can expel roundworms. Long-term use is said to make the body light and agile and to help one withstand old age. Dried lacquer is found in the mountain valleys of Hanzhong and is gathered after the summer solstice, then dried in the sun. Pinellia may be combined with it as an auxiliary medicinal. Dried lacquer is incompatible with eggs; nowadays it is also considered unsuitable for use with fats and oils.

The Illustrated Classic says: Dried and fresh lacquer come from the mountain valleys of Hanzhong. Today they are also produced in the prefectures of Shu, Han, Jin, Xia, Xiang, and She. Lacquer trees commonly grow to a height of two or three zhang. Their bark is white, their leaves resemble those of the Chinese toon, their flowers resemble locust flowers, their fruit resembles that of the Chinese bird cherry, and their heartwood is yellow. In the sixth and seventh months, a bamboo tube is fixed into the trunk to collect the lacquer.

Cui Bao’s Ancient and Modern Notes says: The bark is cut open with a sharp axe, and a bamboo tube is placed beneath the cut to catch the lacquer as it drips out. The book also says that lacquer which dries naturally inside its container, forming a honeycomb pattern with distinct cells, is the finest. Nowadays people often put lacquer into tubes and let it dry there. The best is black as ink and hard as iron or stone.

The Biography of Hua Tuo records: When Fan A of Pengcheng was young, he became a disciple of Hua Tuo and asked him for methods of nourishing life through ingestion. Hua Tuo passed on to him the “Lacquer Leaf and Qingnian Powder,” saying that taking it could expel the Three Worms, harmonize the five viscera, make the body light and agile, increase primordial Qi, and keep one’s hair from turning white. Fan A followed the instructions and is said to have lived for more than five hundred years. Lacquer leaves are found everywhere. Qingnian grows around Feng and Pei and in Chaoge. It is also called “Earth Knot” and “Yellow Zhi,” and is said to regulate the five viscera and replenish Jing and Qi. The recipe originally came from a person who had lost his way in the mountains and saw immortals taking it; he later passed the information to Hua Tuo. Hua Tuo thought highly of it and told Fan A, who kept the matter secret. Later, people were astonished by Fan A’s long life and abundant strength, and asked what he had taken. After drinking too much wine, Fan A let the secret slip. Most who took it afterward found it effective.

Tao Hongjing says: The lacquer from Liangzhou is now the finest; some also comes from Yizhou. Lacquer from Guangzhou dries quickly. Lacquer that dries naturally on the inside of container lids, forming a honeycomb pattern with distinct cells, is good. Fresh lacquer is violently toxic.

Taken after being mixed with egg, it can drive out worms; there is still concern, however, that the worms may gnaw at the stomach and intestines.

People who come into contact with raw lacquer sometimes appear to die. The fumes of lacquer can also cause sores and swellings on the body, which may even burst on their own.

Some remedies for illness and elixirs for immortality use crab to counteract lacquer poisoning. The crab is boiled down into a liquid and taken as a drink; this is said to bring longevity.

The Waitai Miyao (a Tang dynasty medical compendium) records a treatment for heart pain, nausea, and vomiting clear fluid caused by roundworms: stir-fry dry lacquer, pound it, then mix it with honey and form it into pills. Take fifteen pills twice a day.

The Jingyan Fang records a treatment for women who have never given birth and suffer unbearable pain in the Qi and Blood and internal organs, as well as for men with depleted original Qi and sudden, cramping pain from small-intestine Qi, a condition of the groin-hernia type. The remedy is called “Two Sages Pills.” Grind one liang of dry lacquer into powder. Put one liang of raw lacquer in a pot and simmer it for about as long as it takes to eat a meal, then remove it from the heat. Mix it with the dry-lacquer powder and roll it into a pill half the size of a Chinese honey locust pod. Take one pill with warm wine at any time. If pain in the original Qi, small intestine, or bladder area is so severe that the jaws lock shut, pry the jaws open and dissolve one pill in warm wine to administer; this is said to bring relief. Those who fear lacquer must not take it.

The Jianyao Jizhong Fang (a Song dynasty medical compendium) records a treatment for nine kinds of heart pain, as well as accumulations and Qi stagnation in the abdomen and flanks. Take two liang of tube-shaped dry lacquer, pound it, and stir-fry until the smoke stops. Grind it finely, then use vinegar-cooked flour paste to form pills the size of parasol-tree seeds. Take five to seven pills with hot wine, or with vinegar broth, at any time.

A remedy by Du Ren records that when a child’s stomach is cold and worms are troubling the child, severe symptoms may resemble epilepsy. Pound dry lacquer and stir-fry it until the smoke stops. Add an equal amount of white Wuyu, a medicinal plant, and grind to a fine powder. Mix it with rice broth and give one fen to one qian per dose.

The Yanyi says: No prescriptions have been found that use raw lacquer; they all use dry lacquer. Raw lacquer does not dry easily in dry, hot weather or when it is frosty and cold. In damp, overcast weather, it dries easily even in the depths of winter; this too is simply the nature of the substance. If lacquer gets on a person, oil can be used to remove it. To test the quality of lacquer, dip an object into diluted lacquer: good lacquer forms a fine, unbroken thread that quickly recoils when it snaps. Lacquer that dries quickly when applied to dry bamboo and kept in the shade is also considered good. The rest accords with what the classic says.

Wujiapi

Wujiapi is pungent and bitter in flavor, warm and slightly cold in nature, and non-toxic. It primarily treats hernia due to Qi in the heart and abdomen, and abdominal pain, and can replenish Qi and strength. It treats weak, impaired legs and feet, as well as children who cannot walk. It may also be used for carbuncles and sores, ulceration of the genital area, impotence in men, dampness of the scrotum, dribbling after urination, genital itching in women, and pain in the lower back and spine, both…

Five-Leaf Ginseng (the root bark of the five-leaf ginseng plant) can treat pain in the feet, wind impediment (numbness and pain caused by wind pathogens), weakness in the limbs, and the slackness and weakness of different parts of the body. It can also improve frailty and emaciation, replenish the Qi at the center of the body, nourish Jing and Qi, and strengthen the sinews and bones.

Taken over a long period, it can make the body light and agile and help it withstand aging. Five-Leaf Ginseng is also known as “Jackal Knot.” The kind whose leaves grow in clusters of five is considered best. It grows in the regions of Hanzhong and Yuanju. Gather the stems in the fifth and seventh months, and the roots in the tenth month; dry them in the shade. Distant Ambrosia is its guiding herb; it is incompatible with snake skin and Scrophularia.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says: Five-Leaf Ginseng grows in Hanzhong and Yuanju, and is now also found throughout the prefectures of Jianghuai and Hunan. In spring, it sends up young shoots. Its stems and leaves are green, and it grows in clumps. The stems are red and vine-like, reaching three to five feet in length, with black prickles. The plants with leaves clustered in fives are the best; those with four or three leaves are more common and of lesser quality. A single prickle grows beneath each leaf. It flowers white in the third and fourth months, then bears small green fruits that gradually turn black by the sixth month. The root resembles that of the chaste tree: its outer bark is yellowish black, its inner flesh white, and its core hard. Gather the stems in the fifth and seventh months, and the roots in the tenth month; dry them in the shade before use.

The Treatise on the Nature of Drugs says: Five-Leaf Ginseng is slightly toxic. It dispels harmful wind and illnesses caused by wind pathogens, and treats paralysis and loss of function in the limbs, sudden attacks by wind pathogens, weakness in the legs and feet, and lower back pain. It can also treat stagnant blood accumulated in the skin and muscles over many years, damp impediment (numbness and pain caused by damp pathogens), and internal deficiency, frailty, and emaciation. Children who are two years old and still unable to walk can walk after taking it.

Tao Hongjing says: These days, Five-Leaf Ginseng is found everywhere in nearby regions, especially in the east. Plants with four leaves are also good. Boiling the roots and stems to brew wine is beneficial to the body. Daoists also burn it to ash and, following a secret method, boil it together with Burnet Root to make stone.

The Daily Essence of Materia Medica says: Five-Leaf Ginseng can brighten the eyes and bring Qi downward. It treats windstroke, painful stiffness in the joints, and the deficiencies known as the Five Taxations and Seven Injuries. The leaves can treat wind disorders of the skin and can also be eaten as a vegetable.

The Scripture on Boiling Stone by the Perfected One of Donghua records that Shun once climbed Mount Cangwu and said: “These are fragrant herbs, as precious as gold and jade. With them I nourish body and mind and follow the right path.” He was referring to Five-Leaf Ginseng. It is also called “Golden Salt.” In the past, the Perfected Ones of the Western Regions and Wang Chang of Mount Wangwu said: “If you wish to prolong your years, why not take stone medicines and cultivate Golden Salt? If you wish for longevity, why not take stone medicines and use Jade Ferment?” Jade Ferment is Burnet Root. Five-Leaf Ginseng and Burnet Root are both medicines taken when boiling stone, and it was said that taking them could bring immortality.

In the past, Yin Gongdu heard Meng Chuozi and Tong Shigu say: “We would rather have a handful of Five-Leaf Ginseng than a cartload of gold and jade. We would rather have a pound of Burnet Root—why would we need a bright-moon jewel?”

Lu Dinggong is said to have taken only mica and drunk fiveleaf ginseng wine, living to a very great age. Later, when he withdrew from the world, he pretended to have died, and no one noticed. Zhang Zisheng, Yang Jianshi, Wang Shucai, Yu Chuyan, and others also drank this wine. Their sexual vigor did not decline, and they lived to the age of three hundred, with twenty children. It is said that people in many generations took fiveleaf ginseng wine or fiveleaf ginseng powder, thereby prolonging their lives and attaining immortality; their numbers are beyond counting. Some took fiveleaf ginseng powder simply as a decoction or tea, with equally remarkable results.

When explaining the name “fiveleaf ginseng,” the Great King Jun said: It seems to correspond to the Five Chariots constellation in the heavens. Metal corresponds to the Five Hu, people to the Five Virtues, directions to the Five Directions, and the myriad things to the Five Chariots. The blue-green vital essence of the east enters the stem and becomes the eastern fluid; the white Qi of the west enters the joints and becomes the western liquid; the red Qi of the south enters the flowers and becomes the southern radiance; the black vital essence of the north enters the roots and becomes the northern sweet dew; and the yellow vapor of the central Wu and Ji enters the bark and becomes the central numinous Qi. The five spiritual energies guard and govern, transforming into one another and giving rise to the herb’s medicinal efficacy. Those who use it can become perfected immortals; those who take it can grow young again.

Vitex

The fruit of vitex is bitter in flavor, warm in nature, and non-toxic. It treats cold and heat in the bones, helps the Stomach Qi flow freely, and also stops coughing and directs Qi downward. It grows in the mountain valleys of Hejian, Nanyang, and Yuanju, and sometimes on high banks and in fields in Ping Shou Du Township. Gather the fruit in the eighth or ninth month and dry it in the shade. Combined with atractylodes, arborvitae seeds, and celosia, it can treat wind afflictions of the head. Fangfeng is its guiding herb; vitex is incompatible with gypsum and should not be used together with it.

The Illustrated Classic says: Vitex grows in the mountain valleys of Hejian, Nanyang, and Yuanju, and is also found on the high banks and in the fields of Ping Shou Du Township. Today it also grows in Meizhou, Shuzhou, and around the capital. This is the plant commonly used to make whips and staffs, known colloquially as “yellow vitex.” Its branches and trunk are hard and straight, and it grows in clumps rather than climbing like a vine; hence it is called “male vitex.” Its leaves resemble those of the castor plant, but are sparser and narrower. Its flowers are red and cluster in spikes; its fruit is small and yellow, about the size of a hemp seed. Some say it is the same as small vitex. Gather the fruit in the eighth or ninth month and dry it in the shade. Vitex comes in two kinds, green and red; the green kind is preferred.

According to the Records of the Hidden Instructions for Ascending to Perfection, the flowers and leaves of jing wood can communicate with spirits and enable one to see ghosts. A commentary says that there are three kinds of jing wood. The “jing wood” mentioned here is the kind now used to make whips and staffs. Its leaves are fragrant, and it also flowers and bears fruit, but its fruit is not used as medicine. The kind used in esoteric arts is male vitex. Its fruit can be used as medicine, though people in the north scarcely recognize this tree.

The steam treatment for ailments of the lower back and legs recorded in Cui Yuanliang’s Collection of Proven Prescriptions (Jiyan Fang): Take an appropriate amount of chaste-tree leaves and steam them until thoroughly cooked and hot. Put them in a large jar and light a fire beneath it to keep them warm. Have the patient sit among the leaves, then cover them with the remaining leaves. After a while, the patient should begin to sweat. During treatment, let the patient eat a little rice at a time, and stop as soon as they feel slightly tired. Then cover the body with cotton-padded clothing, keep out of drafts, and continue drinking wine made with scallions and fermented soybeans, or bean wine, until the condition improves.

Chaste Tree (Manjing; Manjingzi, the fruit of the chaste tree)

Manjingzi tastes bitter and pungent and is slightly cold in nature. Some ancient texts describe it as neutral or warm, and it is non-toxic. It treats alternating cold and heat in the tendons and bones, damp impediment (painful obstruction caused by dampness), and stiffness and spasms in the limbs. It can brighten the eyes, strengthen the teeth, and open the nine orifices; it also expels pinworms and roundworms. It is used as well to treat headaches caused by wind, ringing in the head, and tearing eyes. The texts also say it boosts Qi (vital energy); taken for a long time, it can make the body feel light and help it withstand aging, while giving the complexion a healthy glow and making the skin plump. The fruit of the small chaste tree has the same effects. It is incompatible with aconite and gypsum, which are considered unsuitable for use together with it.

The Illustrated Classic says: Earlier herbals do not record which prefectures produce chaste trees. Today they grow in abundance around the capital and in the prefectures of Qin, Long, Ming, and Yue, among others. The plant’s stem grows to four chi in height, with branches emerging in pairs from opposite nodes. In early spring, leaves appear on the old branches, resembling those of the Chinese toon tree. In summer, the branches and leaves grow thick; the flowers form spikes and are pale red, with yellowish-white stamens and green calyxes beneath them. The fruit ripens in autumn. It is speckled and black, about the size of a firmiana seed, and light and loosely textured. It is harvested in the eighth or ninth month. Another explanation says it was named “Manjing” because it grows by trailing, but the plants seen today do not trail.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals says: In prescriptions, Manjingzi serves as a minister herb. It treats “thief wind” (sudden disorders caused by wind) and can also promote the growth of the beard and hair.

Tao Hongjing says: The small chaste tree must be the vitex. Its fruit is larger than Manjingzi, yet it is called “small vitex”; perhaps the name refers to the size of the tree. Still, he does not know whether the chaste tree itself is tall or short.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says: Manjingzi makes the joints move freely and can treat red eyes and epilepsy. A note adds that this fruit also grows in the sea-salt region. It is the size of a pea, with a small, soft cap over the base of the fruit, and is harvested in the sixth, seventh, and eighth months.

Lei Gong says: Before using it, remove the fruit stalk and the thin white membrane at the base of the fruit. Soak it in wine for a full day, then steam it from the hour of the Snake until the hour of the Goat. Take it out, dry it in the sun, and use it.

The Expanded Meanings says: The various explanations of Manjing and vitex are confused and contradictory. Since it is called “Manjing,” it must obviously be a trailing plant rather than a tall tree. Vitex, by contrast, grows as a tree. Moreover, the Treatise on the Suburban Sacrifices in the Book of Han says that the stem of vitex was used to make a flagpole. This shows that Manjing is its fruit—the original text breaks off here.

The large-stemmed plant is simply mujing. What is there to doubt? The “luanjing” listed separately later is actually mujing. Its seeds are green, like those of zhuyu. There is no need for the classic to give “luanjing” a separate entry, so the text says that the Ben Cao does not record it as an alternative name. The uses of “luanhua,” however, are different, so it really is a different plant. The commentary mistakenly calls it “shijing”; this is merely a far-fetched explanation handed down through tradition.

Xinyi

Xinyi tastes pungent, is warm in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats cold and heat affecting the five zang organs and the body, as well as headaches, pain in the brain, and facial blemishes caused by wind pathogens. It warms the middle burner and relieves discomfort at the body’s surface, allowing the nine orifices to function freely. It treats nasal congestion and runny nose, as well as facial swelling, pain extending to the teeth, dizziness, and the sensation of swaying as though riding in a cart or boat. It can also restore the growth of beard and hair and eliminate white worms. Long-term use is said to promote the smooth flow of Qi, make the body light and strong, brighten the eyes, and prolong life while slowing aging. Xinyi can also be made into a medicinal plaster. Before use, remove the flower’s center and outer fuzz, since the fuzz can irritate the lungs and cause coughing.

Xinyi is also known as xinyin, houtao, and fangmu. It grows in the mountain valleys around Hanzhong. Gather the fruit in the ninth month and dry it in the sun. Xiongqiong can assist xinyi in its medicinal effects. Xinyi is incompatible with wushizhi, and is counteracted by changpu, puhuang, huanglian, shigao, and huanghuan. Here, “assistant,” “incompatible,” and “counteracted” are traditional terms for the relationships between ingredients in herbal prescriptions.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: Xinyi grows around Hanzhong and is now found in many places; it is also commonly planted in courtyards. The tree grows several zhang tall. Its leaves resemble persimmon leaves but are longer. It flowers in the first and second months. The flowers resemble small, downy peaches; they are whitish, with purple bases. After the flowers fall, the tree bears no fruit, and it flowers again in summer. When the buds first emerge, they look like writing brushes, so people in the north call them “wood-pen flowers.”

There is another kind of xinyi with similar branches and leaves that flowers only once a year. When its flowers fall in the fourth month, it bears fruit resembling that of the xiangsi plant. Some say this is actually the same tree, and that only trees aged ten or twenty years bear fruit. The timing of flowering also varies with the warmer or colder climates of the north and south. Xinyi fruit is gathered in the ninth month, dried in the sun, and used medicinally. Some consider tightly closed, unopened buds the best; open flowers are inferior, and faded flowers are unsuitable.

The Treatise on Medicinal Properties says: As an assistant ingredient, xinyi treats facial blemishes and blisters. Making a facial cream from fresh xinyi gives the complexion a radiant glow.

The Daily Materia Medica says: Xinyi promotes the circulation of the channels, brightens the eyes, and treats headaches, aversion to cold, bodily stiffness, and itching. Before medicinal use, lightly roast it. Open flowers are inferior, and faded flowers are unsuitable.

Lei Gong says: To prepare xinyi, first remove the coarse bark, then wipe away the red parts and the fuzz. Soak it overnight in water from the banana plant. Take it out and boil it in rice-washing water, beginning at the hour of the Snake...

Before processing, dry it over low heat, then use it. For treating eye diseases, remove the skin when preparing it and take the plump part inside.

Parasite (Mulberry Mistletoe)

Mulberry mistletoe tastes bitter and sweet, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It mainly treats lower back pain, stiffness in children’s backs, and abscesses and swellings. It can calm the fetus, nourish the skin, strengthen the hair and teeth, and promote the growth of the beard and eyebrows. It may also be used for wounds caused by knives and swords, impediment disorders marked by numbness, pain, or difficulty moving the limbs, uterine bleeding in women, internal injury and weakness, and lingering ailments after childbirth. It also promotes lactation. Its fruit can improve eyesight, make the body feel light, and open the spirit. It is also called Jixie, Yumu, Wantong, and Niao (pronounced “niao”).

Mulberry mistletoe grows in the mountain valleys around Hongnong, parasitic on mulberry trees. Harvest its stems and leaves on the third day of the third lunar month, then dry them in the shade.

The Illustrated Classic says: Mulberry mistletoe grows in the mountain valleys of Hongnong, though it is now found in many places. According to tradition, a black bird eats the seeds of a plant, and the seeds fall between the joints of a tree’s branches, where they grow by absorbing the tree’s Qi. Its leaves resemble those of the orange tree, but are thicker and softer. Its stems resemble the branches of the scholar tree, but are stouter and more brittle. It flowers yellow and white in the third or fourth lunar month, and bears yellow fruit in the sixth or seventh month, about the size of a small bean. Harvest the stems and leaves on the third day of the third lunar month and dry them in the shade.

Parasites also grow on oak, zelkova, willow, water willow, and maple trees, but only those growing on mulberry trees are suitable for medicinal use. Yet mulberry mistletoe is difficult to identify. Physicians generally dare not use it unless they have gathered it themselves. Some say it can be identified by breaking the stem: only specimens with a deep yellow break and thick, sticky fluid inside the fruit are genuine mulberry mistletoe.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals says: Mulberry mistletoe is an assistant medicinal. It can secure the fetus and treats bleeding that persists during pregnancy.

The Daily Chinese Materia Medica says: It strengthens the sinews and bones and enriches the blood and vessels. Gatherers often find it growing on zelkova trees and call it mulberry mistletoe, though specimens actually growing on mulberry trees are rare. Even when found, they differ in shape from those growing on zelkova. The kind growing on maple trees resembles the zelkova variety and is yellow. Harvest it in the seventh lunar month.

Lei Gong says: Only a solitary branch that grows naturally on a tree is mulberry mistletoe. After gathering it, use a bronze knife to finely chop the root, branches, and stems together. Dry it in the shade for later use, and do not expose it to fire.

The Extended Meaning says: Both old and recent books state that mulberry mistletoe is found everywhere. I have served as an official in both the north and the south, yet in practice I found it difficult to gather anywhere. Is it hard to grow because people pick it year after year and trample it, or because the soil and water differ from place to place? If, as tradition has it, a black bird eats the seeds and they fall between the joints of branches, where they grow by absorbing the tree’s Qi, then wheat, too, should grow wheat…

Grain plants should naturally grow as grain plants; they do not produce only this one thing. There is another kind of mulberry mistletoe that grows on soft, slender branches. How could its fruit fall between the joints of those branches? From this we can tell that it is produced through a natural response to the Qi of creation and transformation, and is in fact a different kind of plant. The ancients gathered only the mistletoe growing on mulberry trees because it had taken on the mulberry tree’s nature and Qi.

Some people also say that physicians today rarely use this medicine. This is a serious misunderstanding. Physicians do use it; they simply find it difficult to locate genuine mistletoe growing on mulberry trees. If the authentic medicine can be obtained, taking it is sure to bring results as wondrous as a spirit’s work.

When I was once serving temporarily in a post at Mount Wu, someone came seeking medicine from various places. I had people search everywhere and gather what they could, but in the end we still could not find it. I explained the situation truthfully, and the person was very displeased. I would not dare deceive anyone by giving them a false medicine. In a neighboring county, someone passed off mistletoe growing on another kind of tree as mulberry mistletoe. A person took it for a little over a month and then died. It was truly tragic.

Eucommia Bark

Eucommia bark tastes acrid and sweet. Its nature is neutral and slightly warm, and it is non-toxic. It primarily treats pain in the lower back and spine, replenishes the body’s central Qi, increases Jing (essence), strengthens the sinews and bones, and fortifies the will. It can also treat itching and damp irritation of the genital area, dribbling urination, and soreness in the feet that makes it impossible to bear weight and walk. Taken over a long period, it can make the body light and agile and delay aging. It is also called “Thought of the Immortals,” “Thought of Zhong,” and “Cottonwood.” It grows in the valleys of Shangyu and around Shangdang and Hanzhong. The bark is gathered in the second, fifth, and sixth months. It is incompatible with snake slough and Scrophularia.

The Illustrated Classic says: Eucommia grows in the valleys of Shangyu, Shangdang, and Hanzhong. Today it is also found in the great mountains around Shangzhou, Chengzhou, and Xiazhou. The tree grows several zhang tall. Its leaves resemble those of magnolia, and in some ways those of the paper mulberry; its bark resembles magnolia bark. When the bark is broken, white, threadlike strands connect its inner layers. The bark is gathered in the second, fifth, sixth, and ninth months for use as medicine. People south of the Yangtze call it “mian.” When the tender leaves first appear, they can be picked and eaten. It is said to treat wind toxin, beriberi, long-standing wind and cold, and bleeding from intestinal hemorrhoids. It can also be dried, ground into powder, and taken in a decoction.

The Treatise on Medicinal Properties says: Eucommia tastes bitter and can treat kidney cold, lower back pain, and wind disorders in which the body is weak yet stiff and rigid. When movement in the lower back is impaired, Eucommia can be added.

Rihuazi says: Eucommia is warm in nature and can treat kidney strain and stiffness and cramping in the lower back and spine. It should be toasted before being used as medicine.

Lei Gong says: To prepare Eucommia, first scrape away the coarse outer bark. Then mix it with ghee and honey and toast it until thoroughly done. Once toasted and dry, slice it finely for use. For every pound of Eucommia, use two ounces of ghee and three ounces of honey, mixing them together before coating the bark.

The Shenghui Formulary records that for sudden pain in the lower back and legs, Du Zhong can be used to tonify the kidneys. Take one liang of Du Zhong, scrape away the coarse outer bark, roast it until slightly yellow, then chop it finely. Add two large bowls of water and simmer until reduced to one bowl, then strain out the herbs. Cut a pair of sheep’s kidneys into small pieces, removing the fat and membranes, and cook them in the herbal liquid. Add seven stalks of Chinese chives, along with salt, Sichuan pepper, ginger, vinegar, and other seasonings. Cook into a soup and eat on an empty stomach.

The Shengjin Formulary records that Du Zhong pills are suitable for women with an unsettled pregnancy and for various ailments after childbirth. Dry Du Zhong by roasting it on a tile, then pound it into a fine powder in a wooden mortar. Use the flesh of cooked dates to form pills about the size of a marble. Take one pill at a time, chewing it thoroughly and swallowing it with glutinous rice water.

Liquidambar Resin

Liquidambar resin tastes pungent and bitter, has a neutral nature, and is non-toxic. It treats wind rash, itchy skin, swelling, and toothache, and is also known as “white glue incense.” Liquidambar bark tastes pungent and is mildly toxic. It treats edema and may be taken as a decoction. Liquidambar trees are common in the great mountains.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says that the old editions do not specify which prefectures produce liquidambar resin, only that it is found in the great mountains throughout the land. Today it is plentiful in the south and in the Guanzhong and Shaanxi regions. The liquidambar tree resembles the white poplar and grows tall. Its leaves are nearly round, with three-pointed lobes, and are fragrant. It flowers in the second month; afterward, it bears fruits that grow together in clusters about the size of a duck’s egg. They ripen in the eighth or ninth month and can be burned once dried in the sun.

The Plants and Trees of the Southern Regions says that liquidambar fruits come only from the area around Jiuzhen. They are rare and highly effective in treating illness. The tree’s resin is white glue incense. In the fifth month, a notch is cut into the tree, and the resin is collected in the eleventh month. Liquidambar bark is astringent and can stop watery diarrhea; it is taken as a decoction.

Ren Fang’s Record of Strange Things says that in the south, people tell of old liquidambar trees transforming into humanlike shapes, called “maple-tree ghosts” or “numinous maples.” In fact, these are knots on the trees. Even today, shamans in the Yue region sometimes obtain such knots and carve them into images of ghosts and spirits, which are said to manifest supernatural powers. The entry on “agarwood” also records that liquidambar resin treats wind rash and itching, as described here, and likely refers to the same substance.

Chen Cangqi says that, in addition to the uses mentioned above, liquidambar bark is astringent and can stop watery diarrhea. Su Jing believed it could reduce edema. Chen Cangqi objected that edema cannot be treated with astringent medicines, so Su Jing was mistaken. He also pointed out that Su Jing called the bark toxic, which further shows that his account was unreliable. A decoction of liquidambar bark is most effective for stopping diarrhea.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says that liquidambar bark can treat cholera, piercing wind, and cold wind, and can be decocted for use in a medicinal bath.

The Yan Yi says that liquidambar resin is easily confused with pine resin and mistaken for frankincense, so the two should be carefully distinguished.

“Bie fengxiang” is pale yellowish white, and it is easy to tell whether it is genuine when burned. It can also treat rashes and itching caused by pathogenic wind. Boil it in water, then use the hot water to wash the affected area.

Privet fruit tastes bitter with a slight sweetness. It is neutral in nature and non-toxic. It is chiefly used to replenish the body’s central Qi, stabilize the five internal organs, nourish the spirit, and dispel many kinds of illness. Taken over a long period, it can make the body strong and the limbs feel light. Privet fruit grows in the valleys around Wuling and is gathered at the beginning of winter.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: “Privet fruit grows in the valleys of the Wuling Mountains, and is now found throughout the regions. The Classic of Mountains and Seas says that Mount Tai has many ‘zhen trees’; this refers to this species.” Privet leaves resemble those of holly and Chinese holly. Its branches and leaves are abundant, and remain green through winter. The fruits are small and bluish white, ripen in the ninth month, and resemble bullace plums. They are picked at the beginning of winter and dried in the sun. The bark can be steeped in wine. Some identify privet as the Chinese holly of today. Chinese holly wood has a white grain like the markings in ivory, and Daoists use it to make bamboo-strip books. Privet fruit can also be steeped in wine and is said to dispel wind and nourish the blood.

Magnolia bark tastes bitter, is cold in nature, and is non-toxic. It is chiefly used for fever, especially when pathogenic heat has lodged in the skin. It can be used for facial heat, redness, and blisters; alcohol-related rosacea, with redness and papules on the nose; aversion to wind; sores and boils; and itching and dampness in the genital area. It can also sharpen hearing and vision, treat windstroke, cold damage, carbuncles and abscesses, and edema, and dispel foul odors. Magnolia is also called linlan and dulan. Its bark resembles cinnamon bark and is fragrant. Magnolia grows in the valleys around Lingling and Mount Tai. The bark is gathered in the twelfth month and dried in the shade.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: “Magnolia grows around Lingling and Mount Tai, and is now also found in regions such as Huguang and Shu. The tree reaches several zhang in height. Its leaves resemble those of juniper cinnamon and have three lengthwise veins. The bark resembles slab cinnamon bark, with lengthwise and crosswise markings; its fragrance and taste are inferior to cinnamon. Magnolia is entirely different from cinnamon twigs. However, the magnolia produced in Shaozhou is said to be the same tree as cinnamon: the outer bark is called magnolia, and the inner layer cinnamon heartwood. It is therefore simply a variety of cinnamon tree. Magnolia bark is gathered in the eleventh or twelfth month and dried in the shade for later use.”

Ren Fang’s Records of the Strange recounts that magnolia boats were found on the Xunyang River, and that on Qili Islet there was also a magnolia boat carved by Lu Ban, which still stood on the islet. The “magnolia boat” mentioned in poetry is said to come from this story. Tao Hongjing says that magnolia grows throughout Lingling and other places. Its form resembles the nanmu tree, and its bark is thin, pungent, and fragrant. Today, the magnolia bark produced in Yizhou is thicker and resembles magnolia bark, but has a finer aroma. People in the east all use mountain cinnamon bark in place of magnolia bark.

It is also very suitable for use in making Daoist incense blends.

The Waitai Miyao Fang records a treatment for facial acne, freckles, and dark spots: take one jin of magnolia bark, chop it up, and soak it in vinegar whey aged for three years. Beginning at sunrise, leave it in the sun until dry, then pound it into powder. Take it with rice-washing water, one small spoonful per dose, three times a day.

The Zimu Milu Fang records a treatment for a child’s swollen, double tongue: take a piece of magnolia bark one chi long and four cun wide, scrape off the rough outer bark, and soak it in one sheng of vinegar. Apply drops of the liquid extracted by soaking to the swollen tongue.

The seed kernel of the ruirui tree is sweet in taste and warm, though slightly cold, in nature; it is non-toxic. It is used to treat the accumulation of pathogenic influences in the chest and abdomen, dim vision, red and painful eyes, tearing, eye swelling, and ulceration of the eyelids. It can also be used for nasal congestion, sores inside the nose, and phlegm lodged below the heart, causing fullness and discomfort. Long-term use is said to make the body feel light and strong, increase vital energy, and lessen susceptibility to hunger. Ruirui grows in the valleys around Hangu and in Ba County.

The Tujing says: Ruirui grows in the valleys around Hangu and in Ba County, and is now also found east of the Yellow River. The tree is five to seven chi tall, with thorns between its branches. Its leaves are small, like goji leaves but more pointed and elongated. The flowers are white, and the reddish-purple fruits grow on the branches, resembling schisandra berries. The fruits ripen in the sixth month; harvest them in the fifth or sixth month, remove the kernels and shells, and dry them in the shade.

The Liu Yuxi Chuanxin Fang records an eye medicine said to be highly effective for symptoms including tearing in the wind, itchy eyes, corneal film, redness, and ulceration of the eyelids: take powdered and sifted Huanglian from Xuanzhou; remove the skin from the ruirui kernels and grind them into a paste. Ruirui is rather moist in nature, so it should not be ground into powder on its own. Mix equal amounts of the two medicines. Then take three dried dates without wormholes, cut off and set aside a small piece from the top of each, remove the pits, and fill the dates with the medicines. Cover them with the pieces cut from the tops and wrap them in a little cotton, using as thin a layer as possible. Place half a bowl of water in a silver vessel and alternate between low and high heat as it boils. Continue until the liquid is reduced to about the volume of an egg, then strain it through cotton and let it cool before applying it to the eyes. The original text says this method was repeatedly effective, with dozens of people benefiting from it, and so includes it here. Many physicians of the time also used this prescription.

Tao Hongjing says: Ruirui now brought from the north comes from the area around Pengcheng. Its seeds are about the size of black beans, round and flat with ridges, and shaped like walnut kernels. When preparing medicines, people nowadays often weigh them with the shells still on. Here, however, the instruction must mean to remove the shells first and weigh the kernels inside. Medical prescriptions use it only in eye medicines; the Xianjing uses it to make the He Shouzhong Pill.

Lei Gong says: Whenever ruirui is used, first soak it in hot water, remove the outer skin and tip, then split it in half before use.

Take two bundles each of mirabilite and Akebia stem, and boil them in water with Renrui kernels (a medicinal ingredient) for a full day and night. Then strain out the herbs, remove the Renrui kernels, and grind them into a paste. Adjust the amount as needed.

When combining the ingredients, use one liang of mirabilite and seven liang of Akebia stem for every four liang of processed Renrui kernels.

Cloves (the medicinal herb)

Cloves taste pungent and are warm in nature, with no toxicity. They are used to treat deficiency-cold in the Spleen and Stomach, cholera, distension and fullness in the chest and abdomen, wind toxins, various swellings and pains, and disorders of the teeth and infantile malnutrition. They also help release the fragrance of other aromatics. The root of the clove plant can treat swellings caused by wind-heat toxins. Cloves grow in Jiaozhou, Guangzhou, and other southern regions, and are harvested in the second and eighth months.

The Illustrated Pharmacopoeia says: Cloves grow in Jiaozhou, Guangzhou, and other southern regions, though today they are produced only in Guangzhou. The plant resembles a cassia tree and grows more than one zhang tall. Its leaves resemble those of the oak and do not fall in winter. Its flowers are small, round, and yellow. The fruit grows from the flower buds at the tips of the branches, resembles a nail, measures three or four fen in length, and is purple. Some fruits are coarser and resemble dogwood fruit; these are also called “mother cloves.” The fruits and roots are gathered in the second and eighth months. Another account says that cloves bloom in the depths of winter and that the fruit is harvested the following spring.

The Treatise on the Nature of Medicines says: As a minister ingredient, cloves can treat abdominal pain caused by cold.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says: Cloves can treat bad breath, reflux, ghost zhu (a category of illness that the ancients attributed to contagion or malevolent spirits), and gu toxins. They can also treat Kidney Qi surging upward, running-piglet Qi (the sensation of Qi rushing upward from the lower abdomen), and pain in the genital region. They strengthen yang, warm the lower back and knees, treat cold, counteract alcohol toxicity, disperse xianpi (a category of illness involving abdominal masses), and treat deficiency taxation caused by cold.

Lei Gong says: There are two kinds of cloves, male and female. Male cloves are small; female cloves are large, like date pits held in the hand. Prescriptions mostly use female cloves, which are stronger; male cloves are used when making medicinal pastes. Before using male cloves, remove the “nail cap” at the tip, or they may cause an abscess on the back.

The Brief and Essential Prescriptions for Saving the People records: To treat coughing after an external febrile illness, persistent hiccups, or unpredictable retching, take one liang of cloves and one liang of roasted persimmon calyxes. Pound them and sift into a fine powder. Take one qian at a time, decocted in ginseng soup.

The Qianjin Prescriptions records: To treat dry cholera (the urge to vomit without being able to, or to have diarrhea without being able to), grind fourteen cloves into powder, mix with one sheng of hot water, and drink in a single dose.

The Expanded Meaning says: The cloves said by the Rihuazi Materia Medica to treat bad breath are precisely the aromatic substance that ancient censors held in their mouths. Cloves can treat Stomach cold and disharmony caused by cold in the Spleen and Stomach. The larger cloves are called mother cloves and have a particularly good flavor. Grind them into powder, place it in a sewn gauze pouch about the size of the little finger, and insert it into the vagina. This is said to treat coldness in the genital region; stop using it once the condition has healed.

Agarwood

Agarwood is mildly warm in nature. It can treat swellings caused by wind-water toxins and dispel foul, noxious odors.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica with Explanatory Notes says that agarwood, green cassia incense, chicken-bone incense, horse-hoof incense, and boiled incense are all aromatic products of the same tree. The old books do not say in which provinces and districts the tree grows. Today, it is produced only on the islands of Hainan, in foreign lands overseas, and around Jiaozhou, Guangzhou, and Yazhou.

The tree resembles the Chinese toon and the zelkova, with many knots in its branches and trunk. Its leaves resemble those of the orange tree; its flowers are white, and its fruit resembles a betel nut, though it is about the size of a mulberry. The fruit is purple and tastes pungent. People in Jiaozhou call the tree “honey incense.” To obtain the aromatic wood, they first cut down old trees that have grown for many years. Over time, the outer bark and wood decay, while the heartwood and the sound parts of the branches and knots remain; these are the aromatic material.

The firm, undecayed twigs are called green cassia. The hard, black wood that sinks in water is called agarwood. Material that is partly submerged and partly afloat, resting near the water’s surface, is called chicken-bone incense. The coarsest material is called boiled incense. Another account says that pieces of agarwood shaped like chicken bones are called chicken-bone incense, while those shaped like a horse’s hoof are called horse-hoof incense. Yet fine agarwood today is often found in a chicken-bone shape, so that shape is not exclusive to boiled incense. Still coarser material, unfit for medicinal use, is called raw-formed yellow mature incense. In fact, all these are the same aromatic wood, differing only in quality. There is no fixed season for gathering it.

It also says that frankincense, a resinous aromatic, forms white lumps like glue and comes from the two countries of Tianzhu and Shanyu. The Treatise on the Plants and Trees of the South records that it resembles frankincense and comes from the Great Qin kingdom. The tree grows on sandy ground by the sea. In midsummer, its resin flows onto the sand, where people from foreign lands collect it and sell it to merchants. Mastic resin belongs to the same category.

The Extensive Gazetteer says that among the pine resins of southern Persia, one kind is purplish red and resembles a cherry. It is called mastic and probably belongs to the same category as frankincense. Today, people no longer distinguish frankincense as a separate kind, and commonly call mastic frankincense as well. Mastic is used to treat deficiency of Kidney Qi, weakness of the lower back and knees, vomiting and diarrhea caused by cholera, foul vapors surging upward, attacks by malign influences, and the “five zhu” (a group of contagious or uncanny illnesses described in ancient sources). It is also used to invigorate the blood and relieve pain, and is often added to medicines and ointments. Mastic is very sticky and difficult to grind. Before using it, place it in a silk pouch and hang it in a gap in the window for a while; then it will be less sticky when ground.

It also says that clove grows in Kunlun and south of Jiaozhou. Its branches, leaves, and bark all resemble those of the chestnut tree; its flowers resemble plum blossoms, and its fruit resembles a date pit. This is the female tree. The male tree flowers but bears no fruit. People gather its flowers and make them into incense. Physicians today offer another account. The Records of the Three Departments says that Court Gentlemen of the Secretariat would hold clove in their mouths in order to…

When rulers present reports and respond, they wish their breath to be fragrant. That is why physicians use clove to treat bad breath; the principle is the same.

Suhexiang grows in the valleys of Zhongtai. Su Gong says it was brought from the Western Regions and the Kunlun area. It is purple in color, resembling genuine red sandalwood, with a firm texture and a very strong fragrance. When burned, the better kind leaves pale gray ash. This kind of Suhexiang can no longer be found today. Although some is produced in Guangnan, it looks like sappanwood and has no fragrance. For medicinal use, only the resinous, oily form of Suhexiang is used; its fragrance is intense. Tao Hongjing believed Suhexiang was lion dung, and he was referring to this same resinous substance. However, the palace now also keeps lion dung, which smells extremely foul and can be burned to ward off evil influences. This shows that it is not Suhexiang. The Book of Liang records that Suhexiang is produced in India and made by simmering the juices of various aromatic substances; it is not a naturally occurring material.

There is also sandalwood, whose form resembles that of the tan tree and which grows in the South Seas. It disperses wind-heat and swelling toxins, treats pain in the chest and abdomen, cholera, and illnesses attributed to malign influences or ghostly Qi, and can also kill parasites. People cultivate different varieties, including yellow, white, and purple sandalwood. Sandalwood is widely used today. Genuine red sandalwood was formerly classified as an inferior grade and can also treat wind toxins. Su Gong says red sandalwood grows in the Kunlun region and the kingdom of Panpan. Although it does not grow in the Central Plains, it is found everywhere among the common people. Tan trees also grow in the mountains of Jianghuai and north of the Yellow River. The wood people use to make axe handles belongs to the same family, but it has no fragrance.

Tao Hongjing says sandalwood is commonly used in making blended incense, but not in ordinary medicines. It is used only to treat malignant nodules and toxic swellings; it also has some uses in Daoist arts and methods.

Ri Huazi says agarwood is pungent, hot in nature, and non-toxic. It regulates Qi, strengthens the Five Viscera, replenishes Jing and Yang, and warms the lower back and knees. It also dispels malign influences and eases muscle spasms, vomiting and diarrhea, cold Qi, abdominal masses and lumps, cold-induced wind paralysis, weakness in the joints, itchy skin caused by damp wind, pain in the chest and abdomen, and Qi dysentery.

Lei Gong says to choose agarwood that is free of decay. The best kind is shaped like a mouth or an animal’s horn, has a hard, heavy texture, and sinks to the bottom when placed in water. The next grade is partly submerged and partly afloat. When adding agarwood to pills or powders, wait until the other ingredients have all been processed, then add it and mix well.

The Yan Yi says agarwood trees grow throughout the commanderies of Lingnan, especially in coastal prefectures and counties. Their branches intertwine, and mountain ranges stretch without interruption for a thousand miles. The leaves resemble those of holly, and the largest trees take several people to encircle. The wood is loose and soft, and the mountain people sometimes…

People use agarwood to build thatched huts and bridges. Agarwood most often forms inside broken branches or dead trunks. Some agarwood sinks in water; some can be boiled. Fragrant wood formed after a tree dies naturally is called “water-tray incense.”

Today, only the prefectures of Nan’en, Gaodou, and others produce agarwood formed in living trees. When mountain people find a fragrant tree with a crooked trunk or slanting branches, they cut into it with a knife. After years of rain soak into the wounds, fragrant resin forms there. They saw it off and scrape away the white wood. Resin that forms in spots is called “partridge spots”; when burned, it gives off a clean fragrance. The best water-sinking agarwood comes from the area around Qiongzhou and Yazhou. Locals call agarwood taken from dead trees “horn agarwood” or “yellow agarwood”; it is suited for medicinal use.

Resin that hardens along the bark is called “green cassia” and has a stronger fragrance. Agarwood that forms naturally after lying buried in soil for many years, without being scraped, is called “dragon scales.” Another kind curls by itself after being cut and feels pliant when chewed. It is called “yellow wax agarwood” and is especially rare.

However, the classical texts say only that agarwood can treat wind-dampness toxin swelling and dispel foul Qi; they mention no further effects. Physicians today regard it as a superior medicinal ingredient for harmonizing and nourishing Defensive Qi, and consider the finer it is ground, the better. It is now often ground together with lindera root and taken to disperse stagnant Qi. Used alone, its medicinal action is weak. Combined with other medicines, its effects emerge gradually; it is considered beneficial and harmless. Other medicines, however, cannot be combined with it indiscriminately.

The leaves of frankincense trees resemble those of the wild pear. The trees grow in the country of Atali, around southern India. Today it is called “western incense,” and the kind produced overseas in the south is better. This is the frankincense known today: the resin drips like milk and hardens into lumps when it falls to the ground. Those lumps are called “fallen incense,” but they are all the same kind of incense.

Frankincense is slightly warm in nature. It can treat wind-dampness toxin swelling, dispel foul Qi, and treat “ambush corpses,” a disease category named in ancient medical texts.

The Illustrated Classic says: For related information, see the entry on agarwood.

The Tang Materia Medica says: Frankincense is slightly warm in nature. It dispels foul Qi and treats malignant sores. It comes from Tianzhu and Handan. It resembles pine resin and is yellowish white. The kind from Tianzhu is mostly white; that from Handan has a greenish tinge and is not very fragrant.

The Mei Master’s Formula records: When toothworms cause unbearable pain, chew frankincense and swallow the juice; the pain will stop at once.

Clove is slightly warm in nature. It can treat wind-dampness toxin swelling, dispel foul Qi, and also treat cholera and heart pain.

The Illustrated Classic says: For related information, see the entry on agarwood.

Yuxi says: According to the Treatise on the Nature of Medicines, clove tastes pungent and is non-toxic.

In prescriptions such as nasal powders, it can treat infantile malnutrition affecting the brain. Added to various spices, it can also make a person smell fragrant.

The Essential Techniques for the People’s Welfare says that common people call it “clove,” because its shape resembles a nail.

The Baopuzi says that chicken-tongue fragrance, decocted with coptis root and milk, can treat eye diseases. Ying Shao records that, in the Han dynasty, an elderly attendant to the emperor suffered from bad breath, so the emperor gave him chicken-tongue fragrance to hold in his mouth.

The Waitai Secret Essentials records a remedy for tooth decay: boil chicken-tongue fragrance, take the resulting liquid, and hold it in the mouth; this will bring a cure.

Sandalwood is hot in nature and non-toxic. It can treat heart pain, cholera, kidney Qi disorders, and abdominal pain. The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says that related information can be found under agarwood. Tao Hongjing says that white sandalwood can reduce hot swellings. Yuxi quotes Chen Cangqi as saying that sandalwood can treat cholera affecting the heart and abdomen, sudden illness caused by malign influences, and disorders attributed to ghostly Qi; it can also kill parasites. The white sandalwood tree resembles the sandalwood tree and grows in Hainan. The Rihuazi Materia Medica says that sandalwood is hot in nature and non-toxic, and can treat heart pain, cholera, kidney Qi disorders, and abdominal pain. It may be taken as a strong decoction, or ground with water into a juice and applied to the external genitalia or to areas of pain in the lower back and kidneys.

Frankincense is slightly warm in nature. It can treat toxic swellings caused by wind and water, dispel harmful influences, and also treat wind rashes, itching, and toxic sores. The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says that related information can be found under agarwood. Chen Cangqi says that frankincense probably belongs to the category of olibanum. It is warm in nature and can treat deafness, lockjaw caused by windstroke, and women’s blood and Qi disorders. It can harmonize the effects of wine, treat disorders caused by wind and cold, stop diarrhea of the large intestine, and treat various sores and boils, dispersing them from within.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says that frankincense is pungent in taste, hot in nature, and slightly toxic. It can move Qi downward, benefit Jing, and strengthen the lower back and knees. It can treat kidney Qi disorders, cholera, sudden illness caused by malign influences, invasion by harmful Qi, pain in the heart and abdomen, and disorders attributed to Qi taking up residence in the body. Made into a paste by boiling, it can relieve pain and promote the growth of new flesh. When added to pills or powders, it should be lightly stir-fried to reduce its toxicity and prevent it from sticking together.

The Boji Formulary records this remedy for a fetus that has died in the womb: mix yellow, clear frankincense with pig’s heart blood collected at noon on the Dragon Boat Festival or on New Year’s Eve. Grind the mixture and form pills the size of a chicken’s head, then place them in a red silk pouch and hang it above the door. If the patient feels cold, grind one pill in cold wine and take it. Another formula treats acute or chronic convulsions: grind half an ounce each of frankincense and kansui finely. Take half a qian at a time, mixed with frankincense decoction; it may also be taken mixed with urine.

The Lingyuan Formulary records a treatment for paronychia, a condition involving redness, swelling, and pus around the nail, and for excessive granulation tissue growing beneath the nail. If there is pus, bleeding, and pain, and the condition has resisted treatment for a long time, the nail embedded in the flesh usually has to be cut away; even without treatment, the condition may heal. If a sore has formed and remains unhealed, apply equal amounts of powdered frankincense and powdered chalcanthite that has been burned. Once the excessive flesh has receded, the condition will heal.

Agarwood, a fragrance commonly used in Daoist rituals, grows in southern Guizhou. When it is burned mixed with other aromatics, its smoke rises straight into the sky. Legend has it that this can summon immortal cranes, which circle above the smoke.

The Haiyao records that, according to Xu Biao’s Nanzhou Ji, it grows in the mountains of the South Sea. Another account says it comes from Daqin, the ancient name for the Roman Empire and neighboring regions. It is warm in flavor and neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It is used to treat epidemics and to protect a home or deal with strange occurrences in a house. Burning it is said to be effective in all these cases.

The Xianchuan also records that burning this incense can sometimes bring immortal cranes down from the sky. Agarwood is especially suitable for burning during a jiao ritual, a Daoist sacrificial ceremony, or when making offerings to the stars. Burning it during a ceremony for transmitting and receiving Fulu (talismans and registers) is also said to be highly effective. When worn by children, it can ward off evil influences.

Suhexiang has a sweet flavor, is warm in nature, and is non-toxic. It is used to ward off evil and drive away ghosts, and to treat hauntings by spirits and strange beings, tertian malaria, poison from Gu, epilepsy, and convulsions. It can also expel parasites from the body, dispel malign influences, and prevent nightmares. Taken over a long period, it is said to open communication with the spirits, make the body light and agile, and prolong life. It grows in the mountain valleys of Zhongtai.

The Tujing says: For details, see the entry on “Agarwood.”

Tao Hongjing says: Popular lore holds that Suhexiang is lion dung, but foreigners say otherwise. Today, Suhexiang is imported from the Western Regions, and it is difficult to tell the genuine article from imitations. For this reason, it is no longer used as medicine, but only to make fine incense.

A note in the Tang Bencao says: This incense comes from the Western Regions and the Kunlun area. It is purplish red, resembling purple sandalwood; hard in texture, it has a very strong fragrance and is as heavy as stone. The best kind leaves white ash when burned. The claim that it is lion dung is a falsehood spread by the Hu people. Tao Hongjing did not understand this, and so continued to doubt the matter.

Yuxi says: According to the Liang Shu, Suhexiang is produced in the kingdom of Central India. What is called Suhexiang is made by boiling down the juices of various aromatics; it is not a single substance that grows naturally.

Chen Cangqi says: Lion dung is reddish black, and when burned it can drive away ghostly influences. Taken internally, it is said to dissolve accumulated blood stasis and kill parasites. Suhexiang is yellowish white. The two resemble each other, but are not the same thing. Some say that what is called lion dung is actually a substance made in the Western Kingdoms from the juices of plants and tree bark. People from the Hu regions brought it here and gave it that name to increase its value.

Huoxiang

Huoxiang, a fragrant medicinal herb, is slightly warm in nature. It treats swelling and sores caused by wind pathogens and dampness, dispels foul and harmful influences, and treats cholera and heart pain.

The Tujing says: Huoxiang was formerly listed under “Five Aromatics,” without any indication of where it came from. Today it grows widely in the prefectures of Lingnan, and people often cultivate it in their gardens. Young shoots appear in the second month. The stems and branches grow densely in clumps; the leaves resemble mulberry leaves, but are smaller and thinner. It is gathered in the sixth and seventh months. Once dried in the sun, it gives off a fragrance. It should be stored only after its color has turned yellow.

The Jin Louzi and a letter by Yu Yiqi both say that people of the Funan kingdom, an ancient Southeast Asian state, say that the many…

All incense comes from a single tree: its root is sandalwood, its knots are aloeswood, its flowers are clove, its leaves are patchouli, and its resin is frankincense. The Bencao Jing lists these alongside medicines such as agarwood under a single entry; this is probably the basis for that classification. However, the patchouli grown in the south is actually a herb. The Nanfang Caomu Zhuang says that patchouli grows in clumps and is cultivated by ordinary people, which accords with what is seen in practice. Fan Ye’s “Formula for Blending Incense” says that Lingling incense and patchouli are soft and dry in texture; in ancient times, people mixed them into incense for fumigation. The Bencao Jing records patchouli as a treatment for cholera and heart pain, so modern medical prescriptions often use it to treat disharmony of the Spleen and Stomach and vomiting.

Yuxi says: According to the Nanzhou Yiwuzhi, patchouli grows in countries by the sea. It looks like Duliang incense and can be placed among one’s clothes.

The Nanfang Caomu Zhuang says that patchouli has a pungent taste and grows in clumps; ordinary people cultivate it themselves. It is gathered in the fifth and sixth months and, when dried in the sun, has a strong fragrance. It grows in Jiaozhi, Jiuxi, and other places.

The Bieshuo says: I carefully examined the Illustrated Guide to Patchouli. Patchouli sprouts in the second month. Although old books place it under the heading “Five Incenses,” a close look at its branches and stems makes clear that it is not a woody plant. It should probably be moved to the section on herbs.

Rosa laevigata Fruit

Rosa laevigata fruit tastes sour and astringent. Its nature is neutral and somewhat warm, and it is non-toxic. It treats diarrhea caused by Spleen deficiency and dysentery, reduces frequent urination, and secures Jing (essence). Long-term use enables a person to withstand cold and feel light in body. It is commonly used in the arts of the Dao. Rosa laevigata fruit is what is now called prickly pear. It resembles a small quince, has a pear-like shape, and is yellow and thorny, with white flowers. It grows in many regions.

The Illustrated Guide says: Older books do not record where Rosa laevigata fruit grows, only that it is found everywhere. Today it grows in the southern prefectures, with especially good quality in Jiangxi, Jiannan, and the regions beyond the southern mountain passes. It grows in clumps in the countryside and is thorny like a rose. It blooms with white flowers in the fourth month, then bears fruit in summer and autumn. The fruits are also thorny, reddish yellow, and shaped like small pomegranates. They are gathered in the eleventh and twelfth months. People in Jiangnan and Shu boil them into a paste and take it with wine, saying it has especially beneficial tonic and medicinal effects.

Yuxi says: According to the Shu Bencao, the fruit commonly used in the arts of the Dao is what is now called prickly pear; it resembles a small quince. Physicians today use it to good effect.

The Rihua Bencao says: The flower of Rosa laevigata is neutral in nature. It can stop cold and hot forms of dysentery and kill tapeworms, roundworms, and similar parasites. Grind it with iron powder and apply it to white hair to make it black again; it can also be used as a hair dye. It also says: The east-growing root of Rosa laevigata is neutral in nature and non-toxic, and can treat tapeworms…

Grate the white worms into pieces weighing two liang. Add thirty grains of glutinous rice and two sheng of water, then boil the mixture five times. Take it on an empty stomach. Before long, it will cause diarrhea and expel the contents of the body.

The Sun Zhenren’s Dietary Taboos says that when making a Chinese Cherokee rose fruit extract, the fruit should be picked after the first frost, using bamboo tongs. Place it in a wooden mortar and pound it while turning it, removing the thorns without crushing the fruit. Cut the fruit in half, remove the seeds, and rinse it clean with water. Pound it thoroughly, put it in a large pot, and boil it with water, keeping the fire going continuously. When the liquid has boiled down by half, remove it, let it settle, and filter it. Then continue boiling until it has the consistency of thin syrup. Take one spoonful at a time, mixed with a cup of warm wine. Its benefits are too numerous to describe.

Shen Cunzhong says that Chinese Cherokee rose fruit can stop involuntary seminal emission and loss of essence by virtue of its mild, astringent nature. People commonly wait until the fruit is red and ripe before extracting its juice and boiling it into a paste, but this is a serious mistake: once the fruit turns red and ripe, its medicinal properties have already diminished. It should be picked and used when it is half yellow; that is when it works best.

The Yanyi says that Chinese Cherokee rose fruit should be gathered when it ripens in the ninth or tenth month. If it is harvested at the wrong time, taking it may instead cause diarrhea.

Luoyan Wood

According to research, Xu Biao’s Record of the Southern Regions says that Luoyan wood grows in the hills and wilds of the South Sea. It is a vine with sharp, blade-like ridges on all four sides. A similar vine grows in Yanmen, Daizhou, where it can climb to a height of more than one zhang. Wild geese flying past become entangled in its tendrils, which is why it is called “Luoyan wood,” or “goose-falling wood.” Another account says that the geese carried its seeds in their beaks to Yanmen, Daizhou, where the seeds fell and took root, giving the plant its name.

Luoyan wood is also found in Yazhou, Shu. It is mild and gentle in nature, non-toxic, and used to treat wind pain, injuries from falls or blows, painful swelling from beriberi, abdominal distention, and deficiency-related bloating. It is said to work quickly when its juice is boiled with fen wood and used to soak and wash the affected area. It can also treat sores and blisters on women’s genitals; it works well when boiled with chun wood.

The Illustrated Classic says that Luoyan wood grows in Yazhou. It is sweet in flavor, neutral in nature, and non-toxic, and can treat postpartum pain caused by Qi and blood, injuries from falls or blows, and internal injuries. Its shoots are vines that twine around large trees. Its leaves are broadly similar in shape and color to tea leaves, and it bears neither flowers nor fruit. Local people gather the vine shoots in the fourth month for medicinal use.

Zhantang Fragrance

Zhantang fragrance is slightly warm in nature. It treats toxic swellings caused by wind pathogens or water accumulation, and can also dispel foul odors and the qi of lurking corpses, a name for pathogenic influences in ancient medical texts.

Tao Hongjing says that this fragrance is commonly used by people who blend incense. It can also be used as medicine, mainly to treat hard lumps and toxic swellings. Zhantang fragrance comes from Jin’an and Cen Prefecture, but pure material is difficult to obtain. What is sold in the market is often mixed with tree bark and insect droppings. Soft material is best. Other fragrances do not differ in authenticity; they vary only in quality.

Gao-lu leaves taste bitter and are neutral in nature. Brewed as a drink, they relieve thirst and dissolve phlegm. They can also clear the mind and ward off drowsiness, promote urination, and improve eyesight. The plant grows in the mountains around the South China Sea. Its leaves resemble tea leaves but are larger. Local people gather them to drink as tea and value them highly.

The Guangzhou Record says that Gao-lu grows in Xinping County, where it is also known by another name. Its leaves are large and astringent. The Nanyue Gazetteer also says that Gao-lu grows in Longchuan County. Its leaves resemble tea leaves and taste bitter and astringent; local people boil them to make a drink. Around the South China Sea it is called “Guoluo,” and some also call it “Wuluo.” These names are all in the languages of local ethnic groups.

The Marine Materia Medica records that, according to the Guangzhou Record, Gao-lu grows in Xinping County. It resembles the tea plant, but is broad and large, and is non-toxic. It relieves intense thirst and heat and oppression in the chest, dissolves phlegm, promotes the flow of the small intestine, and eases painful, difficult urination and headaches. Local people drink it in place of tea and value it highly, just as people in Shu value tea.

The undying tree tastes bitter and is warm in nature. It is non-toxic. It harmonizes the spleen and stomach, replenishes weakness, treats discomfort in the lower back and legs, dispels pathogenic wind, slows aging, and turns white hair black. It grows among the rocky ravines of Mount Taibai. The tree stands three chi high; its leaves resemble those of the Chinese toon, its stems are red, and its branches bear hairs like those of the Chinese pear tree.

The milk-vine tastes sweet and is warm in nature. It is non-toxic. Eating it during years of famine can keep people from feeling hungry. Starch taken from the vine can be eaten like kudzu-root starch, though it is said to cause hair loss. Cattle also like to eat this vine. It grows deep in the mountains and becomes as large as a tree.

Wood struck by lightning can treat derangement of the mind caused by fright. It is boiled and taken as a medicine. It may also be hung above a doorway, where it is said to provide strong protection against fires. This wood comes from trees struck by lightning.

Wood honey tastes sweet and is neutral in nature. It is non-toxic. It relieves thirst and irritability with fever, nourishes the Five Viscera, promotes urination and bowel movements, and clears heat above the chest and diaphragm. Its effects resemble those of honey. The wood-honey tree grows in the south. Its branches and leaves can be eaten as they are or boiled, and taste like maltose syrup.

Today, people call a kind of white stone-fruit wood-honey seed “zhizha”; it tastes sweet. The wood honey mentioned in the Classic of Materia Medica is not this fruit, but the honey-like juice that flows from inside the tree. Cui Bao’s Notes on Ancient and Modern Matters says that wood honey grows in the south. Its fruits grow in clusters, are sweet and soft, and can be eaten; they taste like honey. Boiling the old branches makes them even sweeter, and they can relieve thirst.