《圖經衍義本草》Vol. 29

Extended Meaning of the Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica, Volume 29

Compiled by Kou Zongshi, a Tongzhilang of the Song dynasty responsible for identifying and authenticating medicinal materials; collated by Xu Hong, an assistant instructor at the Song Imperial Medical Academy, also responsible for identifying and authenticating medicinal materials.

Animals, Lower Grade

Pig Testicles (the testicles of a pig)

Pig testicles taste sweet, are warm in nature, and are non-toxic. They treat fright epilepsy, mania, and gu zhu (illnesses that the ancients attributed to affliction by ghosts or spirits), as well as gu toxins. They can also dispel alternating chills and fever, running piglet (an ancient illness describing Qi surging upward from the lower abdomen), five kinds of urinary difficulty, and the spasms and curling of the body caused by pathogenic influences. Pig testicles are also called “pig crown.” They should be dried in the shade and stored without allowing them to decay.

The pig’s dewclaws (the small, raised claws on its feet) treat the five kinds of hemorrhoids, latent heat in the intestines, intestinal carbuncles, and intestinal ulceration.

The pig’s four feet are slightly cold in nature. They treat injuries from falls and blows, various ulcerating sores, and can also promote lactation.

Pig heart treats fright caused by malign influences, grief, and anger. Pig kidney regulates Kidney Qi and clears the bladder. Pig gallbladder treats fever and thirst in cold damage disorders. Pig stomach replenishes central Qi, relieves thirst, and promotes free flow. Pig teeth treat fright epilepsy in children and should be collected on the fifth day of the fifth lunar month. Pig bristle fat (the fat near the pig’s bristles) promotes hair growth.

Pig fat can be used to prepare various medicinal plasters and can also counteract the toxins of banmao and yuanqing, two poisonous insects. Boar meat tastes sour and is cold in nature; it treats mania.

In general, pork tastes bitter and can obstruct the blood vessels, weaken the sinews and bones, and deplete the muscles. It should therefore not be eaten over a long period, especially by the ill or by those with metal-inflicted wounds (injuries caused by knives, axes, and similar implements).

Pig feces treat alternating chills and fever, jaundice, and damp impediment (painful obstruction caused by dampness).

The Illustrated Classic says: The original Materia Medica does not record where pig testicles are produced. It only says they are also called “pig crown” and should be dried in the shade and stored without allowing them to decay. According to Yang Xiong’s Regional Expressions, pigs are called “jia” in Yan and Joseon; in the eastern and western regions near the passes, some call them “zhi” or “shi”; and in the southern Chu region, they are called “xi” (pronounced xi). Piglets are called “xi” (pronounced xi); in the Wu and Yang regions, they are called “piglet.” These names in fact refer to the same animal. The “pig testicles” mentioned here should refer to piglets. Many parts of the pig are used medicinally; only pork should not be eaten in excess. Eating too much causes rapid weight gain, a form of obesity brought on by weakness.

Tao Hongjing says: Many parts of the pig are used medicinally; only pork is unsuitable for eating. Some people gain weight rapidly when they eat too much; this is a form of weak, unhealthy obesity. Pig fat moisturizes the skin. Used as a hand cream, it can prevent chapping. There are very few medicines that cannot be decocted in pig fat. Do not let water touch the fat. Pig fat collected in the twelfth lunar month will not spoil, even after years in storage. The fat beneath the pig’s neck is called “leather-bearing fat” and is used by Daoists.

Pig feces juice is highly effective for treating warm-toxin febrile illnesses. After eating pork and drinking wine, one must not lie down to sleep on straw. There are also white pigs and white-hoofed pigs…

Pork with mottled spots should not be eaten. Pork fat is incompatible with dark plums.

Yuxi comments: Meng Shen says that the pig kidney governs the kidneys; people with kidney deficiency should not eat it over a long period.

Pig stomach can be used for sudden-onset diarrhea and physical weakness. Ri Huazi says that pig kidney strengthens the kidneys, warms the lower back and knees, benefits the bladder, and can also treat deafness. Although pig kidney can tonify the kidneys, it can also reduce fertility.

Pig stomach can replenish deficiency and depletion, kill fatigue parasites, and stop diarrhea. Ferment pig stomach together with yellow glutinous rice, steam it until cooked, mash it, and grind it into powder. This is said to be highly effective for bladder distention, as well as childhood malnutrition, roundworms, and a sallow, emaciated appearance.

The Wai Tai Mi Yao Fang records: To treat swelling and pain in the hands and feet caused by toxic heat, so severe that the limbs seem about to fall off, mix pork fat with sheep droppings and apply it externally. This is also effective.

The Qian Jin Yi Fang records: This treatment is for cracked, bleeding, painful hands and feet; it can also be used for frostbite sores on the face, hands, and feet caused by walking in severe winter cold, or for pain after exposure to heat. Put pig brain in hot wine and wash the affected areas with it; they will heal.

The Zhou Hou Fang records: To treat sudden diarrhea accompanied by swelling of the whole body and face, take one whole raw pig liver, chop it up, and eat it all at once without salt. It may be eaten with bitter wine (vinegar), and is highly effective.

The Jing Yan Hou Fang records: Pig hoof shells can relieve asthma and dissolve phlegm and drool. Take forty-nine pig hoof shells, wash them, and drain them. Put one zi each of pinellia and alum inside each shell (the zi is an ancient unit of weight), place them in a sealed pot so no smoke escapes, and heat until red-hot. Remove from the fire and grind finely, then add one qian of musk. When someone has asthma or a cough, give it with glutinous rice water: seven fen for an adult and half a qian for a child. This is said to be extremely effective.

The Mei Shi Fang records: To treat postpartum debility, joint pain, and unremitting sweating, make a soup with pig kidney, adding scallions, fermented beans, and rice, and cook it as usual.

The Shanghan Leiyao Fang records: To treat jaundice in men or women that has resisted treatment for a long time, with yellowing of the ears and eyes, difficulty digesting food, and heat and distention in the stomach. The book attributes this to yellow waste and dry stool in the stomach. Heat one small sheng of pork fat, drink it warm all at once, three times a day; once the dry stool has been expelled, the illness will be cured.

The Qian Jin Sui Fang records: When a woman is nine months pregnant and nearing labor, take one pig stomach and cook it as usual with scallions and assorted seasonings. Any portion not eaten may be saved for her to eat later; do not give it to anyone else.

The Yao Hezhong Fang records: When a child has just been born, take one pig gallbladder and boil it in seven sheng of water until reduced to four sheng. Let it settle, then use the clear liquid to bathe the child. This is said to prevent the child from developing sores or scabies later in life.

The Zi Mu Mi Lu Fang records: To treat chills and high fever caused by stagnant breast milk, use pork fat…

Soaking the affected area in cold water will ease the burning sensation, usually fairly quickly.

Fox

Fox penis: Sweet in taste and poisonous. It is used to treat female infertility and itching of the genital area, as well as sagging scrotums and enlarged testicles in children.

The fox’s internal organs and intestines: Bitter in taste, slightly cold in nature, and poisonous. They are used to treat Gu poison, alternating chills and fever, and convulsions in children. The droppings of a male fox can be burned to ashes to ward off evil. Only droppings found on wood or stone are the medicinal material referred to here.

The Illustrated Classic of Materia Medica says: Earlier materia medica texts did not record which prefectures produced foxes. Tao Hongjing’s commentary says that there are no foxes east of the Yangtze; they are found in the north and around Yizhou. Today they are occasionally seen south of the Yangtze as well, and are especially common around Luoyang, the capital. A fox resembles a yellow dog, with a pointed nose and a large tail. People in the north prepare raw fox meat as a sliced dish and eat it, saying that it is very warming and nourishing, and can dispel Wind and replenish deficiency and debility. The fox’s penis and internal organs can both be used as medicine. Fox liver burned to ash can treat Wind; people now make it into a powder called “Fox Liver Powder.” Fox gallbladder is used to treat sudden death. The Supplement to Transmitted and Verified Remedies says: Collect the gallbladder of a male fox in the twelfth lunar month. If someone has suddenly died and not much time has passed, grind it lightly in warm water and pour it down the person’s throat to revive them. It should be kept ready in advance for emergencies; if too much time passes, it will be too late.

Tao Hongjing says: There are no foxes east of the Yangtze; they are found in the north and around Yizhou. A fox resembles a civet, has yellowish fur, and is also adept at bewitching people.

The Tang Materia Medica says: Fox meat and intestines, cooked into a meat soup and eaten, can treat scabies that has resisted treatment for a long time. Fox intestines burned to ash and administered with water can treat cattle plague, and work better than otter. A fox’s nose is pointed, like a small dog’s; its tail is simply very large, and it does not much resemble a civet.

The Rihuazi Materia Medica says: Fox meat is warm in nature and nonpoisonous. It can replenish deficiency and debility and treat malignant sores and scabies. It can also nourish the corresponding internal organs according to the condition of the Five Viscera. Fox head and tail burned to ash can treat cattle plague when mixed with water and administered. Eating raw fox heart and liver can treat demonic possession. Burning the tail of a male fox can ward off evil.

Meng Shen says: Fox meat can replenish deficiency. Eat it boiled or roasted. It can also treat pathogenic influences in the Five Viscera, Gu poison, and alternating chills and fever; it should be eaten in quantity.

The Food Therapy Handbook says: Fox meat can be used to treat convulsions, mental confusion, disordered speech, and uncontrolled singing and laughter. It can also treat accumulations of Cold in the Five Viscera, Gu poison, and alternating chills and fever. Take a piece of fox meat and the fox’s internal organs, prepare them in the usual way, and cook them in fermented soybean liquid. Add seasonings and make a soup or porridge, or roast them and eat them. In the capital, some people use lamb bone broth or crucian carp in place of the fermented soybean liquid.

The Essential Prescriptions Worth a Thousand in Gold says: To treat a painful thorn wound, burn fox droppings to ash, mix them with plaster made in the twelfth lunar month, and apply the mixture over the puncture.

Another prescription treats various malignant fistulas—ulcers that fail to heal—as well as sores that feel cold and have developed excess granulation tissue. It uses fox droppings collected in the first lunar month…

No limit is specified. Grind the dried medicinal materials into powder and take one qian and seven fen before meals, swallowed with freshly drawn clean water.

The Yanyi of the Bencao says: People today use fox liver to treat wind disorders, and make fur coats from fox pelts with the hair intact. Foxes are naturally suspicious and have keen hearing. Hunters exploit their wariness and alertness to catch them; those who hunt foxes often use the breast portion as medicine.

Otter

Otter liver tastes sweet and is poisonous. It is used to treat gu zhu (a category of contagious, persistent, hard-to-cure illnesses described in antiquity) and gu toxins. It can also dislodge fish bones stuck in the throat and relieve chronic coughs. Burn it to ash before taking. Otter meat can be used to treat epidemic illnesses and warm diseases, as well as epidemics among cattle and horses. Boiled otter droppings, administered as a drink, are also said to be effective.

The Illustrated Materia Medica says: Earlier materia medica texts did not record which prefectures produced otters. Today, otters are common around rivers, lakes, and marshes, and people in the north also tame them for viewing. The Guangya calls the otter a “water dog.” There is also a kind of otter called the pin-ta, which is larger, with a head like a horse’s and a body like a bat’s. The Huainanzi says that people who raise fish in ponds do not keep pin-ta. Xu Shen’s commentary explains that the bian-ta belongs to the otter family.

For medicinal use, choose an otter that has offered a fish to Heaven after catching it. Otter meat is cold in nature. It is used to treat steaming-bone fever from consumptive illness, impaired circulation of the blood, weakness of the defensive and nutritive Qi, and, in women, blocked channels, heat in the blood, and constipation. But otter meat depletes Yang Qi and offers no nourishment to men, so it should not be eaten in large quantities. The otter’s five viscera and its meat are all cold in nature; only its liver is warm. Otter liver can be used to treat chuanshi lao (an ancient term for certain contagious consumptive illnesses), extreme consumptive illness, cold limbs, malaria, spontaneous sweating, externally contracted heat, and postpartum debility.

Most animals have a fixed number of liver lobes, but an otter’s liver grows one lobe each month, reaching twelve lobes in the twelfth month. Some of the lobes may also fall away. When using it as medicine, examine its shape carefully and make sure the material is whole and sound; otherwise, it is easy to buy a counterfeit.

Tao Hongjing says: There are two kinds of otter. The pin-ta is larger, with a head like a horse’s and a body like a bat’s, and is not used as medicine. For medicinal use, choose an otter that has offered a fish to Heaven after catching it. Otter bones can also treat fish bones lodged in the throat while eating. People who raise cattle and horses can collect otter droppings, which are often found along stream banks. Otter meat should not be eaten together with rabbit meat.

The Tang Ben Zhu, quoting the Bie Lu, says: An otter’s four feet can be used to treat cracked skin on the hands and feet.

Chen Cangqi says: If a fish bone gets stuck while eating and cannot be removed, scratch the area below the throat with an otter’s foot, or boil the foot and drink the liquid. Otter fur can be used for shui yin illness (an ancient category of disorders caused by the accumulation of dampness and fluid); it can be made into a mattress or footwear, or boiled and taken as a liquid. Otter droppings can be used for fish-navel sores: grind them finely and apply them to the affected area. They can also treat chongsang disease in donkeys and horses; grind the medicine finely and administer it through the nostrils.

Liu Yuxi quotes the Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals: “Otter liver is the chief medicinal in a formula—that is, the drug that plays the principal role. It tastes salty, is slightly warm in nature, and is non-toxic. It can treat upward surging of Qi, cough, debility from overexertion, corpse-infestation, and wasting. Otter bones can treat vomiting and persistent hiccups.”

Meng Shen says: “Otter liver can treat corpse-infestation, a kind of illness that people in ancient times believed to be contagious and caused by the intrusion of malign spirits. If members of a family fall ill one after another, take the liver of one otter, roast it over a fire until dry, grind it to a powder, and mix it with water. Take one square-inch spoonful—an ancient measure for medicinal powder, about the amount held by a small spoon—twice a day.” The text also offers a caution: “Otter liver can treat edema and abdominal distension, but it is suitable only for distension caused by toxic heat or pathogenic wind. Taking it may bring improvement. If the distension is caused by cold Qi, however, taking it will further weaken the patient and worsen the swelling. It therefore treats heat patterns, not cold patterns, and should not be used indiscriminately.”

The Daily Record of Chinese Materia Medica says: “Otter meat is neutral in nature and non-toxic. It can treat fullness and distension caused by water accumulation, as well as toxic heat and pathogenic wind. Otter liver can treat deficiency taxation and what is called ‘transmitted consumptive disease,’ a kind of tuberculosis that people in ancient times believed could spread from person to person.”

The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies records: “Corpse-infestation and ghost-infestation—ancient terms for certain difficult or recurring illnesses thought to be connected with malign spirits—are counted among the ‘Five Corpse’ disorders and were also believed to involve the mischief of ghosts. Their symptoms vary widely; it is said there are thirty-six kinds, or even ninety-nine. In general, they manifest as alternating chills and fever, persistent dribbling, and a dull, dispirited state. The patient cannot say exactly where the discomfort lies, yet feels unwell throughout the body. The illness may last for years, gradually worsen, and eventually cause death. Afterward, it was believed to pass to others and even make the whole family ill. If such signs appear, treatment should begin as early as possible: take the liver of one otter, dry it in the shade, pound it into powder, and take one square-inch spoonful with water three times a day. If the illness is not cured, prepare another dose. Yao’s family says this method is very effective.” Another prescription says that for intestinal hemorrhoids—a category of anorectal disorders—with frequent blood in the stool, otter liver should be burned to ash, and one qian-spoonful, an ancient measure of medicinal powder, taken each time.

The Extended Meaning of the Materia Medica describes the otter: “All four legs are rather short, and its head, body, and tail are flattened. Its fur is the color of faded purple silk. A large otter measures more than three chi from head to tail. It feeds on fish, lives in water, can also move about on land, and rests in large trees; hence its common name, ‘water otter.’ It is said that if an otter is placed in a large urn filled with water, it will whirl rapidly inside, stirring the water like a wind and creating a vortex with high edges and a low center. The sight is astonishing.”

People in the Western Regions used otter fur to trim collars and cuffs. When asked why, they said the fur does not readily collect dirt. If windblown sand gets into the eyes, one can wipe them with the cuff and the grit will come out. Observation confirms that dust does not readily cling to the tips of otter hairs; this, too, is a curious property.

The introductory notes to the Materia Medica also say that otter bile can divide wine into two cups. Someone tested this and found the claim did not hold. The wine divides only when bile is smeared around the rim of a cup and the surface of the wine is slightly higher than the rim. This claim has circulated from ancient times to the present, and the text examines it critically.

This is an erroneous claim found in texts passed down through copying, and it must be corrected. The liver does indeed respond to this treatment.

Mole

The mole (yan) tastes salty and is non-toxic. It is used chiefly to treat abscesses and carbuncles—red, swollen, pus-filled sores on the skin—as well as various fistulas, which are sores that fail to heal and form channels; severe sores that ulcerate as though eaten away by insects; and moist, ulcerated sores in the genital area. It lives underground. It is gathered in the fifth month, dried in the sun, and then burned for use.

Tao Hongjing says: Among the people, it is called the “hidden mouse” or “fen mouse” (fen). It resembles a mouse but is larger, has no tail, and has black fur. Its nose is long and strong, and it often digs and tunnels underground. It can be caught while digging.

Tao Hongjing also says that in the mountains and forests there is another beast as large as a water buffalo, shaped like a pig, and grayish red in color. Its legs are as short as an elephant’s, and its chest and tail are white. It is very strong and is also called a “mole.” People often catch and eat it. Its meat resembles beef and is commonly made into dried meat. Its fat is also said to treat fistulas. Some say it is the “king of mice,” and that when its semen falls to the ground, it turns into a mouse. In years when mice plague the land, there are said to be especially many mice in the grain. This account may not be entirely without foundation.

Chen Cangqi says: Mole meat can treat wind disorders; eaten over a long period, it can treat sores and scabies, hemorrhoids, and fistulas. Its fat can be applied to all kinds of severe sores. The mole mentioned in the Classic of Materia Medica is the kind smaller than a mouse that lives underground. Tao Hongjing also says it resembles a mouse, is black, and tunnels through the earth, where it can be caught while digging. According to the Classic of Materia Medica, this must be what is now called the fen mouse, with its small, pointed mouth. The mole Tao Hongjing describes, however, is a beast, not a kind of mouse: it is as large as an ox, has short forelegs, and its hide can be made into leather straps for horse tack.

The Expanded Materia Medica says: The mole is the fen mouse. Its fur resembles that of a mouse, and it is now common in the fields around the capital. Its legs are extremely short, so it can only walk; its tail is about one inch long, its eyes are small, and its neck is especially short. It is easy to dig out. Sometimes people catch it with a bamboo bow and then feed it to hawks. Tao Hongjing should not have repeated the account of an animal in the mountains and forests “as large as a water buffalo, shaped like a pig, and grayish red.” Even if that really were a kind of mouse, who could have seen with their own eyes its semen fall to the ground and turn into mice? Tao Hongjing probably believed the rumor because a sincere and upright person would not dismiss an unfounded account as false. The Classic of Materia Medica says it “moves through the earth,” so there is no doubt that it refers to the fen mouse.

Flying Squirrel

The flying squirrel (lei) is used to prevent miscarriage and can also make childbirth easier. It lives in the region of Shandu and Pinggu.

Tao Hongjing says: The flying squirrel is the flying fox, also called “flying life.” It resembles a bat and is as large as a kite, a bird of prey. Its fur is dark purple. It is active at night and can fly. People catch it and take its hide…

If the hair is given to a woman in labor to hold, it can help the child be delivered easily. Another creature, the sea horse, is also said to help ensure an easy delivery.

The sea horse lives in the ocean and belongs to the same group as fish and shrimp. It is shaped like a horse. Chen Cangqi says that the sea horse mentioned by Tao Hongjing is the kind found in the sea, and that it can aid childbirth. A woman in labor may carry one on her person. If none was prepared beforehand, it can be burned to a powder at the time and taken with water, or simply held in the hand. The sea horse is found in the Southern Sea. It is shaped like a horse, measures five or six inches long, and belongs to the shrimp family. The Nanzhou Yiwuzhi says that some women had such difficult births that their bodies had to be cut open to remove the child. But if they held this creature in their hand, they could give birth as easily as a sheep. Of all animals, sheep give birth most easily.

Yuxi says that he consulted the General Remedies for Difficult Childbirth, which records that the flying squirrel—a legendary kind of flying rodent—is slightly warm in nature.

The Yanyi says that the classics do not specify the flying squirrel’s nature or flavor; only the General Remedies for Difficult Childbirth says it is slightly warm. Its fur is reddish black and its tail is long. After catching one, people skin it and make warm hats from the hide. It can fly only downward and cannot travel far. Today, these animals are common in the mountains of the western regions. They have very dense fur, and local people call them “flying life.” A note also describes the sea horse: its head is like a horse’s, its body like a shrimp’s, its back is curved, and its body has bamboo-like joints. It is two or three inches long and is now called the sea horse.

Wannuqi (the reproductive organ of a sea dog, an old medicinal name)

Wannuqi is salty in flavor and non-toxic. It treats ghost qi, corpse-infestation syndrome (an illness formerly attributed to possession by ghosts and believed to be contagious), sexual intercourse with ghosts in dreams, hauntings by ghosts, fox spirits, and demons, pain in the heart and abdomen, malign influences entering the body, blood stasis forming lumps inside the body, abdominal masses of the xianpi type, and wasting of the body. It comes from the gunie beast, which resembles a fox but is larger and has a long tail. It is found in the western regions.

The Tujing says that wannuqi comes from the western regions, though it is now also found along the eastern coast. Some say it is the reproductive organ of the sea dog of Silla. Older accounts say that it comes from the gunie beast, which resembles a large fox and has a long tail. Its skin is covered with yellowish flesh-colored fur, with three hairs growing from each pore. Yet the wannuqi depicted today in Cangzhou looks like a kind of fish, with a pig’s head and two feet; its navel is reddish purple and marked with purple spots. This differs entirely from the older accounts. Physicians also use this substance as wannuqi. Some say that to tell whether it is genuine, one should place it beside a sleeping dog. If the dog suddenly leaps up in fright as if it had seen an an, a beast-like animal, then the substance is considered good.

The Rihuazi says that the wannu beast is hot in nature. It can warm and strengthen the middle qi, replenish original qi, warm the kidneys, lower back, and knees, and support Yang. It can also disperse abdominal masses and treat fright mania, epilepsy, pain in the heart and abdomen, and blood stasis.

Yuxi says that he consulted the Yaoxing Lun, which records that wannuqi is intensely hot in nature. The term here refers to the external reproductive organ of a dog-like animal from the seas of Silla, removed together with the attached parts. It treats men’s…

Wanaduqi, a medicinal substance made from the kidneys of a sea animal, can treat masses in the uterus or abdomen, coldness that has congealed, weakness and exhaustion, emaciation, and depletion of Kidney essence. People suffering from Kidney deficiency and exhaustion may also develop a poor complexion and become thin and haggard.

Lei Gong says: Before using this substance, carefully determine whether it is genuine, since counterfeits are common. In the sea there is an animal called the shuiniaolong. People living along the coast catch and kill it, remove its kidneys, and send them to various places to be used as medicine. If one cannot distinguish them properly, it is easy to use the wrong substance. Its kidneys come in a pair, each enclosed in two thin outer layers. Inside are a round, pellet-like mass of vital flesh and a core of flesh. White flesh lies on the outer layer, and three yellow hairs grow from a single pore. The kidneys remain moist throughout the year and always look fresh. Before use, soak them in wine for a day, wrap them in paper, and warm them gently over a fire until fragrant. Then chop them finely and pound them on their own.

The Yanyi says: Wanaduqi is now produced in Dengzhou and Laizhou. The Treatise on the Nature of Medicinals considers it the external kidneys of a sea dog, while the Rihua Zi says it belongs to the category of beasts. On observation, it resembles neither a dog nor an ordinary beast, and it is not like a fish either: its forequarters resemble a beast, but its tail resembles a fish’s. Its body is covered in short, dense, pale blue-white fur; its belly and both flanks are entirely white. Among the pale blue-white fur are dark blue-black spots, which fade over time. Its hide is thick and tough, like oxhide, and soldiers in the frontier regions often use it to decorate saddles and saddle pads. Its kidneys can treat cold accumulations around the navel and abdomen, weakness of Kidney essence, and exhaustion from Spleen and Kidney deficiency; there is no need to test this separately. The claim that it “resembles a fox and has a tail” probably arose because most people today do not recognize the animal.

Ji Deer

Ji deer, a member of the deer family, tastes sweet, has a neutral nature, and is non-toxic. It can be used to treat the five kinds of hemorrhoids: fry the meat and eat it with ginger and vinegar for good results. Another account says that eating too much can bring on old illnesses. The skull, burned to ash and taken internally, can be used to treat feishi, an acute illness described in ancient medical texts. Ji deer live in the valleys of the southeast.

The Tujing says: Ji deer are found in the valleys of the southeast, and are now common wherever there are wooded mountains. They are especially numerous around Junzhou, Fangzhou, Xiangzhou, and Hanzhou. In fact, they belong to the zhang deer category. The Erya records that jun and ji refer to the same animal: a large jun with thick, long hair and doglike feet. The commentary explains that jun is also a kind of zhang deer, and that “mao hair” means thick, long hair. A large zhang deer with long hair and doglike feet is called jun. People in the south often eat ji deer meat, but it is tough and less delicious than zhang deer meat; eating too much can bring on old illnesses. Ji deer hide makes better shoes than the hides of other animals, and the head can also be used as medicine.

Yuxi says: According to the Rihua Zi, ji deer are cool in nature and toxic. They may cause miscarriage and may also bring on sores, boils, and scabies.

The muntjac is an animal of the deer family, smaller in body than the deer, but with long tusks at both sides of its mouth and a combative nature. Its tusks and hide are especially prized; nothing else compares with them. Muntjacs often bear scars from fighting. They are found everywhere, especially deep in mountain forests. Their call sounds like a cracked cymbal.

Wild Boar Gallstone (a yellow calculus found in the gallbladder of a wild boar) tastes pungent and sweet, is neutral in nature, and is non-toxic. It is used to treat knife wounds, stop bleeding, promote flesh growth, and treat epilepsy. Grind it in water into pills the size of a date pit and take them twice a day; this is said to be effective.

Yuxi says that, according to Meng Shen, wild boar meat nourishes the skin and makes a person grow plump. If a yellow calculus is found in the gallbladder, grind it and take it with water to treat “zhubing,” an illness described by people in antiquity as persistent and seemingly caused by ghosts or spirits. Wild boar tastes better than domestic pork, and the meat of a female wild boar is especially savory. In winter, wild boars eat acorns in the forest, and their meat turns red. It nourishes the Five Viscera and replenishes the body when it has been weakened by pathogenic Wind.

After refining wild boar fat, take one spoonful mixed into a cup of wine. Taking this for three days is said to increase a woman’s milk supply; after ten days, she can supposedly nurse three or four children. Ash made by burning wild boar tusks can be taken to treat snake venom, while the gallbladder treats harmful Heat.

According to Rihua Zi, wild boar meat treats intestinal bleeding caused by intestinal Wind. Roast it and eat it; it is said to work within ten doses. The yellow calculus in the gallbladder treats ghost-induced zhu, epilepsy, malignant Wind, and childhood disorders including malnutrition, fright caused by an unfamiliar presence, and tian-diao. Wild boar fat gives the complexion a healthy glow and can also treat Wind swelling, poisonous sores, scabies, and ringworm. Fat taken in the twelfth lunar month and stored for a long time is considered best. Burn the wild boar’s external genitalia together with the skin to ash, grind it into powder, and take it to treat uterine bleeding, vaginal discharge, intestinal bleeding, and bloody dysentery.

The Food Therapy Essentials records that for long-standing hemorrhoids, persistent bleeding during bowel movements, and pain around the anus, two jin of pork should be sliced, seasoned, roasted, and eaten on an empty stomach; it may also be cooked into a soup.

The Expanded Materia Medica says that wild boar gallstone forms in the gallbladder and treats various kinds of childhood epilepsy. Wild boars are plentiful in the western capital region. They resemble domestic pigs, but have smaller bellies, longer legs, and brown hair, and they travel in herds. Hunters dare shoot only the last animal in the line. If they hit one farther forward, the rest scatter and flee, and may even attack people. Wild boar meat is as red as horse meat, sweet in taste and tender, though it is said to aggravate disorders caused by Wind slightly. Gallstones are uncommon, and even when one is found, few people use it. Wild boar meat is still tastier than domestic pork.

Worn Drum Hide (the hide from an old, broken drum) is neutral in nature and treats gu poisoning. The Illustrated Canon says that old prescriptions also use worn drum hide by itself: burn it to ash and take it to treat gu poisoning. As few people use it nowadays, it is recorded only at the end. Tao Hongjing says to take a torn piece of drum hide, burn it to powder, and mix it with water for use.

If the patient immediately names the person who sent the gu poison, then has someone go and call out that person’s name, the gu will be summoned back. White shexiang (a medicinal herb) is used in a similar way. This entry originally belonged to the section on herbs and is placed here now.

The Waitai Miyao Fang records this treatment for gu poisoning: take a piece of old, torn drum skin, five cun wide and one chi long, and a rose root five cun long and about as thick as a thumb. The original text also says to chop up henbane root, boil it with one sheng of water and three sheng of wine until only one sheng remains, and then take it. The gu worms should be expelled afterward, and the illness will be cured.

The Meishi Fang records that when someone is suddenly poisoned by gu, they may pass blood like goose liver without stopping, day or night. Their internal organs are harmed, and their life is in danger. If the name of the person who sent the gu is known, burn torn drum skin to ash, have the patient take it, and call out that person’s name; it is said that the gu will then leave. To discover the person’s name, grind a little torn drum skin into powder and have the patient swallow it with water. A short while later, the patient will naturally call out the name.

The Yanyi says that drum skin made from yellow oxhide is best. The original text does not specify the kind of hide, and it probably includes donkey and horse hide as well. In the Tang dynasty, Han Yu wrote, “Ox urine, horse mushrooms, and ruined drum skin are all gathered and stored, with none left unused.” He meant that all kinds of medicinal materials should be collected and kept for use. These days, torn drum skin is rarely used as medicine. If it is made into glue, oxhide is especially preferable, as it is then suitable for medicinal use.

Musk deer fat has a pungent taste, is warm in nature, and is non-toxic. It treats abscesses and swellings, malignant sores, dead flesh, and impediment disorders caused by Cold, Wind, and Dampness, which bring numbness, pain, and difficulty moving the limbs. It can relieve spasms or flaccid weakness in the limbs, swelling of the head caused by Wind, and open the interstices between skin and muscle while softening the skin. It must not touch the genital area, or the penis will become weak and flaccid. Musk deer fat is also called “palace fat” and is incompatible with rhubarb.

Musk deer antler has a sweet taste and is non-toxic. It treats impediment disorders, stops bleeding, and strengthens physical vitality. Musk deer live in the valleys of the southern mountains and are also found around the Huai River and along the coast. Their antlers are gathered in the tenth month.

Tao Hongjing says: There are many musk deer around Hailing, often in herds of hundreds or thousands, with more females than males. Some say that a male mates with more than ten females and then dies; its fat falls to the ground, and after a year its medicinal properties become good. This is called “fat that has withdrawn,” and it works very well when taken with wine. Tao Hongjing observes that since musk deer are so intensely and swiftly lustful, their fat should not cause the penis to become weak and flaccid. Another account says that the fat must not touch the genital area, or the penis will not become weak and flaccid. Tao Hongjing considers this explanation more reasonable. Musk deer meat should not be eaten with shrimp, raw vegetables, plums, or other fruit, as this will make a person ill. Scrape the antler into shavings, stir-fry until fragrant, and take it with wine; this is said to be greatly beneficial. This claim appears in the Pengzu Zhuan.

Yuxi says: According to the Meng Shen, musk deer meat strengthens physical vitality, nourishes the spleen and stomach, and can also treat discomfort in the lower back and legs. It must not be eaten with pheasant meat. Careful examination suggests that musk deer meat has few medicinal benefits, and eating it also…

It mildly replenishes deficiencies in the Qi of the five viscera. Eating too much weakens the body and may cause beriberi.

Musk deer bone is highly effective for treating chronic debility. It can be boiled into a broth and used to make wine; drinking it is said to make the body strong and the complexion fair and lustrous. Another account says that musk deer antler can also remedy chronic debility and nourish the marrow.

To prepare musk deer antler, cut it into sections five inches long, split them open, and roast them until yellow and fragrant. Grind them into a fine powder, mix with wine, and take three qian and seven fen on an empty stomach. For sudden heart pain, a single dose can bring relief. Regular use is said to give the complexion a rosy, flowerlike glow and improve male sexual function. Musk deer meat has effects different from those of the antler. The antler can also be boiled down into glue, which works like deer antler glue. Musk deer velvet—the tender antler before it hardens into bone—is especially potent, surpasses deer velvet, and is highly prized in Daoist elixir recipes.

For men with internal cold or pain in the sinews and bones caused by wind pathogens, musk deer velvet can be made into powder and taken over an extended period. It can also be ground into a paste with rice-washing water and applied to the face; this is said to prevent wrinkles and make the skin smooth, radiant, and attractive. Folk practice also commonly makes boots from musk deer hide and uses them to fumigate and treat beriberi.

An empirical prescription for elderly people with weakened and depleted bone marrow. Take five liang of musk deer velvet, remove the hair, coat it with butter, and roast it until lightly yellow; then grind it into powder. Add two sheng of clear wine to a silver pot and simmer over low heat until it becomes a paste. Store it in a porcelain vessel. Take half a spoonful at a time, mixed with warm wine, on an empty stomach before meals.

Shen Kuo writes in Dream Pool Essays: “Musk deer velvet excels at replenishing Yang Qi, while deer velvet excels at replenishing Yin Qi. Musk deer velvet strengthens the bones and blood, improves male sexual function, and nourishes the marrow. Newly grown velvet is very tender. When it has grown a few inches, split it open: the cross-section resembles rotten wood. The best has a cross-section the color of agate or red jade.”

Boiled donkey dung can be used as a hot compress for wind-related swellings and fistulous sores. Donkey-dung juice treats sudden pain in the heart and abdomen, as well as various “zhuwu” conditions—sudden illnesses as described by the ancients. Donkey urine treats abdominal masses, persistent vomiting caused by rebellious Stomach Qi, toothache, and water toxin.

The urine of a female donkey treats “dry water,” while that of a spotted donkey treats “damp water”; five he is a suitable dose. To distinguish the two conditions, draw characters on the body using the urine: if the characters take shape, the condition is called “dry water”; if they do not, it is called “damp water.” Donkey milk treats childhood febrile illness and acute jaundice, among other conditions, but taking too much causes diarrhea.

The crusted dirt at the base of a donkey’s tail treats malaria. Wash it with water and collect the liquid, then mix it with flour into dough balls about the size of two pellets and bake them into cakes. Eat one before a malaria attack and another during the attack. It can be used whether the illness is recent or longstanding, and whether the attacks occur regularly or irregularly.

Liu Yuxi says: “According to the Shu Materia Medica, donkey tastes sweet and is cold in nature. It promotes urination and treats wasting-thirst. Donkeys come in many colors, but black ones are best.” Xiao Bing says: “Donkey milk treats heat jaundice, childhood febrile convulsions, and bloody dysentery.” Ri Hua Zi says: “Donkey milk treats children’s…”

Convulsions in Children, Sudden Fright, and Wind Disorders with Upward Pulling

Meng Shen said: Donkey meat can treat wind madness and sorrowful, joyless moods, and can also calm the heart Qi.

After singeing off the hair from a donkey’s head, boil it and soak yeast in the broth to brew wine. This can treat “great wind,” an ancient term for severe wind disorders. Pound donkey fat together with fresh pepper, wrap the mixture in cotton cloth, and insert it into the ear to treat long-standing deafness. For someone suffering from madness and mania who cannot speak or recognize people, take three sheng of donkey fat mixed with wine; this is said to work very well. Covering a person with malaria with donkey hide is also said to be effective.

Simmer donkey fat and hair together until they form a glue. This can treat various wind toxins. For pain in the joints and bones accompanied by constant groaning, melt the glue and take it with wine; this is said to be effective. A bath in broth made by boiling donkey bones can treat “wind of the joints,” a type of illness involving pain that moves from joint to joint. Boil a donkey’s head and drink the resulting liquid, two to three sheng each time. This is said to cure long-standing wasting-thirst disease, with no cases that it fails to cure. Make donkey fat and dark plums into pills to treat long-standing malaria; take thirty pills before an attack.

To treat various wind disorders of the head, take one jin of donkey hair, stir-fry it until yellow, and soak it in one dou of wine for three days. On an empty stomach, drink the wine slowly until drunk, then cover yourself with clothes and bedding and lie down to sweat. Repeat the same treatment the next day. Avoid eating aged granary rice and wheat flour.

The Waitai Miyao Fang records a treatment for counterflow vomiting, in which food is vomited after eating. The compiler had suffered from this illness in childhood: after eating foods such as cakes, soups, and porridge, he would soon vomit them up. During the Zhenguan era, the brothers Xu Fengyu, Chai Jiang, and other renowned physicians of the time were ordered to treat him. They tried every method but could not cure him; the patient grew steadily thinner, and his condition seemed critical. Later, a practitioner of esoteric arts said that drinking donkey urine was very effective. He took two he each day, after which he vomited only half of what he ate. In the evening he took another two he, and that night he ate porridge without vomiting. When this method was reported to the court, five or six people in the palace suffering from the same condition took it at the same time, and all recovered. This medicine is slightly toxic, so do not take too much. Collect the urine and drink two he while it is still hot. It works well when the illness has lasted no more than seven days. It was later used to treat other patients, and proved effective in every case.

The Yanyi says: Eating donkey meat can aggravate wind disorders, and donkey fat is especially greasy; repeated experience has confirmed this. The claim by Rihua Zi that donkey meat can stop wind madness and treat various wind disorders may not be trustworthy. Donkey hide is simmered to make glue because it is thought to carry a medicine’s effects outward to the skin. Prescriptions also call for medicines associated with the color black, such as black chicken eggs or crows. Although these can treat wind, their black color and cooling nature are also used to counteract heat, since excessive heat gives rise to wind.

The flesh, bladder, and fat of the tuan (a badger-like wild animal) are sweet in flavor, neutral in nature, and non-toxic. They are used to treat Qi rising counterflow, Qi deficiency, and cough with counterflow of Qi. Mix with wine and take three ge (a traditional measure) twice daily. They may also be used to treat lung diseases and parasites in horses.

Tuan flesh can treat edema that has resisted treatment for a long time. When a patient is gravely ill and near death, the flesh can be made into a soup and eaten; it can reduce the edema, with good results. Dry the tuan’s bladder in the sun, boil it in water, and drink a portion about the size of an egg on an empty stomach. This can expel various gu toxins from the body—illnesses that ancient people attributed to poisonous insects or malign toxins.

Chen Cangqi said: Tuan fat can treat “transmitted corpse ghost Qi” and zhuwu—terms ancient people used for certain contagious or sudden-onset illnesses. Melt the fat in wine and drink it; this can also kill parasites on horses. People with sores who take mineral drugs known as danshi can benefit from eating tuan flesh. The tuan is also called the “badger pig” and has abundant fat. The Tang Materia Medica listed it as a newly added medicinal substance.

Yuxi said: According to Meng Shen, if taking mineral drugs causes debility and fever, or if red-and-white dysentery—stools containing blood or mucus—persists for a long time, boil the tuan flesh until cooked, leave it outdoors overnight, then eat a meal of it dipped in sauce the next morning on an empty stomach. This is said to bring recovery. Thin people can cook tuan flesh with the five flavorings and eat it to build up fat, fill out the body, and give the complexion a pale, lustrous appearance. Those who have taken mineral drugs can eat it regularly, since such drugs readily cause fever.

The Expanded Meaning says: The tuan is short and stout, with slightly grayish fur and a stripe of black hair running from its head along its back. It has a pointed black muzzle and a short, broad tail. It is very tasty when steamed. The raccoon dog resembles a small fox and has yellowish-brown fur. Among wild animals, tuan flesh is the sweetest and can also help thin people gain weight.

The dhole’s pelt is hot in nature and treats cold impediment and beriberi. Heat the pelt and wrap it around the affected area to cure the condition.

Yuxi said: According to Meng Shen, dhole pelt can treat childhood malnutrition with dysentery and sores on the abdomen. It can be boiled and the liquid drunk, or burned to ash and taken with wine. The ash can also be applied to the teeth and to sores. Dhole flesh is sour in flavor and should not be eaten; it is said to make people thin and damage their spirit and complexion. The Daily Flower says: Dhole flesh is toxic; if roasted and eaten wrapped around the soft cartilage of the foot, it can make a person thin.

The Sagely Benefit Formulary records: To treat swallowing obstruction, dry a wolf’s laryngeal cartilage in the sun and grind it into powder. Take half a qian with rice; this is said to be effective.

The Arcane Essentials from the Outer Terrace records: To treat scrofula—enlarged lymph nodes or tubercular swellings—burn wolf dung to ash and apply it to the affected area.

The fat of the wild camel is non-toxic. It treats stubborn impediment pain, itchy wind rashes, malignant sores, toxic swellings, dead flesh, tightening of the sinews and skin, and injuries to sinews and bones. Heat it over a fire and massage it into the affected area so the warmth penetrates the body. It can also be mixed with rice flour, made into a pancake, and eaten to treat hemorrhoids. Take care not to let the patient know that the food contains fat. The wild camel’s fat is found in its two humps; domesticated camels raised by people in the regions north of the frontier and in Hexi can also be used. This entry was added later.

The Illustrated Classic says: Wild camels come from the regions north of the frontier and Hexi. Today they are found only in frontier areas of the northwest where ethnic minority communities live.

Domestic camels are less effective medicinally than wild camels.

The fat between a wild camel’s two humps is warm in nature. It can dispel Wind, regulate Qi, strengthen the body, and moisturize the skin. People rarely eat it as food. The hair, hooves, and horns of the six domestic animals can be used to treat ghost possession, Gu poisoning, alternating chills and fever, convulsions, epilepsy, spasms, and frenzied running about. Camel hair is especially effective. Tao Hongjing says the six animals are the horse, ox, sheep, pig, dog, and chicken. Mules and donkeys also belong to this group. The hair, hooves, and horns of each animal are used according to species, and their indications are not necessarily the same. Su Gong says camel hair, hooves, and horns are especially effective for treating women’s red or white vaginal discharge.

The Yanyi says: Wild camels live in the northwestern border regions and similar places. Among domestic camels, the humps and hooves are the finest medicinal materials. People often boil them and eat them mixed with fermented grain lees. They also dry camel dung, grind it into powder, and inhale it through the nose to treat nosebleeds. These practices are common in the Xifan region, where the author saw and recorded them.

Macaque meat is sour in taste, neutral in nature, and non-toxic. It can treat various Wind disorders and consumptive weakness; it is even better for making wine. Macaque heads and horns can be simmered in a decoction to treat miasma malaria. Given to children, they can also ward off fright, spirits and apparitions, and conditions involving chills and fever. Macaque hands can treat childhood convulsions and lockjaw. Macaque droppings can treat spider bites; macaque meat made into jerky can treat chronic malaria; and macaque skin can treat epidemics among horses. There are several kinds of animals in this group, all called apes. The macaque is the one with yellow fur, a long tail, and a red face. Captive macaques eat a varied diet unsuited to their nature, so their meat and droppings cannot be used as medicine. (Added by Tang Shenwei.)

The Shenghui Fang records: To treat ghost malaria with irregular attacks that vary in severity, take one macaque skull and burn it to ash, then grind it into powder. On an empty stomach, take one qian and seven fen mixed with warm wine, and take another dose before an attack.

The hair, hooves, and horns of the six domestic animals are salty in taste, neutral in nature, and toxic. They can be used to treat ghost possession, Gu poisoning, chills and fever, convulsions, epilepsy, spasms, and frenzied running about. Camel hair is especially effective.

The Tujing says: For related information, see the entry “Wild Camel Fat.”

Tao Hongjing says: The six animals are the horse, ox, sheep, pig, dog, and chicken; mules and donkeys also belong to this group. Physicians rarely use camel medicines. The hair, hooves, and horns of horses, oxen, sheep, chickens, pigs, and dogs also each have their own medicinal categories, and their indications do not entirely overlap.

The Tang Ben Zhu says: Camel hair, hooves, and horns are especially effective for treating women’s red or white vaginal discharge.

The blood of various animals is sweet in taste and neutral in nature. It is mainly used to replenish a deficiency of blood in the body, and is sometimes also used to treat conditions such as blood depletion.

People with swelling on the skin’s surface and a dull complexion are said to lack Qi and blood. Eat it raw and drink its juice.

It can also counteract poisons from various medicines and fungi, relieve thirst, clear erysipelas (a condition marked by red, swollen skin), and ease restlessness and heat. Eating its sinews can increase a person’s strength.

The flesh of the guoran, a legendary creature, tastes salty and is non-toxic. It is used to treat malaria and alternating chills and fever caused by miasma. It can be cooked and eaten. Its hide can be made into a mattress. The creature resembles a monkey, with a hairy face and fur the color of a wild duck; the hide along its flanks is suitable for making mattresses.

The Record of Strange Things from the Southern Regions says that in Jiaozhou there is a creature called the “guoran,” a name derived from its own cry. It resembles an ape, with a white body marked in black, a tail longer than its head, and nostrils that point upward. When it rains, it plugs its nostrils with its tail. Its fur is warm and fine. The Erya says that the wei, a kind of long-tailed ape, has upturned nostrils and a very long tail. Guo Pu’s commentary says that it closely resembles the guoran.

Certain kinds of meat are considered dangerous to eat. The flesh of a beast with a forked tail is fatal. So is the flesh of a deer with leopard-like spots. Eating a sheep’s heart with a hole in it is fatal. A horse whose hooves can see in the dark must not be eaten after the fifth lunar month, or the meat will be fatal. The meat of a dog with dewclaws is poisonous and must not be eaten. If meat juice leaking from a rice jar gets onto dried meat, eating it is fatal. Meat with spots resembling grains of rice is also fatal. After the third lunar month, dried mutton that develops worms resembling horse tails is poisonous and fatal to eat. Dried meat that will not dry in the sun or catch fire when burned cannot be digested; keeping it for a long time in a jar of millet can cause a person’s Qi to become blocked. Eating the meat beneath a white horse’s saddle damages the five internal organs. White portions of horse or deer meat must not be eaten. Eating dairy cheese with very sour vinegar can cause bloody dysentery.

Pregnant people must not eat donkey, horse, or rabbit meat. Eating dairy cheese, fried fish, raw sliced fish, and melons together can immediately bring on cholera, understood in ancient times as an acute illness involving vomiting and diarrhea. Eating pork and beef together can cause tapeworms. If one eats cooked meat without drinking water afterward, an accumulation may form. Eating rabbit and then dried ginger can bring on cholera. Dried wild animal meat bought at the market often carries the poison of shewang, an ancient poison. After eating too much meat of any kind, drinking the broth in which it was cooked can aid digestion; eating animal brains digests food quickly.

Expanded Meaning of the Illustrated Materia Medica, juan 29