《混元聖紀》Vol. 5

At that time, the Supreme Venerable Lord (Taishang Laojun) in the kingdom of Khotan (present-day Hotan region of Xinjiang) addressed the Perfected Yin Xi, saying: "Here in the Western Regions, I have widely propagated teachings to subdue practitioners of heterodox paths (non-orthodox cultivators) and guide them to embrace the true Dao. Whether beings in these lands have already attained deliverance or remain unenlightened, I now gather them all here to awaken their understanding and enter the gate of true Dharma."

As soon as these words were spoken, nine-colored divine light illuminated the entire Western world. Wherever this radiance reached, whether near or far, the legendary sacred city of Vimala instantly manifested a vast golden plain. There spontaneously appeared a majestic dharma seat adorned with various precious jewels. Perfected immortals from the Three Realms (Desire Realm, Form Realm, and Formless Realm) and celestial deities from all heavens simultaneously gathered there.

At this moment, the King of Khotan arrived together with rulers from eighty countries, including: Kashmir (Jibin), Syria (Tiaozhi), Parthia (Anxi), the Kushan Empire (Dayuezhi), Chü-mo-pan (Zhu Juban), Kabandha (Kepantuo), Wakhan (Humiduo), Khuttal (Guduotuo), Kumidh (Jumi), Kashgar (Jiesu), Ferghana (Bahanan), and Kumedh (Jiuyuedejian), extending all the way to ancient India (Tianzhu) - eighty countries in total.

This scripture passage describes the grand dharma assembly convened by the Supreme Venerable Lord in the Western Regions, showcasing the vast scale of the Lord's teachings to sentient beings in Daoist belief. The numerous Central Asian kingdoms mentioned reflect the historical context of cultural exchange between China and the West during that period.

According to the Tongdian records, the Sai kings originally resided in the kingdom of Jibin (present-day Kashmir region), west of Mount Du. Later, the Sai people dispersed into multiple small states. From Shule (modern Kashgar in Xinjiang) northwestward, places like Xiutu and Sundu were all territories of the ancient Sai people. Sundu actually refers to the Brahmin kingdom (ancient India), also known as Magadha, called "Sundu" or "Shendu" in Chinese. Yan Shigu explained that Shendu is Tianzhu (the ancient name for India), and the Sai people were the Shakya clan (the lineage of the Buddha), with only slight differences in pronunciation.

Within Tianzhu, there were dozens of small states like Shravasti and Varanasi. Though each had its differences, they were collectively called Tianzhu, hence the terms "Five Tianzhu" or "Five Indian Lands." Additionally, there were countless Qiang tribes beyond numbering. These distant peoples beheld the auspicious radiance manifested by Lord Lao (the deified Laozi) and gazed in reverence day and night. Through his divine power, Lord Lao guided them all to the sacred assembly. Seated upon his jeweled throne, Lord Lao received the kings of these lands along with their consorts and retinues, who burned incense, scattered flowers, played music, and prostrated in worship, earnestly seeking the Dharma. After expounding the teachings, Lord Lao specially instructed them: "You must take refuge in the Great Dao and devote yourselves to the Buddha."

Among them, the kings of Shravasti and Magadha (an ancient central Indian kingdom with its capital by the Ganges, home to Vulture Peak) showed particular reverence, kneeling to inquire: "How exactly should one take refuge in the Great Dao and devote oneself to the Buddha? What specific practices and forms of reverence are required?" Lord Lao praised their question and taught: "To follow my teachings, you should establish pure sacred spaces, sincerely burning incense morning and evening with devoted hearts. In transmitting the scriptures, maintain continuous mindfulness—awakening yourselves while helping others awaken. Accumulate merit through virtuous deeds, using ritual purification (zhaijiao) and scriptural exposition to open wisdom. Draw near to enlightened teachers and treat later students with compassion. See through worldly attachments without flaunting spiritual achievements. Constantly nurture the mind that aids the world, longing for an era of clarity and peace. Widely dispense the medicine of Dharma (both Buddhist teachings and healing arts), praying that the true path may spread far and wide—but never act recklessly."

This scripture records the scene when Lord Lao (Taishang Laojun, one of the highest Daoist deities) prepared to return to the Central Plains after spreading the Dao in foreign lands. The kings of countries like Shewei, Wuchang, and Moje all wished to abandon their thrones to wholeheartedly follow the path of cultivation. Countless devotees at the Dharma assembly awakened virtuous intentions and reverently received his teachings.

When Master Yin (Lord Lao's disciple) prepared to accompany him back to the Central Plains, the western foreigners clung to them reluctantly, repeatedly pleading for them to stay and teach the people. Master Yin instructed them: "Your wish to see me arises from attachment—in truth, I neither come nor go. If you must meet through form, you may fashion my likeness from five-colored earth, wood, gold-jade, or painted stones for worship. My spiritual presence will naturally manifest to expound the Dharma for you."

Master Yin further taught the assembly: "You are all born endowed with the primordial Qi of heaven and earth, each possessing true eternal nature. In time, all shall realize the supreme Dao. Guard well your precepts, abstaining from food after noon. Before eating, maintain this contemplation: In this world, remain unattached like empty space, unstained like lotuses rising from mud—preserve this pure heart-mind." Hearing this, the assembly received these teachings with joyful faith.

At that time, ninety-six heterodox paths still deluded people in the western regions. Lord Lao instructed each until they returned to the true path. At parting, the foreigners clung to his carriage, unable to bear separation. To honor their sincere devotion, Lord Lao revealed he would temporarily return to the celestial realm to organize the registers of spirits and deities, prophesying that after a century he would send the Buddha to be born there to teach future generations. With these words, Lord Lao ascended in his Eight Radiances cloud-chariot, Master Yin rode a white deer, and the assembled immortals mounted cranes—all rising amid celestial music and heavenly guardians' protection.

This passage embodies the Daoist teaching principle of "adapting instruction to local conditions," emphasizing universal potential for enlightenment and the importance of precept-keeping. It also reflects early interactions between Daoist and Buddhist traditions during their spread.

This account primarily documents the historical interactions between the ancient Khotan Kingdom (located in present-day Hotan, Xinjiang) and the Central Plains dynasties, along with the legend of Laozi (venerated as Lord Lao in Daoism) converting the western tribes through Buddhist teachings.

According to Tang Dynasty records in the Comprehensive Institutions (Tongdian), Khotan was situated north of the Pamir Mountains, approximately 9,800 li from Chang'an, with a population of 32,000 households. Since the Han Dynasty, this kingdom had maintained ties with the Central Plains. Though geographically part of the Western Regions, its people's facial features resembled those of the Huaxia ethnicity more closely than the deep-set eyes and prominent noses typical of other Western Region inhabitants. From Emperor Wu of Han's reign onward, Khotan reverently preserved imperial edicts and tally tokens from the Central Plains courts.

Notably, 500 li west of Khotan stood the Vimala Temple (Pimosi), traditionally believed to be where Laozi (Lord Lao) taught the western tribes. At that time, tribal leaders from various regions came to pay homage, but only King Bhadra of Jibin (an important early Buddhist figure) remained to practice asceticism in the mountains. He maintained strict precepts, teaching his people virtue until his passing, when he ascended to the Brahma Heaven (a Hindu celestial realm). Remembering his past karmic connections, he yearned to hear the Great Dao. Consequently, Lord Lao dispatched the Perfected Yin (a Daoist immortal) to impart methods of cultivating "true emptiness and constant stillness" along with liberation through immortality.

The Book of Later Han records that minister Pei Kai memorialized Emperor Huan, noting how the palace housed shrines to the Yellow Emperor-Laozi tradition and the Buddha (Futu), both teachings emphasizing Wuwei (non-action), abstinence from killing, and desire restraint. It describes Laozi's westward journey to establish Buddhist teachings among the western tribes. Buddhist monks (Futu) avoided sleeping under the same mulberry tree for three consecutive nights to prevent attachment. When celestial beings sent beauties to test ascetics, practitioners dismissed them as "mere skin-bags filled with blood," refusing even to glance. Through such rigorous discipline, King Bhadra ultimately attained enlightenment by hearing the Great Dao and realizing Buddhahood.

The passage concludes with Emperor Ming of Wei's eulogy for the Classic of Laozi's Conversion of the Barbarians, praising how Lord Lao existed before the primordial chaos of Hunyuan (the cosmic origin), emerging as the primordial sacred presence in the Great Beginning (Taichu).

This scripture recounts the creation and teaching deeds of the supreme Daoist deity Lord Lao (also known as Laozi). The opening describes the primordial state of the Dao (the Way): before the formation of heaven and earth, the Dao existed spontaneously without any teacher or origin, pure and subtle, empty and profoundly mysterious. Like the bright sun and moon suspended in the sky yet as unfathomable as an abyss, it created heaven and earth (the Two Modes, referring to yin and yang), and arranged the sun, moon, and stars (the Three Lights). The Dao itself has no desires, its essence is pure and beyond words, remaining true to itself regardless of external disturbances.

The text then narrates how Lord Lao manifested as the Archivist of the Zhou dynasty (equivalent to a national librarian), returning to Mount Kunlun after nine hundred years. Later, he traveled westward to spread his teachings, first to the Hu regions (northern nomadic territories), then to Jibin (present-day Kashmir) and Tianzhu (India), leaving behind scriptures for future generations. In the fourth year of King Mu of Zhou's reign, Lord Lao descended to the Fusang Tree (the mythical sun-rising tree) in the Eastern Sea, where he and the Heavenly Emperor assessed the ranks of immortals. He also manifested as the "Supreme Healing King of Longevity and Nectar" in the western land of Sulin (a legendary western kingdom), liberating all beings, including spirits and ghosts.

King Mu of Zhou (the fifth king of the Western Zhou dynasty) was fond of cultivating immortality. He once received the Queen Mother of the West in his palace and obtained eight divine horses. Riding his chariot across the Weak River (a mythical river where even goose feathers cannot float), fish and turtles formed a bridge for him. He ascended the Spring Mountain and feasted with the Queen Mother of the West at the Jade Pool. King Mu reigned for fifty-four years and lived to be 104 years old. By that time, Yin Xi (a disciple of Lord Lao) had already traveled westward to the Flowing Sands. The thatched pavilion he built at the southern foot of Mount Zhongnan was converted by King Mu into a Daoist temple, where seven Daoist priests were selected to serve. Among them was a priest named Chong (styled Xuanyi), who practiced long-term meditation in a quiet chamber, absorbing the essence of heaven and earth through breath regulation (tuna). After more than twenty years, a true immortal finally descended to his place of cultivation.

This scripture records the cultivation experiences and immortal ascension accounts of several ancient Daoist practitioners.

First is the story of Du Chong: Two attendants stood by his side holding a jade-green casket. Kneeling in reverence, Du Chong earnestly requested and received the Jiuhua Danjing (Nine Flowers Elixir Scripture). When Laozi (the supreme Daoist deity, revered as Lord Lao) and Master Wenshi (the honorific title of the immortal Yin Xi) gathered immortals at Mount Bating in the Eastern Sea, the local deities recommended Du Chong for his diligent practice. Laozi then commanded that he be transmitted an immortal formula. After cultivating according to these methods, Du Chong’s body emitted a jade-like radiance, his five viscera grew robust, and his Qi (vital energy) became internally refined. Later, he received the Taishang Suling Dongxuan Dayou Miaojing (Supreme Pure and Numinous Wondrous Scripture of the Mysterious Cavern) from the Perfected Li Jun. Through further cultivation, his progress was remarkable, and he ultimately transcended the constraints of the physical body, gaining command over deities, the ability to summon tigers and leopards, and mastery over all spirits. He lived over a hundred years before, in the 19th year of King Mu of Zhou’s reign, Laozi dispatched the Perfected Lord of Shangqing to guide him in ascension. He was enfeoffed as the Perfected of Taiji (Supreme Ultimate) and appointed as the Immortal King of Mount Wangwu.

Next is the account of Mao Gui (courtesy name Gongdu): In his youth, he studied celestial patterns and divination under Master Wenshi, receiving over a hundred Daoist scriptures and alchemical formulas. After Master Wenshi achieved immortality, Mao Gui practiced cultivation at the Louguan Terrace alongside recluses like Du Chong. At twenty-eight, he began abstaining from grains, refining Qi (vital energy), and concocting divine elixirs, eventually attaining the Dao and ascending. Laozi bestowed upon him the title of Perfected of Taihe (Great Harmony), placing him in charge of the celestial officials in the Duyang Palace. Mao Gui often traveled with his divine elixirs, using refined gold and silver to aid the poor, healing the afflicted with his elixirs, and assisting countless people in distress.

Lastly is the cultivation journey of Li Tuo: During the reign of King Mu of Zhou, he arrived at the Dragon Bridge Peak of Mount Jintang in Shu (Sichuan) to refine the Nine Flowers Elixir. After succeeding, he wandered the land for over two hundred years. At sea, he encountered Feiyang Jun, from whom he learned the Way of Water and Jade before returning to the mountains to continue refining medicines. Over the next several centuries, he appeared and disappeared intermittently, roaming the human world to guide and deliver beings.

This account records the deeds of several Daoist practitioners. Li Babai (named for living eight hundred years) cultivated the Dao at Sanxue Mountain, where his sister Li Zhenduo also practiced alongside him. Lord Lao (i.e., the Supreme Lord Lao, highest deity of Daoism) descended with the Three Masters of Mysterious Antiquity to transmit methods of celestial ascension. Li Babai ultimately achieved daylight ascension, causing the mountain to be named "Zhenduo's Transformation," which was the ancient site of Fushan Prefecture.

In the twenty-first year of King Li of Zhou, Song Lun of Luoyang practiced asceticism in seclusion at Louguan. For over twenty years he diligently recited the Daode Jing (Classic of the Way and Virtue) while consuming polygonatum and atractylodes (two longevity herbs). One day Lord Lao descended with six immortal youths, transmitting to him the "Way of Central Radiance" and the "Scripture of Communing with Truth" (two advanced cultivation methods). These techniques could confer immortality and omniscience. After cultivation, Song Lun attained supernatural abilities including clairvoyance across ten thousand miles and shape-shifting. In his nineties, he was appointed as "Perfected Being of Great Purity" to oversee the register of immortals at Central Peak.

Peng Zong began Daoist cultivation at age twenty, studying the Daode Jing under his master Du Chong. He mastered the "Way of Feminine Unity" (a breathing technique), maintaining a single inhalation-exhalation cycle for three days and nights while reciting the Daode Jing twice in one breath. By King Li of Zhou's reign, at 150 years old, he was summoned by Lord Lao as a Perfected Being of Great Purity. These records collectively demonstrate how Daoist practitioners attained longevity and supernatural powers through prolonged cultivation.

During the reign of King Xuan of Zhou, Feng Chang served as the Pillar Historian (equivalent to the director of the national library). At forty years of age, he resigned from office to cultivate the Dao, often reciting the Daode Jing while living in seclusion at Mount Zhongnan. The Most High Lord Lao (Taishang Laojun) dispatched the immortal Peng Zong, who descended riding a white tiger to Feng's dwelling, transmitting to him the Taishang Yinshu (a secret Daoist scripture). By the time of King Ping of Zhou, Feng Chang attained immortality and was enfeoffed as the Perfected Lord of the Western Peak.

In the forty-third year of King Xuan's reign, the Most High Lord Lao passed by the Wei River, where the king personally received him. Lord Lao prophesied: "When the Year Star (Jupiter) enters the celestial division corresponding to the northern state of Yan, the Zhou dynasty will decline." True to his words, King You of Zhou ascended the throne two years later. (The present-day Boyang Plain by the Qian and Wei rivers marks the site of Lord Lao's prophecy.) At that time, a woodcutter was heard singing in the outskirts: "Golden turban donned to enter heaven's gate, summoning Jing (essence) and Qi while inhaling dark springs, beating celestial drums to nourish the Muddy Pellet (referring to upper Dantian cultivation)." When none could comprehend the song, Lord Lao explained: "This is one who cultivates longevity arts—his chant reveals the supreme secrets of authentic Daoist practice."

In the second year of King You's reign, a great earthquake struck Western Zhou, simultaneously shaking the Jing, Wei, and Luo rivers. Lord Lao interpreted: "Zhou approaches its end. The Qi of heaven and earth should flow orderly—when this sequence is disrupted, chaos ensues. Yang Qi, suppressed, cannot ascend; Yin Qi, obstructed, cannot rise—hence earthquakes occur. Today's simultaneous tremors in three rivers signify Yang Qi displaced by dominant Yin. Blocked water sources foretell a state's collapse, for just as earth and water nurture all beings, when land loses this nourishing power, the people suffer want—how can the realm endure? Long ago, the Luo's drying heralded Xia's fall; the Yellow River's exhaustion presaged Shang's demise—Zhou's virtue now mirrors those doomed dynasties' twilight."

He continued prophesying: "A nation's fate binds to its mountains and rivers—collapsing peaks and dried streams portend its fall. Within ten years, all shall be fulfilled." Indeed, that year witnessed the three rivers running dry and Mount Qi's collapse. Three years later, when King You became infatuated with Baosi (the concubine credited with toppling Western Zhou), Lord Lao sighed: "Zhou's doom is sealed," and recounted this parable: During Xia's decline, two dragons descended to the court declaring, "We are the two lords of Bao." The Xia people offered ritual silks until the dragons vanished, leaving spittle stored in a casket. For three dynasties none dared open it—until King Li of Zhou peered inside. The saliva transformed into a dark turtle, impregnating a palace maid who bore a daughter (Baosi's mother). Abandoned at birth, this girl became the subject of folk prophecies during King Xuan's era: "Mulberry bows and basket-grass sacks shall topple Zhou's throne."

This scripture recounts two main stories, both related to Lord Lao (Laojun, the deified Laozi revered in Daoism as the Supreme Venerable Lord).

The first part concerns a prophecy about the fall of the Zhou dynasty. During King You of Zhou's reign, a couple selling ji fu (a type of vessel) were to be arrested for some offense. While fleeing at night, they found an abandoned baby girl by the roadside and adopted her. This girl grew up to become the infamous Bao Si, whom King You favored so greatly that he deposed Queen Shen and Crown Prince Yijiu for her. Lord Lao prophesied, "The calamity is inevitable, nothing can be done," and indeed the Zhou dynasty later fell to the Quanrong tribes.

The latter part records Lord Lao's missionary activities in the Western Regions. In the thirty-third year of King Ping of Zhou's reign, Lord Lao traveled beyond the pass to visit the Western Sea, Liulin Isle, and other places. There he assembled over eighty thousand immortals (xian) and cultivators, assigning them various ranks of celestial official positions (totaling five grades with twenty-seven levels) according to their accumulated merit (gongde). Afterwards, Lord Lao ascended to heaven, bidding farewell to the various peoples of the Western Regions.

The text concludes with an account of the birth legend of Sakyamuni (referred to as "the founder of the Buddhist teachings") from a Daoist perspective: in his previous life, he was King Fantuo of Jibin, later reborn as a prince in Shendu (ancient India). On the seventh day of the fourth month in the ninth year of King Zhuang's reign, he was born at midnight from his mother Queen Maya's right side. The scripture details the auspicious signs accompanying his birth as recorded in Buddhist texts: his mother's dream of a white elephant foretelling the pregnancy, his miraculous emergence from her right side, and taking seven steps immediately after birth. These accounts reflect Daoism's interpretation of Buddhism's origins, incorporating the Buddhist founder into the Daoist pantheon of immortals.

This passage primarily recounts the life events of Śākyamuni (the founder of Buddhism). According to records, Śākyamuni was a prince of Kapilavastu (an ancient minor kingdom in India), born on the night of the eighth day of the fourth lunar month, emerging from his mother's right side. At birth, he possessed thirty-two extraordinary physical marks, while thirty-two auspicious signs manifested in the heavens. These accounts are described in detail in the Buddhacarita scripture.

Śākyamuni's birth corresponds to the ninth year of King Zhuang of Zhou's reign (688 BCE) in Chinese chronology. He was born with curly hair, possessed great strength and exceptional archery skills. At seventeen, his father arranged for him to marry three wives, with whom he fathered two sons. Later, during travels outside the palace, he witnessed the sufferings of birth, aging, sickness, and death, which awakened him to life's impermanence. At twenty-nine, he renounced his royal status to pursue spiritual cultivation. For six years he practiced severe asceticism under an asana tree in the Himalayas (later called the Bodhi tree—"Bodhi" meaning "Dao" in Chinese), ultimately attaining enlightenment and becoming the Buddha Śākyamuni.

Śākyamuni entered parinirvana on the fifteenth day of the second lunar month in the fourth year of King Kuang's reign (611 BCE), at the age of eighty. The text also mentions discrepancies among different texts regarding the birthdates of Buddhism's and Daoism's founders—some asserting Laozi (Laojun) was born in the third year of King Ding of Zhou's reign, while the Buddha was born earlier during the twenty-fourth year of King Zhao of Zhou's reign, suggesting Buddhism's origins predate Daoism. However, this account primarily serves to illustrate the historical connections between Buddhism's introduction to China and indigenous Daoist traditions.

This passage examines the chronological discrepancies between the lives of Laozi and Śākyamuni (the founder of Buddhism), refuting the Daoist claim that "Laozi transformed into the Buddha after journeying westward to civilize the barbarians" (a belief that Laozi traveled to the western regions, manifested as the Buddha, and established Buddhism).

According to the Liexian Zhuan (Biographies of Immortals), Laozi was already born during the Shang dynasty, serving as the Keeper of Archives (a position managing state records), and later held the post of Pillar Historian (a historiographer role) during the Zhou dynasty. The Sui dynasty stele inscription by Xue Daoheng also records Laozi holding these official positions during the reigns of King Wen and King Wu of Zhou. If we follow certain claims that Laozi was born during King Ding of Zhou's reign, it would be impossible for him to have served as the Western Earl's (King Wen of Zhou) archivist during the Shang dynasty.

Regarding Śākyamuni's birth and death dates, it was widely accepted during that period that he was born in the ninth year of King Zhuang of Zhou (corresponding to the seventh year of Duke Zhuang of Lu). Historical records note that in April of that year, an astronomical phenomenon occurred where "the fixed stars vanished, yet the night remained bright." From that year until the eighth year of Wuding in the Northern Wei dynasty spans 1,237 years. The Toutuosi Stele composed by Wang Jianqi of the Southern Qi dynasty also clearly states the Buddha was born during the reigns of King Zhuang of Zhou and Duke Zhuang of Lu. This stele text was included in the Wenxuan anthology compiled by Crown Prince Zhaoming of Liang, whose annotations further specify: the Buddha was born during King Zhuang of Zhou's reign, Buddhism entered China during Emperor Ming of Han's reign, and flourished under Emperor Ming of Jin—hence the phrase "two Zhuangs and two Mings."

The author emphasizes that Crown Prince Zhaoming of Liang was himself a Buddhist practitioner. Had these chronological records been incorrect, he would never have included them in the Wenxuan. Later scholars failed to properly study ancient texts and arbitrarily proposed alternative theories, forcibly pushing Śākyamuni's lifespan thirteen dynasties earlier—over three hundred years out of alignment—an egregious act of deception. Moreover, since the Eastern Han dynasty, numerous foreign monks (húsēng) had come to China, all truthfully recounting Buddhist history. By the Later Qin dynasty under the Yao clan, over three hundred years had passed without a single discrepancy in these accounts ever being noted.

This scripture discusses a fundamental perspective: Daoism and Buddhism are inherently interconnected. The text observes that some people tend to dismiss authentic historical records and cling stubbornly to their own views, an approach that lacks credibility. For instance, the Tangshu Yiwenzhi (Bibliographical Treatise of the Tang History) places Daoist thought first, followed by teachings on immortals (xian), with Buddhist content categorized under Daoist schools rather than as a separate classification.

When Ouyang Xiu compiled the Tangshu, his records on Laozi and Buddhism were notably brief. Only in the "Account of Tianzhu" (India) does he mention that during the Zhenguan era, Tianzhu presented rare treasures and maps to the Tang court and requested an image of Lord Lao (Laozi). Some wonder why Laozi did not simply "transform the barbarians into the Dao" (a Daoist legend of Laozi’s westward journey to teach non-Chinese peoples) but instead became the Buddha. In fact, in Indian language, the term bodhi corresponds to the Chinese Dao (the Way). Buddhist scriptures also describe Śākyamuni entering the mountains to cultivate the Dao, attaining enlightenment (chengdao) after six years—demonstrating the interchangeability of "Buddha" and "Dao." Just as Chinese practitioners say "becoming an immortal" (chengxian) rather than "attaining the Dao," the terminology differs, but the essence remains the same.

According to the Devadatta Chapter of the Lotus Sutra, the Buddha recounts a past life as a king who renounced his throne to seek the Dharma, serving a xian (immortal/adept) for a thousand years. The xian transmitted the Wonderful Dharma Lotus Sutra to him, enabling him to perfect the Six Pāramitās (six transcendent practices), cultivate compassion, joy, and equanimity, attain the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks of a Buddha, and ultimately achieve Buddhahood. Ancient Chan masters also noted in their prefaces that Śākyamuni, in recounting his past as a king who relinquished power to study the Dao under a xian, inspired the inclusion of the Devadatta Chapter. Zhang Wujin (a Song Dynasty Buddhist scholar) wrote in his Harmonized Discourses: The Buddha’s service to the xian illustrates how rare it is to encounter a true spiritual mentor (shan zhishi); the xian instructed the Buddha orally, yet the Buddha realized the teaching through direct insight.

The core message of this scripture is this: Śākyamuni, many lifetimes earlier, studied under a xian, demonstrating the profound antiquity of the immortal path (xiandao). The xian’s transmission of scriptures enabled him to master the Six Pāramitās and attain Buddhahood, proving that a xian is fully qualified to be the Buddha’s teacher. The Buddha’s descent into the world was to fulfill the great causal condition of guiding sentient beings.

This passage explores the connections between several important Buddhist figures and Daoism. It first mentions Fu Dashi of Shuanglin (considered an incarnation of Maitreya Buddha), who, though a Buddha, honored Daoism as primary and Buddhism as secondary—hence his attire combining a Daoist crown with Buddhist robes. Next, it discusses Hanshanzi of Tiantai Mountain, the embodiment of Manjusri Bodhisattva (teacher of the Seven Buddhas), who often studied Daoist scriptures in the mountains while wielding the sword of wisdom to sever worldly afflictions. Hanshanzi lamented in poetry how people failed to comprehend the true essence of cultivation, buried in mundane life without studying the Daode Jing (Classic of the Way and Virtue).

The author observes that ancient sages universally revered Laozi and the Daode Jing, yet later scholars neglected these roots—some even slandered their own traditions and betrayed the Daoist lineage, a truly lamentable situation.

The text then explains the post-nirvana destination of Sakyamuni Buddha: ascending to the thirty-second heaven, Jiayi Tian, where he resides in Yanzhen Palace as the leader of Zhongmin Tian (one of the four highest heavens in Daoist cosmology), bearing the title Shanhui Zhenren (Perfected of Benevolent Wisdom). The Benxiang Jing (Scripture of Original Appearance) records that the Buddha transcended the Three Realms, while the Benshi Jing (Scripture of Primordial Beginnings) states he dwells eternally in the constellation of Su Tian Kui (one of the Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions). Historical sources like the Shi Lao Zhi (Treatise on Buddhism and Daoism) from the Northern Wei and Li Chunfeng's Tang dynasty commentary Jinsuo Liuzhu (Golden Lock and Flowing Pearls) corroborate that after attaining enlightenment, the Buddha became master of Yanzhen Palace—demonstrating these accounts have substantial basis.