《雲笈七籤》Vol. 100

Yunji Qiqian, Fascicle 110

(Compiled and presented by your subject Zhang Junfang, Court Gentleman for Ceremonial Service of the Song, Vice Director of the Bureau of Revenue of the Department of State Affairs, Collator of the Jixian Academy, granted the crimson fish-bag, and permitted to wear purple)

Preface to the Xiantian Ji (Record of Prior Heaven)

Composed by Emperor Zhenzong of Song

It is said that to be profound and yet able to penetrate creation and transformation—the changes of heaven, earth, and the myriad things—is called wondrous efficacy; to assist heaven and earth and embrace the myriad things is called the achievement of a sage. Heaven, earth, and the four quarters are boundless, and millions of generations continue in succession. People look up to the sage as they look up to the sun, moon, and stars; they follow the sage’s teachings as they follow a plumb line and ink line.

When the sage ascends to Heaven and receives the mandate, he silently obtains Heaven’s protection; auspicious omens appear in succession, causing the great enterprise to flourish. Therefore one should commemorate the great achievements of the ancestors, proclaim them to all people under Heaven, supplement the doubtful and missing portions of the Five Canons, and make this book the first among the Six Classics.

The Holy Ancestor (the primordial Holy Ancestor venerated in Daoism) opened the very beginning of human moral instruction, when heaven and earth were still in the primordial age and government affairs were likewise plain and simple. He stored up Jing and Qi, looked down and observed heaven, earth, and the four quarters, accorded with the turning of the times and dwelt in the center, and flourishingly propagated the Three Sequences (San Tong). With foreknowledge and prior awakening he instructed the myriad things and commanded the assembled spirits.

At Zhuolu he reviewed the troops, saved the common people, and pacified disorder; on the summit of Mount Liang he established his title, received the Heavenly Mandate, and proclaimed the completion of his work. He went to Mount Tong to pay homage, thereby honoring the profound and mysterious Dao; he also made his body light and flew up at Yegu, ascending to Ziqing (the high celestial realm spoken of in Daoism). The people revered his divine majesty and also followed his teachings. The nine states sacrificed to him for generations, and the three dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou continued the sacrifices with the rites of the great ancestral line. His abundant achievements could hardly be recorded in full even on bamboo slips and silk; wherever carts and writing reached, everyone admired his traces.

Were his achievements only those of Tang Yao in bringing harmony to the myriad states, King Wen of Zhou in causing his descendants to flourish for a hundred generations, Fuxi in first drawing the Bagua, or Gaoxin in rectifying the order of the Five Phases?

With my shallow and limited person I inherited the imperial throne, received the blessing of descending auspicious omens, and was also favored by the descent of the Holy Ancestor’s true body, allowing me to hear his earnest teachings. From this I came to understand that the founding of the great enterprise has its own root and source, and I was mindful that the merits accumulated by the ancestors are inexhaustible. Therefore I presented the precious seal and ribbon, bestowed an honorific title on the Holy Ancestor, and repaired the ancestral temple. Day and night I dare not be remiss in my heart’s reverence for the Holy Ancestor; the assembled ministers likewise strive all the more to express their reverence and praise.

Wang Qinruo, Commissioner of the Bureau of Military Affairs, Inspecting Grand Commandant, and Joint Manager of Government Affairs, assisted in the confidential affairs of the state and was thoroughly versed in letters and history. He revered the blessings bestowed by the celestial palace and, in accordance with the will to posthumously honor the ancestors, devoted himself to arranging ancient texts and did his utmost to distinguish and determine the order of the books that came from the Lu Wall (the wall where ancient Confucian classics were traditionally said to have been hidden). He led the company in collating the text and corrected errors in the editions transmitted in the Jin River region (errors arising in the transmission and arrangement of texts). To this end they collected various documentary materials—precious book cases, jade books, bamboo slips, and artemisia-sealed labels—visited famous mountains afar and inspected book repositories near at hand, classified and assembled the materials, sought out hidden and profound principles, and compiled them into a book…

The book is titled Xiantian Ji (Record of the Innate), in the hope of recording the deeds of the Yellow Emperor’s lineage through the generations, making manifest the virtue of the ancestors, and enabling later ages to inherit the aspirations of those who came before. The author modestly says that his wording is shallow and that he has only briefly recounted the fine deeds of former worthies; he has also included this piece in the book under the title Xiantian Ji. The author hopes that later generations will carry forward the lineage and make manifest the Heavenly Clan. The tradition of “transmitting the arts at Longmen” often preserves true records in circulation; nor do the scholars who ascended the hall at Queli have anything to add.

Basic Annals of Xuanyuan

Xuanyuan, the Yellow Emperor, had the surname Gongsun. The old commentary says that the surname “Gongsun” existed only after the Zhou dynasty established the five ranks of nobility; the Yellow Emperor grew up by the Ji River, and therefore also took Ji as his surname. The old commentary further notes that it is unclear what ancient historical basis there is for this.

The Yellow Emperor was the second son of Shaodian, lord of the state of Youxiong. Legend says that Fuxi begot Shaodian, and Shaodian begot Shennong and the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor inherited the throne and resided in the Youxiong fief.

The Yellow Emperor’s mother was a daughter of the Xiqiao clan named Fubao. Legend says that she once saw in a dream a great flash of lightning encircling the pivot star of the Northern Dipper and illuminating the countryside; Fubao thereby conceived. Because the legend says the Pivot Star descended, she was also called “Tianshu” (Heavenly Pivot). After twenty-four months of pregnancy, she gave birth to Xuanyuan at Shouqiu. Shouqiu was outside the east gate of Lu.

At birth the Yellow Emperor appeared divine and extraordinary; in childhood he was intelligent and quick, and soon able to speak; as a youth he handled matters steadily and astutely; when grown he was wise and discerning. His appearance was extraordinary: dragon face, sun horns, river eyes, high forehead, dark green complexion, and broad shoulders. The Yellow Emperor first studied at Daxiang and later grew up by the Ji River.

At fifteen, the Yellow Emperor’s thoughts were already broad and penetrating, and so he inherited the state of Youxiong and succeeded to the ruler’s position. The old commentary says that Youxiong was in Xinzheng County, Zhengzhou. The Yellow Emperor created caps and crowns, carriages and robes, and was therefore called “Xuanyuan.” He governed the world by Earth De, and so was called the “Yellow Emperor.”

The Yellow Emperor appointed Shelong to oversee the east (see below for details), and Zhurong to oversee the south. The old commentary explains: the Heart mansion belongs to Fire, is located due south, and symbolizes brightness; rong means brightness; Zhurong was the title of the official in charge of fire. The south belongs to Yang, the north to Yin. The classic text continues: the Yellow Emperor appointed Huofeng to oversee the west; the west corresponds to half of the You position. At the You hour, when the rooster crows at dawn, the rooster faces east while being situated in the west…

(The west corresponds to the You hour; You is associated with the rooster. The period when the sun gradually sets and enters night is called the You hour; when the You hour is half over, it is the west.) … Houtu (the deity corresponding to the north) governs the north. The north belongs to Yin and also carries the sense of turning one’s back, hence it is called north. The origins of the names of the four directions are as follows: the east has the meaning of “movement”; when the sun rises, the myriad things move accordingly. The character “east” has “sun” as its component, looking like seeing the sunrise through a gap between trees, comparable to the sun rising from the Fusang forest; Fusang is where the sun rises and is said to be several hundred thousand li from the east.

At Daliang, the Emperor married a woman of the Xiling clan, called her Luozu, and established her as primary consort (principal wife). She bore two sons, Xuanxiao and Changyi. At first, the Emperor was pleased that the people of the world supported him. He cultivated the upright Dao and nurtured life, enabling the people to dwell in peace and prosperity. This was the manner of governing the people in the Hong-Huang era: at that time, without coercion the people naturally submitted to transformation; without rewards they were diligent. They were joyful at heart without hypocrisy and acted plainly without adornment; this was called the beginning of Taiqing (Great Clarity).

Farmers did not encroach on the boundaries of neighboring fields, and fishermen did not contend for places on the bank; when going to market, there was no need to bargain beforehand; markets had no gates or prohibitions, and local merchants and travelers yielded goods to one another; every household left its outer door unclosed at night. This was called “Datong” (Great Harmony), the ideal society in which all under Heaven is harmonious and everyone lives in peace.

After the Emperor had governed all under Heaven for fifteen years, he worried that the people had not yet been properly governed. He therefore exhausted his intelligence and ability, strove to plan for the people, and comprehensively made bright virtuous government. He examined achievements and virtuous conduct, devoting himself to establishing laws and standards and promoting moral transformation. At that time, the primary consort of the Xiling clan began to raise silkworms and obtain silk. (The present Book of Rites records that the empress presided over the First Sericulture ritual and sacrificed to the Xiling clan. Ge Zhichuan’s Record of the Western Capital says that an Altar of the First Sericulture was established in the palace.)

After this, five sages including Tianlao assisted in governing and transforming all under Heaven. The Emperor modeled himself on Fuxi’s hexagram images and adopted the meaning of the sixty-four hexagrams valued by Shennong; he created the doctrine of the Bagua (Eight Trigrams), calling it the “Basuo” (Eight Cords), and used it to investigate the meaning of the doubled hexagrams.

At that time, the minister Cao Hu made upper garments, Boyu made lower garments, and Yuze made shoes. The Emperor also used this as a basis to make caps and ceremonial crowns. (“Guan” is a cap worn on the head; “mian” is a type of guan, higher at the back and lower at the front, shaped as if bowing, hence called mian.) From then on, people began not to cover their bodies with fur and animal hides; this is precisely what is meant by “Huangdi let his garments hang down and all under Heaven was governed.” The Emperor also used this to distinguish the noble from the base and to have men and women dwell separately, modeling on the principle of Qian and Kun: Heaven is noble, Earth is base.

The Emperor saw floating leaves and realized that boats could be made. Thereupon, Gonggu and Huadi…

Three officials helped to make boats and ships—that is, “hollowing out wood to make boats and whittling wood to make oars”—so people could cross waters that were otherwise impassable. This takes its meaning from the Huan hexagram in the Yijing (Classic of Changes); Huan has the sense of dispersal and free passage, and boats can help people cross barriers.

The Yellow Emperor also observed how fleabane turned with the wind and made carts. At that time a wondrous horse appeared in the marsh, so it was called the “Marsh Horse” (Zema), also known as Jiguang or Jiliang. It came from Dafeng, an ancient state in the area of present-day Bozhou; it had white markings on its body and a red mane. Legend says that one who rode it could live a thousand years. When a sage governs the world, this kind of horse appears at the proper time.

Ancient books disagree about Jiguang: some consider it the same animal as Tenghuang, while others hold that Jiguang is a horse and Tenghuang a beast. Here, following Ge Hong, Jiguang and Tenghuang are regarded as two different creatures.

There was also the divine beast Tenghuang, yellow in color and shaped like a fox, with two horns on its back and dragon wings. Other records say it had dragon wings and a horse’s body, and was also called Chenghuang, Feihuang, Guhuang, or Cuihuang; it came from the country of Japan. Legend says that riding it one could live two thousand years; another account says it could live three thousand years and travel ten thousand li in a day, and that its rider could live two thousand years. The Six Canons records that the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen dynasties all established offices responsible for Chenghuang; today the Court of the Imperial Stud has a Chenghuang Office, which is also related to this.

After the Yellow Emperor obtained Tenghuang, he rode it on tours in all directions and journeyed throughout the world. The saying “riding eight-winged dragons to roam the world” refers to legends of this kind. Thus the Yellow Emperor moved his residence and traveled about without a fixed place.

The Yellow Emperor began teaching people to ride horses; the official Gai made implements for driving oxen, enabling oxen to be used by people. What the Shiben calls “driving oxen and riding horses, drawing heavy loads and reaching distant places” takes its meaning from the Sui hexagram in the Yijing, meaning following what is needed and each attaining what is suitable.

The official Huang Yongfu first invented the husking of rice. People cut wood to make pestles and dug earth to make mortars for husking rice, bringing convenience to all. This takes its meaning from the Xiaoguo hexagram; Xiaoguo here means that there is some exceeding, and affairs thereby proceed.

The Yellow Emperor made stoves and laid the beginning of cooking methods, and he ordered people to cast cauldrons and make zeng—steamers for food—to steam rice and cook porridge, changing the old custom of eating plants raw and drinking raw blood.

The official Hui first made bows, and the official Yimou made arrows—that is, “bending wood to make bows and whittling wood to make arrows.” The Shiji, however, says that bows and arrows were made by the Yellow Emperor. Bows and arrows could be used to overawe the world; this takes its meaning from the Kui hexagram in the Yijing. Kui has the sense of divergence and estrangement, and also refers to using institutions to restrain those who do not submit. The Yellow Emperor began to make...

The Yellow Emperor built palace chambers to avoid cold, heat, dryness, and dampness; these were called “gongshi” (palace chambers), meaning places for people to dwell. The saying “above there are ridgepoles and beams, below there are eaves, to withstand wind and rain” takes its meaning from the Dazhuang (Great Vigor) hexagram of the Yijing. “Da” means strong and flourishing. The Yellow Emperor also ordered the building of walled towns for the people to live in, thereby changing the crude life of the ancients in nests and caves. He further set up multiple gates and had wooden clappers struck to guard against violent intruders; this took its meaning from the Yu hexagram of the Yijing, indicating forethought against the unexpected.

Later, people also changed the ancient practice of wrapping the dead in brushwood and grass for burial and began burying the dead in inner and outer coffins; this took its meaning from the Daguo (Great Excess) hexagram of the Yijing.

The Yellow Emperor fasted and purified himself in the Central Palace and sat in the Xuanhu stone chamber by the Luo River, observing together with Rong Guang and others. Suddenly a great bird came before the Yellow Emperor carrying a chart in its beak. The Yellow Emperor bowed twice and received the chart. The bird was shaped like a crane, with a chicken’s head, a luan-bird’s beak, a turtle’s neck, and a dragon’s body; its two wings were close together, its tail was like a fish, and its body had five colors and three patterns. The patterns formed characters: the patterned characters on its head were “prudent virtue,” on its back “trustworthiness and righteousness,” and on its breast “benevolence and wisdom.”

Tian Lao said: “The front half of this bird is like a qilin, the rear half like a deer, its neck like a snake, its back bearing dragon patterns; its feet tread on upright ground, and its tail is linked to martial preparedness. It has nine auspicious signs: first, it embraces the Heavenly Mandate; second, its inner mind conforms to rule and measure; third, its ears are acute and penetrating; fourth, its tongue can curl and extend; fifth, its colors are complete; sixth, its crest is tall and sharp like a hook; seventh, its golden eyes are bright and vivid; eighth, its call is high and melodious; ninth, its belly is broad. It is also called the ou; the male is called feng and the female huang, and it stands five or six chi tall. When it calls at dawn, it is called ‘Dengchen’; when it calls in the daytime, ‘Shangxiang’; when it calls toward evening, ‘Guichang’; when it calls at dusk, ‘Guchang’; when it calls at night, ‘Baochang.’ Its calls all accord with the pitch standards (lülü); when it appears, it foretells peace under Heaven.”

The Yellow Emperor said: “This bird leaves when it encounters an age of disorder and dwells in the lands of the Nine Yi. It appears in the land of gentlemen in the East, and it also appears on Mount Danxue.”

The Yellow Emperor had a minister named Ju Song and another named Cang Jie. Cang Jie observed bird tracks and created writing; this was the origin of writing. (Earlier Confucians were not unanimous about the origin of writing: some said it began with the Three Sovereigns, some with Fuxi, and others said writing arose together with Heaven and Earth. Here, following the accounts of Sima Qian, Ban Gu, Wei Yan, Song Zhong, Fu Xuan, and others, Cang Jie is recorded as a minister of the Yellow Emperor. The various accounts of Cang Jie are also not settled.)

The Yellow Emperor cultivated and made bright his virtue and righteousness, and the world was well governed. He then summoned Tian Lao and said to him: “I dreamed that two dragons lifted a white chart from the Yellow River and gave the chart to me. I wish to ask you what this means.” Tian Lao replied: “This is a sign that the He Tu and Luo Shu are about to appear; perhaps Heaven intends to bestow them upon Your Majesty. Your Majesty should fast and purify himself and then observe.” Thereupon the Yellow Emperor fasted and purified himself in the Central Palace...

The Yellow Emperor wore a yellow robe and a yellow crown, rode in a carriage adorned with yellow dragons, and carried intertwined-dragon banners. Together with Tianlao and the Five Sages, he traveled between the Yellow River and the Luo River, seeking a dream oracle from the spirits, but he received no revelation.

Thereupon the Yellow Emperor sank a jade disc into the river. After that, a great fog over the river lasted for three days. The Yellow Emperor then came to Cuiyan Spring, where he saw a large perch swimming upstream from the river. He slaughtered the three sacrificial animals—ox, sheep, and pig—and performed a jiao sacrifice, a Daoist ritual. Then heavy rain fell for seven days and seven nights. A yellow dragon emerged from the river bearing charts and writings on its back. The Yellow Emperor asked Tianlao and the Five Sages, “Did you see the thing in the river?” They stepped forward, knelt, and presented the charts and writings to the Yellow Emperor.

This chart contained all five colors; its ground resembled white orchid leaves, and on it were written vermilion characters. The Yellow Emperor unrolled and examined it, called it the “Lücuo Chart,” and ordered his attendant ministers to copy it and proclaim it throughout the realm. The Yellow Emperor said, “This is the Hetu (River Chart).”

In the autumn of that year, after the Yellow Emperor had obtained the dragon-and-phoenix charts and writings and the script created by Cangjie, he established a written script and began to use written contracts—contracts or records incised with symbols—to replace recording events by knotted cords. The written contract took its meaning from the Guai hexagram in the Yijing; Guai means “resolution” or “decision,” indicating that writing could be used to handle and adjudicate all kinds of affairs.

The original commentary explains that from the hanging down of garments to the establishment of writing, there were nine achievements in all. According to Huangfu Mi’s Diwang Daiji, all nine were accomplishments of the Yellow Emperor. The commentary also points out that the relevant statements in the Xici of the Yijing may cover the period from the Yellow Emperor to Yao and Shun: some earlier Confucians held that these institutions were not all created by the Yellow Emperor alone, and that later sage kings inherited and revised them. But according to Huangfu Mi’s record and the various books cited here, all nine institutions originated with the Yellow Emperor; Yao, Shun, and the others merely continued and perfected them.

After this, the Yellow Emperor fixed names for all things and established the doctrine of the Bagua (Eight Trigrams), calling it the “Basuo” (Eight Cords). He also had titles such as Dihongshi and Guicangshi, and he named the canonical writings he established the Guicang Shu. This is said to be the origin of the Yi.

After instituting garments, the Yellow Emperor also made the dragon robe, a ceremonial robe embroidered with dragon patterns, and embroidered the sun, moon, and stars on the garment to symbolize Heaven; hence there are eulogies concerning the dragon robe.

The Yellow Emperor took Nüjie as a consort. Later, Nüjie saw a great star descend at Huazhu like a rainbow; moved by its influence, she joined with it and gave birth to Shaohao. (The Daiji says that Nüjie was Luozu; this text regards that as incorrect.) The Yellow Emperor also married an ugly woman named Momu and had her instruct the women of the palace.

A woman of virtuous conduct was petitioned to be made a consort, and a ceremony of the Praise of the Six Virtues was held; afterward, the emperor also took Lady Feixiu as a consort.

At that time, the people found their food sweet and their clothes comfortable, delighted in local customs, and lived in peace and contentment, without greedy desires for other things. Neighboring states could see one another, and the sounds of chickens and dogs could be heard; people did not deceive or fight with one another even into old age, because they made no demands upon each other. This is what is meant by the Yellow Emperor governing the world so that the people’s hearts were at peace—the age of perfect governance. At that time, when the wind blew through the branches it made no sound, and this was called “the world’s joyful wind”; when rain fell, it did not break apart the clods of earth. Every ten days a light rain fell, in response to the civil virtue of the realm; every fifteen days a heavy rain fell, in accord with the movement of the seasonal rhythms.

At that time, people used auspicious grain as food. Auspicious grain was a rice-like grain with unusually abundant ears and strange forms. They used sweet spring as a beverage; sweet spring was spring water sweet and delicious like wine, and it could be used to nourish the elderly. They also used the Five Zhi as incense. The Five Zhi were wondrous herbs growing in gardens and orchards, including Zhiying, Purple Zhi, Golden Zhi, Black Zhi, and others; all were superior medicines used by immortals.

At that time, aquatic creatures emerged in swarms, and in the mountains there were also prodigies resembling carriages and horses that filled the plains. The emperor’s virtue resonated with Heaven, and so the auspicious omen of the Yellow Star appeared. The Yellow Star was a strange star shaped like the moon and seeming to add luster to the moon; it was named Jingxing. In addition, red cloud-vapor and azure cloud-vapor were joined: the red vapor contained two stars, and the azure vapor contained one star, three in all.

In the courtyard there also grew a strange plant. On the first day of each month it put forth one leaf, and by the fifteenth day it had grown fifteen leaves; from the sixteenth day onward it dropped one leaf each day, and by the thirtieth day all had fallen. In a short month, it would produce a single pod-leaf and cease to shed. This plant was called Mingjia, also called Lijia; people used it to determine the days and months. The Yellow Emperor therefore cast mirrors in imitation of it, making fifteen divine mirrors, which were also treasure mirrors.

At that time, Danao—the legendary assistant to the Yellow Emperor in establishing the calendar—could probe the transformations of the Five Phases and observe the direction indicated by the handle of the Northern Dipper. He therefore created the ten Heavenly Stems, Jia, Yi, and the rest, to mark days; established the twelve Earthly Branches, Zi, Chou, and the rest, to mark months; and paired birds and beasts with the twelve branches, combining them into a cycle of sixty days. This was the creation of the Jiazi cycle. The Yellow Emperor observed Fuxi’s three-line trigrams, expanded the Bagua into the twenty-four solar terms, and established a calendar to fix the seasons and the year. The Yellow Emperor honored Danao and treated him as a teacher, and assigned to each of the four directions the three chen of Meng, Zhong, and Ji. From this came the method of Yin-Yang.

After the Yellow Emperor heard of this, he put on yellow clothes, tied a yellow belt, put on a yellow cap, and fasted in the central palace. At that moment, phoenixes came, obscuring the sunlight, and the Yellow Emperor thereupon descended ...

The Yellow Emperor faced east, made obeisance, and kowtowed, saying, “Heaven has sent down great blessing; how would I dare not accept the Mandate of Heaven?” The phoenix thereupon stayed, gathered in the park east of the Yellow Emperor, and also perched on the wutong tree and built its nest high in the palace. The phoenix did not eat bamboo seeds or drink from the sweet spring; when it drank water it would of itself cry out and dance, its voice like sheng and xiao flutes.

The Yellow Emperor then sent Ling Lun to the Ruanyu Stream west of Daxia. That place was ten thousand li from Chang’an, in the Xie Valley area north of the Kunlun Mountains. Ling Lun collected dragon bamboo and selected pieces whose bore walls were uniform in thickness; he cut the section between two nodes to a length of three cun and seven fen, and when he blew it he fixed the pitch as the Huangzhong (Yellow Bell) note. Huangzhong is the pitch of the eleventh month and symbolizes the first arising of Yang qi at the winter solstice and the beginning sprouting of the myriad things.

This was established according to the principles of the movements of heaven and earth and in accord with the changes of wind-qi between them. It is said that the Yellow Emperor could master the movements of the sun and moon and harmonize the Qi of Yin-Yang, and so established the twelve pitch standards (lülü): six Yang pitches and six Yin pitches. The pitch pipes were made of bamboo, taking advantage of bamboo’s naturally hollow, round, and straight character; there were also pitch pipes made of jade, valued for its hard, pure, and warm-moist texture.

At that time, Rongcheng Shi, a descendant of Nüwa, was expert in pitch standards; he began to establish pitch standards and the calendar, made the Xinmao year the starting point of the calendar, and calculated the position of the sun at the winter solstice, holding that it was in the asterism behind the Southern Dipper. The Yellow Emperor also consulted Tian Lao and obtained classics on the Heavenly Origin and the sun, moon, and stars, as well as books recording celestial phenomena and the clepsydra (an ancient timekeeping device), with which to record the seasons. His minister Li Shou was expert in calculation; he first created numerals and composed methods of arithmetic. Ling Lun, for his part, established weights and measures: weights (quan) were steelyards, and measures (liang) were vessels such as the dou and hu.

Only after the Yellow Emperor obtained Chiyou did he begin to understand astronomy. (According to the Guanzi, Chiyou understood the arts of calculation and only later rebelled.) After the Yellow Emperor also obtained a precious tripod, he observed sun shadows, calculated calendrical numbers, complied with the patterns of heaven and earth’s movements, and examined the sun, moon, and stars. He made the Gaitian instrument (an ancient instrument for observing celestial phenomena) to measure celestial phenomena and calculate the degrees of the lunar mansions; he then divided the twenty-eight lunar mansions into twelve ci (astronomical regions): Jiao and Kang belong to the Shouxing region; Fang and Xin to the Dahuo region; Ji and Dou to the Ximu region; Niu and Nü to the Xingji region; Xu and Wei to the Xuanxiao region; Shi and Bi to the Zouzi region; Kui and Lou to the Jianglou region; Mao and Bi to the Daliang region; Zi and Shen to the Shichen region; Jing and Gui to the Chunshou region; Xing and Zhang to the Zhuhuo region; Yi and Zhen to the Chunwei region.

Subsequently, Huangdi (Yellow Emperor) established asterisms such as the central stars and outer stars to observe and divine the sun and moon, and compiled the related omen-observation documents. This was the beginning of observing celestial phenomena and deriving methods of omen verification, all of which were developed from the Hetu (Yellow River Diagram). Huangdi also ordered Xihe to observe solar phenomena, Changyi to observe lunar phenomena, and Guiyu Qu to observe stellar phenomena. Huangdi established the methods of omen observation and the documents for day divination, using them to distinguish auspicious from inauspicious.

Huangdi’s De (Virtue/Power) was profound, and it moved a Zhenren to come and wander by the Jade Pond; this was an auspicious sign attracted by his virtue. In the parks and gardens there appeared an auspicious beast, the beast of Xuanxiao. The Shangshu Zhonghou says that its body resembled an elk, it had an ox’s tail, wolf’s hooves, and a single horn on its head, with flesh at the tip of the horn, indicating that it would not harm living creatures. Its cry matched the Huangzhong tone, and its markings were gentle and elegant. The female was called Qi and the male Lin. It was born of Fire and active in Earth; when it cried in spring, it foretold that grain would return to the granaries; when it cried in summer, it foretold support for the young; when it cried in autumn and winter, it foretold that people would keep faith. (Huangzhong is the first of the ancient twelve pitch standards, used here to show that the sound conformed to pitch.)

Huangdi also discovered a kind of tiny creature called gulou, some of which were as large as sheep and some as large as oxen. There was another creature called yin, as large as a rainbow, symbolizing the flourishing of Earth De and the rise of a ruler in response to destiny. Another beast, whose name is recorded only as a rare character, resembled a lion and could eat tigers, yet it acted according to normal principles and was also close to humans; sometimes it even entered houses, and people were afraid and worried about it. Huangdi then reported it to Heaven and had it moved to the remote northern wilderness.

Because of auspicious clouds such as Jingyun and Qingyun, Huangdi named offices after clouds, hence there was the office of Jinyun. (Another account holds that when Huangdi refined the Golden Elixir, the auspicious Jinyun cloud appeared, and so he called himself Jinyun Shi; the Jinyun cloud was more red than white.) Huangdi then established offices, divided their duties, and named them according to cloud colors: the spring office was called the Azure Cloud Officer, the summer office the Jinyun Officer, the autumn office the White Cloud Officer, and the winter office the Black Cloud Officer. Huangdi took clouds as teachers. At that time, the descendants of Yandi bore the surname Jiang. The so-called Jinyun refers to the auspicious cloud that Huangdi encountered; this cloud was neither like an ordinary cloud nor like smoke, and its color was neither red nor purple. Another account says that Huangdi once refined elixir at Jinyun Hall in Wuzhou, and because of this the auspicious cloud appeared.

Huangdi appointed four historiographers, ordered them to recite the texts composed by Cangjie, Lishou, and Kongjia, and had them serve in the office of recording books and documents. (What the Zhouli calls being in charge of maps means being in charge of territorial maps and household registers.) Huangdi also ordered Cangjie to oversee ceremonial regulations. Kongjia began to make plates and basins to replace the concave pottery drinking vessels; he wrote the Pan Yu Pian to admonish people. Huangdi also established regulations for the use of kerchiefs and small tables and recorded them in the Jing (scripture/classic). Huangdi’s historical book was called Fen, and fen means “vast.” (Kong Anguo said, “When it encountered Qin…”)

(The sentence “When burned, it could not be smelled” is unclear in content.) There was a minister named Shi Wang, who first created a certain thing; and Gongyu Dai, a man from Jinan, presented the Diagram of the Yellow Emperor’s Mingtang (Bright Hall). On the diagram was drawn a double gallery, with a storey above a storey, enterable from the southwest. This was probably the beginning of towers. The Yellow Emperor built according to the design and said, “The Hegong (Harmonious Palace) can be used to observe people’s conduct.” He then raised the proposal to build the Mingtang, by which to examine the worthy and capable.

At that time an immortal appeared at the foot of Mount Qi, called Qibo, skilled at explaining the nature and flavor of plants and medicinal substances, and became a great physician. The Yellow Emperor asked him to oversee prescriptions and medicines, and also arranged the nature and flavors of the various herbs tasted by Shennong for treating disease, compiling them into the Inner Classic and Outer Classic. Leigong also recorded methods for processing drugs and judging whether their properties were good or bad; the two ministers Bian Que and Yu Fu arranged the Pulse Classic and treated the people’s illnesses. The Yellow Emperor discussed pulse methods with Bian Que and compiled the Upper and Lower Classics of the Pulse Book. (In the Han, Chunyu Yi, known as Yangli Gong, could diagnose life and death from the pulse classic.)

The Yellow Emperor asked Qibo about pulse methods and also compiled the Suwen and other works and the Inner Classic. (The Suwen and Inner Classic now in circulation each consist of two bundles, with nine juan per bundle, and were later revised. The Preface to the Suwen says the Suwen was written by Qibo, but the number of extant juan is probably incomplete; the so-called “Eighty-One Difficulties” were also later additions. Another account says that Heaven sent down Su Nü to heal people, and the Yellow Emperor consulted her, hence the Suwen.) The Yellow Emperor asked Shaoyu about needling methods, and so established the Needle Classic and the Mingtang Diagram and fixed the rules of needling. This was the origin of acupuncture-moxibustion and medicinal therapy.

In governing the world, the Yellow Emperor first used the color of the central direction as his title. He first lived in the state of Youxiong, so he was called Emperor Youxiong. (Titles of this sort include Zhuanxu being called Emperor Gaoyang, Diku Emperor Gaoxin, and Tang Yao Emperor Taotang.) The Yellow Emperor did not care for war. When Shennong’s line had passed to the eighth generation, Yu Gang, the regime began to decline, and the feudal lords harassed one another. The Yellow Emperor called himself by yellow, the color representing the center; thereupon the lords of the four quarters also usurped titles, each adopting the color of the corresponding direction. (Although the histories record these matters, they do not list the specific names. The so-called Azure Emperor Taihao, Red Emperor Shennong, White Emperor Shaohao, and Black Emperor Zhuanxu refer to cases in which someone among the descendants of the four emperors overstepped his proper status and presumptuously called himself emperor.)

The various parties jointly plotted this matter, and the border towns became increasingly turbulent. The Yellow Emperor therefore stopped building terraces and pavilions, cut back on extravagant expenses, reorganized the troops, and built fortifications. The Yellow Emperor made inquiries at Shouyang Mountain (located in Hezhong Commandery) and ordered people to gather shou...

The Yellow Emperor discovered metal in the mountains and began casting knives and making crossbows. Later, on Liubo Mountain in the Eastern Sea, he obtained a strange beast shaped like an ox, with a blue-green body, no horns, and only one leg. It could enter and leave the water; when it spat out water, it brought wind and rain; its body shone like the sun and moon; its cry was like thunder; and it was named the “Kui Ox.”

The Yellow Emperor ordered the Kui Ox killed and its hide used to cover a drum. When this drum was struck, the sound could carry beyond five hundred li. (The Shiben says that Wu Xian of the Yin dynasty first made drums; this claim is incorrect.) The Yellow Emperor also ordered his soldiers to blow horns, producing a sound like the call of a dragon. This was the beginning of drums and horns being used in the army.

After this, the Yellow Emperor ordered the creation of cuju (an ancient ball-kicking game) to train warriors. (Today’s ball-hitting game is also of this kind. The Xijing Ji says that the cuju field is the ball field.) The Yellow Emperor said: “When the sun reaches noon, one should hurry to dry things; when the blade has already been raised, one should hurry to strike.” When Kuang Qujian heard this, he said: “The Yellow Emperor speaks sensibly.”

In the twenty-second year of the Yellow Emperor’s rule over the world, the Chiyou clan suddenly ceased to obey his orders. Chiyou was the most violent among the feudal lords. He had eighty brothers, all with beast bodies but able to speak like humans; they had bronze heads and iron foreheads, did not eat the five grains, and swallowed sand and stones. (Chiyou was the first to make armor and helmets. People of the time did not recognize such things, so they said they had “bronze heads and iron foreheads.” Li Taibai explained that southern soldiers, seeing northerners eat wheat meal and dry provisions and not recognizing such foods, said they “swallowed sand and stones”; a similar usage is employed here.)

Chiyou did not heed the Yellow Emperor’s commands and also instituted various cruel punishments, harming the common people. At Gelu Mountain he mined metal and smelted and cast it, manufacturing armor, precious swords, and weapons such as knives, halberds, and great crossbows. With these weapons he overawed the world, yet still would not submit to the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor wished to punish him and gathered the feudal lords, but after one hundred and fifty days he still had not been able to defeat the enemy. The Yellow Emperor then thought to seek worthy men to assist him and send troops to punish the unjust.

The Yellow Emperor dreamed that a great wind blew across the whole world, scattering all dust and dirt; he also dreamed of a man holding a crossbow able to withstand the force of a thousand jun, driving tens of thousands of sheep. After waking, the Yellow Emperor pondered: “Wind represents commands; a great wind in a dream means that someone will appear to take charge of government affairs. Dust and dirt being scattered and the earth being revealed means that impurity will be removed and the world will become clear and bright. There should be in the world a man surnamed Feng and named Hou. A crossbow able to withstand the force of a thousand jun indicates great strength and long range; driving flocks of sheep indicates a shepherd skilled at managing people. Could such a person be surnamed Li and named Mu?”

The Yellow Emperor recorded these dreams, along with the earlier omen of the dragon god that had appeared in a dream, and ordered people to seek suitable talents according to the hints in the dreams. Later, by the sea he found Feng Hou, and he also found Li…

When the Yellow Emperor was nurturing the people in the Great Marsh, he appointed Feng Hou to govern the common people. Feng Hou first served as Palace Attendant and later rose to Chancellor; Li Mu was appointed general. This was the beginning of the establishment of generals and chancellors. The Yellow Emperor also had Da Hong assist in governance, following the governing principles of all under Heaven, examining the patterns of hidden and manifest transformation, and discoursing on the principles of life and death. For this reason Da Hong was called the Yellow Emperor’s strategist.

The Yellow Emperor asked Zhang Ruo how to plan against enemies. Zhang Ruo replied that Li Mu was proficient in the art of astronomical and calendrical calculation—calculating heavenly timing, the calendar, and the timing of military campaigns—and had also written thirteen scrolls on military methods, which could be adopted. Thereupon the Yellow Emperor organized his weaponry and drilled his forces, campaigned against tribes that did not come to court, and began to establish the offices of the Three Dukes to correspond to the Three Terraces stars in Heaven. Feng Hou was assigned to the Upper Terrace, Tian Lao to the Middle Terrace, and the Five Sages to the Lower Terrace. The Six Secret Teachings of the Grand Duke says that Feng Hou, Li Mu, and the Five Sages were together called the “Seven Dukes,” which shows that the Five Sages were five people.

The Yellow Emperor selected four people from those whose minds were in accord with his own and called them the “Four Faces,” each taking charge of administrative affairs. At that time he obtained a precious cauldron, observed the sun’s shadow, and calculated the calendar. He also obtained Feng Hu and appointed him Director of Works; Feng Hu made five-toothed banners and equipment for beacon fires, attack, and warfare, and wrote five chapters on military methods. The Yellow Emperor also appointed Shen Huang as a general and established the son of his wife Fei Xiu as crown prince. The crown prince loved setting nets and using bows and arrows, so the Yellow Emperor appointed him Grand General, titled Grand Marshal for Pacifying the Army, to serve as the vanguard of the royal army. Zhang Ruo and Li Mu served as left and right deputy generals of the marching army; Rong Guang served as Grand Minister of War, commanded the Six Armies, and concurrently oversaw the state’s nine systems of law. Rong Guang was also called Chang Guang.

The Yellow Emperor also established Left and Right Grand Supervisors to supervise the various states. The official Long Yu was brave and righteous and also served as a general, campaigning with the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor used the army for encampment and defense, and afterward joined in a plan with Yu Gang to attack Chiyou together.

The Yellow Emperor decorated his weapons with jade, wore a yellow crown and ceremonial robes, and rode in an ivory carriage drawn by six dragons, with Da Bing and Taiyi driving. The carriage bore intertwining-dragon banners, and in front were also displayed five colored toothed banners to mark the directions: the east used a blue-green toothed banner, while the other directions each used their corresponding colors. When the Yellow Emperor went out, five-colored clouds often appeared in the shapes of golden branches and jade leaves, resting above his head like flowers. The Yellow Emperor therefore ordered the making of the Huagai canopy, which is the kind of ceremonial umbrella insignia seen today.

The Yellow Emperor then fought a great battle with Chiyou in the wilderness of Zhuolu. Zhuolu is south of Shanggu Commandery, where there is Zhuolu City. For a time the Yellow Emperor could not defeat Chiyou; Chiyou made a hundred-li...

A thick fog blanketed everything for three full days, and the Yellow Emperor’s soldiers all lost their bearings and fell into confusion. The Yellow Emperor therefore ordered Feng Hou (a minister of the Yellow Emperor skilled in strategy and the arts of calculation) to imitate the principle of the direction pointed to by the handle of the Big Dipper and construct a south-pointing chariot, so as to distinguish east, south, west, and north. (Cui Bao’s Gujinzhu says that the Duke of Zhou once made a south-pointing chariot, which shows that such chariots already existed in the Zhou dynasty; the Duke of Zhou, however, further improved upon the original.)

The Yellow Emperor went out to battle again but still did not win. He withdrew into a mountain hollow of Mount Tai, melancholy at heart, and, exhausted, fell asleep. In a dream he saw that Xiwangmu (the Queen Mother of the West, a highly revered goddess in Daoism) had sent a Daoist clad in a black fox-fur garment, who bestowed a talisman upon him and said, “Taiyi (the spirit-deity who governs the auspicious and inauspicious outcomes of military affairs) is in front, and Tianyi (also an auspicious deity in the arts of calculation) is behind. One who obtains this talisman can win; a single battle will surely bring success.”

When the Yellow Emperor awoke and recalled the dream, he did not understand its meaning, so he summoned Feng Hou and told him of it. Feng Hou said, “This is a response from Heaven; this battle will certainly be won.” Thereupon he set up an altar and offered prayers. The Yellow Emperor built a sacrificial altar as instructed, bowed his head and made double obeisance, and indeed obtained a talisman, three cun wide and one chi long, blue-green in color, with talismanic writing written in blood. The Yellow Emperor immediately wore it on his person, sighed toward Heaven that he had not yet won, and concentrated his spirit in quiet contemplation. This sincerity moved Heaven, which again sent down a great fog that darkened the world for three days and three nights.

At this time a woman descended from Heaven, with a human face and a bird’s body. When the Yellow Emperor saw her, he bowed his head, made double obeisance, and prostrated himself on the ground. The woman said, “I am Xuannv (the Mysterious Woman; Jiutian Xuannv, the goddess who transmitted military arts and calculation techniques). Ask whatever you doubt.” The Yellow Emperor said, “Chiyou (a tribal leader who warred against the Yellow Emperor) is cruel and brings calamity to the people and all things; I wish to win every battle.” Xuannv then taught the Yellow Emperor the secret strategies of the Three Palaces, the expedient plans of the Five Tones, and the arts of Yin-Yang. (The commentary says that this is the so-called military art of Xuannv’s tactics; Li Jing, Duke Wei of the Tang dynasty, used the methods of Jiutian Xuannv. The “divine talisman” refers to the talisman obtained by the Yellow Emperor; the Yin-Yang arts are methods of calculation using the cosmograph board, such as Liuren, Taiyi, and Dunjia.)

Xuannv also transmitted the Yinfu Jing (Classic of the Hidden Talisman), three hundred characters in length. After the Yellow Emperor had studied it for ten xun (one hundred days), he attacked and subdued Chiyou. Xuannv further bestowed upon him the Lingbao Wufu Zhenwen (Lingbao Five Talismans True Text) and the Military Trust Talisman; wearing them, the Yellow Emperor finally destroyed Chiyou. After this, the Yellow Emperor again ordered Feng Hou to develop the method of the Hetu (Yellow River Diagram), to make a cosmograph board and put it to use, and to establish eighteen configurations, called “Dunjia” (Hidden Jia). (The commentary says that by the time of the Duke of Zhou it had evolved to about seventy-two configurations; in the Han dynasty Zhang Zifang and Xiang Ying—one account says that he deliberated together with the Four White-Haired Elders of Mount Shang—fixed it again at eighteen configurations. According to the account of the divine dragon carrying the Hetu on its back and hiding its “jia,” the name Dunjia came into being; today it is simplified to one configuration, which is the so-called jietie.) People used it to infer the victory or defeat of host and guest. The Yellow Emperor also composed the Shiliu Shen Li (Calendar of the Sixteen Deities), developed methods such as Taiyi and Liuren, further expounded the Dao of Yin-Yang of the Six Jia, and drew the Chart of Grasping the Pivot of Victory and Defeat (Shengfu Wojie zhi Tu), which grasps the key to victory and defeat.

In addition, there are three scrolls of the Huangdi Bingfa (The Yellow Emperor’s Art of War); according to the Songwu zhuan, it was transmitted by divine beings.

The Hetu Chujun Jue (The River Chart’s Formulas for Sending Forth the Army) records that the Yellow Emperor received a military tally from the Queen Mother of the West. There are also one scroll of Chujun Dashuai Nianming Licheng; one scroll of Taiyi Bingli; twelve scrolls of Huangdi Chujun Xin Yong Jue; six scrolls of Huangdi Xiashi Zhan Bingqi (this work was revised again in the Xia Hou period); two scrolls of Huangdi Shiba Zhen Tu (Zhuge Liang later adapted it into the Eight Formations Diagram); three scrolls of Huangdi Wen Xuannü Zhi Fa; twenty scrolls of Feng Hou Guxu Jue; as well as fourteen scrolls of Wuchengzi Xuanbing Zaiyi Zhan, three scrolls of Guiyu Qu Bingfa, and one scroll of a military formation diagram.

The Guiyu Qu Bingfa also appears in some editions as Guigu Qu She Bingfa. These military methods are all traditionally said to have originated in the Yellow Emperor’s era and were later supplemented and revised. The Yellow Emperor used the strategy of the five notes to judge military affairs, and then once again led the feudal lords to campaign against Chiyou.

Chiyou led chimei, wangliang, and other specters, and asked the Wind Earl and Rain Master to aid him in battle; rising toward Heaven on a great wind, he also ordered Yinglong to gather water and attack the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor then summoned the Wind Earl, the Rain Master, and all the female spirits (nüyao) in the world to stop the rain. This took place among the mountains at the northern corner of the Eastern Wasteland. The Qiang soldiers of Litu drove Yinglong away, settled it in the farthest south, and killed Chiyou and Kuafu. Yinglong could never return to Heaven again; hence drought broke out wherever it dwelled, and no rain fell wherever it went.

Later, Chiyou was defeated at Guquan, and the Yellow Emperor killed him at Zhongji. That place therefore was called “the Field of the Severed Reins,” said to be in Guizhou. After capturing and killing Chiyou, the Yellow Emperor moved his clan to Zoutu Township: the good were resettled there, while the wicked were restrained with wooden stocks. The Yellow Emperor also ordered Chiyou’s image painted on banners to suppress evil spirits; such banners were called “Chiyou banners.”

Chiyou was killed on the mound of Mount Li, located at the northern corner of the Eastern Wasteland. The Yellow Emperor threw the wooden stocks onto Mount Song in the Great Wasteland, and later these wooden stocks transformed into a maple forest. The Classic of Mountains and Seas says that a maple forest on Rongtian Mountain was transformed from Chiyou’s shackles.

After Chiyou was killed, his head and body were separated. The Yellow Emperor pitied him and ordered his head buried at Shouzhang. Shouzhang is a county name, located in Yunzhou. The tomb is seven chi high, and local scholars often sacrifice there in the tenth month. During the sacrifices, red qi appears above the tomb…

(The place on the mountain that appears crimson is called the “Chiyou Banner.”) Chiyou’s shoulders and back were buried at Shanyang (a county); his thigh was buried at Julu (Julu County in Xingzhou). People have also recovered one scroll of Chiyou’s Military Writings: Secret Arts of Marching the Army and two scrolls of Chiyou’s Art of War.

The Yellow Emperor established his capital at Zhuolu City (a place in the region of Zhuozhou in Shanggu Commandery). Zhuolu was also called “Dulu”; the form “Zhuolu” in transmitted records is a copyist’s error. The Yellow Emperor also contended with Yugang for the world. Yugang, relying on being a descendant of Shennong, fought with the Yellow Emperor.

The Yellow Emperor first made banners from the feathers of eagles, he-hawks, hawks, and sparrowhawks—birds of prey; another account says falcon feathers were used for banners. According to the Six Statutes, this is today’s □□ banner. The Yellow Emperor also made bears, brown bears, tigers, and other fierce beasts serve as his vanguard and fought in the wilds of Banquan (a place in Shanggu Commandery, in what is now the Gui Prefecture region), winning only after three battles.

The Yellow Emperor then drove the Xunyu Rong (that is, the Xiongnu) northward. Among the feudal lords, those who would not submit were campaigned against by the Yellow Emperor with troops. Only after fifty-two wars in all was the world settled. Because of his merit in suppressing rebellions, the Yellow Emperor ordered Qibo to create military wind-and-drum music called the “Xiao-Nao Songs,” used to warn and guard the army. Pieces such as “Ganggu Qu,” “Lingkui Hou,” “Diao’e Zheng,” “Shi Zhui Ya,” “Zhuangshi Nu,” “Xuanyun,” and “Zhulu” were all victory songs meant to display martial De. The Six Statutes says that in the Han dynasty Zhang Qian obtained these pieces from the Western Regions; there were eight in all, surviving tunes of military music. The xiao and jia are instruments; the metal nao resembles a bell without a clapper, has a handle, and when held in the hand could signal the drumming to stop.

From then on, the feudal lords honored Xuanyuan as Son of Heaven. The Yellow Emperor ascended the throne in a jiyou year, succeeding Shennong. Fire generates Earth; with the De of Earth the Yellow Emperor became sovereign of all under Heaven, titled “Huangdi,” dwelling in the center and governing the four quarters.

The Yellow Emperor opened mountains and built roads, never settling down to rest. He ordered Fenghou to carry on his back books recording the Way of longevity, and Bochang to shoulder a sword; they set out at dawn and returned to Yinpu at dusk, traveling ten thousand li with only one rest, and finally returned to the foot of Zhuolu Mountain. The Yellow Emperor also summoned and tested the hundred spirits, making them come to court. He asked Fenghou, “I wish to know from where the Yellow River flows.” Fenghou replied, “There are five rivers in all, all rising from the Kunlun Ruins. The Yellow River issues from the southeastern foot of Kunlun and is one of them; the other four are recorded in Dongfang Shuo’s Record of the Ten Continents.” The Yellow Emperor then ordered Jianhai…

From the eastern end to the western end, the distance was measured as five hundred million, ten xuan, nine thousand eight hundred and eight paces; another account says three hundred million, thirty-three thousand paces. The north-south distance was two hundred million, thirty-one thousand three hundred li; another account says two hundred million, two hundred thousand li. Jian Hai, the legendary surveyor, held calculating rods in his left hand and with his right pointed to the region north of Qingqiu. He traveled east to Taiyuan and west to the state of Bin, measuring an east-west length of twenty-eight thousand li and a north-south length of twenty-six thousand li. One xuan is ten thousand li. In the time of Shennong, the east-west length was ninety million li and the north-south length eighty million li, a scope far beyond the Four Seas. When Wei Zhao annotated the Book of Han, he did not believe the territory could be so vast; Chen Zan, relying on Daoist texts, explained that Shennong rode a dragon on distant journeys, while the Yellow Emperor rode a horse to govern territory, covering only the area within the Four Seas. The Huainanzi says that from the North Pole to Nanhuan is two hundred million, thirty-three thousand five hundred and seventy li. The King of Huainan studied the Dao; such statements are extremely remote and should also be based on Daoist texts.

The Yellow Emperor first divided the fields, demarcated provincial boundaries, and established a hundred commanderies. He had his ministers display gui jade tablets, which signified virtue and moral transformation, on mats woven from orchid and rush; then various treasures were pounded into powder and mixed with chenyu glue into a paste. With this he divided the land, determined ranks of high and low, and distinguished the ritual institutions and writing of the Huaxia and the Rong peoples. These records come from the Record of the Feng and Shan Sacrifices.

The Yellow Emperor toured the world and found ten thousand small states each a hundred li square, which are what are today called counties and towns. He was called “the first to emerge among the myriad things, so that all states were at peace,” meaning that he was the first to govern the myriad things and bring stability to all states.

There was a fangshi named Qing Wuzi who understood how to observe terrestrial patterns. The Yellow Emperor consulted him and on that basis established relevant rules. The Yellow Emperor also asked the Earth Elder about the advantages and disadvantages of the lands in the five directions. At that time, an auspicious grass called Quyi grew in the Yellow Emperor’s courtyard; whenever a sycophantic minister—one skilled in flattery and deceit—entered, it would point at him, so such ministers did not dare come to court.

At that time, a foreign state presented a divine beast called the Xiezhi, a legendary one-horned creature able to distinguish right from wrong and straight from crooked. It resembled a deer and had a single horn on its head. When placed in the court, if it encountered a minister who was not upright, it would butt him with its horn. The Yellow Emperor asked what it ate, and the answer was: “In spring and summer it lives in marshes and waters; in autumn and winter it lives in pine and bamboo groves.” Its two eyes resembled a bear’s.

Rong Chengzi was proficient in Daoist arts and also understood music and pitch standards. He was a descendant of Nüwa and first created pitch standards and the calendar for the Yellow Emperor. In the xinmao year he began to establish the calendar, and by this time he also made the sheng to imitate the cry of the phoenix. Su Nü came to Guangdu and taught the Yellow Emperor to play the fifty-string se. The Gu Shi Kao says this instrument was the qin, but that is incorrect. The Yellow Emperor reduced the fifty-string se to twenty-five strings.

This se was seven chi and two cun long. Fuxi established the qin, and Nüwa tuned it. Huangdi’s qin was named “Haozhong,” and he once played the tune “Qingjiao.” Huangdi began to establish the teachings of the seven emotions and the ten righteousnesses. The seven emotions are joy, anger, sorrow, delight, fear, dislike, and desire; the ten righteousnesses are the ruler’s benevolence, the minister’s loyalty, the father’s kindness, the son’s filial piety, the elder brother’s goodness, the younger brother’s fraternal respect, the husband’s righteousness, the wife’s obedience, the elder’s generosity, and the younger’s compliance. Legend has it that this was the beginning of Huangdi’s establishment of rites and composition of music.

The records of Huangdi say that in the Eastern Sea there was Dusuo Mountain; some also call it Dushuo Mountain, and “Dushuo” is an erroneous name. (Bamboo ropes were strung across the mountain, by which people could pass.) On the mountain were two deities, Shen Tu and Yu Lei, who could ward off fierce ghosts and remove harm for the people. The Nuo exorcism ritual was established by imitating their actions of expelling ghosts and spirits.

Huangdi appointed Rong Chengzi as music master and composed pieces such as Yunmen, Dajuan, and Xianchi, performing them in the open country of Dongting. Beimen Cheng said, “Such performance can harmonize Yin-Yang, make the sun and moon bright, and also bring harmony to customs.” (In the second year of Zhide of the Tang, someone dug by the shore of Dongting Lake and found a bell inscribed with ancient seal script; it is said to have been an instrument from Huangdi’s time. In the second year of Yongtai, Kang Tongzhong, magistrate of Baling, obtained an ancient bell from the herb gatherer Shi Jide. Shi Jide had found it while gathering herbs in Dongting township; the bell was inscribed with seal characters, and Li E, prefect of Yuezhou, presented it to the imperial court. This can show that the statement in the Zhuangzi that Huangdi once performed music at Dongting was not empty talk.)

Huangdi prepared to meet the spirits at the Western Mountain, so he rode an elephant chariot driven by six jiaolong dragons, with Bifang also accompanying him on the chariot; Chiyou walked in front. (Here “Chiyou” refers to the Chiyou banner.) The Wind Lord opened the way ahead and swept away dust, the Rain Master sprinkled water to clear the road, and phoenixes flew above the carriage. Arriving at the Western Mountain, Huangdi convened a great gathering of ghosts and spirits and played the tune “Qingjiao” on the qin named Haozhong. (Shi Kuang was skilled at playing the qin. Duke Ping of Jin forced him to play “Qingjiao,” and Shi Kuang had no choice but to play a piece. At the first playing, clouds surged from the northwest; at the second, a great wind arose and heavy rain fell. Duke Ping was so frightened that he became ill.)

Huangdi believed that the domain of the spirits at Kunlun Mountain was vast and abundant, so he conducted a grand sacrifice and passed this down to later generations; this was the origin of the Fengshan rites. At that time, divine beings lived on Jade Mountain north of Kunlun. The Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu) was the essence of Taiyin and the daughter of the Heavenly Emperor. She had a human body and a tiger’s head (the Classic of Mountains and Seas says she had a tiger’s face, and another account says she had the form of a tiger), as well as a leopard’s tail...

Her hair was disheveled and she wore a sheng headdress; her countenance was pure white, and though very old, she was skilled at long whistling. She lived in seclusion at the Golden Terrace of Shicheng and dwelt on Shaoguang Mountain. Three blue birds often came there to take food. This deity was Xiwangmu (the Queen Mother of the West).

Xiwangmu admired the De (Virtue/Power) of Huangdi (the Yellow Emperor) and rode a white deer to present him with a white jade ring. Another deity came from the south, also riding a white deer, and presented black-millet wine (chang). Huangdi’s De moved Heaven, and so black millet, used to brew this wine, grew upon the earth. Huangdi practiced music and dance to welcome the gods; he also attracted sixteen dark cranes, which danced gracefully beside him.

In the Western Mountains Huangdi tasted a tree fruit. It tasted like a plum, was shaped like a crabapple blossom, was red in color, and had no pit; for this reason it was called shatang. Whoever ate it could not sink in water. West of the Woren Kingdom, on the mountain where Xiwangmu dwelt, Huangdi built a terrace named Xuanyuan Terrace. Later he rested in the region of Mingbo Mound and the Kunlun Mountains, and he also traveled through the Huaxu Kingdom. The Huaxu Kingdom was a place where immortals lived. (Fuxi was born in this kingdom, and his mother was also a native of Huaxu.)

Huangdi played chess in the Tiandu Kingdom and resided there; because of this, the place was also called Xuanyuan Kingdom. (Later it was called Tianzhu, 12,000 li from Chang’an. The Gushi Kao says it lay beyond the seas; this is incorrect.) Huangdi also went west to the region of Qiong Mountain and the Kingdom of Women, then toured the Kunlun Palace again and was active on the north bank of the Red Water. Later he gazed far to the south and prepared to return. He lost the Mysterious Pearl and sent Lilou, the clear-sighted man, to find it, but he did not find it; then he sent Wangxiang, who found it. Later the Mysterious Pearl was stolen by Qixiangshi, a daughter of the Meng clan; she sank into the sea and from then on became a deity. (The Mysterious Pearl is used as a metaphor for Dao; after the daughter of the Meng clan obtained it, she became a water deity.)

Huangdi made an inspection tour to the east. He came to the seashore, climbed Huan Mountain, and met the divine beast Baize by the sea. Baize could speak and understood the conditions of all things. Huangdi then asked it about the ghosts and spirits of the world. Since ancient times, ghosts and spirits that had taken form through the condensation of Jing and Qi, or arisen from transformations of wandering souls, numbered 11,520 kinds in all, and Baize recounted them all to Huangdi. Huangdi ordered them to be painted and shown throughout the world, and he also composed invocation texts for driving away evil, to be used in prayers for removing evil.

While Huangdi was traveling through various regions, his primary wife Leizu died on the way. Huangdi sacrificed to her and honored her as a spirit of travel; he also ordered his secondary wife Momu to guard the road and perform sacrifices at the proper times. Accordingly, Momu was appointed Fangxiangshi (the one responsible for exorcism and escorting funerals). (“Fangxiang” refers to one who faces the four directions and guards funerals; such a person is also called Fangsangshi. Today, before setting out on a journey, people set out wine and food to sacrifice to the road, calling it zujian; “zu” carries the sense of seeing someone off.)

(In his commentary on the Han Shu, Yan Shigu says that the claim that the Yellow Emperor’s son became the road god is absurd and untrustworthy; Cui Shi held the same view. The Simin Yueling—Monthly Ordinances for the Four Classes—also says that the claim that the Yellow Emperor had sons is likewise untrustworthy; none of these accounts can be verified. As for the meaning of the name “Luozu,” this still requires careful investigation.)

The Yellow Emperor governed the world and brought order to it, and various auspicious omens appeared one after another. He then ascended Mount Tai and performed the Feng and Shan sacrifices, went to Tingting Mountain—a small hill at the foot of Mount Tai—to perform the Shan sacrifice, offered sacrifices at Jiji Mountain, and had his merits carved in stone at Qiaoyue. He ordered sacrifices to the Yan Emperor, observed celestial phenomena, examined geography, built palaces and dwellings, made clothing, established pitch standards according to the method of observing seasonal Qi, and supervised the manufacture of various implements. Because of these merits, Heaven bestowed upon him carriages, clothing, axes and halberds, canopies, feather banners, and other ceremonial regalia.

The Yellow Emperor left an inscription concerning the Xuanche carriage. After completing the various affairs of government, he established pitch standards, divided surnames, and distinguished bell tones according to pitch. (Confucius and Jing Fang also did such things.)

The Yellow Emperor had four consorts: Luozu, Momu, Feixiu, and Nüjie. They bore twenty-five sons, of whom twelve were granted surnames; another account says thirteen. These surnames were Ji, You, Qi, Si, Teng, Zhen, Ren, Gou, Xi, Jie, Xuan, and Yi. (The Shiji says there were sixty-one surnames, but only the two surnames Li and Huan differ from the record here. Some say the Yellow Emperor’s surname was Gongsun, and that it passed through eighteen generations, altogether one thousand five hundred years; another account says the twelve surnames passed through thirteen generations, altogether one thousand and seventy-two years. Other histories say the twelve surnames were not recorded because their virtue was shallow, but this view is also inappropriate. People of the surnames Ji, Qi, Cheng, Ren, Xi, Jie, and others all possessed virtue and were also quite famous. That the Yellow Emperor’s surname was Gongsun, although a tradition transmitted in ancient histories, does not stand up to investigation. The Yellow Emperor was born at Youxiong and grew up at the Ji River, so by principle he should have taken Ji as his surname. King Wu of Zhou claimed to be the nineteenth-generation descendant of the Yellow Emperor, and the Zhou royal house was surnamed Ji; this also shows that the Yellow Emperor should have been surnamed Ji, not Gongsun. Moreover, the Zhou established the five ranks of nobility—duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron—and later descendants of the feudal lords were often called “Gongsun,” meaning descendants of a lord’s son; there were also eighty-five families that, inheriting the title “Gongzi,” took it as their surname, but none of these were people of the Yellow Emperor’s time.)

The Yellow Emperor had nine sons, each of whom was enfeoffed as the ruler of a state. (Pan Anren’s poem mentions this, but the source of his account is unclear.) His principal consort Luozu bore two sons, Xuanxiao and Changyi, neither of whom inherited the imperial throne. Xuanxiao attained the Dao…

Changyi was the water deity of the North. He later married a daughter of the Shushan clan and begot Zhuanxu. Zhuanxu inherited the imperial throne; he was the Yellow Emperor’s legitimate grandson and was styled the Gaoyang clan. Zhi (courtesy name Qingyang) succeeded to the throne and was called the Jintian clan; he was the Yellow Emperor’s youngest son. Shaohao had seven sons. During Zhuanxu’s reign, because one of these sons possessed virtue and achievements, Emperor Gaoyang bestowed on him the surname Man; the circumstances of the others are not recorded.

After the Yellow Emperor had governed the world and caused all things to attain their proper use, he sought out Zhenren (Perfected) recluses and asked about the methods of cultivating the Dao and seeking immortality, hoping to obtain long life. The saying “first govern the human world, then ascend to the immortal Dao” refers to this.

At that time there was a man named Ningzi who served as Taozheng, the official in charge of pottery. When a divine man passed by, he taught him the method of using fire, burning it to produce five-colored smoke; Ningzi could rise and descend with the smoke, and when his cultivation was complete he became an immortal and departed. He later came to the region of the drifting sands, ate flying fish, died once, and after two hundred years came back to life. He left the “Shatou Song,” saying: “The green lotus is bright and vivid; it can bloom even after a thousand years. Die for a time, then eat flying fish.”

There was also Wuguangzi, who was eight chi and seven cun tall and was an immortal. By the Xia dynasty he was taking medicines to nourish his nature, playing the qin, and cultivating the Dao, and he lived a very long life. Chijiang Ziyu did not eat the five grains but only the hundred flowers, and thus lived long. Legend says that in Emperor Yao’s time he worked as a carpenter and could fly up and down with the wind; by then he had already lived two thousand years.

Rongcheng Gong was proficient in the arts of supplementing and guiding—methods of nourishing the body and guiding the breath. He guarded life, nurtured primordial qi, and kept the qi of spirit from declining. He could make white hair turn black again and cause lost teeth to grow back. The Yellow Emperor admired his Daoist arts and therefore built the Five Cities and Twelve Towers to welcome divine beings.

The Yellow Emperor once went to Mount Hua and Mount Shou, and traveled east to Mount Tai in search of Daoist arts; he often summoned wondrous beings and had dealings with immortals. After returning from Penglai, he received the various spirits at Mingting. Places in Jingzhao such as Zhongshan, Ganquan, Hanmen, and Gukou are also connected with these legends; Gukou lies north of Chang’an, while Ganquan is in Yunyang.

Later, the Yellow Emperor sacrificed to Heaven at Yuanqiu, sought the highest Daoist arts, and took Jiuyuanzi as his teacher. On the shangyin day of the first month in the first year of the Earthly Sovereign, he fasted at Mount Shou; Mount Shou is in Puban County, Hedong. Afterward the Yellow Emperor continued to travel about seeking the Perfected. He ordered Fang Ming to drive the chariot, Chang Yu to ride alongside, Zhang Ruo and Miu Yi to lead the way in front, and Kun Hun and Hua Ji to follow the carriage. When they reached the countryside outside Xiangcheng, all seven lost their way and met a boy tending horses. The Yellow Emperor then asked him, “How can one govern the world...?”

The youth Ruohe said to the Yellow Emperor, “What difference is there between governing the world and herding horses? It is enough to remove whatever harms the horses.” The Yellow Emperor honored him with the title Celestial Master (Tianshi), then took his leave and went to the Circular Mound (Huanqiu).

In that place there was an immortal tree; eating its fruit and leaves kept people from dying. There was also the Danluan Spring; drinking from it prolonged life. A giant snake there harmed the people, and the Yellow Emperor drove it away with realgar. The snake stayed away for a time and then returned. (The Waiguo Ji says that it stayed away for nine years.) The Yellow Emperor had his three sons learn to ingest realgar, and they all lived to be three hundred years old.

The Yellow Emperor traveled north to Hongdi and on Juci Mountain (in Yangdi) paid respects to Lord Dawei (the Dawei deity of Mi County). He also met the Yellow Canopy Youth and obtained seventy-two scrolls of the Chart of Divine Mushrooms. Then at Zhongdai he met Huang Zizhong and learned the Nine Qie Formula. (Another account says that he went to Kongtong Mountain, paid respects to Perfected Zhonghuang, and learned this formula. The original commentary says that Yuanzhou has a Kongtong Mountain; Ying Shao held that it was in Longyou, but this is incorrect.)

The Yellow Emperor climbed Kongtong Mountain and paid respects to Guangchengzi, asking about the Great Dao (the Way). Guangchengzi did not answer, so the Yellow Emperor withdrew, gave up administering the affairs of the world, built a quiet chamber, spread white cogongrass on the ground, and lived there alone for three months. After that he went again to ask about the way of cultivating the self, and only then did Guangchengzi transmit to him one scroll of the Ziran Jing (Scripture of Spontaneity).

The Yellow Emperor renounced the exalted position of emperor, put on plain clothing modeled on swine, climbed Jishan, and went on to Wangwu Mountain. There he opened a stone casket and took out a jade box, obtaining annotations and oral instructions for the Nine Tripod Divine Elixir. He then traveled south to the riverbank, climbed Xiongxiang Mountain, and afterward went to Tiantai Mountain, where he sought the Golden Liquid Divine Elixir.

He went east to Qingqiu Mountain and paid respects to Master Zifu, obtaining a large-character edition of the Sanhuang Neiwen (Esoteric Writings of the Three August Ones)—Ge Hong’s Baopuzi says that this work had twenty scrolls—which he used to summon and dispatch the myriad spirits and to perform ritual arts. Then he traveled south to the Wuzhi Xuanjian (Dark Ravine of the Five Mushrooms), climbed Huanlong Mountain, rested beneath the Jianmu tree, watched the deities ascend and descend, picked Ruogan zhi mushrooms, and drank the water of the Danluan Spring.

Later, the Yellow Emperor traveled south to Qingcheng Mountain and paid respects to Elder Zhonghuang. He also climbed Yuntai Mountain, paid respects to Master Ning, received the Longqiao Jing, and asked about the Way of Zhenyi (True Unity). The August One said, “You already occupy the world, and you still seek long life and immortality—is that not greed?” The Yellow Emperor repeatedly pleaded, and the August One finally transmitted to him…

After Daojun (Lord of the Dao) conferred upon Zhonghuang Zhenren (the Perfected Zhonghuang, a title for an immortal Perfected in Daoist legend) the title of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), the Yellow Emperor bowed in thanks and then went east to Mount Lu, where he served as Envoy of Mount Lu. In order of precedence, the Elder of Qingcheng was also an Envoy of Mount Lu. The rank of the Envoy of Mount Lu was comparable to that of a censor; he was in charge of directing the affairs of immortal officials and also served as inspector of the Five Peaks.

Later, the Yellow Emperor also enfeoffed the Lord of Mount Qian as Director of Destinies of the Nine Heavens, in charge of the registers of life and death. The Yellow Emperor thought that the Eastern, Western, and Northern Peaks each had mountains that assisted the Director of Destinies, while the Southern Peak alone had no assistant. He therefore memorialized the Taishang Daojun of the Three Heavens. Daojun then appointed Mount Huo as Crown Lord and Mount Qian as deputy assistant to Mount Heng, so that together they might administer affairs and assist the Southern Peak.

The Yellow Emperor personally drew the forms and features of the mountains and made the True Form Charts of the Five Peaks. When he was smelting stone and refining elixirs in the Jinyun Hall, clouds appeared that were neither red nor purple, and so they were called “Jinyun”; the mountain also took its name from this, becoming Mount Jinyun (in Jinhua County, Wuzhou; another account places it in Yongkang County). The Yellow Emperor hid charts of victory and defeat in military strategy and books of the Six Jia and Yin-Yang in Mount Miao; because the Great Yu once gathered the feudal lords and assessed their merits here, the place was also called Kuaiji.

At Mount Fu the Yellow Emperor assembled the auspicious tally omens and obtained the Dao of long life. He served the Taiyi Sovereign Lord and received from him the essential instructions for cultivating the Dao and nourishing life; he also studied the arts of the bedchamber with Xuannü and Sunü and is said to have been able to manage three hundred women. Xuannü transmitted to the Yellow Emperor a set of Ruyi divine formulas, which he hid on Mount Kongtong.

The Yellow Emperor studied with Shanji the methods for calculating celestial phenomena and the calendar; Limu transmitted to Qibo the key techniques for diagnosing bodily conditions; Leigong and Master Fenghou discussed the art of omen watching—that is, inferring auspicious and inauspicious times and seasonal conditions from celestial phenomena. Master Fenghou was also skilled at healing injuries and disabilities and at repairing and smelting metal implements. Thus the Yellow Emperor was able to grasp deeply the mysteries of the Dao.

The Yellow Emperor understood the meaning of the Yinfu Jing (Scripture of the Hidden Talisman) from Xuannü, so that inwardly he could accord with the workings of Heaven and outwardly respond to human affairs. He governed all under Heaven, with territory reaching Jiaozhi in the south, Youling in the north, the Flowing Sands in the west, and Panmu in the east (the legendary place of the flat peaches, located on Mount Dusuo and recorded in the Classic of Mountains and Seas).

Later, the Yellow Emperor wished to relinquish all under Heaven, saying: “I have heard of letting all under Heaven be at peace in itself, but I have not heard of controlling all under Heaven through governance. I have labored for all under Heaven for a long time, and I intend to halt my carriage at Xuanpu and return to original truth.” Xuanpu is on Mount Kunlun.

After the Yellow Emperor had held the ceremony of reviving and promoting the Fengshan sacrifices, he collected copper from Mount Shou and prepared to cast nine tripods at the foot of Mount Jing to symbolize Taiyi. Mount Jing is in Yongzhou; a stone inscription in Hucheng County, Guozhou, records that the Yellow Emperor once cast tripods there...

(Here the old commentary says: this place was formerly called Dingzhou and belonged to Hongnong Commandery, as seen in the Dili Zhi; it also says that Mount Jing to the south is this place.)

The Tripod Spirit is a divine entity formed by the coalescence of Jing (essence) and Qi (vital energy), plain yet refined in appearance. It can foreknow good and bad fortune, life and death; it can be light or heavy, can be still or move; without kindling fire it boils, without drawing water it fills itself, and it can produce the five flavors within. The Yellow Emperor refined the Nine Tripods Elixir (an elixir refined using nine tripods) and ingested it. After the elixir was completed, in accordance with Dao (the Way) methods he transmitted the art of elixir refining to Xuanzi, and solemnly made a covenant and warned him: this Dao method is of the utmost importance. The Yellow Emperor hid what was recorded in the Zhongjing (Central Scripture) east of Mount Jiuyi, calling it “Weiyu”; he covered it with patterned jade and then weighed it down with a boulder. The golden slips and jade characters on which this book was written are prophecies left by the Yellow Emperor. (After Yu of Xia obtained it, he too became an immortal and departed; another account says that this book was hidden in Mount Fufu in Kuaiji.)

The Yellow Emperor also wrote the Lingbao Wufu Zhenwen (the Fulu [talismans and registers] documents of Lingbao Dao methods), which he carried on his person, onto golden slips; one copy was sealed at Mount Zhong and one was hidden at Mount Wanwei. The Yellow Emperor once cast objects in gold, each inscribed with a name; the script used was an ancient one, employed to record years and months and sometimes also for sacrifices.

Later, when the warm breeze blew and divine beings gathered, the Yellow Emperor conceived the intention to withdraw from the world. He left his crown, sword, ornaments, and shoes on the Kun Terrace at the highest point of Ding Lake, and built a lodge below it. The Kun Terrace is the Xuanyuan Terrace on Mount Kunlun.

At that time there was a man named Ma Shihuang, skilled in treating horses, whose medical art was wondrous. A dragon came into his courtyard, lay on the ground with its mouth open and eyes closed. Shihuang looked and said: “This dragon is ill and has come to ask me to cure it.” He inserted needles into the dragon’s mouth, and also decocted licorice in cow’s milk and poured it into it. When the dragon recovered, Shihuang rode it and became an immortal, departing.

After the Yellow Emperor heard of this, he chose a day himself and divined, learning that the Wuwu day was the day for him to return to his former abode and ascend to heaven as an immortal. On that day a dragon indeed lowered its whiskers to welcome the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor mounted the dragon and ascended to heaven together with his friend Wuweizi and seventy-two officials and attendants. The minor officials who could not get up pulled out the dragon’s whiskers; the whiskers and the Yellow Emperor’s bow fell down together. They wept while holding the whiskers and the bow, and for this reason the bow was called “Wuhao.”

The place where the tripods were cast was later called Ding Lake. (In the Zhou dynasty, the Zhou king enfeoffed this place to Guo Shu, so it was also called Haozhou; in ancient times it was called Dingzhou, and in the Han dynasty it was called Hu County.) Thereafter, a minister, Zuo Che, carved wood to make...

In the Yellow Emperor’s ceremonial cortege, the feudal lords and court officials mourned him but did not know in what manner to express their grief.

Some brought small tables and staffs and established shrines for sacrifices; others brought clothes and caps and placed them beside the tomb as guards. Thus there came to be the tomb at Qiaoshan (Qiaoshan is in Zhouyang County, Shanggu Commandery; another account says it is in Fushi County). It is said that at Qiaoshan in Fangzhou there are a Yellow Emperor shrine and tomb, and that shrines were also built wherever the Yellow Emperor had traveled.

Five hundred years later, the tomb at Qiaoshan collapsed; inside there remained only a precious sword and red shoes, and later these too disappeared. Both the Jingshan Ji and the Longshou Ji record this in detail.

The Yellow Emperor dwelt in the human world for 111 years and reigned for 100 years. After ascending as an immortal, he rose to Heaven and became Lord Taiyi. His divine spirit corresponds to the Xuanyuan constellation in Heaven, located in the Southern Palace; its asterism as a whole takes the form of a yellow dragon. (Among the heavenly deities sacrificed to in the worship of Heaven, the Xuanyuan star is one.) Later generations offered sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor, ranked him among the Five Emperors, honored him as the ruler of the central direction, and gave him a share in the sacrifices to Heaven.

The Yellow Emperor is associated with the virtue of Earth and occupies the central position, governing the four directions: in the east the Green Emperor Taihao, in the south the Red Emperor Shennong, in the west the White Emperor Shaohao, and in the north the Black Emperor Zhuanxu. The Zhen Star (Saturn) is regarded as the son of the Yellow Emperor; it is a deity named “Pivot,” who assists the Yellow Emperor and receives sacrifices together with him.

The Yellow Emperor’s son Changyi lived by the Ruoshui. Changyi’s younger brother Shaohao was born to the Yellow Emperor and his consort Nüjie. The Yellow Emperor had a daughter who drowned in the Eastern Sea and became a bird named Jingwei; she constantly carried wood and stones from the Western Mountains in her beak, intending to fill up the Eastern Sea.

Shaohao, named Zhi and styled Qingyang, took the title Jintian Shi after ascending the throne and was a son of the Yellow Emperor. Zhuanxu was of the Gaoyang clan and was also a grandson of the Yellow Emperor. Both possessed sagely and enlightened virtue. Zhuanxu reigned for seventy-eight years and then died. He was born to his mother of the Shushan clan, and his capital was in the region of Shangqiu and Puyang.

Yuqiang was a descendant of the Yellow Emperor and did not become a sovereign. He and Zhuanxu both attained the Dao, dwelt in the north, and became water deities. (From the time of Zhuanxu onward, imperial titles were often named after the place over which the ruler presided.)

Emperor Ku was of the Gaoxin clan and a grandson of the Yellow Emperor. (Jiaoji begot Gaoxin.) Emperor Ku of the Gaoxin clan was spiritually manifest and extraordinary, and he called himself by his own name; he established his capital at Yanshi (in present-day Bozhou and the Henan region), reigned for seventy years, and lived to the age of 105.

Emperor Yao was of the Taotang clan and a great-great-grandson of the Yellow Emperor; his surname was Yiqi and his personal name Fangxun. He rose in Dingtao and originally became emperor as the Marquis of Tang. (Jiyin Commandery, Dingtao County also...)

Great Yu (the legendary sage king who controlled the floods) resided in Pingyang Commandery, that is, the Jinzhou region; he reigned for ninety-eight years and lived to the age of one hundred eighteen. Shun was of the Youyu clan and an eighth-generation descendant of Huangdi; Great Yu was Shun’s great-great-grandson.

According to the Dunjia Kaishan Tu, Great Yu once obtained the immortal Dao. Ancient legends also say that Great Yu was a nineteenth-generation descendant of Nuwa, that he lived three hundred sixty years, and that he later entered Jiuyi Mountain, became an immortal, and flew away. Three thousand six hundred years after Great Yu departed, when Yao governed the world, the great floods overflowed and the people suffered from being submerged. Great Yu pitied the people, and so he was incarnated and born beside a spring on Shiniu Mountain. When the spring maiden Di went at dusk to draw water, she obtained a pebble like a pearl; she loved it and swallowed it, and afterward was pregnant for fourteen months and gave birth to Great Yu. When Great Yu grew up, he could identify the sources of springs; he succeeded his father Gun in controlling the floods and succeeded in governing the waters in three years. Emperor Yao learned of his achievement, considered him as familiar with water sources as the ancient Great Yu, and bestowed on him the title “Great Yu.” From this it appears that he was indeed Huangdi’s great-great-grandson.

Tang of Yin was a seventieth-generation descendant of Huangdi. Huangdi’s son Shaohao begot Jiaoji, and Jiaoji begot Diku; after fourteen generations, Tianyi became king of Yin. Huangdi’s descendants each received surnames for various reasons. It is said that Emperor Tui established twelve surnames according to law; see the middle of this fascicle for details.

Shaohao had the Man surname, and Zhuanxu the Ji surname. Huangdi lived beside the Ji River, and therefore his descendants took Ji as their surname; Diku’s son Houji was also surnamed Ji. Yao’s surname was Yiqi, Shun’s was Yao, Yu’s was Si, and Tang’s was Zi. In addition, such surnames as Zhang, Deng, Xuan, Lu, Huang, Kou, Song, Li, Bai, Xue, Yu, Zi, Yiqi, Shentu, Huanggong, and Tuoba are also all said to derive from Huangdi’s descendants. Changyi’s youngest son was enfeoffed in the north; on the grounds that Huangdi belonged to the virtue of Earth and used Earth to civilize local customs, he combined “earth” and “lord” into a surname, calling it Tuoba.

Huangdi had nine sons, each enfeoffed as a state; details are in the middle of this fascicle. Altogether thirty-three clans descended from Huangdi. Huangdi’s descendants were transmitted through generations, spanning one thousand two hundred fifty years, reckoned from Huangdi’s jiyou year down to the present.

—Yunji Qiqian, fascicle 100