《皇極經世》Vol. 21

In earlier times, when Confucius spoke of Yao and Shun, he said that they let their robes hang loose and folded their hands, and the realm was well governed. When he spoke of Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou, he said that they accorded with Heaven's will and answered the hearts of the people. These words can sum up the principle by which rulers past and present received the Mandate of Heaven and governed the realm.

Yao yielded the throne to Shun because Shun had virtue, and Shun yielded it to Yu because Yu had merit. One may become ruler through virtue, and one may also become ruler through achievement. When virtue falls a step short, however, rulers are judged by their achievements. Tang of Shang attacked Jie of Xia and exiled him, and King Wu of Zhou attacked Zhou of Shang and killed him. Founding a kingdom through exile is acceptable, and so is doing it through execution. Yet the means of exile are gentler than those of execution, and if one descends yet another step, one arrives at execution. From this we know that ages have their rise and decline, and that affairs have both continuity and change. The paths by which the sages of antiquity and the sages of later times accomplished the imperial enterprise were not confined to one.

Heaven and humanity correspond to each other. Heaven has yin and yang, and humanity has the upright and the crooked. Whether people walk the correct way or the crooked path depends on what those in high positions favor. When rulers esteem virtue, the common people incline toward uprightness; when rulers favor flatterers, the people easily fall into crookedness. The origins of these trends of uprightness and crookedness do have a source.

Even when a wise ruler is above, there cannot be no petty men; the difficulty lies in making it so that they cannot succeed. Even when a mediocre ruler is above, there cannot be no gentlemen; the difficulty lies in enabling them to become gentlemen. Since antiquity, no age under a sage ruler has flourished more than the age of Tang Yao. Why were there so many gentlemen then? Not because there were no petty men in the world, but because petty men found it hard to exert themselves, so gentlemen appeared numerous. For this reason, even though there were the "Four Villains" (evil figures of legend from Yao's time), they could not act wantonly. Since antiquity, no age under a mediocre ruler has been more severe than the age of King Zhou of Shang. Why were there so many petty men then? Not because there were no gentlemen in the world, but because gentlemen found it hard to exert themselves, so petty men appeared numerous. For this reason, even though there were the "Three Benevolent Men" (legendary humane figures from the late Shang), they could not carry out their good deeds.

From this we know that whether rulers select ministers, and whether ministers select rulers, depends on human action. Whether a ruler meets worthy ministers, or ministers meet an enlightened ruler, however, cannot be decided by human wishes alone, for it is bound up with Heaven's will.

Wisdom or foolishness is part of human nature, and pursuing gain while avoiding harm is the common feeling of the people. Yu Shun once fired pottery on the banks of the Yellow River, and Fu Yue once served as a laborer building walls at Fuyan. The whole world knew they were capable, yet the officials in charge of government did not recommend them, because calculations of advantage and loss made them so. Alas, when thoughts of profit and harm tangle and multiply in the mind, and outside there are the threats of spears and halberds, how could one discern Shun's sagacity or Fu Yue's worth? The banks of the Yellow River were never a place for transferring the throne, and Fuyan was not a place for seeking out a chancellor.

The Book of Changes (Yijing) says: "Kan: there is sincerity, and the heart holds fast, so one prevails; going forward brings honor." It means that when one is in peril, sincerity of heart allows one to get through, and proper action earns respect. One who keeps to the center and rightness while advancing into danger will in the end achieve merit. Though placed in a precarious situation, such a person commits no fault, because they firmly trust themselves. Yi Yin was such a man.

From this we can see that even the ancients encountered reputations that exceeded their actual deeds, and that some were fortunate in such judgments and some unfortunate. Sometimes even a sage cannot fully avoid them. Yi Yin served as Grand Steward (Zhongzai), the highest administrative official of the Shang dynasty, and stood in a position that required him to bear responsibility and assist the ruler. Suppose he had refrained from acting in order to avoid the infamy of "banishing the ruler." Could we then say he was not loyal? In that case, the great affairs of the realm would be neglected, and how could he have rectified the successor-king and achieved the constant, unwavering loyalty of a great minister? Alas, if the state were entrusted to an unsuitable person, what would become of the successor-king within three years? The affairs of the realm would likewise be neglected, and where would there be a Yi Yin? The Book of Changes' words "Kan: there is sincerity, and the heart holds fast, so one prevails," are they not close to this meaning?

The Book of Changes also says: "Yu: one who follows the momentum of ease gains greatly; do not hesitate, and friends will gather like hairpins." It means that by yielding to the flow of peace and contentment, one may achieve great results; without doubt, companions will come together. When a person of vigor presides over a settled situation, actions will be answered, and the doubts of the multitude will dissipate, because such a person strives constantly to strengthen themselves. The Duke of Zhou was such a man.

From this we can see that a sage cannot prevent everyone from slandering them, but can respond to slander appropriately. The Duke of Zhou held overall command of the affairs of government and bore a heavy burden. Suppose he had refused to attend to state affairs in order to avoid the infamy of "harming his kin." Could we then say he was not filial? In that case, the great affairs of the realm would be neglected, and how could he have preserved the successor-king and achieved the constant, unwavering filiality of a great minister? Alas, if the state were entrusted to an unsuitable person, what would become of the successor-king within seven years? The affairs of the realm would likewise be neglected, and where would there be a Duke of Zhou? The Book of Changes' words "Yu: one who follows the momentum of ease gains greatly; do not hesitate, and friends will gather like hairpins," are they not close to this meaning?

When the realm is about to be at peace, people are certain to esteem action; when the realm is about to fall into chaos, people are certain to esteem words. When action is esteemed, a spirit of earnest substance prevails; when words are esteemed, a spirit of deceit and cleverness prevails. When the realm is about to be at peace, people are certain to value righteousness; when the realm is about to fall into chaos, people are certain to value profit. When righteousness is valued, a spirit of humility and deference prevails; when profit is valued, a spirit of contention and plunder prevails. The Three Kings (the wise rulers of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou) esteemed practical action, while the Five Hegemons (the rulers of the Spring and Autumn period) esteemed words. Esteeming action ultimately leads to righteousness; esteeming words ultimately leads to profit. The gap between righteousness and profit is indeed so vast. From this we can see that…

Speaking one's words is not as good as putting them into practice, and putting them into practice is not as good as truly realizing them in the heart. Words spoken aloud can be heard by others, and deeds done can be seen by others, but whether the heart has truly realized them can be known only by shenming (the spirits). If human cleverness cannot deceive others, how much less can it deceive the penetrating discernment of the spirits?

Therefore, being free of fault in speech is not as good as being free of fault in conduct, and being free of fault in conduct is not as good as being free of fault in the heart. Avoiding error in speech is easy, while avoiding error in conduct is hard; avoiding error in conduct is easy, while avoiding error in the heart is hard. Since the heart is already free of fault, what difficulty could remain? Alas, where can one find a person whose heart is entirely without fault, with whom to discuss the Way of the heart? Thus the sages were able to stand in a place free of fault because they were skilled at cultivating and ordering their own hearts.

Chapter 48: Observing Things

Confucius said: "The Shao (the music and dance of the time of Shun) is both perfect in goodness and perfect in beauty; the Wu (the music and dance of the time of King Wu of Zhou) is perfect in beauty but not perfect in goodness." Confucius also said: "Guan Zhong assisted Duke Huan of Qi in becoming hegemon over the feudal lords and in bringing the realm back to unity, and the common people still enjoy his benefits today. Without Guan Zhong, we would probably all be wearing our hair loose and fastening our robes to the left, and would have fallen into the status of barbarians."

From this we can see that although King Wu of Zhou did not reach the perfect goodness and beauty of Shun, his rescue of the people of the realm from being hung upside down (a metaphor for extreme hardship) was only one step below Shun's achievement. Although Duke Huan of Qi did not equal King Wu in according with Heaven's mandate and following the hearts of the people, his establishment of hegemony and rectification of the realm far surpassed the Di (the term used in antiquity for peoples of the north). Compared with Shun, King Wu fell short; compared with Duke Huan, King Wu had merit. Compared with the Di, Duke Huan had merit; compared with King Wu, Duke Huan fell short. The Han dynasty should probably be placed between King Wu and Duke Huan.

Had the people of the realm not loathed the tyranny of Qin to the utmost, then even with ten Liu Jis (Liu Bang) and a hundred Zifangs (Zhang Liang), what could they have done with the hearts of the people? Moreover, though the ages past and present differ, the people's desire for life and aversion to death have never differed. Since antiquity, no one has killed more people than Qin did, so how could the people of the realm not loathe it? To kill many does not necessarily require blades; if the people of the realm are left with no way to survive, this itself is killing. How much more so when blades are used to massacre the people on a large scale?

The Second Emperor of Qin was the Son of Heaven, yet he could not obtain the status of a common commoner. Han Gaozu, Liu Ji, was originally an ordinary man, yet he could not avoid becoming a ruler. Between the Son of Heaven and an ordinary person, the difference in status is vast. Yet...

Sometimes one ruler replaces another because the gains and losses of everyone under Heaven hang on the outcome.

The Way of Heaven (Tiandao) does not bring calamity upon the lord of ten thousand chariots or bestow blessings on common people. It punishes those without the Dao (Dao) and blesses those who have it. Human nature likewise does not lead people to abandon a ruler of ten thousand chariots for the common folk. It leads them to abandon those without the Dao and attach themselves to those who have it. The rank of a ruler of ten thousand chariots and that of a common person are far apart, yet a ruler is sometimes replaced, because the gains and losses of everyone under Heaven are bound up in that very matter.

The sun has already set, and the moon is full, so the stars naturally appear sparse. This is not because the stars have actually diminished, but because it is hard for them to show their light. Are the stars that can shine at such a time not also few?

The Han and Tang dynasties were founded, and Empress Lü and Wu Zetian, the female rulers who respectively held power in the Han and Tang, later monopolized authority. Ministers naturally appear scarce, for it is hard for them not to be. This is not because ministers have actually become few, but because it is hard for them to achieve loyalty. Are the ministers who can achieve loyalty not also few?

From this we can see that following the great affairs of the world is not difficult, but dying for them is very difficult, and accomplishing them is not easy. If one truly accomplishes great affairs, why should one weigh death against life? If the affair does not succeed, what benefit is there even in dying? Moreover, there is a difference between what is righteous and what is not. Rather than die in a matter that is not righteous, would it not be better to live while upholding the right? Rather than survive in a matter that is not righteous, would it not be better to die for the Way? The choice depends on how loyalty and wisdom are weighed against each other.

Death is indeed regrettable, but accomplishing the great affairs of the world matters more. If the affair fails and one dies only once, how can that make up for one's responsibility? Life is indeed precious, but accomplishing the great affairs of the world matters more. If the affair fails and one merely survives, on what basis could one achieve any merit?

Alas, who else could be the people who accomplish the great affairs of the world, do not lose the right Way, and preserve their lives, if not Marquis Liu (Zhang Liang) of the Han and Duke Liang (Di Renjie) of the Tang? Without these two men, the fortunes of the Han and Tang might nearly have passed to others. How could they resemble those who live in vain and die in vain? Those who live in vain and die in vain are as insignificant as the artemisia and mugwort. Those who are faithful to wisdom do not take such a path.

Commentary on Observing Things, Section Forty-Nine

Confucius said, "If a good person governs a state for a hundred years, he can subdue cruelty and abolish capital punishment." This statement is indeed correct. To move from extreme chaos to extreme order, one must pass through three transformations. The laws of the Three Sovereigns did not use punishments, while the laws of the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period did not allow the people to survive. After the hegemonic enterprise undergoes one transformation, it becomes the Way of Kings. When the Way of Kings changes again, it becomes the Way of Emperors. When the Way of Emperors changes once more, it becomes the Way of Sovereigns. As for the principle concerning "birth..."—

It is not merely a matter of a hundred years, so we can see that the age of the Three Sovereigns was like spring, the age of the Five Emperors like summer, the age of the Three Kings like autumn, and the age of the Five Hegemons like winter. Spring is mild, summer is hot, autumn is bleak, and winter is severe. The succession of spring, summer, autumn, and winter is the order by which Heaven operates, and the Classic of Changes (Yi), the Classic of Documents (Shu), the Classic of Odes (Shi), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) are the canons transmitted by the sages. When the operation of Heaven's seasons does not go astray, the farm work of the year can be completed smoothly; when the principles of the sages' canons do not deviate, the virtue of the ruler is brought to fulfillment.

Heaven has its constant seasons, and the sages have their constant canons. Acting in accordance with the correct Dao brings about correctness, and acting in defiance of it brings about deviance. Between the correct and the deviant there is a principle to follow. To walk in accordance with the Dao is called the correct Way, and to walk against it is called the deviant way. Are correctness and deviance determined by people, or by Heaven? Heaven arises from the Dao, Earth is completed by the Dao, the myriad things are formed by the Dao, and humans act in accordance with the Dao. Heaven and Earth, the myriad things, and humans all differ from one another, yet they all come from the Dao, and in this they are the same.

The Dao, so called, is the road along which people walk. The Dao originally has no form, but when people act in accordance with it, it manifests itself in concrete affairs. It is as level as a road, so that people who have walked upon it for thousands and tens of thousands of years all know where they should go.

Some say, "When the way of the gentleman flourishes, the way of the petty person declines; when the way of the gentleman declines, the way of the petty person flourishes." If the side that flourishes is right, then the side that declines is wrong; if the side that declines is right, then the side that flourishes is wrong. How, then, can one distinguish the correct Dao from the deviant? Alas, such a formulation misleads people. Should it not rather be that the ruler does what a ruler should do, and the minister does what a minister should do; the father fulfills the duties of a father, and the son fulfills the duties of a son; the husband fulfills the duties of a husband, and the wife fulfills the duties of a wife; the gentleman does what a gentleman should do, and the petty person does what a petty person should do; and the people of the Central States keep the Dao of the Central States, while the Yi and Di (the term used in antiquity for peoples beyond the Central States) keep the Dao of the Yi and Di? Only then can it be called the correct Dao.

If the ruler does what a minister should do, and the minister does what a ruler should do; if the father does what a son should do, and the son does what a father should do; if the husband does what a wife should do, and the wife does what a husband should do; if the gentleman does what a petty person should do, and the petty person does what a gentleman should do; if the people of the Central States engage in the affairs of the Yi and Di, and the people of the Yi and Di engage in the affairs of the Central States, this is called the deviant Dao.

In the eras of the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou), states that were well governed were all founded on the Dao of rectifying the order of human relationships, and the eras of disorder under the Three Dynasties all arose from the confusion of that order. Later generations who longed for the peace of the Three Dynasties all advocated the rectification of human relationships, and later generations who longed for the chaos of the Three Dynasties all brought about the disruption of those relationships. Since the Three Dynasties...

Dynasties after the Han and Tang have likewise always flourished when government was clear and fallen when disorder reigned. How much more is this true of ages that did not match the prosperity of Han and Tang? When a dynasty rises, it is always because the Way of the ruler (junzhi dao), the Way of the father (fudao), the Way of the husband (fudao), and the Way of the gentleman (junzi zhi dao) have flourished, and the Way of China (Zhongguo zhi dao) has flourished with them. When a dynasty falls, it is always because the Way of the minister (chen dao), the Way of the son (zidao), the Way of the wife (qidao), the Way of the petty person (xiaoren zhi dao), and the Way of the barbarians (yidi zhi dao) have flourished.

Alas, yin and yang proceed side by side. Why, then, are there few ages of peace and many of disorder, few gentlemen and many petty people? The reply is: do you not know that yang has only one share, while yin has two? If Heaven and Earth still generate things in accordance with this pattern, how much more so do humans and the myriad things? Humans are the most spiritually endowed among the myriad things. Even the myriad things, which are less spiritually endowed than humans, still come into being in accordance with this pattern; how much more, then, does it apply to humans, who are more spiritually endowed than the myriad things? From this we can see that humans are also one kind among the myriad things, and only because their spiritual nature is the highest are they specially called "human" (ren).

Guanwu Pian (Observing Things), Chapter 50

The sun corresponds to the yuan (epoch), the moon to the hui (conjunction), the stars to the yun (cycle), and the stellar lodges (chen) to the shi (generation). Using the sun to infer the sun allows one to understand the "yuan within the yuan." Using the sun to infer the moon allows one to understand the "hui within the yuan." Using the sun to infer the stars allows one to understand the "yun within the yuan." Using the sun to infer the stellar lodges allows one to understand the "shi within the yuan."

Using the moon to infer the sun allows one to understand the "yuan within the hui." Using the moon to infer the moon allows one to understand the "hui within the hui." Using the moon to infer the stars allows one to understand the "yun within the hui." Using the moon to infer the stellar lodges allows one to understand the "shi within the hui."

Using the stars to infer the sun allows one to understand the "yuan within the yun." Using the stars to infer the moon allows one to understand the "hui within the yun." Using the stars to infer the stars allows one to understand the "yun within the yun." Using the stars to infer the stellar lodges allows one to understand the "shi within the yun."

Using the stellar lodges to infer the sun allows one to understand the "yuan within the shi." Using the stellar lodges to infer the moon allows one to understand the "hui within the shi." Using the stellar lodges to infer the stars allows one to understand the "yun within the shi." Using the stellar lodges to infer the stellar lodges allows one to understand the "shi within the shi."

In Shao Yong's system of the Huangji Jingshi (Supreme Polar Canon for Governing the World), the concepts of yuan, hui, yun, and shi are hierarchical categories used to deduce the cycles of Heaven-and-Earth history. The text then lists the quantities of each level: one yuan contains one yuan; within one yuan there are twelve hui, three hundred and sixty yun, and four thousand three hundred and twenty shi; within one hui there are twelve yuan, one hundred and forty-four hui, four thousand…

A shi (generation) contains 320 hui (conjunctions), and a yuan (epoch) contains 51,840 yun (periods). The numerical relationships among yun, hui, and shi are as follows: one hui contains 360 yun; one shi contains 4,320 yun; and one yuan contains 129,600 yun. One yuan further contains 1,552,000 shi; one shi contains 4,320 hui; and one yuan contains 51,840 hui. One yuan also contains 18,662,400 yuan.

The yuan, hui, yun, and shi named here are the units of time that the Huangji Jingshi (Supreme Principles Governing the World) uses to calculate the historical cycles of Heaven and Earth.

Each of the yuan, hui, yun, and shi also has its own four seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter. The yuan of a yuan corresponds spring to spring; the hui of a yuan corresponds spring to summer; the yun of a yuan corresponds spring to autumn; and the shi of a yuan corresponds spring to winter. The yuan of a hui corresponds summer to spring; the hui of a hui corresponds summer to summer; the yun of a hui corresponds summer to autumn; and the shi of a hui corresponds summer to winter. The yuan of a yun corresponds autumn to spring; the hui of a yun corresponds autumn to summer; the yun of a yun corresponds autumn to autumn; and the shi of a yun corresponds autumn to winter. The yuan of a shi corresponds winter to spring; the hui of a shi corresponds winter to summer; the yun of a shi corresponds winter to autumn; and the shi of a shi corresponds winter to winter.

The ranks of rulers and the manner in which they act are likewise explained through the same four-part combinations. Huang (August Sovereign), Di (Emperor), Wang (King), and Ba (Hegemon) are four levels of political order, while Dao (the Way), De (Virtue), Gong (merit), and Li (force) refer to governing through the Way, through Virtue, through achievement, and through force, respectively. The Huang of a Huang governs by the Way through the Way; the Di of a Huang governs by the Way through Virtue; the Wang of a Huang governs by the Way through merit; and the Ba of a Huang governs by the Way through force. The Huang of a Di governs by Virtue through the Way; the Di of a Di governs by Virtue through Virtue; the Wang of a Di governs by Virtue through merit; and the Ba of a Di governs by Virtue through force. The Huang of a Wang governs by merit through the Way; the Di of a Wang governs by merit through Virtue; the Wang of a Wang governs by merit through merit; and the Ba of a Wang governs by merit through force. The Huang of a Ba governs by force through the Way; the Di of a Ba governs by force through Virtue; the Wang of a Ba governs by force through merit; and the Ba of a Ba governs by force through force.

The tides of the times recede and rise, and human affairs both inherit and change. Unless one is a sage, one cannot fully comprehend these transformations. Therefore... Zhongni (Confucius)...

Guanwu Pian (Observing Things), Section 51

Those who can study together may not be able to walk the right path together. Those who can walk the right path together may not be able to establish themselves and act together. And those who can establish themselves and act together may not be able to fully understand expedient adaptation (flexibly responding to circumstances).

From this we can see that the changes of the times across thousands of years, and the constant patterns handed down through successive generations, cannot be confined within fixed boundaries and then judged lightly. How could one do so?

The age of the Three Sovereigns was like spring, the age of the Five Emperors like summer, the age of the Three Kings like autumn, and the age of the Five Hegemons like winter. The Seven States of the Warring States were the lingering chill after winter. The Han held kingship but seemed lacking in strength, while the Jin held hegemony yet still had surplus momentum. The Three Kingdoms were the strongest of the hegemons, and the Sixteen Kingdoms were the period in which many hegemons gathered. The Five Dynasties of the south were hegemonies that seized opportunities as the moment allowed, while the five regimes of the north were like the way-stations where a hegemon pauses for a time. The Sui was the son of the Jin, and the Tang was the younger brother of the Han. The regional powers at the end of the Sui were the drifting remnants of the Han and Yangzi rivers, and the regional garrisons at the end of the Tang were the faint glimmers left by the sun and moon. The hegemons of the Five Dynasties, namely the Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou, were like the starlight before the sun has risen.

From Emperor Yao until now, above and below, more than three thousand years have passed across over a hundred generations. Within the Four Seas and Nine Provinces, as far as histories and biographies can clearly record, each era was at times unified and at times divided, at times at peace and at times in decline, at times strong and at times weak, at times led by advocates and at times followed by others. Yet never has any age brought all regions together and made the customs of the realm entirely uniform.

The ancients called thirty years a generation, and surely there was reason for this. Only when instruction is fully carried out and teaching is universally implemented can the dispositions of the people truly change. If a person of sufficient stature to shape an age arose generation after generation, then even a people originally uncultivated, like the barbarians, could after three transformations through instruction put the way of the kings into practice. Regrettably, the world has never had an age that lasted a hundred years, nor a worthy person who lived to be a hundred. When dynasties change, how could the wise and the unwise be divided only in half? Is this not the difficulty of the times? Is this not the rarity of people?

The bodily number of Great Yang is ten, and that of Great Yin is twelve. The bodily number of Lesser Yang is ten, and that of Lesser Yin is twelve. The bodily number of Lesser Firm is ten, and that of Lesser Yielding is twelve. The bodily number of Great Firm is ten, and that of Great Yielding is twelve.

When the bodily numbers of Great Yang, Lesser Yang, Great Firm, and Lesser Firm are increased while those of Great Yin, Lesser Yin, Great Yielding, and Lesser Yielding are decreased, this is called the "use-number" (the number used to deduce transformations) of Great Yang, Lesser Yang, Great Firm, and Lesser Firm. When the bodily numbers of Great Yin, Lesser Yin, Great Yielding, and Lesser Yielding are increased while those of Great Yang, Lesser Yang, Great Firm, and Lesser Firm are decreased, this is called the "use-number" of Great Yin, Lesser Yin, Great Yielding, and Lesser Yielding.

Rou (softness) and gang (hardness), Taiyang and Shaoyang, Taiyin and Shaoyin each have a substance (ti) and a function (yong), and these are expressed through numbers. The "substance numbers" (tishu) of Taiyin, Shaoyin, Tairou, and Shaorou are one hundred and sixty. Those of Taiyang, Shaoyang, Taigang, and Shaogang are one hundred and ninety-two. The "function numbers" (yongshu) of Taiyin, Shaoyin, Tairou, and Shaorou are one hundred and twelve. Those of Taiyang, Shaoyang, Taigang, and Shaogang are one hundred and fifty-two.

When the function numbers of Taiyang, Shaoyang, Taigang, and Shaogang are used to "sing in response" (changhe) to the function numbers of Taiyin, Shaoyin, Tairou, and Shaorou, the result is called the "changing numbers of the sun, moon, stars, and constellations" (riyue xingchen zhi bianshu). When the function numbers of Taiyin, Shaoyin, Tairou, and Shaorou are used to "answer" (yinghe) the function numbers of Taiyang, Shaoyang, Taigang, and Shaogang, the result is called the "transforming numbers of water, fire, earth, and stone" (shuihuo tushi zhi huashu). Here, "singing in response" refers to mutual arousal and coordination, while "change" (bian) and "transformation" (hua) are two different ways of summarizing how heaven and earth operate.

The changing numbers of the sun, moon, stars, and constellations total 17,024, and are called the "moving numbers" (dongshu). The transforming numbers of water, fire, earth, and stone also total 17,024, and are called the "growing numbers" (zhishu). When the changes of the sun, moon, stars, and constellations are further combined with those of water, fire, earth, and stone in mutual response, the total yields 289,816,576, which is called the "general number of movement and growth" (dongzhi tongshu).

The sun, moon, stars, and constellations bring the changes of heat and cold and of day and night, while water, fire, earth, and stone effect transformation and nurturing through rain, wind, dew, and thunder. The changes of heat, cold, day, and night act upon the natures and forms of all things: heat alters the nature of birds, beasts, and plants, cold alters their condition, daylight shapes their appearance, and darkness shapes their bodies. Rain nurtures the natures and forms of all things, wind nurtures flying creatures, dew nurtures grasses and plants, and thunder nurtures trees.

The natures and forms of all things have their origin in Heaven. Birds, beasts, and plants have their origin in Earth. Those rooted in Heaven are divided into yin and yang; those rooted in Earth are divided into rou and gang. The distinctions between yin and yang and between rou and gang together describe the characteristics of all things between Heaven and Earth. A person who possesses the natures of all the myriad things of Heaven and Earth is therefore called "human."

Guanwu Pian, Chapter 52

In the world there are things centered on the sun, things paired with the sun and moon, things paired with the sun and stars, and things paired with the sun and the twelve earthly branches (chen). There are also things centered on the moon and then paired with the sun……

There are things formed by combining the moon, stars, and chen (the celestial stations): moon-moon, moon-star, moon-chen; star-sun, star-moon, star-star, star-chen; chen-sun, chen-moon, chen-star, chen-chen. There are also things formed by pairing sun, moon, stars, and chen two by two. Things of sun-sun belong to the flying kind (fei); things of sun-moon belong to both the flying and walking (zou) kinds; things of sun-star belong to both the flying and wood kinds; things of sun-chen belong to both the flying and grass kinds. Things of moon-sun belong to the walking and flying kinds; moon-moon to the walking kind twice; moon-star to the walking and wood kinds; moon-chen to the walking and grass kinds. Things of star-sun belong to the wood and flying kinds; star-moon to the wood and walking kinds; star-star to the wood kind twice; star-chen to the wood and grass kinds. Things of chen-sun belong to the grass and flying kinds; chen-moon to the grass and walking kinds; chen-star to the grass and wood kinds; chen-chen to the grass kind twice. Here "flying," "walking," "wood," and "grass" refer respectively to flying animals, walking animals, trees, and grasses.

The people are likewise divided into different classes formed by pairing huang (sovereign), di (emperor), wang (king), and bo (lord), which are distinct political ranks. The people of huang-huang are shi-shi; those of huang-di are shi-nong; those of huang-wang are shi-gong; those of huang-bo are shi-shang. The people of di-huang are nong-shi; those of di-di are nong-nong; those of di-wang are nong-gong; those of di-bo are nong-shang. The people of wang-huang are gong-shi; those of wang-di are gong-nong; those of wang-wang are gong-gong; those of wang-bo are gong-shang. The people of bo-huang are shang-shi; those of bo-di are shang-nong; those of bo-wang are shang-gong; those of bo-bo are shang-shang. Shi, nong, gong, and shang refer respectively to scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants. Each pair of characters indicates that these people hold both of the corresponding occupational categories.

Things of fei-fei have xing (nature) as their nature. Things of fei-zou have xing and qing (emotion) as their nature. Things of fei-wood have xing and xing (form) as their nature. Things of fei-grass have xing and ti (body) as their nature.

Fei (flying), zou (walking), mu (trees), and cao (grasses) refer, respectively, to flying animals, walking animals, trees, and grasses. Paired with wu (things, beings), they express different categories of living beings and their qing (disposition), xing (nature), xing (form), and ti (body). Flying beings are characterized by qing-xing (disposition-nature), walking beings by qing-qing (disposition-disposition), trees by qing-xing (disposition-form), and grasses by qing-ti (disposition-body). When flying beings are paired with trees, the pair is called xing-xing (form-nature). Flying beings paired with walking beings are called xing-qing (form-disposition). Trees paired with trees are called xing-xing (form-form), and trees paired with grasses are called xing-ti (form-body). Grasses paired with flying beings are called ti-xing (body-nature), grasses with walking beings ti-qing (body-disposition), grasses with trees ti-xing (body-form), and grasses with grasses ti-ti (body-body).

The four social classes, shi (scholars), nong (farmers), gong (artisans), and shang (merchants), are likewise paired, and the scripture explains each pairing through the corresponding virtues of ren (humaneness), li (ritual propriety), yi (righteousness), and zhi (wisdom). Scholar-scholar pairs are ren-ren, scholar-farmer ren-li, scholar-artisan ren-yi, and scholar-merchant ren-zhi. Farmer-scholar pairs are li-ren, farmer-farmer li-li, farmer-artisan li-yi, and farmer-merchant li-zhi. Artisan-scholar pairs are yi-ren, artisan-farmer yi-li, artisan-artisan yi-yi, and artisan-merchant yi-zhi. Merchant-scholar pairs are zhi-ren, merchant-farmer zhi-li, merchant-artisan zhi-yi, and merchant-merchant zhi-zhi.

The scripture then uses yi (one), shi (ten), bai (hundred), and qian (thousand) to express the proportional ratios between the different categories of combination. Flying-flying beings stand in a ratio of one to one, flying-walking in one to ten, flying-trees in one to a hundred, and flying-grasses in one to a thousand. Walking-flying is ten to one, walking-walking ten to ten, walking-trees ten to a hundred, and walking-grasses ten to a thousand. Trees-flying is a hundred to one, trees-walking a hundred to ten, trees-trees a hundred to a hundred, and trees-grasses a hundred to a thousand. Grasses-flying is a thousand to one, grasses-walking a thousand to ten, grasses-trees a thousand to a hundred, and grasses-grasses a thousand to a thousand. The combinations of the social classes follow the same order of ratios. Scholar-scholar is one to one, scholar-farmer one to ten, scholar-artisan one to a hundred, and scholar-merchant one to a thousand. Farmer-scholar is ten to one, farmer-farmer ten to ten, farmer-artisan ten to a hundred, and farmer-merchant ten to a thousand. Artisan-scholar is a hundred to one, artisan-farmer a hundred to ten, artisan-artisan a hundred to a hundred, and artisan-merchant a hundred to a thousand. Merchant-scholar is a thousand to one, merchant-farmer a thousand to ten, merchant-artisan a thousand to a hundred, and merchant-merchant a thousand to a thousand.

Finally, the scripture states that the flying beings of yi-yi correspond to zhao (a million) beings, the flying beings of yi-shi to yi (a hundred million) beings, and the flying beings of yi-bai to wan (ten thousand) beings, that is, the myriad things (wan wu). It then goes on to list the correspondences between the number yi and the flying beings.

One thousand kinds of flying creatures correspond to one thousand kinds of things. Eleven kinds of walking creatures correspond to one hundred million kinds of things. Ten kinds of walking creatures correspond to ten thousand kinds of things. One hundred kinds of walking creatures correspond to one thousand kinds of things. One thousand kinds of walking creatures correspond to one hundred kinds of things.

One hundred kinds of trees correspond to ten thousand kinds of things. One thousand kinds of trees correspond to one thousand kinds of things. One hundred kinds of trees correspond to one hundred kinds of things. One thousand kinds of trees correspond to ten kinds of things.

One thousand kinds of grass correspond to one thousand kinds of things. One thousand kinds of grass correspond to one hundred kinds of things. One thousand kinds of grass correspond to ten kinds of things. One thousand kinds of grass correspond to one kind of thing.

One person corresponds to a million people. Ten people correspond to one hundred million people. One hundred people correspond to ten thousand people. One thousand people correspond to one thousand people.

Ten farmers correspond to one hundred million people. Ten farmers correspond to ten thousand people. One hundred farmers correspond to one thousand people. One thousand farmers correspond to one hundred people.

One hundred craftsmen correspond to ten thousand people. One hundred craftsmen correspond to one thousand people. One hundred craftsmen correspond to one hundred people. One thousand craftsmen correspond to ten people.

One merchant corresponds to one thousand people. Ten merchants correspond to one hundred people. One hundred merchants correspond to ten people. One thousand merchants correspond to one person.

If the capacity of one kind of thing can match a million kinds of things, is it not a great thing? If the capacity of one person can match a million people, is he not an outstanding person? If a thousand thousand kinds of things can be subdivided down to one kind of thing, is that thing not extremely minute? If a thousand thousand people can be subdivided down to one person, is that person not extremely insignificant?

From this we know that things differ in size and people differ in worth and wisdom. If the De (Virtue) by which the Haotian (Vast Heaven, the Sky above) created the million kinds of things were turned toward creating the million people, could this not be called supreme spirit (Shen)? If the merit by which the Haotian nourished the million kinds of things were turned toward nourishing the million people, could this not be called supreme sagehood? From now on, I understand that enabling the human form to fully realize its worth is the great undertaking. Were one not a person of great sagacity and wisdom, how could one avoid failing Heaven and Earth?

What is called "observing things" is not seeing with the eyes but observing with the heart-mind, and not merely with the heart-mind but in accordance with the principles of affairs. Among all the things under heaven, none lacks its principle (li), its nature (xing), and its destiny (ming). What is called principle must be investigated deeply before it can be known. What is called nature must be fully realized in its own course before it can be known. What is called destiny must be carried to its utmost before it can be known. These three kinds of knowing are the true knowing under heaven.

Even a sage has nothing that could surpass this, yet if someone deliberately tries to surpass it, they cannot be called a sage.

A mirror can reflect clearly because it does not obscure the forms of the myriad things. Still, a mirror is not as complete as water in reflecting the forms of the myriad things, and water, in turn, is not as complete as the sage in grasping the patterns and feelings of the myriad things.

The sage can grasp the patterns and feelings of the myriad things because the sage practices "fan guan" (reverse contemplation, observing things from their own standpoint rather than only from one's own position). Reverse contemplation means not observing things with the self at the center, but following the things themselves as they are. If one can see things from their own standpoint, how could a "self" remain lodged among them?

From this we can see that I am also a person, and a person is also me; self and others both belong to the myriad things. For this reason the sage can treat the eyes of everyone under heaven as their own eyes, so nothing goes unseen. They treat the ears of everyone under heaven as their own ears, so nothing goes unheard. They treat the mouths of everyone under heaven as their own mouths, so nothing cannot be spoken. They treat the minds of everyone under heaven as their own minds, so no plan goes ununderstood.

When the observations of everyone under heaven are used for seeing, is the scope of their insight not broad? When what everyone under heaven hears is used for listening, is what they reach not far-reaching? When the discourse of everyone under heaven is used for deliberation, are their judgments not lofty? When the plans of everyone under heaven are used to seek peace and security, are their considerations not vast?

When someone attains an insight of the greatest breadth, a hearing of the greatest reach, a discourse of the greatest height, and a planning of the greatest scope, yet their mind harbors not a trace of private intent, how could they not be called utterly spirit-like and utterly sage? Is this merely my praise of them? Everyone under heaven would also praise them in this way. Is such praise limited to the people under heaven of one age? People under heaven a thousand generations later would also praise them. As for what comes after that, no one can know.

Huangji Jingshi (Supreme Principles Governing the World), Scroll 11, Part II