《墨子》Vol. 2

Mozi (founder of the Mohist school) expounds his philosophy of governance in the chapter "Exalting the Worthy" (Shangxian). He observes that when ancient rulers governed their states, they all desired national prosperity, populous communities, and orderly administration—yet often achieved the opposite results of poverty, dwindling populations, and political chaos. The root cause, he argues, lies in the rulers' failure to honor and employ virtuous talents.

Mozi employs an analogy: Just as increasing the number of skilled archers and charioteers in a state requires granting them wealth, status, respect, and honors—thereby attracting more such talents—how much more should this apply to those possessing moral excellence, persuasive eloquence, and profound learning? These virtuous individuals are the state's treasures and its foundational pillars, deserving even greater preferential treatment.

Ancient sage-kings established this governing principle: The unvirtuous and unjust could neither attain wealth and nobility nor gain royal favor. Consequently, those who previously relied on wealth and status would reflect: "I used to depend on my privileged position, but now the ruler promotes talent regardless of social standing—I too must practice righteousness." Those who advanced through personal connections would reconsider: "Formerly I rose through nepotism, but now the ruler appoints officials impartially—I must cultivate virtue." Even distant subjects hearing of this would think: "I once believed my remote location doomed my prospects, but since the ruler disregards geographical distance in appointments, I shall pursue moral excellence."

Through this example, Mozi demonstrates that only by instituting a "worthy-exalting" system—where truly virtuous and capable individuals receive important positions—can states attract more talents to serve the nation, ultimately achieving good governance. This meritocratic philosophy challenged the hereditary privileges of aristocracy during his era, representing a progressive political vision.

Mozi here expounds his political doctrine of "Shangxian" (esteeming the worthy). He begins with a vivid analogy: just as a high-walled palace with only one gate can easily trap thieves by closing that single entrance, this illustrates the importance of mastering key methods.

The ancient sage-kings governed their states by assigning positions according to virtue and elevating the worthy. Even farmers or artisans, if they possessed talent, would be promoted to high office, granted generous emoluments, and entrusted with decisive authority in governance. For if rank were not high, the people would not respect them; if salary were not ample, the people would not trust them; and if their commands lacked firmness, the people would not fear them. Granting these three things to the worthy was not merely to reward them, but to ensure the success of state affairs.

In those times, people were assigned positions based on virtue, fulfilled their duties according to their offices, received rewards determined by merit, and were allocated salaries in proportion to their achievements. Thus, officials were not perpetually noble, nor were commoners forever lowly. Those with ability were promoted; those without were demoted. Justice was upheld, and private grievances were eliminated. This was why the ancient sage-kings acted as they did—Yao elevated Shun, Yu promoted Yi, Tang appointed Yi Yin, and King Wen of Zhou raised up Hong Yao and Tai Dian. Once these worthies were employed, the world was at peace, the nine regions were stable, and the western lands submitted.

Therefore, even ministers who enjoyed high rank and generous salaries conducted themselves with caution, while farmers and artisans strove toward goodness. The purpose of worthy scholars was to assist the ruler. When such scholars were obtained, plans would not falter, the ruler’s person would not be overworked, achievements would naturally manifest, and wickedness would not arise.

Mozi concludes: Whether in times of prosperity or adversity, the employment of worthy scholars is essential. To emulate the governing ways of Yao, Shun, Yu, and Tang, one must esteem the worthy. Esteeming the worthy is the foundation of governance.

In Shangxian Zhong (Esteeming the Worthy, Part 2), Mozi further points out: The rulers and high officials of today govern the people and administer the state, desiring long-lasting stability, yet they fail to recognize that esteeming the worthy is the root of governance.

The text discusses how governing a state must be fundamentally rooted in honoring the worthy and capable. Why is honoring the worthy considered the foundation of statecraft? Because when the noble and wise govern the ignorant and lowly, the state thrives; conversely, when the ignorant and lowly govern the noble and wise, chaos ensues.

The sage-kings of antiquity held the worthy in high esteem, appointing the capable without favoritism toward relatives, the powerful, the wealthy, or those favored for their beauty. The worthy were promoted to positions of authority, granting them honor and wealth, while the incompetent were demoted to menial labor, keeping them in poverty and low status. Thus, the people were motivated by rewards and deterred by punishments, striving to become worthy themselves.

When sages assessed talent, they carefully listened to their words, observed their conduct, and rigorously evaluated their abilities before assigning official positions. Those suited to governing the state were entrusted with state affairs; those suited to administration were given bureaucratic roles; those suited to local governance were appointed to oversee regions. When the worthy governed, they rose early and retired late, diligently attending to affairs, ensuring the state's stability and the law's impartiality. In managing government offices, they diligently collected taxes from mountains, forests, lakes, and marshes to enrich the treasury. In administering localities, they urged the people to farm, ensuring abundant harvests.

Thus, the state would be well-governed: laws were just, the treasury full, and the people prosperous. There were ample offerings of wine and food to honor the spirits of heaven and earth, as well as furs and currency to engage with neighboring lords. Internally, the people enjoyed warmth, sustenance, and rest; externally, the state attracted the world’s worthies. As a result, the celestial spirits bestowed blessings, neighboring lords maintained friendly relations, the people cherished their rulers, and the worthy flocked to serve. By this method, plans succeeded, defenses held firm, and campaigns triumphed.

In the past, Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang of Shang, King Wen, and King Wu of Zhou ruled as true kings and rectified the feudal lords precisely because they followed this principle. Yet merely knowing this principle was not enough—it required concrete strategies for implementation. Hence, three fundamental principles (the "Three Roots," to be elaborated later) were established.

This passage from Mozi discusses principles of governance and personnel selection. The enlightened rulers of antiquity understood that to earn the people's respect, officials must be granted high-ranking titles; to gain the people's trust, officials must receive generous emoluments; and to command the people's awe, decrees must carry genuine authority. Thus, sagely kings bestowed high positions and ample stipends upon the worthy and capable, empowering them with real responsibility—not out of favoritism toward ministers, but to ensure the successful administration of state affairs.

As the Book of Songs states: Governing a state is like handling a hot object—one must promptly cool it with water to avoid being burned. Similarly, rulers and feudal lords must excel in selecting worthy successors and capable ministers. When ancient sage-kings discovered talented individuals, they conferred noble titles, granted fiefdoms, and employed them for life. In turn, when the worthy encountered enlightened rulers, they devoted themselves wholeheartedly to service without exhaustion. All achievements were credited to the ruler, while the ministers willingly bore criticism. In this way, the ruler enjoyed peace, and the ministers shared his burdens—an ideal relationship between sovereign and subject.

Today, some lords and high officials claim to emulate the ancients in "honoring the worthy and employing the capable," yet they grant high titles without corresponding stipends. The people then perceive: "This is not genuine trust, but mere exploitation." How could those exploited in this way sincerely draw close to their ruler? The former kings once said: "Those obsessed with power will not delegate authority, and those stingy with wealth will not share rewards." If neither real authority nor generous emoluments are granted, why would the worthy and capable willingly offer their assistance?

If the worthy do not come, then those surrounding the lords and high officials will inevitably be the incompetent. When such men hold power, they reward the undeserving and punish the innocent. Governed in this manner, the state neither encourages the worthy nor restrains the violent. The result is a people who, at home, fail to honor their parents; abroad, show no kindness to neighbors; live without discipline; and blur the boundaries between men and women. Entrusting such individuals with official posts invites corruption and theft; assigning them to defend cities guarantees betrayal and surrender.

This passage from the Mozi chapter "Exalting the Worthy" critiques rulers who favor nepotism over meritocracy. The core argument is as follows:

Those who would betray their lord when defending a city, refuse to sacrifice in times of crisis, or abandon their ruler in exile would also judge cases unfairly, distribute wealth unjustly, and fail in strategic planning. Such people cannot hold a city against siege nor win battles in war. The downfall of tyrants like Jie of Xia, Zhou of Shang, King You of Zhou, and King Li of Zhou stemmed from their obsession with trivial matters while neglecting the greater principles of governance.

Today’s rulers and nobles meticulously seek skilled tailors to make their robes and expert butchers to slaughter their livestock, yet they fail to honor the worthy when governing. Only when chaos erupts do they scramble to appoint capable individuals, while in peacetime they promote relatives or those with handsome appearances but no real talent. How can a state avoid disorder when fools are entrusted with its administration?

Even more absurd, those who cannot manage a hundred people are put in charge of a thousand; those who cannot manage a thousand are given command of ten thousand. Why? Because official posts come with high status and generous salaries, so rulers appoint whomever they favor. The result is governance where only one-tenth of the work is done while nine-tenths is neglected—no matter how tirelessly they labor, the state remains ungoverned.

The passage concludes: To understand that exalting the worthy brings order—this is what I call the Dao (the Way). To disregard the worthy and invite chaos—this is what I call a warning. If today’s rulers truly wish to govern well, how can they not carefully examine the principle of exalting the worthy?

The foundation of governing a state lies in honoring the worthy. This was not only advocated by Mozi alone, but represents the core principle of ancient sage-kings' statecraft, recorded in classical texts and transmitted through generations. The "Shangshu·Tangshi" mentions how King Tang of Shang sought the assistance of the great worthy Yi Yin to jointly govern the realm. This demonstrates that enlightened rulers never neglected to employ virtuous talents in state administration.

The ancient sage-kings precisely understood that selecting the worthy to govern, without mixing in other considerations, enabled all under heaven to find their proper place. For instance, Shun was originally farming at Mount Li, making pottery by the Yellow River, and fishing at Lake Leize, until Yao discovered him and invited him from north of Fuze to become co-ruler. Yi Yin (founding minister of Shang) was merely a cooking slave among the retinue of the Youxin clan's daughter, until King Tang recognized his ability and appointed him prime minister. Fu Yue (renowned Shang minister) was initially dressed in coarse cloth and tying straw ropes while building walls at Fuyan, until King Wuding (Gaozong of Shang) immediately elevated him to one of the Three Dukes. These examples all show that worthy individuals might begin in lowly and impoverished circumstances, yet ultimately attain nobility and prosperity.

Wise rulers comprehended the importance of employing the worthy to govern, thus ensuring the people neither suffered hunger and cold, nor exhausting toil and abandonment, nor social chaos. The ancient sage-kings followed heaven's way in selecting talent, for heaven itself makes no distinction between rich and poor, noble and base, intimate and distant - it only exalts the worthy and demotes the incapable. Who then were those rewarded with wealth and honor for their virtue? They were the sage-kings of the Three Dynasties: Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, King Wen and King Wu. The reason heaven rewarded them was that in governing the realm, they practiced universal love, benefited the people, led the masses in revering heaven and serving spirits (referring to ancestral and nature deities), and cherished the populace. Thus the celestial and terrestrial spirits bestowed upon them the Son of Heaven's position, the people praised them as "sage-kings," and this acclaim continues to this day.

Conversely, who were those punished for their tyranny? They were the wicked rulers of the Three Dynasties: Jie of Xia, Zhou of Shang, King You and King Li of Zhou.

This passage discusses the retribution that tyrannical rulers will face and the virtuous standards of enlightened sovereigns.

When cruel rulers govern the world, they treat the people with hatred and contempt, leading them to curse Heaven and blaspheme the spirits, arrogantly oppressing the masses. As a result, Heaven and the gods will punish them—they will die by execution, their descendants will scatter, and their lineage will be cut off. The people will revile them, calling them "tyrants." Those who gain wealth and power through brutality will ultimately face retribution.

For example, in ancient times, Gun (the father of Yu the Great), though the eldest son of Emperor Yao, corrupted the ruler’s virtue and was ultimately exiled to the wilderness of Mount Yu, where he was executed—a place so desolate that even sunlight could not reach it, and the Heavenly Emperor showed him no mercy. This serves as an example of how even those close to power will be punished for their wickedness.

So whom does Heaven appoint as worthy rulers? Figures like Yu the Great, Hou Ji, and Gao Yao. According to the Lü Xing (a legal text from the Book of Documents), ancient emperors observed the people’s suffering and knew of the Miao tribe’s rebellion. A wise ruler governs so thoroughly that even widows and widowers are not neglected, establishing true authority through virtue. Yu the Great tamed the floods and regulated the land, Hou Ji taught the people agriculture, and these three sages all brought prosperity to the people. They were careful in speech and action, deeply thoughtful, and worked for the people’s welfare. Thus, Heaven favored their virtue, and the people enjoyed lasting benefits.

The Odes of Zhou state: "The sage’s virtue is as lofty as Heaven, as vast as Earth, illuminating the world as steadily as the land, as unshakable as a mountain, as radiant as the sun and moon, enduring as Heaven and Earth." This illustrates how the sage’s virtue is luminous and expansive, firm and enduring, encompassing the Dao of Heaven and Earth.

Finally, the text concludes: If today’s lords and nobles wish to rule the world and command the feudal lords, yet lack virtue and righteousness, how can they possibly succeed? Will they rely on force and intimidation?

This passage from Mozi discusses how rulers should select talent to govern the state. The kings and nobles of his time all desired their states to be prosperous and populous with strict legal systems, yet failed to understand that "exalting the worthy" (shangxian - respecting and employing virtuous and capable individuals) constitutes the fundamental principle of statecraft.

He offers an analogy: Suppose a feudal lord declares, "Those in my state skilled in archery and charioteering shall be rewarded and promoted, while the unskilled shall be punished and demoted." Naturally, people would compete to master these skills. Similarly, if loyalty and integrity were rewarded while deceit and fraud were punished, the people would naturally incline toward virtue. This demonstrates how practical policies can guide the populace toward goodness.

Mozi observes that ancient sage-kings like Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, and Wu were revered precisely because their governance encouraged the virtuous while restraining the wicked. Yet many contemporary scholars and gentlemen, while paying lip service to honoring the worthy, fail to genuinely employ them in actual governance.

He emphasizes that rulers aspiring to unify the realm, rectify feudal lords, and establish enduring reputations must grasp this fundamental principle of "exalting the worthy." To neglect this foundation of governance would be as absurd as lifting an object without knowing what it is. Only through genuine implementation of shangxian policies can rulers encourage virtue, suppress violence, and achieve true order under heaven.

Here we observe the paradoxical approach to personnel selection among ancient rulers. When dealing with specific practical matters, today's lords and ministers (referring to the ruling class) demonstrate clear understanding in appointing capable individuals: they would only hire skilled butchers for slaughtering cattle and sheep, expert tailors for making garments, competent veterinarians for treating sick horses, and proficient craftsmen for repairing dangerous bows. In these cases, they are perfectly aware that even their own flesh and blood, those who became wealthy without merit, or individuals with handsome appearances should never be appointed if lacking genuine skills—for fear they might ruin matters and waste resources.

Yet remarkably, when it comes to governing state affairs, these same lords and ministers completely reverse their approach. They promote their relatives, those who grew rich without cause, or good-looking individuals without any consideration for actual competence. This reveals that the scholar-gentlemen (referring to the ruling class) of the world only comprehend the principles of minor affairs while remaining ignorant of the greater principles of statecraft. It's as absurd as appointing a mute as a diplomatic envoy or a deaf person as court musician.

The ancient sage-kings governed the realm quite differently. Those they appointed to wealth and honor were not necessarily their relatives or those with striking appearances. Consider these examples: Emperor Shun once plowed fields at Mount Li, made pottery by the Yellow River, fished at Thunder Marsh, and burned lime at Changyang—yet Emperor Yao discovered him and directly elevated him to Son of Heaven. Yi Yin originally served as tutor to women of the Shen state before working as a cook, yet King Tang of Shang promoted him to the position of Three Dukes (highest ministerial rank). Fu Yue initially dwelled in prison at North Sea, wearing coarse cloth and bound with ropes while building walls at Fu Cliff, yet King Wu Ding of Shang also elevated him to Three Dukes. These examples demonstrate that truly wise rulers select personnel solely based on ability, never considering social origins.

This passage comes from the "Exalting the Worthy" chapter of Mozi, advocating for governance by selecting capable individuals rather than favoring relatives. The text cites examples of how ancient sage-kings chose their officials:

The wise rulers of antiquity never selected officials based on blood relations. Emperor Yao promoted Shun, King Tang of Shang employed Yi Yin, and King Wuding of Shang appointed Fu Yue—was it because they were relatives, born into nobility, or handsome in appearance? It was solely because these men spoke with wisdom, offered sound counsel, and acted in accordance with the Dao (the Way). Their proposals benefited Heaven above (aligning with cosmic principles), honored the spirits in the middle (conforming to ritual propriety), and served the people below (bringing prosperity to all).

Thus, the sage-kings of old deeply understood the principle of "exalting the worthy" (shangxian), engraving this governing philosophy on bamboo slips and bronze vessels to pass down to later generations. The ancient text Lü Xing records the admonition of rulers to feudal lords: "Be prudent in selecting talent and cautious in applying punishments." By choosing the worthy and enforcing laws judiciously, one could attain the governing heights of sage-kings like Yao, Shun, Yu, and Tang.

Nowadays, scholars and gentlemen of the world all seek wealth and honor while despising poverty and lowliness—but how can this be achieved? The fundamental path lies in becoming a worthy person. And how does one become worthy? Those with strength should swiftly aid others; those with wealth should generously share it; those with knowledge should diligently teach the masses. In this way, the hungry will be fed, the cold will be clothed, and a disordered society will be restored to harmony.

Yet today, the rulers and nobles appoint only their own kin or those who gain undeserved wealth and beauty. Such individuals often lack true ability—if entrusted with governance, the state will surely descend into chaos. If the scholars and gentlemen of today seek honor and wealth, must they rely solely on becoming relatives of the nobility?

This passage comes from the "Exalting the Worthy" chapter of the Mozi, discussing the importance of selecting virtuous and capable individuals. Mozi points out that mere physical attractiveness does not constitute true talent. If one cannot discern true virtue (De), even sage-kings like Yu of Xia, Tang of Shang, King Wen of Zhou, or King Wu of Zhou would struggle to obtain genuine talent.

The text criticizes the rulers of the time for their unfair system of rewards and punishments: those who received rewards had no real merit, while those who were punished bore no real guilt. This situation led to the alienation and moral decay among the people, making them unwilling to help one another. The wealthy refused to share their riches, the wise refused to teach others, and the starving received no relief.

Mozi cites examples of ancient sage-kings appointing the worthy: Yao appointed Shun, Shun appointed Yu, Yu appointed Gaoyao, Tang of Shang appointed Yi Yin (a minor official), and King Wu of Zhou appointed worthy ministers like Hong Yao, Tai Dian, Nangong Kuo, and San Yisheng. He emphasizes that if the rulers and gentlemen of his time truly wished to practice benevolence and righteousness, pursue the Dao of the sage-kings, and seek the welfare of the state and its people, they must understand the principle of "exalting the worthy."

Finally, he concludes that honoring the worthy is the political foundation that aligns with the will of Heaven (Tian) and benefits the people. Just as the sun and moon illuminate, boats and carts facilitate travel, rain and dew nourish, and grain sustains all things, the Dao of exalting the worthy is an indispensable principle for governing the world. Worthy individuals bring peace and prosperity to those nearby and attract distant people to submit willingly.