《墨子》Vol. 3

In the chapter "Shangtong" (Elevating Uniformity), Mozi expounds a crucial thesis: In the earliest days of humanity when there was no governmental order, every individual held their own standards of right and wrong. One person maintained one standard, two people held two standards, and as the population grew, these standards became increasingly chaotic. Consequently, everyone insisted on their own criteria to negate others, leading to mutual hostility and conflict.

Within families, resentment arose between fathers and sons, brothers and siblings, causing relatives to drift apart and live in disharmony. The common people harmed one another, even resorting to fire, water, and poison to inflict suffering. The strong refused to aid the weak, the wealthy hoarded their surplus rather than sharing, and those with valuable knowledge withheld instruction from others. Society descended into chaos, resembling a world of wild beasts.

Mozi identifies the root of this disorder as the absence of unified leadership and political institutions. Therefore, he proposes selecting the most virtuous and capable individuals in the world to establish a Son of Heaven (the ruler). Recognizing the limitations of one ruler’s power, the Son of Heaven then appoints the most worthy to serve as the Three Dukes (the highest ministers of antiquity). Given the vastness of the world and the difficulty in discerning right and wrong in distant states, the realm is divided into myriad feudal domains, each governed by lords. These lords, in turn, appoint capable officials to oversee local administration.

Once governance is established, the Son of Heaven issues decrees to the people: Whether they hear of good or bad deeds, they must report them to their superiors. What the superior deems right, all must affirm; what the superior deems wrong, all must oppose. If a superior errs, subordinates must remonstrate; if a subordinate excels, they must be recommended. Those who practice "shangtong" (alignment with superiors) rather than "xiabi" (collusion with inferiors) will be rewarded. Conversely, those who conceal information, feign compliance while disobeying, fail to admonish their superiors, neglect to recommend the worthy, or engage in factionalism will be punished.

Mozi argues that such a clear system of rewards and punishments fosters good order. For example, the village chief (a local official) should be the most benevolent person in the community, and when issuing commands to the people, he too must uphold this principle.

This passage explains Mozi's (founder of Mohism) political doctrine of "Shangtong" (Upward Conformity), which advocates that the people should maintain ideological unity with their superiors. Using a step-by-step progression from village chiefs to feudal lords and finally to the Son of Heaven, the text illustrates how subordinates should emulate the words and actions of their superiors.

At the village level, whatever the village chief (local administrator) deems right, all the people should support; whatever the chief deems wrong, all should oppose. The people must learn from the chief's virtuous words and deeds while correcting their own shortcomings, thus ensuring the village remains orderly. The chief's ability to unify the village's thinking is what makes good governance possible. As the most benevolent person in the village, the chief issues decrees requiring the people to report both good and bad deeds to the feudal lord.

The same principle applies at the state level: whatever the feudal lord approves, the entire state must support; whatever he condemns, all must oppose. By emulating the lord's virtuous conduct, the people prevent chaos in the state. The feudal lord's capacity to unify the state's ideology is key to effective governance, and he stands as the most benevolent figure in the realm.

Finally, at the imperial level, whatever the Son of Heaven (supreme ruler) endorses, all under heaven must uphold; whatever he rejects, all must oppose. When the people follow the Son of Heaven's virtuous example, the world remains free from disorder. The Son of Heaven's ability to unify the world's thinking ensures peace under heaven. However, if the people conform upward only to the ruler rather than aligning with Heaven (natural law), calamities will persist. The frequent storms and disasters of the present age are precisely Heaven's punishment for the people's failure to conform with the Son of Heaven.

Mozi concludes: The ancient sage-kings established the Five Punishments as guiding principles, much like the main thread in silk or the central rope in a fishing net, to restrain those who disobey their superiors. In the chapter "Shangtong Zhong," he further states: If we were to revert to humanity's earliest days when people first emerged without rulers, everyone would follow their own reasoning—one person one doctrine, ten people ten doctrines, a hundred people a hundred doctrines. The more numerous the people, the more numerous their interpretations of "righteousness" (moral principles) became, until each person considered themselves correct and others wrong.

This passage discusses the root causes of social disorder and methods for establishing an orderly society. When people constantly blame one another, even fathers and sons or brothers may become enemies, creating psychological alienation and division that makes harmonious coexistence impossible. People would rather hoard surplus strength than help each other, conceal valuable principles rather than teach them, and let material goods rot rather than share them. Such a society descends into chaos resembling the animal kingdom, lacking the proper hierarchies between ruler and subject, superior and inferior, elder and younger, as well as the fundamental rituals governing familial relationships between fathers and sons or brothers.

To resolve such disorder, impartial leaders must be established to unify the moral standards of the world. First, one must select individuals of both virtue (De) and talent—those with wisdom and discernment—to be installed as the Son of Heaven (emperor), entrusting him with unifying the world's moral principles. However, the Son of Heaven cannot accomplish this task alone, so outstanding individuals must also be chosen as the Three Dukes (highest ancient officials) to assist him.

Considering the vastness of the world, where remote regions are difficult to govern directly, the realm is divided into numerous feudal states, with each ruler responsible for unifying moral principles within their domain. Each state then appoints generals, ministers, and other officials down to village leaders, creating a multi-tiered system to implement unified moral standards.

Once the Son of Heaven, feudal lords, and all levels of officials are established, the Son of Heaven issues decrees to instruct the people: all good deeds witnessed must be reported upward, and all wrongdoing must likewise be reported. What superiors deem right should be followed; what they deem wrong should be opposed. One should actively recommend good ideas and dare to remonstrate when superiors err. Alignment with superiors must be maintained at all times, avoiding secret factions that oppose them. Those who perform well will receive rewards and public praise.

Conversely, failing to report good deeds or wrongdoing, refusing to support what superiors approve or oppose what they disapprove, withholding good suggestions, neglecting to admonish superiors' errors, or forming factions against them—these are the behaviors that lead to social chaos.

The enlightened rulers of antiquity established systems of rewards and punishments only after thorough investigation, ensuring fairness and credibility. Thus all people under heaven eagerly sought the ruler's commendation while fearing his disciplinary measures.

The village chiefs (local officials) followed the sovereign's decrees to standardize behavioral norms throughout their communities. Having established these unified standards, they would lead their people in emulating the township chiefs (higher-ranking officials). Every villager aligned their conduct with the township chief's example, never forming private factions. What the township chief approved, they approved; what he condemned, they condemned. They discarded improper speech to adopt his virtuous words, and corrected misguided actions to follow his exemplary conduct. Since the township chief represented the finest virtue in his jurisdiction, when all villagers emulated him, how could the community fail to be well-governed?

Examining the township chief's governance method reveals its essence lies in unifying behavioral standards across his jurisdiction. Once the township was properly ordered, he would then lead his people in emulating the feudal lord. All subjects took their ruler's judgments as standards, adopting his virtuous speech and conduct. As the feudal lord embodied the state's highest wisdom, when the entire kingdom followed his example, the nation naturally achieved good governance.

Ultimately, the feudal lords led their people in emulating the Son of Heaven (the emperor). Being the most benevolent person under heaven, when all people followed the emperor's example—approving what he approved and condemning what he condemned, discarding improper speech for his virtuous words, and correcting misguided actions to match his exemplary conduct—this hierarchical emulation from village to township to kingdom to empire naturally brought universal peace.

This passage from Mozi discusses the fundamental principles for governing the world. The core idea is that the key to achieving order in the world lies in unifying moral standards across the land ("Shangtong," or "Elevating Unity"). If people merely submit to the Son of Heaven (the ruler) but fail to follow the Dao of Heaven, natural disasters will not cease. When anomalies such as abnormal weather, crop failures, or epidemics occur, these are all punishments from Heaven for humanity's failure to abide by its Dao.

The ancient sage-kings understood the preferences of the celestial spirits (tian gui, or "heavenly ghosts") and conducted sacrificial rites to seek blessings and avert calamities. They led the people in fasting and purification, preparing clean wine, food, livestock, and jade and silk offerings to honor the spirits. They adjudicated legal cases with impartiality, distributed resources equitably, and never slackened in their daily governance. Their success in subduing injustice was precisely because they adhered to the governing principle of "Shangtong."

Nowadays, people believe that merely working hard will earn them blessings from the spirits and the support of the populace. Governing in this way makes planning affairs easier to succeed and defenses more secure. Above, they receive the favor of the spirits; below, they benefit the common people. Yet why does disorder still prevail in the world? Mozi points out that the standards for appointing officials today differ from those of antiquity. It is like the establishment of penal laws: the ancient sage-kings used the Five Punishments to govern the world, yet the Sanmiao (an ancient tribe) also employed the Five Punishments and brought chaos to the land. The problem does not lie in the laws themselves but in how they are applied. This principle is recorded in the Lü Xing, the legal classic of the ancient kings.

This passage primarily discusses the proper use of punishments and speech, as well as the discrepancy between the original intent behind establishing official positions and their actual implementation in practice.

Regarding the application of punishments: Those skilled in employing penalties can effectively govern the people, while those unskilled will abuse the five capital punishments (wusha). The fault lies not with the punishments themselves, but with their improper application. Just as the mouth can speak words of wisdom or sow discord, the issue isn't with the mouth itself but with how it's used.

The original purpose of establishing officials in ancient times: Like how weaving requires warp threads and fishing nets need headropes, officials were instituted to govern the people, eliminate violence and disorder, and unify moral standards. The classics of former kings record that establishing states, designating capitals, and enfeoffing lords weren't meant to provide them with high positions, generous salaries, wealth, or leisure, but to benefit the people by removing harms, balancing wealth disparity, and stabilizing chaotic situations.

Current problems in practice: When contemporary rulers and high ministers administer governance, they appoint relatives and treat official positions as private tools for gain. When the people realize these officials aren't genuinely committed to governance, they begin covering for each other and refuse to unite in purpose with their superiors. When superiors and subordinates lack shared purpose, rewards fail to encourage good conduct, and punishments cannot curb violence.

Illustrative example: If standards differ between upper and lower levels—when those the superiors wish to reward are viewed by the masses as deserving criticism, or those marked for punishment are considered blameless by the people—then even when superiors bestow rewards, they cannot genuinely motivate good behavior, and imposed punishments won't effectively stop wrongdoing.

This passage comes from the "Shangtong" (Elevating Unity) chapter of Mozi, discussing the importance of establishing a unified social order. Mozi argues that if a ruler's system of rewards and punishments fails to encourage virtue and deter violence, it would be no different from the chaotic state of ancient times when there were no leaders.

The wise kings of antiquity employed the method of "Shangtong" (unifying thought and standards) to establish a system of officials, ensuring smooth communication between superiors and subordinates. When good policies were overlooked above, those below could help refine them; when grievances accumulated below, those above could promptly address them. Thus, even if someone thousands of miles away performed a good deed before their family and neighbors knew of it, the Son of Heaven could already reward them. Similarly, if someone thousands of miles away committed a crime, the Son of Heaven could immediately punish them. As a result, all under heaven were filled with reverence and caution, daring not to act recklessly.

The ancient kings said: "This is no mystical power, but rather the skill of borrowing the eyes and ears of the people to observe, their mouths to communicate, their wisdom to deliberate, and their strength to act." By borrowing many eyes and ears, one's understanding becomes broad; by borrowing many voices, virtuous governance spreads far; by borrowing many minds, decisions are made swiftly and accurately; by borrowing many hands, undertakings are swiftly accomplished.

Thus, the sages of antiquity were able to achieve great deeds and leave their names for posterity—not through any secret, but by understanding how to govern according to the principle of "Shangtong." The Book of Songs: Hymns of Zhou records how the feudal lords came seasonally to pay homage to the Son of Heaven, received stern instruction, and returned to govern their lands, none daring to defy the imperial decrees. In those times, no one dared to disrupt the Son of Heaven's teachings—just as the poem describes fine horses with gleaming reins swiftly carrying envoys to deliver the ruler's commands.

This passage comes from the "Shangtong" (Elevating Unity) chapter of Mozi, primarily expounding on the importance of communication between rulers and the populace. Mozi believed that the key to a state's order or chaos lies in whether the ruler can understand the true conditions among the people.

The original text mentions that in ancient times, feudal lords would swiftly report both virtuous and wicked deeds to the Son of Heaven via fast horses. Only in this way could rewards reach the worthy and punishments fall upon the violent. Mozi states that if modern rulers and high officials wish for their states to prosper, their populations to flourish, and governance to be clear, they must uphold this principle of "Shangtong" (elevating unity through communication between superiors and subordinates).

Mozi further analyzes: A wise ruler must consider the reasons for good governance and chaos among the people. If the ruler understands the conditions below, they can distinguish good from evil, reward virtue and punish vice, ensuring great order in the state. Conversely, if they remain ignorant of the people's circumstances, unable to differentiate good from evil or administer fair rewards and punishments, the state will inevitably descend into chaos.

Tracing history, he explains that in ancient times, when there were no rulers, each person held their own standards of right and wrong, leading to endless disputes. Mozi proposes that the only solution is to implement the governing principle of "Shangtong yiyi" (elevating unity through a single standard of righteousness). By examining the governance of ancient sage-kings, he concludes that only by applying a unified standard can the world be properly governed.

This passage discusses the concept of "righteousness" (yi). Mozi observes that everyone holds different understandings of righteousness, with each person believing their own view is correct while others' are wrong. This leads to the strong contending against each other and the weak scrambling for advantage. Thus, all people under heaven desire a unified standard of righteousness.

In ancient times, positions such as the Son of Heaven, the Three Dukes (highest officials), feudal lords, ministers, village elders, and family heads were established not for these individuals to enjoy wealth and comfort, but to assist in governing the state. From the Son of Heaven down to family heads, each level requires the assistance of the level below due to their limited capacity to govern alone.

The current problem lies in superiors being unable to govern their subordinates and subordinates refusing to obey their superiors, with mutual disrespect between them. Why does this occur? It stems precisely from differing understandings of righteousness. When principles are not unified, situations arise where superiors may reward someone they consider virtuous while the common people slander that same person, or punish someone they deem wicked while the people praise them. In such cases, rewards fail to encourage good conduct, nor can punishments deter wrongdoing.

Mozi finally proposes a solution: Why not begin experimentation at the family level? Let family heads issue commands within their households: whoever sees someone benefiting the family should report it, and whoever observes someone harming the family should likewise report it. In this way, people who truly care for their families can be cultivated.

This passage expounds on Mozi's political doctrine of "Shangtong" (advocating unity). The main ideas are as follows:

Within a family, reporting good deeds and virtuous individuals leads to rewards and praise, while concealing bad deeds and wrongdoings results in punishment. Thus, all family members naturally strive for rewards and avoid penalties by actively reporting both good and bad conduct. The head of household can then reward virtue and punish vice, ensuring proper family governance. The effectiveness of this system lies in implementing the "Shangtong" principle.

However, well-governed families alone are insufficient, as the world consists of numerous households. If each family prioritizes its own interests while rejecting others, chaos and conflict arise. Therefore, family heads must lead their households in submitting to the ruler of the state. The ruler should likewise issue decrees requiring citizens to report both patriots and traitors, applying the same principle of rewarding good and punishing evil to achieve national governance. A well-ordered state also results from practicing "Shangtong."

Yet even well-governed states are inadequate, as the world contains many nations. If each country prioritizes itself while negating others, wars and conflicts emerge. Thus, rulers must lead their nations in submitting to the Son of Heaven (the universal monarch). The Son of Heaven should then command all people to report those who benefit or harm the world, thereby establishing universal peace.

The passage progresses systematically from family to state to the entire world, demonstrating that only through the "Shangtong" principle—establishing unified values and a reward-punishment system from top to bottom—can proper social governance be achieved.

This passage discusses Mozi's political philosophy of "Shangtong" (unifying thought). The general meaning is as follows:

To govern the world, a clear system of rewards and punishments must be established. When good deeds are observed, they should be reported for commendation; when evil acts are witnessed, they should be reported for punishment. Thus, all people under heaven will naturally seek rewards and avoid penalties, actively reporting both good and evil. Through this mechanism, the Son of Heaven can distinguish virtue from vice, rewarding the good and punishing the wicked, thereby naturally bringing peace to the world.

The key to effective governance lies in implementing the "Shangtong yiyi" (unified principles) approach to statecraft. The Son of Heaven applies this principle to govern the realm, feudal lords use it to administer their states, and family heads employ it to manage households—it applies equally to all scales of governance. Therefore, governing the world is like managing a single household, and leading the multitudes is like directing one individual.

The ancient sage-kings all relied on "Shangtong" to govern. They selected worthy and capable individuals as advisors, enlisting the masses to assist in observation and information gathering. Thus they could plan affairs ahead of others and accomplish tasks before others succeeded. Just as one eye sees less clearly than two, one ear hears less distinctly than two, and one hand has less strength than two, the sage-kings excelled at harnessing collective strength, thereby effectively governing territories thousands of miles away.

The text quotes the "Great Declaration": "When petty men witness wickedness yet fail to report it, their crime equals that of the evildoers." This shows that when ancient sage-kings governed the world, they surrounded themselves with virtuous individuals whose collective observation and reporting enabled foresight and great achievements.

A virtuous man in his hometown may not be equally recognized by all his fellow villagers for his moral character, yet a sage ruler can discern and reward him. A tyrant a thousand miles away may not be equally perceived by local people for his wickedness, yet a sage ruler can detect and punish him. Does this mean the sage king truly possesses clairvoyance and clairaudience, able to see through affairs a thousand miles away or hear distant movements at once? In truth, the sage king need not personally inspect or closely listen, yet can make rebellious bandits across the realm flee with no place to hide. Why is this? It is because he implements the governing principle of "Shangtong" (upward conformity/unified standards of thought).

Thus Mozi said: When rulers demand unified thought among the people, if they do not genuinely care for them, the people will not obey. Only through profound love for the people can one effectively lead them—maintaining the bond with sincerity, guiding with the path of prosperity ahead, and urging with clear punishments behind. Governed this way, even if you tried not to make the people share the ruler's heart and virtue, it would be difficult. Therefore Mozi concluded: If the nobles and gentlemen of today truly wish to practice benevolence and righteousness, becoming worthy scholars—aligning above with the Dao of sage kings and below with the interests of state and people—they must adopt the principle of "upward conformity," understanding that "Shangtong" is the fundamental essence of governance.

(Background note: Mozi advocated the "Shangtong" doctrine, believing society requires unified value standards and a hierarchy of obedience ultimately converging with the "Will of Heaven." This reflects the Mohist emphasis on social organization and collectivism.)