《弘道錄》Vol. 2

The Benevolence of Ruler and Minister

The Han Records recounts that in the spring of the first year of Emperor Wen’s reign, he issued an edict: “Now spring is warm, plants and trees are growing, and all things can enjoy their own lives. Yet among my people there are widowers, widows, orphans, elderly people living alone, and the poor with no one to rely on. Some are on the verge of ruin, yet no one cares for them or worries about their plight. As the parent of the people, what should I do? I ask you all to discuss ways to provide them with relief and loans.”

The Hongdao lu comments: “Set this edict from the first year of Emperor Wen’s reign alongside the Monthly Ordinances—an ancient text recording the seasonal affairs and government measures for each month—and we can see that after the Han succeeded the Qin, rulers offered little kindness and kept their distance, as if Heaven and Earth had shut away and all things had entered the depths of winter. Reading this edict, however, is like seeing withered life grow again and severed vitality restored. What a stirring sight! It shows all the more clearly that the virtue that nourishes all things is never wholly extinguished. How deep its source must be! Surely this is what those who worry about the state of the world have been hoping for.”

Emperor Wen also said: “The elderly cannot keep warm without silk garments, and cannot eat their fill without meat. At the beginning of this year, I failed to send people in time to offer greetings to the elderly or to give them cloth, silk, wine, and meat. How can this help the sons and daughters of the realm honor and support their parents? Let the arrangements now be set out in detail. Order every county and dao to provide each person over eighty with one shi of rice, twenty jin of meat, and five dou of wine each month. Those over ninety are to receive, in addition, two bolts of silk and three jin of floss.”

The Hongdao lu comments: “To cherish the elderly in one’s own family and extend that care to the elderly in other families”—Emperor Wen may be said to have understood how to extend this concern to everyone. Yet when the Earl of the West, King Wen of Zhou, cared for the elderly, he did not distribute gifts door to door. Instead, he enabled the people to support and care for one another. Emperor Wen knew to give material aid to elderly people among the populace, but he also had officials inspect them one by one: assistant magistrates, commandants, local officers, clerks, and governors were all to send people to check on them, and those who did their jobs poorly were to be reprimanded. Alas, why not require every household to have five mu of land for a dwelling and one hundred mu of farmland, then assign officials at each level to oversee the work and take responsibility for it?”

In the twelfth month, Emperor Wen issued an edict: “The law is the standard by which the state is governed. At present, when someone breaks the law and is tried and convicted, that person’s innocent parents, wife, children, and siblings are also made to suffer. They are arrested and imprisoned. I consider this practice highly improper. From now on, abolish the laws that enslave offenders’ family members and punish relatives through collective liability.”

The Hongdao lu comments: “When Mencius praised King Wen of Zhou, he singled out the fact that ‘he did not punish the criminal’s family’—that is, he did not make the offender’s family bear the consequences. Though Emperor Wen did not manage to extend this benevolent government fully, the Han had already begun to flourish with new life. Jia Shan said that when Emperor Wen’s edicts reached the lands east of the mountains, the people, even when old, frail, and sick, leaned on their staffs and went to hear them read aloud. They hoped to live just a little longer, so they could see with their own eyes the effects of virtuous rule and moral instruction. That is precisely the kind of scene being described.”

In the autumn of the second year, in the ninth month, the emperor issued an edict: “Agriculture is the foundation of all under Heaven and the means by which the people sustain their lives. Yet some among the people do not devote themselves to this foundation, but instead pursue secondary occupations, and so cannot live in stability. I am concerned about this, and therefore this year I have personally led the officials in plowing the fields, to encourage the people. I hereby grant all the people half of this year’s land tax.”

The Hongdao lu comments: This was Emperor Wen’s adoption of Jia Yi’s advice. Jia Yi understood the foundations of governing the state; could he really have failed to understand why the people turned away from agriculture and pursued secondary occupations? If the people were left to farm as they wished, regardless of how much land there was, the powerful would eventually swallow up the land, while the poor would have no choice but to leave it and pursue secondary occupations. This way of speaking gets to the root of the problem. Those who take up secondary occupations and make their living by wandering may well wish to return to their villages and farm. But when they do not even have a patch of land to stand on, where can they settle? Should those who govern the state not seek ways to address this?

Jia Yi once proposed establishing institutions for the Han dynasty and reforming the old laws of Qin, but his proposals were not put into practice. He therefore offered advice on matters within Emperor Wen’s power to address. The emperor’s natural disposition to care for the people came from within: he personally plowed the fields to set an example for all under Heaven, and reduced the people’s land tax by half. Is this not a fine example for the ages? Yet from the perspective of those with insight, these measures merely encouraged the powerful. The common people, meanwhile, were simply put to work by those in power; this did not accord with the methods of encouraging agriculture used by the Three Dynasties.

In the spring of the twelfth year, the emperor issued an edict: “The way to guide the people is to devote oneself to agriculture, the foundation. I have personally led the people of all under Heaven in farming, and ten years have now passed, yet no more fields have been brought under cultivation, and not one year has brought a good harvest. The people’s faces show the signs of hunger. This means that too few people are engaged in agriculture, and officials have not been more diligent in their duties. I have repeatedly issued edicts encouraging the people to plant trees each year, yet the results remain limited. This is because officials have not diligently carried out my edicts, nor clearly explained the principles of encouraging agriculture to the people. Moreover, farmers work extremely hard, yet officials neither understand nor care about their hardships. How, then, can the people be encouraged? I hereby grant farmers half of this year’s land tax.”

The Hongdao lu comments: This was Emperor Wen’s adoption of Chao Cuo’s advice. Chao Cuo was harsh and lacking in kindness, yet he understood the principle of having the people farm and placing importance on grain. He recruited people to deliver grain, and the amount collected was enough to meet the needs of a year. He then reduced the people’s land tax by half. Later generations, too, often recruited people to deliver grain, but never granted benefits to the people in this way. Why? When Emperor Wen recruited people to deliver grain, he regretted that he had not managed to do more for them. Later generations recruited people to deliver grain for their own benefit. Emperor Wen used limited money and grain, drawn from the people, to meet public needs; later generations used limited resources to indulge boundless private desires. This is the difference between them.

In the sixth month of the thirteenth year, the emperor issued an edict: “Agriculture is the foundation of the realm, and no undertaking is more important. The people now labor to till the fields, yet must pay taxes. This is like treating root and branch as though they were no different. How can such a practice accord with the principle of honoring agriculture? I now remit the land rent and grant silk and floss to orphans and widows throughout the realm, in fixed amounts.”

The Hongdao lu comments: From this year onward, the court collected no land rent from the people for more than ten years. Is this not a rare occurrence in all history? The emperor above cultivated the Dao of stillness and mysterious silence, while the ministers and generals who assisted him embraced simplicity and set aside ostentation. As a result, officials were content in their duties, the people took pleasure in their livelihoods, stores of wealth grew year by year, and households gradually became settled. In this light, the emperor’s prosperity came entirely from reducing his own income and letting the people share in the benefits, not from extracting more from them.

Powerful families often seized more land than the prescribed limits and kept half the rent they collected. The court remitted land rent but levied no taxes, yet the estates of the powerful still demanded a surplus from their tenants. Even Yao and Shun could not have found a way to benefit the people under these conditions. Thus, although the ruler’s bounty surpassed that of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, the people lived in greater hardship than they had at the fall of Qin. This was because the ruler and his ministers at the time failed to investigate the root of the problem, and cared only to benefit the rich and powerful. How regrettable!

In the spring of the sixteenth year, in the third month, the emperor issued an edict: “For several years in succession, harvests have been poor, and calamities such as floods, droughts, and epidemics have also afflicted us. I am deeply troubled by this. I am ignorant and lack understanding, and do not know the causes of these disasters. Could my government orders have been misguided, or my conduct at fault? Or might the workings of Heaven be out of order and the Earth’s Qi in disharmony? Or perhaps human affairs have fallen into disorder, causing the spirits to refuse the offerings made to them? What, then, has brought these calamities upon us?

“Perhaps the stipends and support provided to officials are too generous; perhaps we have undertaken useless projects, or given too many rewards. Why, then, is so little grain available for the people to eat? The measured area of farmland has not diminished, and the recorded population has not increased. By the ancient system of allocating land according to population, there should still be land to spare. As for activities outside agriculture that interfere with farming, such as brewing, which consumes grain, and raising the six domestic animals—horses, cattle, sheep, chickens, dogs, and pigs—which also uses up grain, there are many such cases. I have not yet settled on how to address these problems. I ask the chancellor, marquises, senior officials with stipends of two thousand shi, and the Erudites responsible for the classics and policy deliberations to discuss the matter together. Whatever measures may benefit the people, please speak frankly and hold nothing back.”

The Hongdao lu comments: Emperor Wen had already done all he could for the people. Why, then, did he still call himself ignorant and lacking in understanding? A ruler appoints chief ministers so they can answer questions, offer guidance, and resolve doubts. But if a man like Zhang Cang did not even understand the principles of water and soil, how could one expect him to think deeply and speak frankly with far-reaching insight? In a word: “Not worrying about the people…” The original text breaks off here; what follows is not recorded.

The concern was that taxes were being levied unfairly. If there was a sincere intention to distribute the people’s burdens fairly, the amounts could be calculated by acreage and then apportioned by population, giving supplies a sound basis. As the population grew, supplies would grow accordingly. Why worry that there had been a surplus in ancient times but not enough now? It is not enough merely to reflect on one’s own conduct without knowing how to benefit the people; nor is it enough simply to pursue wrongdoing without knowing how to prevent it. And it is not enough merely to have the Chancellor, the marquises, officials of the 2,000-bushel rank, and the Erudites deliberate, without knowing what they should discuss. Did the Mengzi not say that the management of mountain streams, lakes, and marshes was the responsibility of the ruler and his ministers? Only after these principles have been clearly explained should an edict be issued; then people will understand where the fault lies.

In the fifth month of the first year of Emperor Xiaojing’s reign, the levy on the people’s land tax was once again set at one part in thirty.

The Record comments: According to the principles of the Chunqiu, Emperor Wendi ought to be criticized. The account of Emperor Jingdi’s actions, however, is meant to praise his good conduct. Although Jingdi felt that something was lacking in the policies Wendi had left behind, he did not change his father’s policies for three years; this, too, may be called filial piety. Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han once set a six-year term for a system of this kind. Could the benefits left by Wendi and Jingdi really have endured for long?

In the summer of the second year, in the fourth month, the emperor issued an edict: “Carving decorations and making fine objects hinder agricultural production; weaving brocade and embroidery, and braiding silk ribbons, hinder women’s work at the loom. Harm to agriculture is the source of famine; hindrance to women’s work is the source of exposure to cold. When hunger and cold strike together, few people can avoid doing wrong. I personally plow the fields, and the empress personally gathers mulberry leaves and raises silkworms, to provide offerings for the ancestral temples. I wear the ritual robes and preside over the grand sacrifices, setting an example for all under Heaven. I decline offerings, reduce the cost of food in the palace, and lighten labor services and taxes, hoping that people throughout the realm will devote themselves to farming, value simplicity, and store grain against disasters. I wish the strong not to oppress the weak, the many not to bully the few, the elderly to enjoy their later years in peace, and orphans and young children to grow to adulthood. Yet in some regions the harvest has been poor, and the people are seriously short of food. Where does this fault lie? Some officials deceive and falsify, treating bribes of goods as transactions, plundering the people and harming the community. Local officials such as county magistrates and assistant magistrates break the law for private gain, acting worse than bandits. I order officials of the 2,000-bushel rank each to put their own duties in order.”

The Record comments: Even during the reigns of Wendi and Jingdi, there were officials who deceived and falsified, took bribes, and plundered the people; they were no different from bandits. Why not criticize the senior ministers who assisted the ruler, instead of merely ordering officials of the 2,000-bushel rank to put their own duties in order? Perhaps ever since Xiao He and Cao Shen established uniform regulations, Chen Ping was praised for being unable to answer questions about money and grain; Bing Ji was considered to understand priorities because he did not ask about a dead man by the roadside; Wang Ling was dismissed for insisting on candid remonstrance; and Zhou Yafu was removed from office for keeping to an agreement. As for Tao Qing…

Here, “2,000 bushels” refers to a Han-dynasty official rank defined by its stipend and is often used generally for senior local officials; “Xiao and Cao” refers to Xiao He and Cao Shen.

Liu She and Wei Wan were both mediocre men. How could anyone expect them to judge affairs of state, assist the ruler, and govern the people? Thus, even by the end of the Han dynasty, not a single prime minister had left behind achievements worthy of praise. A ruler who acts solely according to his own wishes is like someone picking and planting at random in the dark. How could he be expected to choose suitable county officials and administrators at every level?

In the first month of spring, in the third year of Emperor Jing’s reign, the emperor issued an edict: “Agriculture is the foundation of the realm. Gold, pearls, and jade cannot be eaten when one is hungry or worn when one is cold. They serve only as currency, yet people do not understand where they come from or where they ultimately go. When several years bring poor harvests, we find that many people value occupations at the margins—those outside agriculture—while few engage in farming. The commanderies and feudal states should be ordered to urge the people to farm and raise silkworms diligently, and to plant many trees. Only then can they obtain clothing and food. If officials requisition the people, or hire them to mine gold, pearls, or jade, they should be punished as embezzlers and thieves.”

The Record comments: Emperor Jing neither promoted luxuries such as carved and engraved objects or brocades and embroidered silks, nor allowed the mining of gold, pearls, and jade. In this he was no different from Emperor Wen in his simple and honest ways. This was the fundamental reason the two emperors were able to make the country prosperous. There are limits to how much the people’s burdens can be reduced, but a ruler’s spending has no end. If only some burdens are lightened, while the money saved is spent elsewhere, the burden may be reduced in name, but the resulting harm is precisely what Emperor Jing warned against. A law must therefore be promulgated that treats embezzlement as theft. Only then will a time of prosperity arrive, when oxen wear yokes and calves follow alongside them. Those in high positions must understand this clearly.

The Treatise on Food and Money in the Book of Han records: When the Han dynasty was founded, even the Son of Heaven could not gather four horses of the same color to draw his carriage, and ministers and generals sometimes rode in ox carts. Ordinary people had no savings. After the realm was pacified, Gaozu ordered that merchants could neither wear silk nor ride in carriages. During the reigns of Emperor Xiaohui and Empress Lü, the court assessed officials’ salaries and government expenses, then levied taxes from the people. Revenue from mountains and rivers, gardens and fields, and marketplaces was used by each recipient—from the Son of Heaven to the enfeoffed lords—to support himself; it was not counted as public revenue. Each year, the court transported grain from east of the Xiao Mountains to supply the capital’s government offices, but the amount was no more than several hundred thousand shi.

Later, Emperors Xiaowen and Xiaojing governed with calm restraint and frugality, allowing the realm to prosper in peace. For more than seventy years, the country saw no military conflict. Except when floods or droughts struck, everyone had grain and every household was prosperous. The granaries inside and outside the capital were full, and the treasuries had surplus goods. Coins piled up like mountains in the capital; their strings rotted before they could be counted. Grain accumulated year after year in the Grand Granary, with new grain added atop the old. Once the storehouses were full, grain was even kept outdoors, until…

Corruption had reached the point where it was impossible to stomach. Horses were everywhere in the streets and lanes and along country paths. Crowds of people rode calves and cows, gathering in groups that were hard to control. Those who guarded the gates of the neighborhoods ate fine millet and meat. Officials’ families flourished, and some who held office even made their official titles their family names or personal names. In this way, everyone came to be like this.

Even so, though Dong Zhongshu, the Western Han scholar renowned for his learning and insight, possessed outstanding and far-reaching talent and virtue, he could not change the spirit of an age in which Emperor Wu of Han gloried in grand achievements. And how could Jia Yi, a gifted young statesman and writer of the Western Han, outshine the seasoned but less eloquent Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo, and Guan Ying? The circumstances in which Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou served wise rulers, and Shang Tang and King Wen of Zhou joined them in accomplishing great things—with ruler and ministers united in purpose, each embodying a distinct virtue—are truly difficult to recreate.

The Biographies of Exemplary Officials of the Western Han records that, during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, Weng Weng served as governor of Shu Commandery. He was compassionate toward the people and placed great importance on education. At the time, Shu was remote and underdeveloped, with customs associated with the non-Han peoples. Hoping to guide the local people toward progress, Weng Weng selected more than a thousand bright and capable junior officials from the commandery and its counties, including Zhang Shu. He personally instructed and encouraged them, then sent them to the capital to study under the Erudites.

Several years later, the students from Shu had completed their studies and returned home. Weng Weng appointed them to important posts, then assessed and recommended them for office in order of merit. Some later became commandery governors or provincial inspectors. He also built a government school in Chengdu, enrolled the sons of families from the lower counties, and exempted them from labor service. Students with outstanding results could be appointed as junior officials in the commandery or counties. Those who were filial and diligent in farming were recommended for the honorary title “Filial and Fraternal, Diligent in the Fields,” awarded for filial devotion, respect for elder siblings, and hard work in agriculture.

Weng Weng often selected young students from the school to wait on his instructions in a more informal audience chamber. Whenever he toured the counties, he took still more students with him. Students who knew the classics and conducted themselves properly were given carriages, horses, and lodging along the way, and were entrusted with conveying official orders. County officials and local people who saw the students treated with such honor considered it a great distinction. After several years, people vied to become students at the government school, and even wealthy families paid to secure an education for their sons. Education and moral influence flourished in the region, whose customs came to rival those of Qi and Lu.

During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, the court ordered every commandery and kingdom throughout the empire to establish schools. This practice began with Weng Weng. After his death, the officials and people of Shu built a shrine in his honor and made annual offerings there without interruption. To this day, the people of Ba and Shu cherish literature and esteem refinement and uprightness; these are lasting effects of Weng Weng’s instruction.

The Record says: “There were reasons Weng Weng could devote himself so fully to education—there were reasons indeed! Valuing schools and then teaching the people to be filial to their parents and respectful toward their elder siblings are fundamental to governing a state. It is a pity that, among the great achievements of Emperors Wen and Jing of Han, this was the one area in which they fell short. Heaven deliberately brought a person like Weng Weng into the world. Though he held no high office under the Han, later generations carried on his methods, establishing government schools in every commandery and kingdom, and their influence endures to this day. Weng Weng was worthy not only to serve as a teacher to rulers but also as an example for later generations to follow. It was no coincidence that people built a shrine and made offerings to him after his death.”

King Zhao Tuo of Nanyue declared himself emperor. The Han court summoned his brothers and pacified them through benevolence. Zhao Tuo then submitted as a vassal to Han and made a marriage alliance with the Xiongnu, but later broke the agreement and crossed the border to raid. The Han strengthened its border defenses but sent no troops deep into enemy territory, fearing this would burden the people.

The King of Wu pretended to be ill, and Emperor Wen bestowed on him a reclining support and a walking stick, so that he could lean on them in old age. Ministers such as Yuan Ang repeatedly remonstrated with the emperor. Though their words were earnest, Emperor Wen often accepted their advice. When Zhang Wu was discovered taking bribes, Emperor Wen instead rewarded him, making him feel ashamed and reflect on his conduct. Emperor Wen devoted himself to educating the people through virtue. As a result, the realm prospered, people valued ritual and righteousness, and only a few hundred cases came before the courts—almost reaching a point where punishments were unnecessary. Ah, how benevolent he was!

It is also said that Confucius praised them, saying, “These are the very people whom the rulers of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were able to govern by following the right way.” This is indeed true. As the Zhou declined and the Qin fell, the laws became ever more intricate. The Qin then ruled with such harshness that its laws could no longer restrain popular unrest. After the Han was founded, it eliminated cumbersome and severe laws, allowing the people time to recover and prosper. Under Emperor Xiaowen, policies of restraint and frugality were pursued even more fully; Emperor Xiaojing carried on this work. Over the course of fifty or sixty years, customs changed, and the people became simple and honest. The Zhou praised the reigns of Kings Cheng and Kang; the Han praised those of Emperors Wen and Jing. Both were truly splendid.

The Hongdao lu says: “Whenever I read these two eulogies carefully, I cannot help sighing with emotion. In them I see the beneficence left behind by the ancient kings, so I have recorded them here in detail.” Someone asked, “Then can the reigns of Emperors Wen and Jing be considered equal to those of the rulers of the Three Dynasties?”

The Zhouyi says, “Exhaust the principles of things, fully develop human nature, and thereby reach the Mandate of Heaven.” The Zhongyong says, “Those of the next rank must work on what is subtle; once human nature has been fully developed, it cannot stop.” This is what these words mean. Before the qualities of firmness and gentleness in a person become apparent, they are called “equilibrium.” When they emerge and remain within due measure, they are called “harmony.” At the next level, one must begin with deviations that have already appeared and restrain them, so that they return to the original state ordained by Heaven. This is the meaning of the “establishment and exercise of the Great Standard” in the Book of Documents, or in other words, making the right and balanced way the standard for all under Heaven, as well as the teaching on the use of the three virtues.

Thus, when the sage kings of antiquity governed the age and responded to all affairs, they adapted to the times and took suitable measures: when Yang energy unfolded, they supported it; when Yin energy gathered in, they restrained it. Holding to both extremes, they applied the middle way among the people, and so were able to bring all under Heaven to the Great Standard. Though Emperor Wen’s natural endowment and conduct came close to this ideal, he could not fully investigate the principles of things and bring human nature to its utmost. Nor did he seek out the great worthy broadly, live among them, and continually receive their admonitions and awakenings. His achievements therefore reached only a certain stage; in the end, he could not rise to the level of the Three Dynasties.

Huang Ba, an official of the Western Han, was perceptive and astute, gentle and kind, and humble and courteous. After Emperor Wu of Han enforced the laws harshly, and Emperor Zhao continued the use of punishments and kept his officials under strict control, local officials tended to favor severity. Huang Ba…

Huang Ba (courtesy name Cigong), an official of the Western Han, was renowned for his kindness and moderation. Emperor Xuan of Han placed great importance on extending benefits to the people and issued edicts on this subject repeatedly, but lower-ranking officials did not carry them out diligently.

After Huang Ba became Governor of Yingchuan, he selected capable and upright officials and assigned them to convey the edicts so that the people would understand the court’s intentions. He also had officials at relay stations and in the villages raise chickens and pigs to provide for widowers, widows, and the poor. He then drew up rules for moral instruction and established village posts such as elders, instructors, and group heads, spreading the teachings among the people and encouraging them to do good and beware of wrongdoing. He also urged people to farm and raise silkworms, spend sparingly, build up their assets, plant trees, and raise livestock, while reducing waste in horses, grain, rice, and salt.

At first, these regulations seemed trivial and cumbersome, but Huang Ba was energetic and able to put each one into practice. When speaking with officials and commoners, he would carefully probe the details of their affairs, then use what he learned to uncover hidden circumstances and check accounts against one another. When he sometimes wanted to investigate a matter, he chose older, incorruptible officials and sent them out in secret. Once on the road, they dared not lodge or eat wherever they pleased, for Huang Ba knew their movements and what they had asked about in precise detail. They did not dare conceal anything from him.

When someone among the widowed, orphaned, or otherwise destitute died without money for a burial, the village would report it to Huang Ba, who would then give specific instructions: at a certain place there was a large tree that could be made into a coffin; at a certain relay station there was a piglet that could be used for the funeral rites. The officials sent to check found that everything was just as he had said. His knowledge of affairs was so keen and clear, yet officials and commoners could not tell where his information came from. They all said he was like a spirit. Wrongdoers left, returned home, and settled into proper conduct, while the number of thieves in the commandery dwindled day by day.

Huang Ba implemented moral instruction before imposing punishments. In handling affairs, he focused on helping people reform and allowing them to remain safe and settled. He therefore won the support of officials and commoners; the population increased year after year, and his record of governance ranked first in the empire. Emperor Xuan of Han accordingly issued an edict declaring: “Governor of Yingchuan Huang Ba has conveyed the edicts, and the people have all been transformed by instruction and turned toward the good. Those who honor their parents and care for their siblings, honest wives and harmonious descendants, grow more numerous by the day. Farmers yield to one another over field boundaries, and no one picks up things lost along the road. The people care for widowers and widows and help those in poverty. At times, for eight years there have been no prisoners guilty of serious crimes. Officials and commoners alike aspire to moral instruction and prize good conduct. They may truly be called worthy and virtuous people.”

The Hongdao Lu comments: Confucius told Duke Ai of Lu that when worthy and capable people hold office, government affairs proceed, but when they leave, those affairs stagnate. Mencius urged the rulers of Qi and Wei to raise chickens and pigs and care for the widowed, orphaned, and destitute, but those rulers failed to do so. It was only in the Han dynasty that Huang Ba proved capable of taking up and putting these ideas into practice. This shows that the teachings of sages and worthies are like the sun and moon, and that people’s aspirations are the same across past and present. The foundations of good government can take root as readily as reeds grow, and there is no gulf between the people as vast as that between Qin and Yue. It is a pity that Huang Ba’s governance was confined to Yingchuan.

If one cannot reach throughout the realm, how much less can one govern the people? Those of limited ability are even less suited to assist a ruler.

The governance discussed here refers neither to the achievements of the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou) nor to the principles by which sages and worthies ordered government affairs.

Gong Sui was honest and steadfast, with lofty integrity. After Emperor Xuan of Han had ruled for many years, repeated harvest failures struck Bohai Commandery and the surrounding commanderies. Bandits rose up everywhere, and local officials could not suppress them. The emperor sought someone capable of restoring order. The chancellor and the censor recommended Gong Sui as governor of Bohai. He was then over seventy years old.

The emperor said to him, “Bohai Commandery is in turmoil and decline, and I am deeply concerned. How do you intend to put down the bandits?” Gong Sui replied, “Bohai lies by the sea, far from the center. Its people have not received the court’s instruction. They are suffering from hunger and cold, and the officials show them no compassion. That is why the people, like children, are merely playing with weapons in the fields and marshes. Do you want me to defeat them, or to settle them?”

The emperor was pleased and said, “I appoint worthy and able people precisely because I want the people to be at peace.” Gong Sui replied, “I have heard that governing a disorderly populace is like untangling a knotted cord: one must not rush. Only by slowing one’s movements can the task be done well. I ask that the chancellor and censor refrain for now from constraining me with statutes and regulations, so that I may act flexibly according to circumstances.” The emperor agreed.

When the people of Bohai heard that their new governor was coming, they sent soldiers to escort him. Gong Sui sent them all back and issued orders to every county to dismiss all officials responsible for pursuing bandits. He decreed that anyone carrying farm tools such as hoes and hooks was a good citizen and must not be questioned by officials; only those carrying weapons were to be treated as bandits.

Gong Sui traveled to the commandery seat in a single carriage. The commandery soon settled down, and the bandits gradually disbanded. Robbery and plunder had been common in Bohai. When the people heard Gong Sui’s instructions, they immediately laid down their weapons, bows, and crossbows and took up hoes and other farm tools instead. The commandery was completely pacified, and the people lived and worked in peace. Gong Sui opened the granaries and lent grain to the poor. He also selected able and worthy officials to comfort and care for the people.

Seeing that the customs of Qi were extravagant and that people favored various minor trades over farming, Gong Sui led by example, living simply and urging the people to farm and raise silkworms. He ordered each household to plant one elm tree, one hundred clumps of Chinese chives, fifty scallions, and a bed of garlic chives. Each family was to raise two sows and five chickens. If people wore swords or knives, he told them to sell their swords to buy oxen and their knives to buy calves. “Why wear swords and knives,” he said, “instead of carrying calves?” In spring and summer, the people had to follow the farming season and work in the fields. In autumn and winter, he urged them to harvest their crops, build up their reserves, and grow fruit trees, water caltrops, and reeds. He diligently toured the commandery. Every household came to have savings, officials and people alike became prosperous, and lawsuits subsided.

The Hongdao Lu comments: “Gong Sui’s reply is a celebrated saying, old and new alike. The emperor praised him for making rewards and punishments clear, while the officials praised him for bringing peace to the people. These are the kinds of achievements they meant.” The following passage, “If one thing is made fully real, a hundred…” is incomplete in the original.

How could Xu claim to have brought about a revival, or to possess virtue comparable to that of the Shang and Zhou? Alas, Gong Sui has passed away. While he was in office, no hoes, swords, pigs, cattle, chickens, or calves went astray. I alone mean well. Even when a household keeps chickens and pigs and has a calf, one still worries about governing poorly. Yet some people speak with swords on their tongues, wave spears and bare blades, and turn kindhearted people against one another. What kind of heart do they have? What kind of heart do they have?

Zhao Xinchen entered government after demonstrating a thorough command of the Confucian classics and earning the highest grade in the examination. He regarded the people as his own children, and wherever he went, people praised him. He was later appointed governor of Nanyang. Diligent and resourceful, he took pleasure in undertaking projects that benefited the people and devoted himself to making them prosperous. He personally encouraged farming, often making rounds along the paths between fields. He usually rested in village lodges and rarely stayed at home. He regularly inspected the sources of water throughout the commandery, cleared channels, and built water gates, embankments, and dams at dozens of sites to extend irrigation. The irrigated area grew each year, eventually reaching as much as thirty thousand qing. The people benefited, and grain stores were left with a surplus.

Zhao Xinchen established rules for sharing water fairly, carving them into stones beside the fields to prevent disputes. He prohibited extravagance in weddings and funerals and required people to be as frugal as possible. When the sons of officials in the commandery and county offices took to idling about and neglected farming, he reprimanded and dismissed them; in serious cases, he also investigated their misconduct, showing that he rewarded and punished fairly. His teachings spread widely, and everyone in the commandery worked hard at farming. The people rallied to him, the population doubled, and both theft and litigation declined. Officials and commoners alike grew close to him and cherished him, calling him “Father Zhao.”

Du Shi showed talent from a young age. During the Jianwu era, he served as an Attendant Censor, responsible for comforting and resettling the people of Luoyang. He was later sent to Hedong to suppress and bring rebel bandits to submission. He was then appointed magistrate of Chenggao County. After three years, his performance was judged outstanding, and he was promoted to governor of Nanyang. Frugal by nature, he governed with clarity and calm, established authority by punishing violent criminals, and was skilled at planning. He reduced the labor demands on the people as much as he could and invented the water-powered bellows, a device that used waterpower to pump air for casting farm tools. It required little human labor and produced great results, which the people found convenient. He also repaired ponds and expanded farmland, making every household in the commandery prosperous. People of the time compared him with Zhao Xinchen, and a saying arose in Nanyang: “First came Father Zhao; then came Mother Du.”

The Record says: “The Book of Songs praises: ‘The gentle and peaceful gentleman is the father and mother of the people.’ I have heard of such a person, but never seen one. Only now have I truly seen one. Is this not a great joy, once in a thousand years?”

Zhang Kan of the Eastern Han had noble aspirations and exemplary conduct. At sixteen, he studied in Chang’an under Confucian scholars…

Zhang Kan, an official of the Eastern Han, was known as the “Sagely Youth.” During the reign of Emperor Guangwu, he was summoned to court and appointed Cavalry Commandant. Later, he served under Du Mao, commanding military camps, and defeated the Xiongnu at Gaoliu. He was then appointed governor of Yuyang.

Zhang Kan arrested and punished corrupt, cunning people, and always kept his promises in rewarding and punishing. Officials and common people were glad to follow his orders. The Xiongnu once invaded Yuyang with ten thousand cavalry. Zhang Kan led several thousand cavalry to meet them and inflicted a crushing defeat. Once the commandery was secure, he reclaimed more than eight thousand qing of rice fields at Hunu and encouraged the people to farm, gradually bringing prosperity to the region. The people sang: “The mulberry trees have no extra branches; the wheat ears split in two. Lord Zhang governs so well that joy can scarcely be contained.” He held office for many years, and the Xiongnu did not dare raid the frontier.

When the emperor heard of this, he summoned officials from the commanderies who were responsible for submitting annual reports and asked them about local customs and the achievements of past governors and county magistrates. Fan Xian, a reporting clerk from Shu Commandery, said: “Zhang Kan, the governor of Yuyang, once served in Shu. He was benevolent and protective of the people, yet also had authority and could punish the corrupt. When Gongsun Shu was defeated, treasures had been piled up like mountains. But on the day Zhang Kan left office, all he had was a cart with a broken shaft and a sack for carrying cloth.”

The Hongdao lu comments: “Emperor Wen of Han once said, ‘If I could get men like Lian Po and Li Mu to serve as generals, would I still need to worry about the Xiongnu?’ Ancient Yuyang lay near what is now the capital region. During the Jiajing era, this area, too, repeatedly produced auspicious wheat with two ears, just as the people sang of Zhang Kan. Can there really be no one in the world with aspirations like Zhang Kan’s? The Analects says, ‘A person must first refrain from certain things before they can accomplish anything.’ So, between treasures piled up like mountains and wheat ears growing in two branches, which is more worthy of esteem? A person of noble character can use this to encourage himself.”

Zhuo Mao, an official of the Eastern Han, was generous, kind, and respectful toward others. He treated his neighbors and old friends alike; though their character and abilities varied, they all respected him and were glad to be close to him. Later, he was promoted to county magistrate of Mi. Diligent in his duties, he treated the people with patience and sincerity, regarding them as his own children. He recommended good deeds and instructed the people, never speaking words that might wound them. Officials and common people felt close to him and cherished him, and could not bear to deceive him.

Someone once told Zhuo Mao that the head of a local postal station had accepted rice and meat from a man in his jurisdiction. Zhuo Mao asked the man, “Did the station head demand them from you? Or did he accept them because you had asked him for help with something? Or did you offer them of your own accord, out of goodwill?” The man replied, “I offered them of my own accord.” Zhuo Mao said, “Since you offered them and he accepted, why have you come to report him?” The man said, “I have heard that under a wise ruler, the people do not fear officials, and officials do not take things from the people. I was afraid of the official, so I gave him the things. Since the official accepted them, I came to tell you.”

Zhuo Mao said, “You have misled him. What makes human beings more precious than birds and beasts…”

Having a benevolent heart, knowing how to respect one another and treat one another with courtesy—this is what people ought to do. Surely you are not unwilling to cultivate such qualities? Do you imagine you can fly high into the sky and far away from the human world? The village head has always treated the officials well, sending them gifts at every festival. This is simply proper etiquette. Go back and think it over carefully.

The man followed Zhuo Mao’s advice, and the officials, too, were grateful for his kindness. In this way, moral instruction spread widely, and no one picked up lost things along the road to claim them as their own.

In the early years of Emperor Guangwu’s reign, the founding emperor of the Eastern Han, he sought out Zhuo Mao and issued an edict saying: “In the past, Zhuo Mao, magistrate of Mi County, disciplined himself and cultivated his conduct, holding fast to his integrity. He was steadfast and sincere, and could indeed accomplish what others could not. His reputation has spread throughout the realm, and he deserves the highest reward the realm can offer. I now appoint Zhuo Mao Grand Tutor and enfeoff him as Marquis of Praised Virtue.”

The Hongdao lu comments: “Fan Ye, author of the Book of the Later Han, says that in the early years of the Jianwu era, powerful families were locked in rivalry, and affairs of state were conducted amid urgency and turmoil. Zhuo Mao was merely a morally upright magistrate of a small county, with no exceptional abilities, yet Emperor Guangwu summoned him first and treated him with generous words and great ceremony. How does this differ from King Wu of Zhou’s practice of having a lodge built for a worthy man and honoring men of virtue? From this we can see that Zhuo Mao certainly possessed sincere and generous De, and Emperor Guangwu truly had a heart of great benevolence. In this respect, later generations have found it hard to equal him.”

When Lu Gong, an official of the Eastern Han, served as magistrate of Zhongmou County, he devoted himself to guiding the people through virtue and did not rely on punishments to govern. The villagers Xu Bo and others disputed ownership of a field and repeatedly brought their case before the commandery governor, who could not settle it. Lu Gong investigated who was in the right and mediated the dispute. When the two sides left, each blamed themselves; they stopped cultivating the disputed land and yielded it to one another. From then on, officials and commoners alike trusted and respected him.

In the seventh year of the Jianchu era (82 CE), locust larvae—a pest harmful to crops—infested the fields in various commanderies and counties. Yet the infestation passed along the border of Zhongmou County without entering its territory. Yuan An, the governor of Henan, heard of this and suspected the report was false, so he sent his subordinate Fei Qin to investigate. Lu Gong accompanied him along a path through the fields, and the two sat beneath a mulberry tree. Just then, a pheasant flew past and settled nearby. Fei Qin asked a child, “Why don’t you catch it?” The child replied, “The pheasant is looking after its chicks.” Astonished, Fei Qin stood up and took his leave of Lu Gong, saying, “I came this time to assess your achievements. Now the infestation has not entered the county—this is the first extraordinary thing; your moral influence has reached the birds and beasts—this is the second; even a child has a benevolent heart—this is the third.” He returned to the prefectural office and reported in detail what he had seen and heard to Yuan An. That year, auspicious grain, a superior crop regarded as a good omen, grew in the courtyard where Lu Gong conducted his daily affairs. Yuan An then submitted a report about it, and Emperor Guangwu was astonished when he heard the news.

The Hongdao lu comments: “More than fifteen hundred years have passed from the Han dynasty to the present, yet the reputations of Gong Sui, Huang Ba, and Lu Gong have never faded. They were not merely respected in life and mourned after death; their virtue and achievements truly surpassed those of their contemporaries and even those of the ancients. From the Tang and Song dynasties onward, it has been hard to find anyone who could compare with them.”

End of the Hongdao lu.