《弘道錄》Vol. 34

Father and Son: Wisdom and Folly

The Canon of Documents (Shangshu), in “The Canon of Yao,” records that Emperor Yao asked, “Who can respond to the needs of the time and shoulder a great responsibility?” Fang Qi replied, “Your son Zhu is clear-minded and wise.” But Yao said, “Alas, Zhu is stubborn and foolish, and likes to engage in disputes and lawsuits. How could he be entrusted with office?”

The Hongdao lu comments: This was the distinctive insight of a great sage, far beyond that of ordinary people throughout the ages. Yao’s decision to pass the throne to a worthy man rather than to his own son rested on the judgment he made in this matter. The line between good and evil, worthiness and folly, may be no more than a hair’s breadth; that subtle difference is precisely what distinguishes sages from fools. Zhu had a clever side, but he did not fully follow the principles of Heaven, so as soon as he spoke, he was liable to fall into disputes and litigation. This shows how a sage can discern the principles of Heaven from selfish desire in the slightest detail. With even the smallest deviation, people may mistake cleverness for wisdom and contentiousness for ability. And what of Miao and Shuo, or a son like Zhu? Later generations, too, have had people who considered themselves so clever that they could reject advice, and who were skilled at using words to conceal their faults, imagining that no one in the world was their equal. Seen in this light, Zhu was actually better than many people.

The Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji) records that Shang Emperor Yi had three sons: the eldest, Weizi Qi; the second, Zhongyan; and the youngest, Shou Xin, who was later known as King Zhou of Shang. Zhou’s mother had originally been a concubine and later became the queen. At the time, Zhou was still young, and Emperor Yi and the queen wanted to appoint Weizi Qi as crown prince. The Grand Astrologer argued, in accordance with ritual law, that a son born to the principal wife could not be placed after one born to a concubine. Emperor Yi therefore ultimately appointed Zhou.

The Hongdao lu comments: What happened under Emperor Yi was a misfortune for the Shang, and perhaps a sign that Heaven’s mandate was nearing its end. The Grand Astrologer was defending the proper law that applied throughout the realm. Zhou’s mother was virtuous, and her son was still young. Could Emperor Yi have foreseen that Zhou would bring about the fall of the state and therefore changed the succession in advance? The fates of Fusu and Yang Yong in later times were indeed the result of poor human planning. Yet the Shang could not appoint Weizi Qi and had to set him aside, while the Zhou first set aside Taibo and then Boyikao, appointing their younger brothers instead. Does this not show that Heaven’s mandate had its own destination?

The ancient Duke Danfu of Zhou had three sons: the eldest, Taibo; the second, Yuzhong; and the youngest, Jili. Jili married Tai Ren, a virtuous and worthy woman. When she gave birth to Ji Chang, auspicious signs of sagehood appeared. Danfu said, “Our line will be raised to greatness in this generation; perhaps it will be Ji Chang.” Taibo and Yuzhong understood that Danfu wanted to appoint Jili so that the throne could eventually pass to Ji Chang. They therefore left their homeland and went to the land of the Jing-Man, where they followed local customs by tattooing their bodies and cutting their hair short.

After Gugong Danfu died, his son Jili succeeded him. He was known as Gongji. Gongji followed the principles of governance handed down by Gugong, devoting himself to practicing benevolence and righteousness. All the regional lords submitted to him. When Gongji died, his son Chang succeeded him. He was known as the Earl of the West.

The Hongdao Lu records: The image of the Sheng hexagram has Xun (Wind) below and Kun (Earth) above, symbolizing humility and obedience. Its firm Nine in the Second place occupies the center and corresponds with the Six in the Fifth place, bringing great success. From the time of Gugong onward, the Zhou house held the position of leadership through sincerity, humility, and deference. Taibo and Zhongyong responded from below with sincere hearts. Thus King Ji was able to inherit the position smoothly, without suspicion or obstruction. Later it passed to the Earl of the West, and the royal enterprise of the Zhou dynasty began to rise. Could this really have happened by chance?

If the Great King had lacked the insight to act with sincerity and deference, and Taibo had lacked the wisdom to be humble and respond in harmony, then even if Chang possessed virtue like a dragon and the strength of character to hold the center, he would have had no opportunity to put it into practice. This shows that King Wen’s elaboration of the principles of the Yi Jing (Classic of Changes) came from principles handed down through his family over generations, which he also practiced himself. The Sheng hexagram says, “The king makes offerings at Mount Qi.” This probably refers to something that truly happened. How could it be an empty saying without any basis?

The Kong Congzi records that Duke Mu asked Zisi, “Are there fixed rules for appointing a crown prince?” Zisi replied, “There are.” Duke Mu asked, “In the past, King Wen did not appoint his eldest legitimate son, but chose his second son; Weizi did not appoint his grandson, but chose his younger brother. What rules did they follow?” Zisi said, “The Yin people were simple and respected their elders, so they appointed younger brothers. The Zhou people valued ritual and favored their own descendants, so they appointed sons. The customs of Yin and Zhou differed, and so did their ritual systems. King Wen set aside his eldest legitimate son and chose his second son because circumstances called for a flexible measure.”

Duke Mu asked again, “If the rules can be changed to suit circumstances, is that something only a sage can do? Can worthy or favored people also be appointed as heirs?” Zisi replied, “A sage does not teach exceptional measures as general rules for everyone. That is why institutions are established and standards handed down. It is valuable to follow the institutions. If one insists on violating them, why distinguish one situation from another?”

Duke Mu asked once more, “Would it not be better to set aside the worthy in favor of a sage, or to set aside the foolish in favor of someone worthy?” Zisi said, “Choosing a sage from among sages was perhaps something only King Wen could do. Those who fall short of King Wen’s level often favor whoever they personally like. This is no different from appointing only the eldest legitimate son. How could one draw a clear boundary? If it is truly impossible to judge who is worthy and who is foolish, one may ask the fathers, elder brothers, and ministers to consult an oracle at the ancestral temple. This too is a makeshift measure adopted only when there is no other way.”

The Hongdao Lu comments: These words of a great worthy strike at a common failing in human nature and should never be changed, in any age. Yao’s son Danzhu and Shun’s son Shangjun were both inferior to their fathers. Who but a supreme sage could set aside his own son and appoint someone else? How much more so among people in later generations who dote on their children? Without clear boundaries, people will favor those they love for selfish reasons, and the resulting harms are too many to recount. As for divination, the ancients did not entirely avoid it. But it was only a expedient adopted when they had no other recourse; it does not mean that divination can truly distinguish the worthy from the foolish.

The Zuo Commentary records: The Marquis of Jin (Duke Wen of Jin) rewarded those who had followed him into exile. Jie Zhitui neither claimed a reward nor received one. Jie Zhitui said, “Duke Xian had nine sons, and now only our ruler remains. Duke Hui and Duke Huai had no close allies; people within and beyond the state abandoned them. Heaven has not cut off Jin’s line of succession, so Jin must still have a ruler. Who else but our ruler could preside over Jin’s ancestral sacrifices? This was arranged by Heaven. Yet you claim it as your own achievement. Is that not deceitful? Stealing another person’s property is called theft; how much worse to covet an achievement that belongs to Heaven? Those below describe their crimes as righteous deeds, while those above reward the wicked. With ruler and subjects, high and low, deceiving one another, it is truly difficult to live together.”

Jie Zhitui’s mother said, “Why didn’t you ask for a reward too? If you die like this, whom will you have to blame?” Jie Zhitui replied, “To know something is wrong and still go along with it is an even greater offense. Besides, I have already spoken words of reproach; I cannot take his stipend as well.” His mother said, “Then at least let the ruler know what you think. What do you say to that?” Jie Zhitui replied, “Speech is meant to make oneself known. If I intend to withdraw from the world, why make myself known? That would be to seek recognition.” His mother said, “Can you truly live up to this?” So she and her son withdrew together, and eventually both died there.

The Marquis of Jin sent people to search for Jie Zhitui, but they could not find him. He then granted him Mianshang (a place name) as a field for ancestral sacrifices, saying, “Let this serve to record my fault and to honor a good person.”

The Hongdao lu comments: Jie Zhitui’s withdrawal to Mianshang cannot be considered wise. Does this not resemble Jin’s rise at Nanyang (a place name)? When disorder broke out at Wen, Heaven had not yet rejected the Zhou royal house. Prince Dai defied the ruler above and violated proper relations below; the downfall of the Zhou royal house was still in the future. Yet the Earl of Qin claimed the credit for himself, and Duke Wen then claimed it as his own. How was that any different from hearing the story about someone “borrowing vinegar” and then claiming it for oneself? As for Jie Zhitui, the hardships he endured and the nineteen years he spent in the wilderness were not brought about in a single day. He would not even accept a stipend; how could he possibly seek a grant from the ruler? Even so, a recluse withdraws himself, but his reputation is made known. Jie Zhi was indeed a gentleman! Otherwise, could someone who had worn armor and borne a grudge, and who owed everything to what he had stolen, really have stayed silent? Once he spoke, he would have been like the eunuch Pi or Shu Tou Xu. Jie Zhi’s silence truly had its reasons.

The mother of Shuxiang of Jin was jealous of the beauty of Shuhu’s mother and did not want her sons to see her. Her sons all urged her otherwise. She said, “Great serpents really do arise in deep mountains and vast marshes. She is so beautiful that I fear she will give birth to dragons or serpents who will bring you harm.” Later she let her sons go and see the woman. In time, Shuhu was born. He was handsome and strong, and became a favorite of Yue Huaizi; as a result, he later became caught up in a rebellion. Shuxiang wanted to marry the daughter of Shen Gong Wuchen. His mother said, “Ziling’s wife was once entangled in the downfall of three husbands, a ruler, a son, and two high ministers of a state. Should that not serve as a warning? I have heard that those who are exceedingly beautiful often face great misfortune. This woman is the daughter of Yaozi, a lesser consort of Duke Mu of Zheng, and the younger sister of Zihe…” The original text ends here.

He died young and left no descendants. Heaven, however, had concentrated fine qualities in him, so it seemed that he would surely prosper in the future because of them. Shu Xiang was afraid and did not dare marry her, but Duke Ping forced him to do so. She later gave birth to Bo Shi.

When Bo Shi was born, his mother, Zirong, went to visit several of his aunts and said, “Elder Sister Shu has had a child.” Wan Gu took a look at the baby. As she reached the hall entrance, she heard the child crying, so she turned back and said, “That is the cry of a jackal. A wolf cub is born with ambition. If he is not dealt with, the Yangshe clan will surely suffer because of him.” She then refused to look at the child again.

The Hongdao Lu comments: I find that the mother of the Yangshe clan showed genuine insight, and she should not be dismissed simply because she was the child’s aunt. A wise ruler above creates the lasting conditions for virtue to flourish; a worthy wife in the household can support her husband from within. The ability to govern the world, establish one’s work, and make virtue shine depends on this. Moreover, those who kill their own kin and ruin their descendants are the very people who bring down states and destroy families. Ritual law stipulates that a man who has been punished may not take a wife. Shu Xiang knew this, yet could not make a firm decision; this is truly unworthy of approval. Though widely learned, he was no more useful than chaff. A gentleman must therefore devote himself to sincerity of intention, rectification of the heart, self-cultivation, and putting the family in order. He must not be careless even in the slightest, nor let a single matter slip through. Starting from these things, and continuing until descendants flourish and grow, there is no reason for things to go awry.

The Guoyu records that Qi Xi recommended a candidate for the post of military commandant. Duke Ping asked him, “Who is fit to serve?” Qi Xi replied, “My son, Qi Wu, is. It is said that selecting a minister is better left to the ruler, while selecting a son is better left to the father. When Qi Wu was young, he was gentle and receptive to instruction. He behaved properly when out and kept a regular routine at home. He loved learning and did not play around. As an adult, he was resolute, obeyed orders, and kept to his proper duties without overstepping. After his capping ceremony, he treated people with calm warmth and respect. He was gentle and generous in small matters, and composed and steady in great ones. He was upright and honest, with an unagitated mind. He would not change his position on matters contrary to what is right, and would not act on his own unless ordered by a superior. If entrusted with major affairs, he may be more capable than I am. I am willing to recommend a capable person; may the ruler judge him according to what is right.” Duke Ping then appointed Qi Wu military commandant. After Qi Wu died, there were no abuses in Duke Ping’s army.

The Hongdao Lu comments: I find that what Qi Xi said differs in no way from the way poor scholars today raise their sons. From childhood through adulthood and the capping ceremony, he described in full the fine qualities a person ought to have. What extraordinary care he took in raising his heir! People today regard their own children as precious as fine jade; who would not cherish them? Yet they know only how to admire their children, not that a child’s unhurried development and nurturing, and the refinement that comes through study and practice, depend on sincere effort of the heart. If a child is fortunate enough to become like Qi Wu, he can earn a fine reputation through virtue. And if a father is fortunate enough to recommend his son fairly and selflessly, as Qi Xi did, he will not invite suspicion.

(The symbol “□” in the source marks a missing character. The passage beginning “He died young and left no descendants” appears to contain textual corruption or omissions; the translation above follows the meaning preserved in the text.)

The bond of affection between father and son is as deep as Heaven and Earth, as plain as the sun and moon. How could it have rested merely on the fact that the father once served as a military commandant? Consider the height of Jin’s power: although Zhao Wenzi lost his father at a young age, he was able to build a career and steadily cultivate his De. Though still a child, Fan Wenzi was respectful and modest, and his De grew ever more evident. When Jin declined, however, Bo Lu was already grown, yet could not remember even a single word of instruction; Zhi Yao was powerful, but arrogant and overbearing. This shows that the matter concerned not only the rise and fall of a family, but also the fate of the state. And now that All Under Heaven is unified and worthy people are scattered throughout the land, how could we fail to nurture and prepare talent early?

The Zizhi Tongjian records that Zhao Jianzi had two sons: his eldest was named Bo Lu, and his second, Wu Xu. Zhao Jianzi wanted to appoint an heir but could not decide which son to choose. So he wrote some words of instruction on two bamboo slips, gave one to each son, and said, “Commit these carefully to memory.” Two years later, he questioned Bo Lu, who could not recall a single word. When they looked for the bamboo slip, it had already been lost. Zhao Jianzi then questioned Wu Xu, who recited the instructions fluently and took the bamboo slip from his sleeve to present to his father. Zhao Jianzi therefore judged Wu Xu the more capable and worthy, and appointed him heir.

The Hongdao lu comments: Was Zhao Jianzi really wiser than Zhi Xuanzi? Zhi Xuanzi chose Zhi Yao, while Zhao Jianzi chose Wu Xu. How could the consequences of their choices have differed so greatly in fortune and disaster? The Zhouyi, in the “Waiting” hexagram, says that waiting means facing an obstacle ahead; if one remains firm and does not fall into danger, the principles guiding one’s actions will not lead to a dead end. Zhi Yao’s ferocity showed on his face, while Zhao Jianzi’s (the original text here says “Xiao,” perhaps referring to Zhao Jianzi) was hidden in his heart. Could he not have waited patiently and handled the matter with care? Later, the three families of Jin divided the state and became mortal enemies. Zhi Yao was obstinate and self-willed, and fell into unrighteousness. How long could his downfall be delayed?

Thus Zhao Jianzi gave his sons bamboo slips bearing his instructions and waited two years before questioning them. This is the meaning of “Waiting in the outskirts; perseverance brings good fortune.” Wu Xu built a dam to hold back the water, and released it only after it had risen to a height of three planks. This is the meaning of “Waiting amid blood; emerge from the pit.” The ancients made careful and thorough preparations against calamity. How fortune and disaster come about truly depends on one’s own choices.

When Qin attacked Zhao, the King of Zhao asked Qi for help. Qi replied that it would send troops only if Lord Chang’an were sent as a hostage. The Queen Dowager of Zhao refused, and Qi’s army would not march. The ministers repeatedly urged her to reconsider, until she grew angry and said, “If anyone again proposes sending Lord Chang’an as a hostage, I will spit in his face.” The Left Guardian, Touching Dragon, then asked to be received by the Queen Dowager. She waited for him to enter, still seething with anger. Touching Dragon approached slowly and apologized: “Your old servant has a foot ailment and has been unable to come pay his respects for a long time. I have privately worried that Your Majesty might also be unwell.” The Queen Dowager replied, “I get around in a carriage.” Touching Dragon asked, “Has your appetite diminished at all?”

After listening to the Zhao envoy’s persuasion, the Queen Dowager of Zhao’s expression softened a little. She asked, “My old minister has a son named Shuqi. He is the youngest, and the least capable. I love him dearly and would like him to fill a vacancy among the palace guards in black and protect the royal palace. Would that be possible?”

The Queen Dowager asked, “Do men also dote on their youngest sons?”

The Senior Minister replied, “When they do, they can dote on them even more than women do.”

The Queen Dowager smiled and said, “Can women dote on their children even more than that?”

The Senior Minister said, “In my view, you love the Queen of Yan more than you love Lord Chang’an.”

The Queen Dowager said, “You are mistaken. I love Lord Chang’an more.”

The Senior Minister said, “When parents love their children, they make plans for their long-term future. I once heard that when you sent the Queen of Yan away to marry, you held her by the heels and prayed for her, wishing that she would never return to Zhao. Was that not a long-range plan for her, hoping that her descendants would rule Yan for generations?”

The Queen Dowager said, “That is so.”

The Senior Minister said, “Going back three generations from the present King of Zhao, are any descendants of those kings who were enfeoffed as marquises still inheriting their titles today?”

The Queen Dowager said, “No.”

The Senior Minister said, “This shows that calamities may fall on people themselves when they are near, and may reach their descendants when they are far off. Does that mean the ruler’s descendants are incapable as soon as they are enfeoffed? It is simply that they hold exalted positions without earning merit, and receive generous stipends without serving the state. Now you have raised Lord Chang’an’s status, granted him fertile land, and given him many precious things, yet you do not have him win merit for the state while there is still time. If one day you are no longer here, on what will Lord Chang’an rely to establish himself in Zhao?”

The Queen Dowager said, “Very well. I leave it to you to arrange.”

The Senior Minister then prepared a hundred chariots for Lord Chang’an and sent him to Qi as a hostage. Only then did Qi send troops, and Qin withdrew its forces as a result.

The Hongdao lu comments: “The Cheng Commentary records both the Senior Minister’s success in persuading the Queen Dowager of Zhao and the Four Eminent Elders’ support for Liu Bang and their role in stabilizing the Han house. Is this really how things happened? No. The Senior Minister’s remonstrance was measured and unhurried. It arose from the natural concern of a parent for a child and never strayed from a good and compassionate intention. This is what is meant by ‘passing earnest words through a crack in the door’: it opens a way through what the other person cannot yet understand. When Empress Lü held Zhang Liang under pressure, Zhang Liang used the Four Eminent Elders to restrain the emperor. This was like ‘stuffing wet clothing into a leak in a damaged boat,’ a way to cope with an immediate crisis. Alas, how could someone in such a high position make everyone under Heaven crane their necks, hoping to die in the crown prince’s place? For an emperor to heed good advice as smoothly as a ball rolling across level ground shows fine natural qualities. But his frequent mistakes in handling matters stem from a lack of learning.”

The Biographies of Exemplary Women records the story of the mother of Sunshu Ao, the chief minister of Chu. When Sunshu Ao was still a child…

When Sun Shu’ao, the chief minister of Chu—the highest office in that state—was a boy, he went out to play and saw a two-headed snake. He killed it and buried it. When he got home and saw his mother, he began to cry. She asked him why, and he replied, “I have heard that anyone who sees a two-headed snake will die. I saw one while I was out playing today.”

His mother asked, “Where is the snake now?” He answered, “I was afraid someone else might see it, so I killed it and buried it.”

She said, “You will not die. Those who do good in secret receive blessings in the open. Virtue overcomes ill omens, and benevolence can dispel every calamity. Heaven is high above, yet it can hear the voices below. Does the Book of Documents not say, ‘Heaven shows favor to no one; it assists those who have virtue’? Do not worry. You are certain to rise to prominence in Chu.”

When Sun Shu’ao grew up, he did indeed become chief minister. The exemplary person would say that Sun Shu’ao’s mother understood the principles of benevolence and virtue. The Book of Songs says, “The mother was wise and kind.” It speaks of someone just like her.

The Hongdao lu comments: Sun Shu’ao’s mother had keen hearing and penetrating insight—qualities truly rare. When she first heard what had happened, she might not have thought it cause for joy; yet in a moment her bearing became clear, and she did not hesitate. Whether doing good in secret will certainly be rewarded cannot be said for sure. But her wise and kind understanding was rare in any age. This also shows that exemplary people must not harm the people or injure living creatures as they conduct themselves in the world: Sun Shu’ao worried that someone else might see a single snake, so how much more should people be concerned about letting others commit violence and wrongdoing?

The wife of Zhao She, the Zhao commander known as Lord Mafu, was the mother of Zhao Kuo. When Qin attacked Zhao, King Xiaocheng of Zhao planned to appoint Zhao Kuo as commander. Zhao Kuo’s mother petitioned the king: “Zhao Kuo must not be appointed commander.”

The king asked, “Why?”

She said, “When I first married Zhao Kuo’s father, he was a commander. He personally supported more than ten people and had over a hundred friends. Whatever gifts the king and the royal clan gave him, he shared with the officers and senior men in the army. From the day he received his appointment, he stopped concerning himself with household affairs. Now Zhao Kuo has become a commander, but he sits facing east to receive the officers’ greetings, and no one dares look up at him. He has kept all the gold and silks he was given, and every day he checks for suitable fields and houses to buy. Does the king think he is like his father? Father and son differ, and their dispositions differ too. I hope the king will not send him out to battle.”

The king said, “My decision is final.”

Zhao Kuo’s mother said, “If the king is determined to send him, I hope I will not be punished if he proves unfit for the post.”

After Zhao Kuo went to war, the Zhao army was indeed defeated. Zhao Kuo was killed, and the entire army was destroyed. Because his mother had spoken up beforehand, the king ultimately did not punish her.

The Hongdao lu comments: Zhao Kuo was unfit to command. His father knew it, and his mother knew it; only the king did not. By then, the Six States were already like wandering spirits, barely drawing breath as they moved toward their ruin. They had first lost the very foundation for distinguishing right from wrong. Moreover…

People are often so eager for quick success that they have no time to look back and consider the consequences. This is just what Mencius lamented so deeply: “Calamities sent down by Heaven may still be escaped; calamities one brings upon oneself leave no way to survive.”

The Book of Han records the story of Chen Ying, Marquis of Tangyi. At first, Chen Ying served as a minor official in Dongyang County. He had long been known there for his kindness, and people called him an elder of virtue. During the reign of the Second Qin Emperor, young men in Dongyang killed the county magistrate and gathered several thousand followers. They wanted to choose a leader and asked Chen Ying to take the post. He declined, saying he was not capable. The crowd installed him by force and wanted to make him king. His mother said, “Since I married into your family, I have heard that your ancestors were not of high standing. Now, to suddenly gain such a great reputation is no good omen. You would do better to hand your troops over to someone else. If the cause succeeds, you can still be enfeoffed as a marquis; if it fails, you will find it easier to escape blame and avoid being singled out for punishment.” Chen Ying followed her advice and handed his troops over to Xiang Liang, who appointed him Senior Pillar of the State, an important military post. After the Xiang family fell, Chen Ying joined the Han, and, as his mother had predicted, was enfeoffed as Marquis of Tangyi for his achievements.

The mother of Wang Ling, Marquis of Anguo and chancellor: Wang Ling had initially been a powerful local figure. He knew Gaozu, Liu Bang, before Liu Bang rose to prominence, and when Liu Bang took up arms, Wang Ling also gathered several thousand men. When Liu Bang was made King of Han, Wang Ling led his troops over to him. At the time, Xiang Yu was fighting the Han forces and wanted to win Wang Ling over, so he detained Wang Ling’s mother in his camp. When Wang Ling’s envoy arrived, Xiang Yu had her seated facing east, hoping this would entice Wang Ling to submit. Before long, Wang Ling’s mother secretly took leave of the envoy, weeping as she said, “Please tell Wang Ling to serve the King of Han faithfully. The King of Han is generous and humane. He must not waver on my account, an old woman.” Having said this, she threw herself upon her sword and died. Later, Wang Ling and Gaozu brought the realm under their rule. Wang Ling rose to the office of chancellor, was enfeoffed as a marquis, and his title passed down for five generations.

The Record of Broadening the Dao comments: Fan Zeng should surely have felt ashamed over this affair. Even women could see that Xiang Yu was not worthy of serving; how tragic that Fan Zeng could not. Fan Zeng was over seventy, yet in his lifetime his judgment was inferior to that of Chen Ying’s mother. In the end, should he not also have felt ashamed before Wang Ling’s mother? If Fan Zeng had persuaded Xiang Yu to honor his agreement to enter the Guanzhong region and preserve the boundary at Honggou, which the Chu and Han sides had agreed would divide their territories, the ancestral rites of the Xiang family need not have come to an end. Or, if he had recognized that Heaven’s mandate no longer favored Xiang Yu and urged him to put away his weapons and end the fighting, Xiang Yu might at least have preserved a title like the one granted to Xiang Bo. Fan Zeng missed both opportunities. Was his wisdom truly inferior to that of these two mothers? Even so, the mothers’ counsel followed the course of events and was easy to accept, whereas Fan Zeng’s advice ran against Xiang Yu’s wishes and was difficult to make him follow. At a critical moment, whether a worthy person finds someone willing to heed their counsel may be the very difference between good fortune and misfortune. Chen Ying and Wang Ling were fortunate to listen to their mothers and bring honor to their names as virtuous mothers. Fan Zeng, by contrast, was unfortunate enough to serve as Xiang Yu’s strategist, and in the end could only share the blame he incurred in the eyes of the world.

According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Chao Cuo was stern and upright, and carried out his duties with exacting thoroughness. During Emperor Wen of Han’s reign, he submitted proposals for improving government and was promoted to Household Counselor to the Heir Apparent, an official who assisted the crown prince. His skill in debate won the prince’s favor, and the prince called him his “wise strategist.”

Chao Cuo submitted memorials repeatedly, discussing ways to weaken the power of the feudal princes and laws that could be revised or newly enacted. Emperor Wen did not adopt his proposals, but recognized his ability and promoted him to Grand Master of the Palace. The crown prince greatly admired Chao Cuo’s plans. After ascending the throne, he appointed him Minister of the Interior, an official responsible for the administration of the capital. Chao Cuo often requested private audiences to discuss government affairs, and the emperor always followed his advice. He enjoyed such favor that his standing even surpassed that of the Nine Ministers, the court’s senior officials. Many laws were revised on his initiative.

The chancellor, Shentu Jia, thought these measures improper. He plotted several times to have Chao Cuo killed, but did not succeed. Chao Cuo’s status grew still higher, and he was promoted to Imperial Counselor, a senior official responsible for oversight and government affairs. He gathered evidence of the feudal princes’ offenses, confiscated commanderies belonging to them, and revised more than thirty laws. The princes were in an uproar.

When Chao Cuo’s father heard of this, he came from Yingchuan and said to him, “The emperor has only just ascended the throne, yet you, an outsider, have been appointed to office. You are stripping the princes of their lands, dividing the Liu clan against itself, and stirring up widespread discussion and resentment. Why?” Chao Cuo replied, “It has to be this way. Otherwise, the Son of Heaven cannot be revered, and the ancestral temples cannot be at peace.” His father sighed and said, “Alas, the Liu clan may be secure, but the Chao clan may not be.” He then took poison and died, saying, “I cannot bear to see disaster fall upon my son.” More than ten days after his death, the Seven Kingdoms, including Wu and Chu, indeed rose in rebellion.

The Hongdao lu comments: “I find that the Records of the Grand Historian calls two men ‘wise strategists,’ but both were deceived: Shu Li was deceived by Hu Yan, and Chao Cuo by Yuan Ang. Was it because they prized cleverness and cunning but did not love learning? Even so, Chao Cuo’s attempt to weaken the princes may have arisen from a sense of duty: he put the state first and forgot his own safety. Yet he was killed for it and became a laughingstock throughout the realm. Yuan Ang hated Chao Cuo and bore him a deep grudge, yet in the end he kept himself safe and returned to the area around Zhangtai in southern Wei. From this, it is clear that Emperor Jing of Han was, in this respect, inferior even to King Zhao of Qin. As for Chao Cuo’s father, perhaps he understood the situation too late.”

Yan Yannian, governor of Henan, had five sons, all of whom attained offices with stipends of two thousand shi. People therefore called her “Old Lady Yan of Ten Thousand shi,” referring to the high rank her five sons had reached. As governor, Yan Yannian became known for his severity and efficiency. In winter, he sent prisoners from the counties to the government offices for trial. Blood flowed for several li through the compound, earning him the name “Butcher Ren.”

His mother often traveled from Donghai Commandery to Luoyang. Once, she happened to witness this affair and was deeply shocked. She stayed at a post pavilion outside the city and refused to enter the governor’s residence. She reproached Yan Yannian, saying, “You were fortunate enough to become a governor, yet I have never heard that you put benevolent rule into practice or protected the people and kept them safe. I have only seen you rely on punishments to kill many people, hoping to establish your authority by doing so. Is this truly the proper attitude for one who serves as a parent to the people? Heaven’s Way is divine, and people do not…”

“Could you really kill me by yourself? I never thought I would live to see a grown man tortured and put to death. Enough. Go back east.”

More than a year later, the Assistant Administrator of the Grand Treasury submitted a memorial listing more than ten charges against Yan Nian. The case was referred to the Censorate for investigation, and Yan Nian was ultimately sentenced to execution in the marketplace. No one in the Donghai region failed to praise his mother’s virtue.

The Hongdao lu comments: Alas, this strict mother was ultimately not as skilled at teaching her son as the worthy mothers of antiquity. Prenatal instruction and Mencius’s mother moving house three times were methods used by worthy mothers in ancient times to cultivate their children’s character early and broaden their path of benevolence. How good it would have been if Yan Yanni’s mother had carefully observed her son’s thoughts and conduct in daily life, curbed what was contrary to benevolence and righteousness while he was still young, corrected his serious faults, taught him from childhood to emulate his elders, and helped him grow up with a heart of compassion. If someone has no sense of compassion, even rewarding him may not stop him from harming others. Such a person is called a “butcher of men”—how could he possibly keep himself safe? Yan Yanni in fact suffered the tragic consequences of the tomb-sweeping affair, while his mother had only the empty reputation of wisdom and virtue. That Yan’s mother was unlike the worthy mothers of antiquity is truly lamentable.

The mother of Jun Buyi, the Governor of the Capital District, was loving, discerning, and skilled at teaching. When Buyi served as Governor, he would inspect the counties under his jurisdiction and hear prisoners’ cases, then return home. His mother would always ask him, “In today’s hearings, how many people were cleared and spared injustice?” If Buyi said that many had been cleared, his mother would smile with pleasure, and her eating and conversation would be different from usual. If he said that no one had been cleared, she would become angry and might even refuse to eat. Thus Buyi enforced the law with fairness but without cruelty. Gentlemen praised his mother, saying she could truly be called one to whom “blessings will long extend to your descendants.”

The Hongdao lu comments: In my view, Jun Buyi’s mother was unlike Yan Yanni’s. What matters in education is to begin early. Buyi did not dispute the loss of the gold, so he could hardly be compared with a “butcher of men.” And since his mother was loving, discerning, and skilled at teaching, there was naturally no need to worry that her son would bring upon himself the disaster of the tomb-sweeping affair, as Yan Yanni did. The son earned a good reputation, and his mother received blessings in turn. Is this not both wisdom and good judgment?

The Book of the Later Han records: When Wu You’s father, Wu Hui, served as Grand Administrator of Nanhai, Wu You was twelve years old and accompanied his father to his post. Wu Hui wanted to prepare bamboo slips by scraping and smoothing them, then use them to copy scriptures. Wu You advised him: “Father has now traveled far beyond the Five Ridges and is living on a distant seacoast. The local customs are indeed rough, but this region has long produced rare and valuable goods. Their presence may arouse suspicion at court and invite covetousness from powerful relatives. If these books are copied, they will require two carts to transport. In the past, Ma Yuan was slandered over coix seeds, and Wang Yang was suspected of using his traveling bag to win a reputation. When a matter is liable to arouse suspicion, the worthy men of the past have always treated it with great caution.” Wu Hui therefore abandoned the idea. Stroking his son’s head, he said, “The Wu family will never lack a worthy man like Jizi.” When Wu You grew up, he became renowned for his ability to recognize people.

Sun Xing was recommended as a Filial and Incorruptible and appointed magistrate of Jiaodong. He led by example, and the officials under him dared not deceive him. A county petty official, responsible for collecting taxes and handling civil affairs, secretly took property from the people and used it to buy clothes for his father. When his father found out, he was furious and urged him to confess. Ashamed and afraid, Sun Xing went to the government office, carrying the clothes with him, and turned himself in.

You said, “You acted out of filial devotion to your father, yet acquired this bad reputation. As the saying goes, ‘Observe a person’s faults, and you will know whether he is benevolent.’” You had Sun Xing apologize to his father and return the clothes to him.

The Hongdao lu comments: “As for the ability to scrutinize and gauge people, neither Zhao Guanghan’s ‘hook-and-distance’ method nor Zhang Bi’s ‘floss-and-tongue’ technique was something even Shun would have stooped to use. Sun Xing’s wisdom came from his nature; he needed no one to teach him. That is why this story has been recorded.”

The Book of Jin records that Tao Kan’s father, Tao Dan, once served the state of Wu as General Who Raises Martial Might. His mother, Lady Zhan, was Tao Dan’s secondary wife. When Tao Kan was born, the Tao family was poor. Lady Zhan supported the household by spinning and weaving, and encouraged Tao Kan to befriend people of greater talent and virtue than his own.

Fan Da, a Filial and Incorruptible from Poyang, once stayed at the Tao household. Heavy snow was falling, so Lady Zhan cut off her own hair and exchanged it for food and wine to entertain him. They drank and feasted to their hearts’ content, and she treated the servants far more generously than they had expected. She even took apart the wooden bed frame, chopped the wood herself, and used it for Fan Da’s horses.

Later, while Tao Kan was supervising a fishery at Xunyang, he sent his mother a jar of salted fish. Lady Zhan sealed it up and sent it back, rebuking him: “You are sending me something that belongs to the government. This not only does me no good; it adds to my worries.” When Tao Kan heard this, he sighed, “Without a mother like her, there could be no son like me.” He recommended Tao Kan to Zhang Kui, the governor of Lujiang, who summoned him into government service. Thereafter, Tao Kan rose through the ranks on the strength of his military achievements, becoming governor of Jiangxia and receiving the additional title of General Who Soars Like an Eagle. He arranged a ceremonial escort to welcome his mother back to their home district, and the people there considered it a great honor.

Zhou Jun, the father of Zhou Yi, had a wife named Li, whose courtesy name was Luoxiu. Zhou Jun served as General Who Pacifies the East and was skilled at recognizing talent. Once, while out hunting, he was caught in the rain and took shelter at the Li family’s home. At the time, Lady Li’s father and brothers were away. When Luoxiu heard that an honored guest had arrived, she and a maid slaughtered pigs and sheep inside the house and prepared an exquisite meal sufficient for dozens of people, all without a sound being heard from within. Zhou Jun found this strange and sent someone to investigate. He saw only a young, beautiful woman and wanted to take her as his secondary wife. Her father and brothers initially refused, but Luoxiu said, “Our family has already fallen into decline. Why begrudge the loss of one daughter? If I can marry into a noble family, it may greatly benefit us in the future.” Her father and brothers then agreed to the marriage.

Luoxiu gave birth to three sons—Zhou Yi, Zhou Song, and Zhou Mo—all of whom attained high office. At the winter solstice, Zhou Jun once held a banquet and raised his cup to his sons: “When I crossed the Yangtze, I had nowhere to settle. I never imagined I would find refuge in a distinguished family like yours. Now all of you have risen to prominence, and I see you here before me. What could I still have to worry about?” Zhou Song rose to his feet…

She said, “I fear things will not go according to your wishes. Bo Ren (Zhou Yi, courtesy name Bo Ren) has great ambition but little ability; his reputation is high, yet his judgment is clouded. He seems to take advantage of others when they are in trouble. That is no way to protect oneself. Song (Tao Kan, courtesy name Shixing) is forthright by nature and is also ill suited to the ways of the world. Only A’nu (Tao Kan’s childhood name) is cautious and unremarkable, and can stay by his mother’s side.” The “A’nu” she spoke of was Tao Kan’s childhood name. Later events unfolded just as she had predicted.

The Hongdao lu says: “In my view, the mothers of Tao Shixing (Tao Kan, courtesy name Shixing) and Zhou Borен were both intelligent and discerning women. They came from the same background: both were born to secondary wives. This status did not depend on the social distinctions people make about family rank. Still, some details in the stories of ‘cutting off hair to host a guest’ and ‘preparing wine and food’ invite a little doubt. A single strand of hair is so insignificant—how could it have kept a guest drinking to his heart’s content? And how could a frail woman, in such a short time, have managed everything, including slaughtering animals? Perhaps their reputations for virtue had already spread, so they did not begrudge even cutting off their hair; perhaps their reputations for capable, efficient work were already well established, so they readily took on tasks for several people at once. Later generations may then have treated these accounts as true.”

As for Tao Kan’s birth in the region of Mount Song and his later rise to become a minister who served as a bulwark of the state, human planning may have played a part, but Heaven’s will was also at work. Such matters are ultimately beyond our ability to fathom.