《道德真经衍义手抄(王守正)》Vol. 4

Under the pressure of secret denunciations, people stepped cautiously and held their breath. They dared not speak to one another, and could only signal with their eyes as they passed on the road.

In the third month of Guangzhai 1 (684), during the Tang dynasty, Empress Dowager Wu Zetian established copper boxes for receiving secret memorials. Cast from copper, each box had four compartments. Memorials could be dropped in, but not taken out. After Xu Jingye raised an army in rebellion, Wu Zetian began to suspect that everyone in the realm was plotting against her. She also believed that, having monopolized the government for a long time and behaved improperly in private, she knew the imperial clan and officials resented her and would not submit. She therefore wanted to execute them on a large scale to establish her authority, and strongly encouraged people to inform on one another. Informants received horses and food, and could travel to wherever the emperor was. Even farmers and woodcutters could be granted an audience, and some were promoted to official posts beyond their station. Even when an accusation had no factual basis, the accuser was not held accountable. As a result, informants sprang up everywhere.

The more sharp tools people possess, the more disorderly the state becomes. The more they pursue clever techniques, the more ingenious objects arise. The denser and clearer the laws and decrees, the more numerous the thieves and bandits become.

The Yanyi explains: This will inevitably give rise to a mind bent on clever schemes.

Here it cites a story from the “Tian Di” chapter of the Zhuangzi. Zigong was traveling south in Chu when, on the southern bank of the Han River, he saw an old man tending a vegetable garden. The man had dug a channel to the well, then carried a water jar to draw water and irrigate his crops. He was panting with exertion, working hard for little result. Zigong said to him, “There is a device here that can irrigate a hundred plots in a day, with little effort and great effect. Would you not like to use one?” The old man looked up and asked, “What is it?” Zigong replied, “Make a device from wood, heavy at the back and light at the front. When you lift it, it draws up water like a pump. The water pours out as if washing something. This device is called a counterweighted well sweep.”

The old man’s face changed. He gave a cold laugh and said, “I have heard my teacher say that where there are machines, there will be contrivances; where there are contrivances, a mind bent on clever schemes will arise. When such schemes take root in the mind, one’s original, clear nature is harmed. When one’s nature is no longer pure and simple, the spirit cannot be at peace. A person whose spirit is unsettled cannot be borne by the Great Dao. It is not that I do not know of this device; I consider it shameful and do not wish to use it.”

The Yanyi further explains: “Carving and engraving” refers to fine carving and embellishment.

The “Way of Heaven” chapter of the Zhuangzi says: Heaven and Earth cover and support the myriad things, shaping them in all their forms without claiming any skill. This is called “Heavenly Joy,” the joy of following nature.

The Extended Commentary explains: “Not acting” means not acting deliberately. Here, “carving and engraving” refers to carving and polishing.

The “Way of Heaven” chapter of the Zhuangzi also says: Heaven and Earth shape the myriad things without boasting of their skill; this is Heavenly Joy. The Extended Commentary gives King Zhou of Shang as an example: he made strange contrivances and lavish, intricate objects to please women. This was a deliberate pursuit of skill that went against nature.

The “Great Declaration, Part Two” of the Book of Documents records King Wu of Zhou saying: “Now the Shang king Shou—King Zhou of Shang—acts with cruelty and violence, killing the people and bringing suffering to all under Heaven. He trusts wicked men and dismisses his tutors and ministers. He abandons the laws, imprisons upright men, fails to offer sacrifices at the altars of the land and grain or in the ancestral temple, and makes ingenious, extravagant objects to please women. Heaven does not approve of his conduct and will send down calamity. You must work diligently and help me carry out Heaven’s punishment with reverence.”

The Extended Commentary continues: A minor offense, such as stealing a belt hook, can bring the death penalty; a great crime may even lead to usurping a state. Tian Chengzi, whose personal name was Chen Heng and who was a high official of Qi, killed the ruler of Qi and seized the state. He is an example of this.

The “Rifling Trunks” chapter of the Zhuangzi says: “How do we know this is so? The man who steals a belt hook is put to death, while the one who steals a state can become a feudal lord. Tian Chengzi killed the ruler of Qi and seized the state. What he stole was more than a state: he stole the laws established by the sages as well. Though Tian Chengzi bore the name of a robber, he enjoyed the peace and security of Yao and Shun. Small states did not dare to condemn him, and great states did not dare attack him. His descendants ruled Qi for twelve generations.”

The Extended Commentary also mentions that Li Si once urged the Second Emperor of Qin to use the “method of strict accountability”—governing and punishing officials and subjects through harsh laws and penalties—in an attempt to quell banditry and unrest.

The Comprehensive Mirror records: In the winter of the second year of Qin Er Shi’s reign, the emperor repeatedly rebuked Li Si, saying, “You hold one of the Three Excellencies, the highest offices at court. Why have you allowed the bandits to become such a menace?” Li Si was afraid, but unwilling to give up his high office and generous rewards. At a loss for what to do, he followed the emperor’s wishes and submitted a memorial:

A wise and enlightened ruler understands how to use strict supervision and hold people accountable. Shen Buhai once said: “If someone possesses the world yet cannot act as he wishes, but is instead constrained by it, there is no other reason than that the ruler fails to supervise his subjects and instead, like Yao and Yu, personally labors on behalf of the people. This is what it means to be constrained by the world.”

If a ruler does not learn the governing methods of Shen Buhai and Han Fei, and does not enforce strict accountability; if he cannot make the world serve his own ease, but instead exhausts himself and his mind by personally shouldering responsibility for the people, then he becomes the people’s servant rather than the ruler of the world. What is there to honor in that?

Therefore, an enlightened ruler should employ the art of supervision and accountability, making decisions alone at the top and keeping power out of the hands of his ministers. This can eliminate the way of benevolence and righteousness and silence all kinds of persuasive debate, so that no one dares defy the ruler’s will. However arbitrarily the ruler acts, no one dares oppose him. The ministers and people will be too busy avoiding punishment to plot a rebellion.

Qin Er Shi was pleased by this advice and enforced the system of strict accountability even more harshly. Officials who taxed the people more heavily were considered more capable; those who killed more people were praised as more loyal. Those executed along the roads lay so close together that they nearly touched, while corpses in the marketplaces piled up in ever greater numbers. The people of Qin grew more fearful, and many began to contemplate rebellion.

The Explication of the Meaning says: Emperor Wu of Han once ordered Zhang Tang and Zhao Yu, judicial officials of the Han dynasty, to draw up legal statutes.

The Comprehensive Mirror records: In the fifth year of the Jianyuan era under Emperor Wu of Han, the emperor appointed Zhang Tang, Grand Master of the Palace…

The Tongjian records that in the fifth year of Emperor Wu of Han’s Jianyuan era, the emperor ordered Zhang Tang, Grand Master of the Palace, and Zhao Yu, Palace Grand Master, to revise the laws and regulations together. The laws they drafted were deliberately severe, placing officials responsible for carrying out their duties under tight constraints. Zhang Tang’s biography records this matter. Zhao Yu also established the “Law of Known Offenses”: an official who knew that someone had broken the law but failed to report it was held responsible as well. From then on, officials monitored one another, and law enforcement grew ever harsher.

Therefore, the sage said: “When I practice Wuwei (non-action), the people are naturally transformed. When I refrain from meddling, the people naturally become prosperous. When I cherish stillness, the people naturally become upright. When I have no desires, the people naturally become simple and honest.”

The Yanyi says: Yao and Shun were deep and sparing with words, governing according to law. They ruled from within the palace with robes hanging loose and hands folded, and the people naturally became prosperous.

The book quotes the Yangzi, “Questions on the Dao” chapter: In ancient times, Yu and Xia succeeded Yao, carried on Yao’s way of governing, and made the laws clear and the rites and music well established. They ruled calmly, with robes hanging loose and hands folded, and the people naturally became prosperous. “Fu” means prosperous. “Ruling with robes hanging loose and hands folded” refers to a ruler who, in court, refrains from excessive action and quietly observes as the people naturally settle into peace and prosperity.

The Yanyi also says: King Wen and King Wu of Zhou did not act by force of their own will, but followed the patterns of Heaven. They ruled with robes hanging loose and hands folded, and the realm was brought to order.

The book quotes the Mao Commentary on the Book of Songs, “Great Ya: Huang Yi”: The Lord on High said to King Wen, “I approve of your virtue in caring for the people. You do not intimidate them with your voice or appearance, nor oppress them with harsh decrees. You do not presume to rely on your own cleverness, but follow the patterns of the Lord on High.” The Yanyi goes on to say that this is like the time when Cao Can served as chancellor of the Han, and Emperor Hui of Han was puzzled to see that he was not busy dealing with affairs of state.

The passages from the Book of Han quoted here have already been discussed earlier in the Yanyi, so they will not be repeated.

Chapter Fifty-Eight: When Government Is Quiet and Unobtrusive

Misfortune—how often good fortune depends upon it! Good fortune—how often misfortune lies hidden within it!

The Yanyi says that good fortune can be hidden within misfortune, as in the story recorded in the Liezi about a man of Song who delighted in practicing benevolence and righteousness. The relevant passage has already been discussed earlier, so it will not be repeated.

The Yanyi also says that misfortune may be hidden within good fortune, as in the account in the Liezi of the Yu family, a wealthy household in Liang.

So the sage has a square and upright character, yet does not harm others because of it; has firm principles, yet does not wound others with them; is honest, yet does not give free rein to personal impulses; is open and upright, yet does not flaunt himself.

The Book of Documents says, “Upright yet gentle.” In the “Counsels of Gao Yao,” Gao Yao says that a person should possess nine virtues: broad-mindedness joined with solemnity; gentleness joined with resolve; care joined with humility; skill in governing joined with reverence; compliance joined with decisiveness; uprightness joined with gentleness; simplicity joined with moderation; strength joined with sincerity; and courage joined with what is right. If a person can embody these virtues and remain constant in them, that person is good and auspicious.

Chapter Fifty-Nine: Governing People and Serving Heaven

Only by knowing how to be frugal and restrained can one be said to align early with the Dao. To align with the Dao early is to accumulate De without interruption. When De has been deeply accumulated, nothing cannot be overcome. When nothing cannot be overcome, one’s power is unfathomable. When one’s power is unfathomable, one can govern a state.

The Mencius says, “Preserving the heart-mind and nourishing one’s nature is how one serves Heaven.” “Preserving” means holding fast to the heart-mind without abandoning it; “nourishing” means following one’s nature without harming it; and “serving” means carrying it out with reverence and without disobeying it.

For those whose De has reached its highest level, fire cannot make them hot, and water cannot drown them.

This passage, quoted from “The Yellow Emperor” chapter of the Liezi, describes the state attained by a Dao cultivator: with no attachments or fears in the heart, one can enter water without drowning and enter fire without feeling its heat. Even when struck with blades or blows, one suffers no injury or pain; even when scratched, one feels no pain. One walks through the air as if on solid ground, and lies in empty space as if sleeping in a bed. Clouds and mist cannot block one’s sight, and thunder cannot disturb one’s hearing. Beauty and ugliness cannot unsettle the heart, and one can walk through a valley without stumbling. One acts solely through the wondrous power of the spirit.

The commentary then says that Gengsangzi lived at the foot of Mount Yu. The passage cited here comes from “Gengsang Chu” in the Zhuangzi. Gengsangzi’s surname was Geng and his personal name was Chu; he was a disciple of the Old Master. Mount Yu is a mountain in the state of Lu. The commentator explains that the preceding discussion already quoted this passage in full, so it is not repeated here.

Chapter Sixty: Governing a Great State

“To govern the world by the Dao is to keep its spirits from working wonders” means that when the world is governed by the Dao, ghosts and spirits will not stir up disturbances.

The commentary cites a passage from “The Instructions of Yi” in the Book of Documents, in which King Tang of Shang admonishes Taijia: In ancient times, the former kings of the Xia dynasty diligently cultivated their Virtue. As a result, there were no natural disasters, the spirits of the mountains and rivers were at peace, and the birds, beasts, fish, and turtles each found their proper place. Later, King Jie of Xia failed to follow the Dao of the former kings, and Heaven sent down calamity, allowing the one who bore the Mandate to attack him. The campaign began at Mingtiao. Mingtiao was where King Jie lived, while Bo was where King Tang lived. Tang’s cultivation of Virtue began at Bo. The commentator uses this account to show that King Jie’s accumulated wrongdoing ultimately brought about his downfall, while King Tang cultivated Virtue and thereby received the Mandate of Heaven.

Finally, the commentary mentions the event recorded in the thirty-second year of Duke Zhuang of Lu in the Spring and Autumn Annals, when “a spirit descended at Cui.” It says that the original passage from the Spring and Autumn Annals has already been quoted in full earlier, so it is not reproduced here.

The Yanyi says: “The Spring and Autumn Annals records that in the thirty-second year of Duke Zhuang of Lu, a spirit descended at Cui.”

The manuscript holds that the Yanyi already gives the full explanation of the relevant entry for the thirty-second year of Duke Zhuang of Lu in the Spring and Autumn Annals, so it does not copy it again here.

The Yanyi says: “The Spring and Autumn Annals records that in the thirtieth year of Duke Xiang of Lu, the people of Zheng killed Bo You.”

The manuscript cites the relevant account in the Spring and Autumn Annals: In the thirtieth year of Duke Xiang of Lu, the people of Zheng killed Bo You. In the seventh year of Duke Zhao of Lu, Zichan appointed Gongsun Xie and Liang Zhi as ministers to appease the spirits of Zikong and Bo You. Gongsun Xie was Zikong’s son, and Liang Zhi was Bo You’s son. Zichan did this so that the spirits of both families would have a place to rest.

Zi Taishu, whose personal name was You Ji, asked Zichan why he had done this. Zichan replied, “When a spirit has a place to rest, it will not become a malevolent ghost that haunts and harms people.”

Later, when Zichan was on a mission to Jin, Zhao Jingzi asked him, “Can Bo You really become a ghost?” Zichan replied, “Yes. When a person first takes shape, this is called po. After birth, the part formed from Yang energy is called hun. The strength of a person’s hun and po depends on the quality and abundance of the things and food they enjoy. Those of high rank with plentiful comforts have strong bodies; those who take in abundant vital essence have strong hun energy. With vital essence in abundance, one can reach the realm of the divine. Jing is the state before spirit becomes manifest; shuang is the state before spirit becomes clear and conspicuous.

“Even ordinary men and women who die unjustly may still have their hun and po cling to people and become malevolent ghosts that haunt them. Bo You was renowned: he was a descendant of Duke Mu, a grandson of Ziliang, and the son of Zi Er. For three generations his family took part in government and held power for a long time. It is hardly surprising that he could become a ghost after his death.”

The Yanyi says: “During the reign of Wu Zetian in the Tang dynasty, Wu Sansi bought two concubines.”

The manuscript holds that the Yanyi already gives the full explanation of the relevant account in the Zuo Tradition, so it does not copy it again here.

Chapter 61: A Great State Is Like the Lower Reaches

A great state is like the lower reaches of a river, where all the waters of the world converge and flow together. It is also like the female of the world. The female often prevails over the male through gentleness and stillness, because gentleness and stillness allow her to occupy a lower position.

“Carrying and holding their children in their arms as they come,” means that the people come to join and submit, carrying their children on their backs or in their arms.

This passage quotes the Analects, “Zilu.” Fan Chi asked Confucius for advice on growing crops. Confucius said he was not as good as an old farmer. Fan Chi then asked about growing vegetables, and Confucius said he was not as good as an old vegetable grower. After Fan Chi left, Confucius criticized him for caring only about farming. Confucius went on to say that when those in high positions prize ritual propriety, the people will respect them; when they prize righteousness, the people will obey them; and when they prize trustworthiness, the people will treat one another sincerely. If these things are achieved, people from all directions will carry their children on their backs or in their arms as they come to join them. Why, then, would anyone need to teach them personally how to farm? Here, “carrying their children on their backs” refers to carrying children in a swaddling cloth.

“Some descend in order to obtain; others descend and obtain” means that some are in a lower position yet acquire something by a certain means, while others seek something by going down. The precise meaning depends on the context.

The “Expanded Meaning” also says: King Xuan of Qi asked Mencius, “Is there a proper way to deal with neighboring states?” Mencius replied, “There is.”

The passage begins by saying that only a person of benevolence can serve a small state with the strength of a great one. Thus, Shang Tang once served the state of Ge. The Mencius (Book 6, Part 2) records that Shang Tang lived in Bo, his early residence, next to Ge. Ge Bo, the ruler of Ge, neglected affairs of state and held no sacrifices. When Shang Tang sent someone to ask why, Ge Bo said he had no livestock for the rites. Shang Tang then sent him cattle and sheep, but Ge Bo ate them and still held no sacrifices. Shang Tang asked again, and Ge Bo said he had no grain for the offerings. Shang Tang therefore had the people of Bo go to plow the fields for him, while the elderly and the young brought them food. But Ge Bo and his men intercepted those bringing the meals, seized their wine, food, millet, and rice, and killed anyone who refused to hand them over. A child carrying millet and meat to the workers was also killed, and the food was stolen. The phrase “Ge Bo made an enemy of those bringing food,” found in the Book of Documents, refers to Ge Bo treating the meal bearers as enemies.

The passage then says that King Wen served the Kunyi, while the rise of the Zhou clan was connected with its ancestor, the Great King, also known as Gugong Danfu. The poem “Mian” in the Book of Odes describes the Kunyi’s defeat and the opening of roads. This example is used to explain that only a wise person can serve a great state as a small one. The Great King left Bin, the Zhou clan’s original home, and settled near Mount Qi, serving the powerful Xunyu, a northern tribe. The northern Di peoples were strong; the Xiongnu, mentioned in later accounts, belonged to this kind of northern people.

The Mencius (Book 1, Part 2) records that Duke Wen of Teng asked Mencius: “Teng is a small state. We do our utmost to serve great states, yet cannot escape disaster. What should we do?” Mencius replied that long ago the Great King lived in Bin, where the Di people came to invade. The Great King successively offered them leather, silk, dogs and horses, and pearls and jade, yet still could not avert disaster. He then gathered the elders and explained: “What the Di people want is our land. I have heard that a gentleman must not harm the people in order to keep the land on which he depends to provide for them. Why should you worry about being without a ruler? I will leave this place.” The Great King crossed Mount Liang and settled beneath Mount Qi. The people of Bin called him benevolent and could not bear to lose him, so they followed him in great numbers, as if heading to a market.

Finally, the passage cites the story of King Goujian of Yue serving the state of Wu. The Discourses of the States and the Records of the Grand Historian relate that Zi Gong advised Goujian to send troops to help Wu, then win over the king of Wu with treasures and honor him with humble words. This was a way of temporarily submitting in order to achieve one’s aims later. Yue sent its minister Wen Zhong to bow before the king of Wu and say that Yue was willing to commit all three thousand of its soldiers to Wu’s service. The king of Wu asked Zi Gong whether the king of Yue himself would also follow him. Zi Gong replied that if Yue had already sent its entire army, it would make no sense for its ruler to come as well. The king of Wu therefore accepted Yue’s troops but declined Goujian’s offer to remain in person.

A great state has no other aim than to bring the people of other states under its broad protection and rule. A small state has no other aim than to enter the great state’s order and serve it. Each gets what it seeks, so the great state ought to take the humble position.

The commentary says that a small state presents gifts to a great state, pays tribute, and remits taxes.

Here, “holding a gift” refers to a subject or visitor presenting a gift when paying a formal visit. The Rites of Zhou records that different animals and gifts marked the rank of officials: a high-ranking minister presented fur and silk, a minister a lamb, a senior official a goose, and a lower-ranking official a pheasant. Commoners presented a bird resembling a wild duck, while those engaged in commerce or crafts presented a chicken. When a small state visited a great state, it too would bring gifts.

The commentary also cites the Spring and Autumn Annals. In the third year of Duke Wen of Lu, Duke Wen went to Jin and made an alliance with the Marquis of Jin. The marquis hosted a banquet for him and, during the meal, recited “The Lush E-plant,” from the “Lesser Odes of the Court” in the Book of Songs. Through its meaning—“On seeing a noble lord, my heart rejoices, and my conduct accords with proper ritual”—he expressed his welcome. Zhuang Shu, an official of Lu, accompanied Duke Wen down the steps to offer thanks, saying that when a small state receives the courtesies of a great state, how could it fail to observe the rites with care? Nothing could make a small state happier than being treated with such ceremony by a great state; and the small state’s joy came precisely from the great state’s generosity. The Marquis of Jin also went down the steps to decline the thanks. Then both parties ascended together and completed the formal bows. Duke Wen of Lu then recited “Fine and Good,” from the “Greater Odes of the Court” in the Book of Songs, drawing on its praise of a ruler’s virtue, the peace he brings to the people, and his receiving Heaven’s blessings.

The commentary also mentions that, in the winter of the first year of Duke Xiang of Lu, Zishu of Wei and Zhi Wuzi of Jin came as envoys. The Zuo Commentary considers their visit proper according to ritual.

The Dao is the hidden foundation of all things and the treasure of the good. Even those who are not good rely on it to protect and preserve themselves.

The Extended Commentary explains that all things are born from the Dao. It cites the Image Commentary on the Qian hexagram in the Classic of Changes: “Great indeed is the Origin of Qian! All things begin to grow from it, and the Origin of Qian governs Heaven. Clouds move and rain falls, bringing forth the myriad kinds of things. The sun and moon shine, revealing their course from beginning to end. The six lines of the Qian hexagram each take their place in due season, like six dragons harnessed to travel across the sky. Through its transformations, the Dao of Qian sets the nature and life of each thing in order.”

A “Judgment” is a text that determines the meaning of a hexagram, and so it is called the “Judgment text.” This passage sums up the meaning of the Qian hexagram and of “Origin”: Qian is the name of the hexagram, while “Origin” is its foremost virtue. The substance of Qian is vast and filled with Yang energy. “Origin” also means that all things begin to sprout from it. Hence the words: “Great indeed is the Origin of Qian; all things begin from it.”

Therefore, establishing an emperor and appointing the Three Dukes—high officials who assist the emperor—is not as valuable as having someone sit at ease and offer this Dao, even if that person presents a pair of fine jades and a chariot drawn by four horses.

The Extended Commentary again cites the words “establish an emperor, appoint the Three Dukes,” and says: The realm is vast and all things flourish. Even a pair of fine jades and a four-horse chariot are no match for sitting at ease and offering this Dao.

The four seas are vast, and all things flourish. Early human society could not do without someone to lead it, so a ruler was established to govern the people. The Son of Heaven—a person believed to have received Heaven’s mandate and to occupy the position of ruler—reveres the Lord on High, serving Heaven as he would his father and Earth as he would his mother. For this reason, he is called the “Son of Heaven.”

One person cannot govern the whole realm, so officials were appointed to assist in its administration. Thus the Son of Heaven has the Three Dukes, the three senior officials who assist him. The Book of Documents: Offices of Zhou says: “The duty of the Three Dukes is to devise the way of governing the state and to administer it.”

The Grand Preceptor, an official who guides the Son of Heaven, has wisdom sufficient to be a source for all and conduct sufficient to serve as an example to all. When consulted, he can answer; when help is sought, he can resolve the matter. Hence he is called the Grand Preceptor, and also “Venerable Father.” “Grand” means “great.” As the ruler’s teacher, the Grand Preceptor rides in a comfortable carriage with a blue canopy and wears a gold seal on a purple cord.

The Grand Tutor, an official who guides and instructs the Son of Heaven, is responsible for teaching and protecting him. The Book of Rites of Dai the Elder says that the Grand Tutor should teach the Son of Heaven through virtue and righteousness. If the Son of Heaven fails to honor his parents, show kindness to the people, treat his ministers with respect, or judge cases according to proper rules, the Grand Tutor has failed in his duty.

The Grand Protector, an official who assists the Son of Heaven and upholds ritual propriety, is responsible for support and service. The Book of Rites of Dai the Elder says that if the Son of Heaven sits improperly, receives books without respect, speaks out of turn, uses a voice that does not accord with the musical pitch, or enters, leaves, or takes his seat without observing distinctions of rank and the courtesies of bowing and yielding, these are all failures of the Grand Protector.

When two rulers meet, both must observe the ritual of presenting a betrothal gift, the formal offering made at a first meeting.

The passage quoted here comes from the Rites of Zhou: six kinds of birds are used as gifts when two rulers meet. This material was discussed in Chapter Sixty-One and will not be repeated here.

The Spring and Autumn Annals records that in the thirty-third year of Duke Xi’s reign, the Qin army attacked the state of Hua. The Zheng merchant Xian Gao…

The Spring and Autumn Annals records that in the thirty-third year of Duke Xi of Lu, the Qin army attacked the state of Zheng. When the Qin army reached the state of Hua, the Zheng merchant Xian Gao was on his way to trade in Zhou. He encountered the Qin army along the way. First he presented them with four cured oxhides and twelve cattle to comfort the troops, saying, “Our ruler has heard that you are leading an army into our state and has specially sent me to provide for the soldiers accompanying you. What our state has prepared is not especially abundant. If the troops stop here, please enjoy a day’s provisions; if you continue on your way, we have also made arrangements to guard you for the night.” At the same time, he sent someone to hurry back to Zheng with a warning, so that the state could prepare its defenses.

The Extended Meaning says that Mencius once remarked, “No one in Qi has tried to persuade the king of Qi through the way of benevolence and righteousness.”

The Mencius, “Gongsun Chou II,” records Mencius replying to Gongsun Chou: “I see that the king of Qi respects you, sir, but I do not see what principle you use to show respect for the king.” Mencius said, “What do you mean by that? Do the people of Qi refrain from urging benevolence and righteousness on the king because they think benevolence and righteousness are bad? What they have in mind is merely, ‘The king of Qi is not worth talking to about benevolence and righteousness.’ Nothing could show less respect for the king. If it were not the way of Yao and Shun, I would not dare to present it to the king of Qi. So among the people of Qi, no one respects the king more than I do.”

“Why did the people of ancient times value this Dao so highly? Is it not because one can attain it by seeking it, and use it to escape punishment after committing an offense? That is why the people of the world treasure it.”

The Extended Meaning also says that, for example, the Spring and Autumn Annals records that in the thirty-third year of Duke Xi of Lu, Duke Mu of Qin was defeated at Xiao.

The Spring and Autumn Annals records that on the xinsi day of the fourth month in the summer of the thirty-third year of Duke Xi of Lu, the Qin army was defeated at Xiao. The Qin generals Meng Mingshi, Xiqi Shu, and Bai Yibing were captured and sent back to their state. Duke Mu of Qin wore plain mourning clothes and went outside the city to greet the returning army. Facing the soldiers, he wept and said, “I failed to heed Jian Shu’s advice, and brought humiliation upon you. That was my fault. My failure to dismiss Meng Ming was also my fault. What fault did the ministers have? Besides, I will not let one mistake erase your great merit.”

“Acting through Non-action,” Section 63.

Difficult undertakings should be begun where they are easy; great achievements should be started with the smallest details.

The Book of Documents says, “Does resentment arise only after it has become visible? It should be noticed and addressed while it has not yet appeared.” The “Song of the Five Sons” in the Book of Documents records that King Taikang of Xia lost the people’s support. His five brothers said, “When I look at the ordinary people of the realm, every one of them is better than I am.” A ruler who loses the people’s support becomes isolated and without aid. The so-called “three failures” refers to the many faults of a ruler. The people do not come to resent and turn away from their ruler only once their feelings are obvious; these must be addressed early, before resentment erupts. Governing the people calls for the care of driving six horses with a rotten rope. How could anyone in a position of authority fail to act with reverence and caution?

Those who make promises lightly often find them hard to keep; those who regard matters as easy often encounter greater difficulties. Therefore, the sage treats every matter with gravity and does not act rashly, and in the end faces no difficulty that cannot be overcome.

Xie Yang of Jin refused to accept orders twice, and Zhong You of Lu made no promise that lasted overnight. People have praised them for this throughout the ages.

The Spring and Autumn Annals records that, in the spring of the fifteenth year of Duke Xuan of Lu, Gongsun Guifu met King Zhuang of Chu in the state of Song. Song sent Le Yingqi to appeal to Jin for help. Duke Jing of Jin had intended to send troops to rescue Song, but Bo Zong advised against it, so Jin sent no army. Jin dispatched Xie Yang to Song to tell the people there not to surrender to Chu and to say that Jin’s forces would soon arrive.

The people of Zheng captured Xie Yang and handed him over to Chu. King Zhuang offered him a large bribe to change his message. Xie Yang refused at first, but later pretended to agree. The people of Chu put him in a tall carriage and sent him to deliver the message to the people of Song. Xie Yang seized the opportunity to announce the command of the ruler of Jin instead, and thereby fulfilled his mission.

King Zhuang wanted to execute him and demanded, “You agreed to do as I asked. Why have you gone back on your word? I have not broken faith; you have broken your promise. Go and receive your punishment.” Xie Yang replied, “I have heard that a ruler’s ability to issue commands is righteousness, and a minister’s ability to carry them out is trustworthiness. Trustworthiness must follow righteousness in order to benefit the state. One who plans without losing sight of the state’s interests and can protect its altars of soil and grain is fit to govern the people. Righteousness cannot be guided by two standards of trustworthiness, and trustworthiness cannot obey two sets of commands. If a ruler makes a minister violate the mission he has received, that ruler does not understand the purpose of a command. I was sent on a mission; I would rather die than let it fail. How could I abandon it? I agreed to your demand earlier so that I could fulfill the mission entrusted to me by the ruler of Jin. Now that the mission is complete, dying in its service is a minister’s duty. I have neither failed my ruler’s command nor failed to fulfill my mission. What more could I ask for?” King Zhuang then had Xie Yang’s body prepared for burial and took it back to Chu.

The Analects, in the “Yan Yuan” chapter, says that Zilu, whose personal name was Zhong You, would not put off until the next day something he had promised to do. The word su means to leave something pending or delay it, as in the phrase “old resentment.” The passage means that Zilu was eager to honor his promises and would not let them lie unattended. This shows that he earned people’s trust through his deep and longstanding self-cultivation, which is why he has always been praised.

The Yanyi says: In the past, Qi attacked Lu and demanded Lu’s Cen Ding. The ruler of Lu pretended to offer a different ding.

A transcription from the Liuzi, “On Practicing Trustworthiness,” says: In the past, Qi attacked Lu and demanded Lu’s Cen Cauldron. The Marquis of Lu pretended to offer another cauldron and asked to form an alliance with Qi. The Marquis of Qi did not believe the cauldron was genuine. The relevant explanation has already been provided, so it is not copied again here.

The Extended Meaning says: The Spring and Autumn Annals records that in the twenty-second year of Duke Xi, Zhu sent troops because of the state of Xugou. The relevant explanation has already been provided, so it is not copied again here. Note: Although Xugou was an independent small state, it was weak and could not act on its own. In practice, it was a dependency of Lu. This was like Zhuanyu: although it had its own fief, it was subordinate to Lu and regarded as a subject of Lu’s ancestral altars.

Chapter Sixty-Four: What Is at Rest Is Easy to Hold

When things are stable, they are easy to maintain; before signs appear, they are easy to plan for. What is fragile is easy to break, and what is minute is easy to disperse. Therefore, act before things come into being and bring order before a situation becomes chaotic.

The Extended Meaning says: In the past, Duke Jing of Qi fell ill and sought a physician from Qin. The Zuo Commentary records this, and the relevant explanation has already been provided, so it is not copied again here.

A tree that takes several people to encircle grows from a tiny shoot; a nine-story terrace is built up from baskets of earth; a journey of a thousand miles begins beneath one’s feet.

The Extended Meaning says: A nine-story terrace is built up beginning with a basket of earth.

A transcription from the Analects, “Zihan, Chapter Nine,” says: Confucius said, “Take the example of piling up earth to make a mountain. If only one basket remains before it is complete, and I stop, then I have stopped of my own accord. Take the example of piling earth on level ground. If I have tipped out just one basket and keep going, then I am making progress of my own accord.” Note: A kui is a bamboo basket used for carrying earth. The Book of Documents says, “In building a mountain nine ren high, the work is spoiled by stopping just one basket of earth short.” Confucius’s words probably derive from this idea. The mountain is nearly complete, with only one basket of earth remaining; if one stops, it is by one’s own choice. On level ground, one has just tipped out a basket of earth; if one continues, it is by one’s own choice that one advances. Those who study need only encourage themselves and persevere to accumulate a great deal from a little. If they give up halfway, their earlier efforts will have been wasted. Whether to stop or continue rests with oneself, not with others.

People often fail when they are close to success. To avoid failure, they must be as cautious at the end of a task as they were at the beginning. If they stop midway, all their earlier effort will be wasted. Whether to stop or continue is up to them, not to anyone else.

People often fail when they are close to success. If they act cautiously from beginning to end, they will not ruin what they set out to do. The sage, therefore, seeks what ordinary people do not seek and does not prize rare goods. The sage studies principles that ordinary people do not study, and makes up for the mistakes that people commonly make. The sage assists all things by following the way they are in themselves, and does not presume to act on them recklessly.

The Book of Documents says: “To build a mountain nine ren high, and then fail to complete it because one basketful of earth is still missing.”

The chapter “The Tribute of Lü” in the Book of Documents records that the state of Xilü presented a mastiff as tribute. The Duke of Shao thought it should not be accepted, so he wrote a warning to King Wu. The text says: “Alas! From morning to night, there is not a day when one should not be diligent. If one is careless about small deeds, self-importance and heedlessness will ultimately damage great Virtue. To build a mountain nine ren high, and then fail to complete it because one basketful of earth is still missing.”

The Book of Songs says: “There is no task that does not begin well, yet few can see it through to the end.” The poet used these words to criticize King Li of Zhou.

These lines appear in “Dang,” one of the poems in the “Great Odes” section of the Mao edition of the Book of Songs. “Dang” was composed by Duke Mu of Shao, expressing his sorrow at the decline of the Zhou royal house. King Li of Zhou ruled without the Dao, and the realm was in turmoil; its institutions and systems of ritual and law had all been disrupted. So Duke Mu of Shao wrote this poem.

“The vast and august Lord on High is ruler over the people.” Here, “Lord on High” refers indirectly to the king, and “ruler” means sovereign. “Vast and unrestrained” describes laws and standards falling into disuse. The scripture says that King Li of Zhou, though he stood above the people, could not serve as a model for all under Heaven. His conduct was perverse and improper: he made the people suffer, then used harsh punishments and severe laws to intimidate and punish them. His decrees, too, were often unjust and did not follow established customs.

“Heaven gives life to the many people, yet the king’s decrees cannot be trusted. There is nothing that does not begin well, but few can bring things to a good end.” “Many” means the multitude, and “trustworthy” means sincere. The scripture holds that the king ought to teach the people through sincerity, making their customs honest and upright. But that was not the case. Most people begin by tending toward goodness, then gradually take on harmful customs. Hence the saying: “There is nothing that does not begin well, but few can bring things to a good end.”

The Extended Commentary cites this passage to show that when people act consistently, carefully and persistently from beginning to end, they will not fall into failure. It also says that during the Tang dynasty, Wei Zheng submitted a memorial to Emperor Taizong, observing that Taizong’s aims and achievements had gradually fallen short of those of the early Zhenguan era. Wei Zheng listed ten examples.

In the thirteenth year of the Zhenguan era, Emperor Taizong’s reign, Wei Zheng worried that the emperor might not remain frugal to the end. In recent years, he had gradually grown fond of luxury and indulgence, so Wei Zheng submitted a memorial urging him to change:

“In recent years, Your Majesty has gradually departed from your former intentions, and it has become difficult to preserve the simple and honest customs to the end. I will set out below what I have heard and observed.

“In the early years of Zhenguan, Your Majesty was tranquil and free of desire, governed through Wuwei (non-action), and spread your moral influence far and wide. That way of governing is now gradually declining. Neither Emperor Wen of Han nor Emperor Wu of Jin could be called a sage ruler. Yet Emperor Wen declined a fine horse brought from a thousand li away, and Emperor Wu of Jin burned a precious pheasant-feather cloak. Today, Your Majesty seeks fine horses from ten thousand li away and purchases rare goods from beyond the borders. Even things left by the roadside are picked up. As a result, foreign peoples look down on us. This is the first sign of failing to begin well and carry things through.

“Long ago, Zigong asked Confucius how to govern the people. Confucius said, ‘You must be as cautious as someone driving six horses with rotten reins.’ Zigong asked, ‘Why such concern?’ Confucius replied, ‘If you do not guide them along the right course, you will lose control.’ The Book of Documents says, ‘The people are the foundation of the state. When the foundation is firm, the state can be at peace.’ How could anyone who holds the throne fail to respect the people? In the early years of Zhenguan, Your Majesty kept their well-being close to heart and cared for them as for your own children. In recent years, however, you have devoted yourself to luxury and indulgence, forgetting humility and frugality. You have even said, ‘If the people have nothing to do, they will become arrogant and lazy; if they are made to work, they are easier to employ.’ Since ancient times, has any government ever fallen into disorder because the people were comfortable and content? These words cannot bring prosperity to the state, and they are no lasting way to keep the people secure. This is the second sign.

“In the early years of Zhenguan, Your Majesty restrained yourself for the people’s benefit. Now you indulge your desires and make the people suffer. The habits of humility and frugality change year by year, while arrogance and extravagance become ever more apparent. Your Majesty has also said, ‘If I do not do this, it will be inconvenient for me.’ How then could your ministers dare to argue further? This only serves to silence those who would offer remonstrance. How can it be a matter of choosing good advice and putting it into practice? This is the third sign.

“In the early years of Zhenguan, Your Majesty cultivated a reputation for integrity, showed no greed for possessions, appointed only worthy and good people, drew close to gentlemen, and kept petty men at a distance. Now things are different: Your Majesty looks down on petty men yet has become close and familiar with them. Drawing close to petty men is no way to govern the state well; keeping gentlemen at a distance does not accord with the principles that bring the state prosperity. This is the fourth sign.

“In the early years of Zhenguan, Your Majesty took Yao and Shun as models, set aside precious possessions, and returned to simplicity and honesty. In recent years, however, you have grown fond of rare and unusual things, gathering them from any distance. Your appetite for curiosities and treasures grows ever stronger, yet clearly they cannot make life truly abundant. This is the fifth sign.

“In the early years of Zhenguan, Your Majesty eagerly sought worthy people. When good people recommended someone, you trusted and appointed that person. In recent years, however, your personal likes and dislikes have clouded your judgment. Even a good person praised by everyone may not earn your trust. A person’s virtue, built up over many years, does not suddenly vanish in a single day. Gentlemen cherish benevolence and righteousness and uphold virtue; petty men delight in slandering others and seeking their own advantage. If Your Majesty does not examine the roots of a matter and judges people’s worth too hastily, those who hold to the Dao will grow more distant, while those who scheme for advancement will gain ever more influence. Then people will think only of protecting themselves and avoiding trouble, and will be unable to give their full effort to their duties. This is the sixth sign.

“When Your Majesty first took the throne, you removed the hunting equipment from the palace and stopped the preparations for hunting outside it. After several years, however, you could no longer hold to your original intention. Though you have not hunted for a hundred days in a row, at times you have exceeded the ancient custom of ‘three drives’—hunting by surrounding the game on three sides and leaving one side open so it can escape, as a sign of restraint. The people have nearly witnessed all the pleasures of your hunts, and hawks and hounds are brought as tribute from distant regions. Your Majesty leaves the palace at dawn and returns only late at night. You take pleasure in riding and hunting without considering how you would respond if something unexpected occurred. If a sudden crisis arose, how could you find time to make amends? This is the seventh sign.

“Confucius said, ‘The ruler treats his ministers with ritual propriety, and the ministers serve their ruler with loyalty.’ When Your Majesty first took the throne, you treated your ministers with humility and respect. Your favor could reach them, and their concerns could reach you. In recent years, however, you have often disregarded them. When they wish to speak, they receive no welcoming expression; when they seek an audience, they are not treated with courtesy. At times, they are questioned and reproached over minor mistakes. Even ministers who are intelligent and eloquent find it difficult to express their loyalty. How can you still expect ruler and ministers to be of one mind and those above and below to live in harmony? This is the eighth sign.

“Arrogance must not be allowed to grow; desire must not be indulged; pleasure must not become excessive; and ambition must not become self-satisfied. In the early years of Zhenguan, Your Majesty worked diligently to govern the state, set aside your own preferences, and listened to others. In recent years, however, you have gradually grown proud and indulgent. Relying on your great achievements, you look down on the rulers of earlier times, consider yourself wise, and belittle the people of today. This is arrogance taking root. Even when you sometimes suppress your feelings and heed remonstrance, in your heart you cannot accept the advice. This is desire running unchecked. Your thoughts dwell on recreation, and you never tire of it. Though you have not entirely neglected affairs of state, you no longer devote yourself wholeheartedly to governing. This is pleasure on the verge of excess. The empire is at peace and the four quarters have submitted, yet you still send armies on distant campaigns and attack faraway lands. This is ambition on the verge of self-satisfaction. This is the ninth sign.

“In the times of Yao and Tang, there was no shortage of calamities and troubles. People still praised them as sage rulers because they could begin well and carry things through, remaining tranquil and free of desire. In recent years, the people have grown weary of labor service, and those in the Guanzhong region have suffered especially. Artisans who have completed their service are often kept on even when it is time to rest; soldiers serving in rotation are also frequently assigned additional tasks. The procurement of supplies is a constant burden on the villages, and carriers travel the roads one after another. These burdens have already caused hardship and can easily provoke unrest. If floods or droughts were to strike as well and the harvest failed, the people’s hearts might no longer be as settled as before. This is the tenth sign.”

The commentary says: “‘External’ refers to gold, jade, pearls, and other treasures.”

The commentary on the Thousand Character Classic says that gold is produced in the Li River. The Li River lies in Yongchang Commandery, Yizhou, where gold often rises to the water’s surface; it is all high-grade gold. Jade is produced south of the Kunlun Mountains and also in the valleys of Mount Jing in Chu. Pearls are sometimes called luminous night pearls. The larger ones are one inch in diameter, and their light can reach twelve carriages. Treasures include gold and jade, as well as rare plants, animals, feathers, and fur. Whatever people prize as precious has been called a treasure, in ancient times and today.

These are the treasures valued by the common world. To pursue them beyond one’s proper share damages life and harms one’s nature. It is better for those who attain the Dao to treasure virtue, and for those who cultivate the True to treasure only the Dao, seeking nothing beyond their proper share. In this way, they can always preserve their natural nature. This is the meaning of not valuing rare goods.

Chapter 65: Those of Old Who Were Skilled in the Dao

The people are difficult to govern because their minds are too clever and their schemes too many. Thus, governing a state through cleverness brings calamity upon it; governing without cleverness brings it good fortune.

The commentary says that Zhuangzi once explained: When those in high positions prize cleverness alone and do not follow the Dao, the world becomes difficult to govern because schemes grow too numerous. Thus, governing a state through cleverness brings calamity upon it; governing without cleverness brings it good fortune.

The commentary also quotes Zhuangzi: When those in high positions truly prize cleverness but do not follow the Dao, the world falls into great disorder.

The Zhuangzi, in “Rummaging in Trunks,” says: If a ruler prizes cleverness above all and does not follow the Great Dao, the world will fall into chaos. Why is this so? The more bows, crossbows, bird-catching nets and devices, and ingenious methods of trapping birds there are, the more easily birds are disturbed. The more fishing methods there are—hooks and bait, nets, and other fishing nets and bamboo traps—the more easily fish are disturbed in the water. And the more devices for setting snares and nets for catching animals there are, the more easily wild creatures are startled in marshes.

The Erya says that a net for catching birds is called a “luo,” and a net for catching rabbits is called a “jufu.” When clever schemes, deception, and sophistry proliferate, people are bewildered by disputes. Master Xihua’s commentary says that contrivance and falsehood gradually do harm to things. “Jiehua” refers to challenges and disputation; “jie gou” refers to falsehood and deceit. The clever arguments of the Guxi and Jianbai schools, along with sophistical claims that distinguish sameness from difference, all undermine what is right. Thus the world is often thrown into chaos, whose root lies in the glorification of cleverness. The sage’s wisdom is an important instrument for governing the state.

The Yanyi says: Emperor Ming of Han had a narrow temperament and liked to scrutinize matters closely.

The Book of Han records that Emperor Ming of Han was narrow-minded and fond of harsh scrutiny. The Yanyi has already discussed this in detail, so it will not be repeated here.

The rivers and seas can become sovereigns of the hundred streams because they are skilled at placing themselves below them; that is why they can become sovereigns of the hundred streams.

The Yanyi says: The Book of Changes teaches that the way of Earth diminishes what is full and flows toward what is humble.

The Commentary on the Judgment for the Humility Hexagram in the Book of Changes says, “Humility brings success.” Humility enables things to proceed smoothly. The way of Heaven descends to bestow its blessings, bringing light to all things; the way of Earth occupies a low position, yet allows all things to grow upward. The way of Heaven diminishes what is full and adds to what is humble. The way of Earth transforms what is full and directs its benefits toward what is low and humble. Spirits and deities harm those who are complacent and bless those who are humble. People, too, dislike complacency and value humility. Though the humble person may hold a high position, their Virtue shines all the more brightly; though they occupy a low position, no one can look down on or surpass them. This is the virtue by which a noble person brings things to a good beginning and end.

Thus, when the sage wishes to stand above others, they speak humbly; when they wish to lead others, they place themselves behind them. As a result, people do not find the sage’s high position burdensome, nor do they feel hindered when the sage leads. The people of the world are therefore glad to raise the sage up and do not reject them.

The Extended Meaning explains: the sage understands that fullness and self-satisfaction are bound to invite loss.

The Book of Documents, in “The Great Plan of Yu,” records that the Miao people rebelled and refused to submit. When Yi was assisting Yu, he said, “Only Virtue can move Heaven; no place is too far to be reached. Self-satisfaction brings loss, while humility brings benefit—this is the way of Heaven.” This also shows that restraining one’s sharpness, yielding, and being humble can help one govern oneself and accord with the principles of Heaven. The fourth line of the Humility Hexagram in the Book of Changes says, “Nothing is unfavorable; give expression to humility.” This means that all matters should be handled with a humble attitude. When one does not go against what is right, one’s actions accord with principle, and nothing is unfavorable.

The Extended Meaning also cites a teaching from “The Sign of Virtue Complete” in the Zhuangzi: because one does not contend with others, no one in the world can contend with them.

The Book of Documents also says, “If you do not regard yourself as capable and worthy, no one in the world can compete with you in ability. If you do not boast of your achievements, no one in the world can compete with you in accomplishment.”

Emperor Shun said to Yu, “Come, Yu! The floods have spread disaster and filled me with anxiety and fear. You have brought honest and reliable results to the work of flood control; only you possess this worthy virtue. You have labored for the state and lived frugally at home. You are neither self-satisfied nor boastful, and this is precisely your worthy virtue. Because you do not rely on your own abilities, no one under Heaven competes with you in ability; because you do not boast of your achievements, no one under Heaven competes with you in merit. I encourage your virtue and commend your outstanding accomplishments. Heaven’s mandate to rule has now fallen upon you; in time, you will ascend to the ruler’s place.”

Wang Shouzheng explains that Yu the Great cultivated himself through the worthy virtues of diligence and frugality, while King Wen of Zhou governed the state by using frugality to guide the people. He quotes the Canon of Documents, “Counsel of the Great Yu”: “Only when one lives frugally at home and is neither self-satisfied nor boastful can one be called virtuous.” He also points to the instruction conveyed in the poems of “Shao Nan” in the Classic of Poetry: King Wen’s decrees transformed the region of Shao Nan, and those in office were all frugal and upright, their virtue as pure as that of a lamb.

The Canon of Documents, “The Offices of Zhou,” says: “Holding office does not in itself make a person proud, and receiving a salary does not in itself make a person extravagant. Respect and frugality are virtue; do not engage in deceit. Cultivate virtue, and the heart will be at peace and life will grow better. Engage in deceit, and the heart will grow weary and one’s work increasingly inept.”

The Dao De Jing says: “I have three treasures, which I keep and cherish: the first is compassion, the second is frugality, and the third is not daring to be foremost under Heaven.” Through compassion, one can be brave; through frugality, one can be generous; by not striving to be first, one can become the leader of all things.

An ancient book says: “For a person of benevolence and virtue, moral character shines forth naturally and needs no false adornment. Sincerely cultivating virtue brings peace of mind, and life improves day by day. Deception and pretense exhaust the heart and make one less and less capable in handling affairs.”

The Dao De Jing says: “Through compassion, one can be brave; through frugality, one can be generous; by not daring to place oneself ahead of all under Heaven, one can become the leader of all.”

The Yanyi cites the Mencius: “A benevolent person has no enemy.” In “King Hui of Liang, Part One” in the Mencius, Mencius answers King Hui of Liang: Jie of the Xia brought suffering upon the people. If Your Majesty goes to punish him, who would oppose you? Thus it is said, “A benevolent person has no enemy.” Your Majesty need not have doubts.

The Yanyi says that Emperor Shun was benevolent by nature, yet he also punished four offenders according to the law. “Exerting One’s Heart” in the Mencius says: “Yao and Shun were benevolent by nature; Tang of Shang and King Wu of Zhou achieved benevolence through their own cultivation; the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period borrowed the name of benevolence. If they borrowed it for so long without returning it, how can we know they were not benevolent to begin with?”

The Book of Documents, “Canon of Shun,” records that Shun exiled Gonggong to Youzhou, confined Huandou at Chong Mountain, moved the Sanmiao tribes to Sanwei, and imprisoned Gun at Mount Yu. After these four were punished, everyone under Heaven submitted with willing hearts.

The Yanyi says that Tang of Cheng made benevolence his foundation and was therefore able to defeat the tyrannical Jie of Xia. The Book of Documents, “Announcement of Zhong Hui,” praises Tang of Cheng: he did not indulge in music and sensual pleasures or amass wealth; he appointed people of virtue to office and rewarded those who had rendered service. He treated others as he would himself, and corrected his mistakes without hesitation. He was generous and benevolent, and so won the trust of all the people under Heaven.

The Book of Documents, “Announcement of Tang,” says that the king of Xia abandoned virtue, ruled tyrannically, and harmed the people throughout the land. The people suffered violent calamities and could no longer endure such hardship, so they appealed to Heaven and the divine spirits. The Way of Heaven grants blessings to the good and brings calamity upon the wicked. It therefore sent disaster upon the Xia dynasty to make clear the crimes of Jie.

The Yanyi says: King Wen of Zhou kept the people’s safety and well-being in his heart, as though he saw someone injured, and was constantly concerned for them.

The Mencius, “Li Lou II,” records Mencius saying: Yu of Xia disliked fine wine and loved words that brought benefit. Tang of Shang held fast to the middle way and chose worthy people without regard to convention. King Wen of Zhou cared for the people as though he saw them injured. He looked up to the Great Way, yet still felt as if he had not truly seen it.

The Mencius, “Li Lou II,” also says: Yu of Xia disliked fine wine and loved words that brought benefit. Tang of Shang held fast to the middle way and chose worthy people without regard to convention. King Wen of Zhou cared for the people as though he saw them injured, and pursued the Great Way without complacency. King Wu of Zhou drew close to those around him without neglecting them, and did not forget those who lived far away. The Duke of Zhou sought to learn and combine the strengths of the three former kings—Yu of Xia, Tang of Shang, and King Wen of Zhou—and put their four good policies into practice. Whenever something remained unclear or did not seem right, he would raise his head and reflect, day and night without rest. If he was fortunate enough to understand it, he would sit and wait until dawn.

The Yanyi says: When King Wen grew angry, he was able to bring peace to the people under Heaven. Was this not great courage?

In the Mencius, “King Hui of Liang II,” Mencius answers King Xuan of Qi: To rely only on one’s personal, physical courage to fight another person is merely the courage of an ordinary man. I ask Your Majesty to extend your courage to greater matters. The Book of Songs says: “King Wen rose in righteous anger, and then he mobilized his troops, stopping the Mi people from invading Ruan and attacking Gong. He thereby deepened Zhou’s blessings and answered the hopes of all under Heaven.” This was the courage of King Wen of Zhou: with one outburst of anger, he brought peace to the people under Heaven.

A note explains: “He” means the appearance of anger; “yuan” means “thereupon”; “lü” means an army; “e” means to stop; “cu” means to go—here, it refers to the Mi people invading Ruan and attacking Gong; “du” means to deepen; “hu” means blessings; and “dui” means to answer. King Wen acted in this way to answer the people’s hope for peace. This is what great courage means.

The Yanyi, quoting the Book of Documents, says: “Carefully preserve the virtue of frugality, and keep long-term plans constantly in mind.”

The Book of Documents, “Tai Jia I,” records Yi Yin saying: The former king rose to diligent effort before dawn and sat waiting for daybreak. He sought widely for people of outstanding virtue and ability, and instructed and guided those who came after him. Do not violate Heaven’s mandate or grow weary of it, lest you bring about your own ruin. Carefully preserve the virtue of frugality, and always consider plans for the long term.

The Extended Exposition says: Emperor Wen of Han abandoned his plan to build a terrace, dressed himself in plain, coarse clothing, and set an example for the realm by honoring simplicity.

The Collected Explanations says: Emperor Wen had intended to build a terrace, and summoned craftsmen to calculate the cost. When he learned that it would require one hundred jin, he said, “One hundred jin is equal to the property of ten ordinary households. I have inherited the palaces left by the former emperor, and am constantly concerned that living too comfortably would make me unworthy of him. Why build another terrace?” He wore rough, thick silk clothing himself. His beloved consort wore robes whose hems did not trail on the ground, and the curtains were left unembroidered. In this way, he demonstrated simplicity to the realm.

The Extended Exposition also says: Emperor Taizong of Tang had intended to build a palace. Thinking of the palaces left by the former emperor, he worried that doing so would make him unworthy of him, and asked, “Why build another?” He dressed plainly, his beloved consort wore robes that did not trail on the ground, and the curtains were left unembroidered. By honoring simplicity, he set an example for the realm.

The Extended Exposition further says: Emperor Taizong took warning from the lessons of the Qin dynasty and therefore halted construction. He did not wear splendid brocade and embroidered garments, and the state and its people were prosperous and well supplied.

The Collected Explanations records: In the fourth year of the Zhenguan era, Emperor Taizong of Tang issued an edict calling up soldiers to repair the Qianyuan Hall in the Luoyang Palace, so that he would have a place to stay when traveling there. Zhang Xuansu, a jishizhong official, submitted a remonstrance: “When the First Emperor of Qin ruled, he relied on the foundations left by the Zhou dynasty and the accumulated strength of the Six States. I have heard that when the Epang Palace was completed, the people of Qin were scattered; when the Zhanghua Terrace was finished, the people of Chu were alienated. Your Majesty should take this as a warning. This project should therefore be stopped at once.”

He continued: “If Your Majesty casts aside benevolence and gives rein to force, abandons frugality and pursues extravagance, and gives up placing yourself last in order to strive to be first, you will be heading toward danger.”

The Extended Exposition considers that this would bring the peril described in the Great Exceeding hexagram of the Book of Changes: “Wading so deep that the water reaches over one’s head.”

The Collected Explanations explains: The lower trigram of the Great Exceeding hexagram is Xun, and the upper trigram is Dui, symbolizing compliance and joyful action. Only by handling a difficult situation in this way can one pass through danger. The hexagram statement says: “Wading so deep that the water reaches over one’s head is perilous, but there is no blame.” The commentary explains: At the extreme of the Great Exceeding hexagram, the excess has already become severe; one has gone too far into danger, and so the water reaches over one’s head. Though the situation is perilous, if one acts to save the times and is intent on saving people, one cannot be blamed.

The classic text continues: “A benevolent person who takes up arms can achieve victory; when defending, can hold firm. Heaven seeks to protect someone, and uses benevolence to guard them.”

The Yanyi says: In the fifteenth year of Duke Xuan’s reign in the Spring and Autumn period, Duke Huan of Qin attacked Jin at Fushi.

The Chao says: The events of the fifteenth year of Duke Xuan’s reign have already been explained in detail in the Yanyi, so they are not copied again here.

The Yanyi says: Five chapters of the Daode Jing warn people against using military force. Chapter 30 says not to use military strength to dominate the world. Chapter 31 says that weapons are inauspicious things. Chapter 57 discusses the use of unconventional strategies in war. Chapter 69 speaks of the principles of warfare. Chapter 76 says that when an army is powerful, it is more likely to suffer defeat.

One chapter warns people against killing recklessly: Chapter 72 says, “Those who are bold in asserting their strength will meet with death.”

Three chapters warn people to give up extravagance and value frugality. Chapter 29 says that the sage sets aside extremes, extravagance, and excess. Chapter 67 says that the three precious qualities are compassion, frugality, and not daring to put oneself ahead of everyone under Heaven. Chapter 59 says that, in governing the people and serving Heaven, nothing is better than frugality.

Fifteen chapters warn people to remain yielding and not contend. Chapter 3 says to make one’s aspirations humble and strengthen one’s sinews and bones. Chapter 40 says that yielding and weakness are the way the Dao works. Chapter 55 says that when the bones are weak and the sinews soft, one can still grip things firmly. Chapter 36 says that the yielding overcomes the strong. Chapter 76 says that the body is soft while a person is alive. Chapter 78 says that nothing in the world is softer than water. Chapter 39 mentions calling oneself “solitary, bereft, and unworthy,” humble terms used by rulers in ancient times. Chapter 52 says that seeing what is subtle is clarity, and keeping to weakness is strength. Chapter 66 says that because one does not contend with others, no one under Heaven can contend with oneself. Chapter 73 says that Heaven’s Way does not contend, yet excels at winning. Chapter 43 says that the softest thing in the world can pass through the hardest things in the world. Chapter 68 says that those skilled at defeating an enemy do not contend with others. Chapter 8 says that water benefits all things and does not compete for credit. Chapter 22 says that because one does not contend, no one under Heaven can contend with oneself. Chapter 81 says that the sage acts, yet does not contend with others.

The chapter beginning “One skilled as a warrior” is Chapter 68 of the Daode Jing.

One who is truly skilled at leading an army does not show off his courage or seek fights; one who is truly skilled at warfare is not quick to anger.

The Yanyi says this is like Shi Nan Yiliao of Chu, who used his skill at tossing pellets to settle a bitter dispute between two families. The Zhuangzi, in the chapter “Xu Wugui,” records that when Confucius visited Chu, the king hosted a banquet for him. Sun Shuao stood holding a wine cup, and Shi Nan Yiliao took the wine and performed a libation, saying, “The ancients spoke here.” Confucius replied, “I have heard of a principle that is not expressed in words, but I have never spoken of it.” Shi Nan Yiliao then demonstrated his skill at tossing and catching pellets. Yiliao was a warrior of Chu. When Bai Gong Sheng rebelled, he killed the chief minister Zixi and Ziqi. Shi Qi said that if they could enlist Yiliao, he alone would be enough to hold off five hundred men. So he went to find him, but Yiliao refused.

Sun Shuao slept at ease, holding a feather fan, and the people of Ying, Chu’s capital, laid down their weapons. Sun Shuao was Chu’s chief minister, renowned for his virtue. At ease and unruffled, he held his fan calmly, and neighboring states therefore dared not invade. The commentary uses these examples to show that both Shi Nan Yiliao and Sun Shuao could quell disorder without resorting to force.

The Yanyi also says that when King Tang drove out Jie of Xia and King Wu attacked Zhou of Shang, each ruler’s anger brought peace to the people under Heaven. The Book of Documents, in “The Announcement of Zhong Hui,” records that Cheng Tang exiled Jie to Nanchao, a place in the area of present-day Lujiang County, Anhui. The Book of Documents, in “The Successful Completion of the War,” records that King Wu set out on the Renchen day of the first month and, on the following Guisi day, departed from Zhou to attack Shang. The Mencius, in “King Hui of Liang, Part Two,” says, “One man was rampant in wrongdoing throughout the realm; King Wu considered this a disgrace.” This was King Wu’s courage. He grew angry and attacked the tyrant, ultimately bringing peace to the people under Heaven.

Those who are skilled at defeating enemies do not win through combat; those who are skilled at employing others understand how to place themselves beneath them.

The Extended Commentary says: When armies fight to seize territory, corpses lie across the fields; when they fight to seize a city, corpses pile up within its walls.

The Mencius, “Li Lou I,” says: “How much worse when someone recklessly wages war to seize territory, leaving corpses strewn across the fields; or fights to seize a city, leaving corpses piled throughout it. This is called taking land and eating human flesh. The crime is so great that even the death penalty would not be enough to atone for it.”

The Extended Commentary cites a record from the Records of the Grand Historian: The state of Wei sent its envoy and guest general Xin Huanyan into Handan. The relevant explanation was given in detail earlier and will not be repeated here. It also says this may be compared to King Mu of Zhou appointing Jun Ya as his assisting minister.

The Book of Documents, “Jun Ya,” says: “I, a young ruler, have inherited and guarded the work left by Kings Wen, Wu, Cheng, and Kang. I also rely on the ministers of former kings to help me govern the four quarters. My heart is troubled, as if I were treading on a tiger’s tail or crossing thin ice in spring. Now I appoint you to assist me, to be my arms and heart—the most important of my ministers. Continue to carry out your former duties, and do not bring shame upon your ancestors.”

The Extended Commentary cites a record from the Book of Han: Gaozu of Han was enfeoffed as King of Han. The relevant passage from the Book of Han was explained earlier and will not be repeated here.

This is called the De (Virtue/Power) of non-contention, and also the skill of drawing on the strength of others. In this way one accords with the Way of Heaven; this has been the highest principle since ancient times.

The Extended Commentary says this may be compared to Wu Qi of Wei serving as a general. The relevant account in the Records of the Grand Historian was explained in detail earlier and will not be repeated here.

Chapter Sixty-Nine: On the Art of War

This is called forming ranks as though there were no formation, raising an arm as though there were no arm, confronting an enemy as though there were no opponent, and bearing weapons as though there were no weapons. This has been the highest state since ancient times.

The Extended Commentary says: Put the army in order and draw the ranks together.

The “Counsels of the Great Yu” in the Book of Documents says: “If the utmost sincerity can move the spirits, how much more can it move these people of Youmiao?” Yu bowed in gratitude for the good advice praised by the Great Yu and said, “Good.” He then reorganized the troops and returned. Emperor Shun widely put civil virtue into practice, and had a dance performed in the courtyard, with dancers holding shields and feathered ornaments. After seventy days, the people of Youmiao submitted.

“Ban” means to return, and “zhen” means to put in order. Here, the phrase describes reorganizing the troops before returning: the army withdrew from the land of Youmiao and was reorganized in the capital.

“Five weapons” refers to five kinds of arms: bows, arrows, spears, ge, and halberds. The “shu” in the poem’s line “the leader holds a shu” is one kind of long weapon. A halberd has a blade that projects to the side.

“Underestimating the enemy” can be understood by consulting the account in the Spring and Autumn Annals for the thirty-third year of Duke Xi: the incident in which the Qin army passed through the north gate. The relevant principle was explained earlier, so it is not repeated here.

“My words are easy to understand and easy to put into practice, yet no one in the world can understand them or put them into practice.”

Mencius once said: “The Dao is like a great road. Can it really be hard to know? The problem is that people do not seek it. Go back and seek the Dao for yourself, and you will find many people you can ask for guidance.” The point is that the principle is not difficult to understand. If you seek it in daily life—for example, by beginning with serving your parents and respecting your elders—you can come to grasp the principles already present in your nature. These principles appear everywhere, so any place can become a place of learning. There is no need to stay in one place to study under a teacher.

“The sage wears coarse-cloth clothes, yet keeps a precious jade hidden against his chest.” This means that the sage appears plain on the outside while harboring precious De (virtue) and wisdom within.

The Commentary cites a passage from the Zhuangzi: Zhuangzi went to visit Duke Ai of Lu. Duke Ai said, “There are many Confucians in Lu.” This passage appears in the “Tian Zifang” chapter of the Zhuangzi. The Commentary has already explained it in full, so it is not copied here again.

Knowing That You Do Not Know, Chapter Seventy

To truly understand is to know that there are some things you do not understand. This is wisdom. To be ignorant yet believe yourself knowledgeable is a flaw.

The Commentary says that the Dao cannot be reached through thought and conjecture, so it cannot be grasped through ordinary knowledge.

The Commentary transcribes a story from the “Knowledge Wandered North” chapter of the Zhuangzi: Knowledge was traveling by the Dark Waters and climbed Hidden-Fen Hill, where he happened to meet Non-Action-Who-Speaks. Knowledge asked him, “I would like to ask you: How should one think and reflect in order to know the Dao? Where should one live, and what should one do, to be at ease in the Dao? In what direction should one proceed, and by what path can one attain the Dao?” He asked three times, but Non-Action-Who-Speaks did not answer. It was not that he was unwilling to answer; he did not know how to answer.

The Commentary also cites Confucius speaking to Zigong, one of his disciples, whose surname was Duanmu and whose given name was Ci: “Ci, do you think I understand the Way because I have learned and memorized a great deal? It is not so. I use one fundamental principle to connect everything I have learned.” “Connecting everything through one principle” means using a single principle to unite all the good actions in the world.

The Commentary also cites a passage from the “Knowledge Wandered North” chapter of the Zhuangzi: “Not knowing, yet understanding deeply; believing oneself to know, yet understanding only superficially. Not realizing that one does not know can lead to deep understanding; believing oneself to know can lead only to superficiality.” The point is that only by refusing to cling to limited knowledge can one approach the depths of the Dao. Clinging to what one already believes leads one away from the Dao and toward shallow understanding.

Only by treating a flaw as something to be wary of can one avoid falling into it.

The Commentary cites Confucius: “A gentleman worries only that he lacks ability; he does not worry that others do not understand him.”

The Analects, “Duke Ling of Wei,” says: “The gentleman studies to cultivate himself, not to make himself known to others.”

The Daodejing says: “The sage has no worries because he treats worries as worries; therefore, he has no worries.”

The Extended Meaning mentions that the Zhuangzi tells of Nanguaizi Qi, a character in the text, sitting quietly with his arm resting on a table. The commentary on the “Xu Wugui” chapter of the Zhuangzi says that this point has already been explained earlier and will not be repeated.

Chapter Seventy-Two: When the People No Longer Fear Authority

When the people no longer respect authority, greater calamities will befall them.

The Extended Meaning explains: “Something that inspires reverence is called authority.”

The Spring and Autumn Annals records that in the thirty-first year of Duke Xiang’s reign, while the Marquis of Wei was in Chu, Beigong Wenzi saw the bearing of Lingyin Wei, a chief minister of Chu, and said to the Marquis of Wei: “The Lingyin looks like a ruler. I fear he harbors other ambitions. His speech, his gaze, and his way of walking are all unusual.”

The Marquis of Wei asked, “How do you know?”

Beigong Wenzi replied: “The Book of Songs says, ‘Maintain your bearing with care and propriety, and the people will take it as their standard.’ The Lingyin does not have a proper bearing, so the people have no standard to follow. Someone whom the people do not wish to emulate holds a position above them. Such a position cannot last.”

The Marquis of Wei said, “Well said. What is meant by dignified bearing?”

Beigong Wenzi replied: “When someone has a presence that inspires reverence and an appearance worthy of emulation, this is called dignified bearing. A ruler has the bearing of a ruler: his ministers respect and cherish him, take him as their standard, and emulate him. Thus he can preserve his state and pass down an honored name for generations. A minister has the bearing of a minister: his subordinates respect and cherish him. Thus he can keep his office, protect his family, and maintain peace in his household.”

The Extended Meaning says: “The gentleman has three things he reveres: the Mandate of Heaven, great men who possess virtue and high rank, and the words of the sages.”

The Analects, “Ji Family,” says: Confucius said, “A gentleman holds three things in awe: Heaven’s mandate, elders who possess virtue and status, and the words of the sages. A petty person does not understand Heaven’s mandate and so knows no awe; they slight their elders and show contempt for the words of the sages.”

Do not despise the place where you dwell, and do not loathe your own life. Only when you do not loathe yourself can others refrain from loathing you.

An extended explanation says: The heart is the dwelling place of the spirits.

The Zhuangzi, “Knowledge Wanders North,” records that Nie Que asked Pei Yi about the Dao. Nie Que was Wang Ni’s disciple, and Pei Yi was Wang Ni’s teacher. Pei Yi said, “Set your body upright and focus your gaze, and the harmonizing Qi of Heaven will come. Gather in your mind and keep your intention single, and the spirits will come to dwell within you. De will become your beauty, and the Dao your dwelling place.”

An extended explanation says: One must remove distracting thoughts and inner defilement, quiet the heart, and hold fast to single-mindedness. The Scripture of Western Ascension, “Instructions and Admonitions,” records that the Great High Lord Lao transmitted the scripture to the Perfected Yin. When he had finished, he was about to ascend to Taiwei, the heavenly palace, and so admonished the Perfected Yin once more: “Remove distracting thoughts and inner defilement, quiet the heart, and hold fast to single-mindedness. Once every defilement has been cleared away, all matters are settled. This is the essential teaching of the Dao I have transmitted.”

Therefore, the sage knows himself but does not display himself; cherishes himself but does not exalt himself. Thus he sets aside the latter and takes up the former.

An extended explanation says: Nanguo Ziqi leaned against a table in quiet sitting.

The Zhuangzi, “Discussion on Making All Things Equal,” contains a related account. It was explained earlier in this book and will not be repeated here.

An extended explanation says: For example, Lie Yukou set out for the state of Qi, but turned back halfway there.

The Zhuangzi, “Lie Yukou,” contains a related account. It was discussed in detail earlier in this book and will not be repeated here.

Understanding that “daring to advance” and “not daring to act rashly” each have their advantages and drawbacks reveals the principle behind them. But what, exactly, does Heaven abhor, and who can understand why? Even the sages find this hard to grasp.

The Yanyi says: The Mencius asks, “Is the maker of arrows less humane than the maker of armor?” The arrow maker worries only that his arrows will fail to wound someone; the armor maker worries only that his armor will fail to protect someone from harm. A shaman prays for people to live, while a coffin maker prepares coffins for the dead. Thus, one must choose one’s occupation with care. Here, “armor” means protective armor. Everyone has a heart of compassion; the arrow maker’s original nature is not necessarily less humane than the armor maker’s. The Mencius also says that those who accord with Heaven’s principles survive, while those who oppose them perish.

The Mencius, “Li Lou I,” says: When the Way prevails beneath Heaven, those of lesser virtue follow those of greater virtue, and those of lesser ability follow those of greater ability. When the Way does not prevail, people of low status are controlled by those of high status, and the weak are controlled by the strong. Both situations arise from Heaven’s principles. Those who accord with these principles survive; those who oppose them perish. In a peaceful age when the Way prevails, people cultivate their virtue, and their status corresponds to the degree of their virtue. In an age when the Way does not prevail, people fail to cultivate their virtue and can only control one another through force. What is called “Heaven” is simply the natural course of circumstances and principles.

The Way of Heaven does not contend with people, yet is skilled at prevailing. It does not speak, yet receives a response. It does not summon, yet all things come of themselves. It seems relaxed and unhurried, yet is skilled at arranging and planning.

The Yanyi says: The Analects asks, “What has Heaven ever said?” The four seasons proceed as usual, and all things grow as usual.

The Analects, “Yang Huo,” records Confucius saying, “I think I shall stop speaking.” Zigong asked, “If you do not speak, what will we, your students, have to follow?” Confucius said, “What has Heaven ever said? The four seasons proceed as usual, and all things grow as usual. What has Heaven ever said?”

The Yanyi adds: Yan Hui was an outstanding disciple of Confucius and a man of great virtue, yet he died young. The four seasons still proceed, and all things still grow. What has Heaven ever said?

Yan Hui was an outstanding disciple of Confucius and a person of exemplary benevolence and virtue. Yet he died young and did not live to a ripe old age.

The Analects, “Yongye,” records that Duke Ai of Lu asked Confucius which of his disciples was most eager to learn. Confucius replied, “There was a man named Yan Hui who was most eager to learn. Sadly, his life was short, and he has already died. There is no one like him now.” Some say Yan Hui died at the age of thirty-two; the Zhuangzi says he died at eighteen.

Zhi the Bandit was the leader of a band of robbers in the Dongling area. He was savage and cruel, yet lived out a normal lifespan.

The Zhuangzi, “Robber Zhi,” says that Dongling was a place and that Zhi the Bandit was the younger brother of Liuxia Hui. The Book of Han calls Zhi the Bandit a notorious robber from Qin. He was strong and fierce, gathered more than nine thousand men, and led them across the land, harassing the feudal lords and stealing the people’s cattle, horses, and women. The people suffered greatly at their hands.

The Yanyi also mentions Deng You falling into the hands of Shi Le at the end of the Yongjia era, and Li Maozhen serving as military governor of Fengxiang at the end of the Tang dynasty. These two events have already been described fully in the Yanyi, so they are not repeated here.

Chapter Seventy-Four: The People Do Not Fear Death

If the people do not fear death, why threaten them with death?

The Yanyi says: When people are born, they are naturally still. This is the nature bestowed by Heaven.

This passage is drawn from the Book of Rites, “Record of Music”: “Human beings are still when born; this is their nature from Heaven. When they are stirred by external things and become active, that is the desire of their nature.” In other words, at birth people receive a naturally pure nature, untouched by corruption. Later, when external things stir them, desires and emotions gradually arise. Once the heart is filled with desire, nature is affected as well. The originally pure nature is then obscured and becomes difficult to see.

The Yanyi says: When government orders are numerous and punishments severe, the people are at a loss.

This saying comes from the Analects, “Zilu.” Zilu said, “The ruler of Wei is waiting for you to govern the state. What will you…”

When government orders are onerous and punishments severe, the people no longer know how to conduct themselves; they do not even know where to put their hands and feet.

This passage draws on the meaning of “Zilu” in the Analects. Zilu asked Confucius what he would do first if the ruler of Wei invited him to govern. Confucius replied that he must first rectify names and social roles. Zilu thought this impractical, so Confucius explained: when names and roles are not correct, words cannot be used properly; when words are not used properly, affairs cannot be carried out; when affairs cannot be carried out, ritual and music cannot flourish; when ritual and music do not flourish, punishments are misapplied; and when punishments are misapplied, the people do not know how to act.

“There are always divine officials in charge of killing who carry out executions.”

The commentary gives as examples Shun’s punishment of the “Four Culprits” and the Duke of Zhou’s handling of Guan Shu and Cai Shu. The Four Culprits were Gonggong, Huandou, Sanmiao, and Gun. According to the “Canon of Shun” in the Book of Documents, Shun exiled Gonggong to Youzhou, banished Huandou to Mount Chong, relocated Sanmiao to Sanwei, and exiled Gun to Mount Yu. After the four were punished, people throughout the realm were fully satisfied.

After King Wu of Zhou died, Guan Shu and several of his brothers spread rumors that the Duke of Zhou intended harm to the young King Cheng. Guan Shu, whose personal name was Xian, was King Wu’s younger brother and the Duke of Zhou’s elder brother. Those who spread the rumors with him included Cai Shu Du and Huo Shu Chu. Here, baseless reports are called “rumors,” like water flowing from one place to another.

The commentary says that the Vermilion Register of the Southern Palace records good deeds and governs the registers of life, while the Black Register of the Northern Palace records faults and governs the registers of death.

The Scripture of the Three Primordials records that the Vermilion Register of the Southern Palace rewards the good and governs life, while the Black Register of the Northern Palace records transgressions and governs death. Four stars watch over people’s good and evil, weigh the severity of their offenses, punish wrongdoing, and encourage good conduct, so that people in the world do good and avoid evil. Heaven’s Way governs execution, and the wicked will ultimately be punished. Heaven sees all, and nothing escapes its scrutiny. Heaven’s net may seem wide-meshed, but it lets nothing slip through. Those who defy Heaven’s Way and violate what is right will ultimately not escape the punishment they deserve.

To carry out killings on behalf of Heaven, which is charged with punishing the guilty, is like wielding an axe on behalf of a master carpenter. Few who swing the axe for the carpenter avoid injuring their own hands.

The Explication of Meaning says: Heaven punishes those who are guilty by applying the five punishments.

The commentary on the Counsels of Gao Yao in the Book of Documents says: When Heaven wishes to punish the guilty, it applies five grades of punishment to warn them. Granting titles and rewards, and imposing punishments, are both means by which a ruler conducts affairs of state. Ministers entrusted with these duties must serve with care and diligence, and must not be neglectful.

The Explication of Meaning also says: The people of Qi wanted to attack Yan. Someone asked Mencius whether he had ever urged Qi to attack Yan.

The Mencius, in “Gongsun Chou, Part Two,” records that Shen Tong asked Mencius whether Yan could be attacked. The Explication of Meaning has already discussed this matter, so it will not be repeated here.

The Explication of Meaning also says: King Ling of Chu once remarked, “I have killed many other people’s sons.”

The Spring and Autumn Annals, under the thirteenth year of Duke Zhao, records that Prince Bi of Chu and others led the followers of four clans into Chu and killed Prince Lu and Prince Badi. When King Ling of Chu heard that the princes had been killed, he fell from his carriage and said, “Do other people love their sons as I love mine?” He then said, “I have killed many other people’s sons. How could I escape such retribution? Is this not Heaven repaying me?”

The Explication of Meaning also says: There is little need to dwell on how the Qin dynasty cruelly harmed the people of the realm.

The Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government quotes Sima Guang as saying: Qin Shi Huang was harming the people of the realm, yet Meng Tian carried out his commands; this shows that Meng Tian was not benevolent. However, Meng Tian understood a minister’s duty: even when sentenced to death despite being innocent, he remained loyal to the end. This deserves praise.

The Explication of Meaning also says: Someone killed Li Junxian because a matter seemed to point one way while actually pointing another.

The Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government records that in the twenty-second year of the Zhenguan era under Tang Taizong, Li Junxian, General of the Guard and Duke of Wulian County, was on duty at Xuanwu Gate. At the time, Venus appeared in daylight. The court astrologers divined that this was a sign that “a woman ruler would rise to power.” A Secret Record was also circulating among the people, claiming that after three generations of Tang rule, a woman surnamed Wu would become ruler and take the realm from the Li house. Taizong greatly resented this.

On one occasion, Taizong hosted a banquet for his military officials in the palace. He had them play a drinking game in which each person announced his childhood nickname. Li Junxian said that his nickname was “Fifth Maiden.” Taizong was startled and laughed: “What kind of woman could be so fierce and strong?” Since both Li Junxian’s official title and his fief included the character “Wu,” Taizong grew even more suspicious of him. Li Junxian was later reassigned as governor of Huazhou and eventually put to death.

The Extended Meaning says: Emperor Ming of the Liu-Song dynasty killed Wang Jingwen out of suspicion.

The Book of Song records that in the first year of the Taiyu era, Emperor Ming was gravely ill and feared that, after his death, the empress would rule from behind the curtain. Wang Jingwen was the empress’s uncle and, through that connection, was likely to become chancellor. His family was powerful, and the emperor worried that he might have other designs. He therefore sent an envoy to order him to die. The emperor wrote him a personal letter: “We have shared a long association. I want to preserve your family, and so I have taken this course of action.” When Wang Jingwen received the order to die, he took poison. This was a case of the emperor killing him out of suspicion.

The Extended Meaning says: Some worthy ministers of the Han and Tang dynasties once plotted to eliminate the eunuchs. The eunuchs’ crimes were indeed grave.

The Carefully Abridged History of the Eastern Han records that during the reign of Emperor Ling of Han, the Grand General He Jin and Dong Zhuo plotted to eliminate the eunuchs. Chen Lin, the chief clerk, advised them against it, citing the Classic of Changes: “Then shelter him…” The quotation is incomplete here, and refers to a teaching about how to deal with or protect someone.

The Detailed Abridgment of the Book of the Later Han records that during Emperor Ling’s reign, General-in-Chief He Jin discussed killing the eunuchs with Dong Zhuo. His chief secretary, Chen Lin, urged him not to proceed, saying: “The Book of Changes says that if you chase a deer while hunting without a guide, you may lose your way. As the saying goes, covering your eyes to catch sparrows is self-deception. If you cannot even fool small animals, how can you achieve your aims through deceit? This is a matter of state. How could it be settled by deception?” He Jin did not heed the warning. Later, he hesitated and, after entering the palace, was killed by Zhang Rang, Qu Mu, and others.

The Detailed Abridgment of the Book of Tang records that the eunuch Cheng Yuanzhen came from Sanyuan in Jingzhao. He served Emperor Daizong of Tang and later rose to the rank of General of the Flying Cavalry. Early in the Guangde era, Taichang Academician Liu Kang submitted a memorial saying: “People throughout the realm resent Your Majesty for keeping worthy men at a distance and employing eunuchs. This has set generals and ministers against one another, bringing the state close to ruin. If you truly wish to preserve the state, all you need do is cut off Cheng Yuanzhen’s head and proclaim the deed throughout the realm.” After the memorial was delivered, the emperor issued an edict stripping Cheng Yuanzhen of all his official rank and titles and exiling him to Qinzhou, where he eventually died.

Han and Tang were more than five hundred years apart, yet both states declined through political disorder, as if following the same path again. Some eunuchs caused turmoil by wielding military power; others relied on the emperor’s favor. The roots of eunuch-caused calamity are difficult to eradicate completely, but this was not ordained by Heaven. It came from human selfish desires and schemes.

The Extended Meaning says: During the war between Chu and Han, the Comprehensive Mirror records that in the fourth year of Emperor Gaozu of Han, Kuai Che said: “Now Chu and Han are at war. Countless people throughout the realm have been killed or wounded, their livers and brains strewn across the ground. Countless fathers and sons have fallen dead in the wilderness.”

The Extended Meaning also says: Amid the wars of the Five Dynasties, nine out of every ten households were killed or wiped out.

The Detailed Abridgment of the Comprehensive Mirror quotes Hu as saying: “The turmoil of the Five Dynasties was like rivers and seas overflowing their banks. Ministers murdered their rulers, and sons…”

Hu’s commentary in Detailed Selections from the Comprehensive Mirror says: The turmoil of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms was like rivers, lakes, and seas overflowing their banks. Ministers killed their rulers, sons killed their fathers, the innocent were slaughtered indiscriminately, rivers ran red with blood, and corpses littered the land. Such events all resulted from people’s selfish desires and their rash attempts to take the place of the great craftsman who governs Heaven and Earth. Anyone who acts this way is bound to injure their own hands.

On the People’s Hunger

The people go hungry because rulers levy too much in taxes. That is why the people starve.

The Extended Meaning says: Duke Ai of Lu asked You Ruo, “The harvest has been poor, and the state does not have enough for its needs. What should we do if we impose additional taxes?”

The Analects, “Yan Yuan” chapter, records You Ruo’s reply to Duke Ai: “Why not adopt the che system?” Duke Ai said, “We already tax at two tenths, and I still find it insufficient. How could we adopt the che system?” Che means “universal.” A tax rate of one tenth had once been used throughout the realm, so it was called che. The principles involved have already been explained fully, so they are not repeated here.

The Extended Meaning also says: King You of Zhou imposed heavy taxes, and the poem “Chu Ci” in the Minor Odes of the Book of Songs satirized him for it.

According to “Chu Ci” in the Minor Odes of the Mao recension of the Book of Songs, the poem satirizes King You of Zhou: his government’s orders were burdensome and its taxes heavy; large stretches of farmland lay abandoned, famine followed famine, and the people eventually fled. Even the sacrifices could no longer be properly performed, so the noble man longed for the governance of antiquity.

The Extended Meaning also says: The ruler of Wei levied heavy taxes, giving rise to the poem “The Great Rat.”

According to “The Great Rat” in the Airs of the States of the Mao recension of the Book of Songs, the poem satirizes rulers who extort taxes and wealth. The people of the state mocked their ruler for consuming their resources like a silkworm, neglecting the affairs of government, and being both greedy and fearful—like a great rat.

The Extended Meaning also says: Emperor Dezong of Tang once went hunting at Xindian. The principles involved have already been discussed, so they are not repeated here.

The people are difficult to govern because rulers engage in too much meddling. That is why the people are difficult to govern.

The Extended Meaning says: Rulers grow tired of ordinary food and pursue delicacies and rare dishes.

The Liezi: King Mu of Zhou records that the transformed being presented jade objects each month. The related point has already been discussed above, as in the story of Emperor Dezong of Tang hunting at Xindian, so it will not be repeated here.

The people are difficult to govern because rulers take action and interfere too much; that is why governing them is difficult.

The Extended Meaning says: The ruler has grown tired of fresh meat and rare delicacies.

The Liezi: King Mu of Zhou says that the transformed being presented jade robes each month and served jade delicacies every day, and took pleasure in doing so. “Jade robes” and “jade food” are simply expressions for things of exceptional value.

The Extended Meaning says: Emperor Wu of Han governed the people through laws and institutions.

The related account in the Chronicle of the Han has already been given in full above, so it will not be copied here.

The people take death lightly because they pursue a lavish life too intensely; that is why they do not fear death.

The Extended Meaning says: Thus, some people will throw themselves into water or fire without the least fear.

The Analects, “Duke Ling of Wei,” says: “The people value benevolence more than water and fire. I have seen people leap into water or fire and die, but I have never seen anyone die from practicing benevolence.” The phrase “tread upon a sharp blade without fear” is also cited here; it comes from the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean says: “The world and its states can be governed; rank and emoluments can be declined; a sharp blade can be trodden upon. Yet the Way of the Mean is difficult to achieve.”

The Extended Meaning says: This is like the story in the Zhuangzi of the Great King living in Bin. The phrase “tread upon a sharp blade without fear” is also cited here; it comes from the Doctrine of the Mean. The Doctrine of the Mean says: “The world and its states can be governed; rank and emoluments can be declined; a sharp blade can be trodden upon. Yet the Way of the Mean is difficult to achieve.”

The Extended Meaning says: This is like the story discussed in the Zhuangzi of the Great King living in Bin and suffering incursions by the Di people.

The “Letting Go of Kingship” chapter of the Zhuangzi records that King Tai of Zhou, Danfu, lived in Bin when the Di people came to attack him. Danfu was the father of King Ji and the grandfather of King Wen of Zhou; here, “Di people” refers to the Xianyun. Danfu successively offered them leather, silk, dogs and horses, and pearls and jade, but they refused them all. What the Di wanted was the land.

King Tai of Zhou said, “If I fight them over the land, I will cause other people’s brothers to kill one another and fathers and sons to kill one another. I cannot bear to do that. All of you, stay here in peace. What difference is there between being my subjects and being subjects of the Di?” He also said, “I have heard that one must not harm what truly needs preserving in order to keep oneself alive.” Then, leaning on his staff, he left Bin. The people followed him one after another, and later they established a state at the foot of Mount Qi.

King Tai of Zhou, Danfu, may be called someone who understood how to cherish life. Those who understand how to cherish life do not damage their lives for material comforts that sustain the body, even when wealthy and honored; nor do they burden body and mind out of greed for profit, even when poor and lowly.

The “Extended Meaning” says: The mouth longs for delicious food, the body for fine clothes, the eyes delight in beauty, and the ears love music.

In the “Robber Zhi” chapter of the Zhuangzi, there is a passage in which Robber Zhi speaks to Confucius. Its relevant principles have already been explained in detail earlier, so they are not copied here.

Chapter Seventy-Six: When a Person Is Born

Therefore, the harder and sharper weapons are, the more certain they are to suffer defeat; the harder a tree is, the more readily it breaks.

The “Extended Meaning” says: For example, Wang Mang once sent Wang Yi and Wang Xun to pacify Shandong.

The “Biographies” section of the Former Han History records that Wang Mang, whose courtesy name was Jujun, was the son of the younger brother of Empress Xiaoyuan. Ban Gu commented that Wang Mang initially gained influence through his ties to the imperial family. He deliberately cultivated humility and worked hard to win a good reputation. His clan praised his filial devotion, while his teachers and friends considered him kind and generous. Later, when he held power and assisted in governing, during the reigns of Emperor Cheng and Emperor Ai of Han, he devoted himself to state affairs and seemed upright in his conduct, often earning praise. Was he the kind of person said to win a good name both at home and in the state, displaying benevolence on the surface while acting against benevolence and righteousness in practice?

Wang Mang was innately unkind and skilled in flattery and deceit. He drew on the power accumulated by four generations of imperial in-laws. At the same time, the Han house was in decline, the imperial succession had been broken several times, and the Empress Dowager lived to an advanced age and became the dynasty’s principal decision-maker. These circumstances allowed Wang Mang to indulge in treachery and ultimately bring about the calamity of usurping power. Seen in this light, the timing of Heaven also played a part; the outcome was not something human effort alone could control.

Wang Mang seized the imperial throne and ruled as emperor, facing south, though the position was not rightfully his. His brutal actions brought calamity upon the people. His wickedness reached its extreme: he spread poison through the Central Plain and extended disorder to distant regions, yet remained unsatisfied. The people throughout the realm could no longer live in peace or pursue their livelihoods; resentment rose everywhere, and the outcry never ceased. Anger spread through the court and beyond it, and people near and far took up arms. Cities fell, and Wang Mang’s forces disintegrated. In the end, cities throughout the realm lay deserted, tombs were plundered, and the people suffered widespread harm; even long-decayed bones were not spared.

Among the treacherous ministers, rebels, and lawless people recorded in the histories, none, when we examine the disasters their actions brought upon them, suffered a downfall as severe as Wang Mang’s. Some say that Liu Xiu, Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han, defeated Wang Mang’s million-strong army with just eight thousand men, put him to death, and restored the former Han dynasty.

The “Expanded Explanation” says: Fu Jian of Qin once mobilized an army of 970,000.

The “Collected Notes” comments, citing the Book of Jin: Fu Jian, whose courtesy name was Yonggu, was the grandson of Fu Jian and the son of Fu Xiong. After claiming the imperial title by illegitimate means, he appointed Wang Meng as prime minister and brought the various states under control. Only the Eastern Jin in the southeastern corner remained outside his rule. After Wang Meng’s death, Fu Jian of Qin mobilized an army of 970,000.

According to the Book of Jin, Fu Jian, whose courtesy name was Yonggu, was the grandson of Fu Jian and the son of Fu Xiong. After declaring himself emperor, Fu Jian appointed Wang Meng as chancellor and subdued the various states. Only the Eastern Jin in the southeast remained unconquered. After Wang Meng’s death, Fu Jian repeatedly summoned his ministers to discuss an invasion of the Eastern Jin. They argued that the Year Star and the Guardian Star were positioned in the Dipper and Ox mansions, which corresponded to the Eastern Jin’s celestial region, making the timing unfavorable. A long-tailed star appeared in the Well mansion, strange phenomena occurred in the water, and other ominous signs followed one after another. The monk Dao’an also urged Fu Jian earnestly and repeatedly to abandon the plan, but Fu Jian would not listen.

Fu Jian then conscripted an army of 970,000, its ranks stretching for a thousand li, with banners visible from front to back. He put Murong Wei, Murong Chui, and others in command and advanced to Xiangcheng. Xie Xuan of the Eastern Jin, whose courtesy name was Youdu, led his troops to meet them. Fu Jian took up position at Shouyang and formed his lines beside the Fei River. Unable to cross, Xie Xuan sent a message to Fu Rong: “You have come a long way into our territory and formed your lines with the river at your back. Do you not want to settle the battle quickly? Please withdraw a little, so our troops can cross and the two armies can fight at their ease. Would it not be pleasant for me and the other generals to watch from horseback as the battle unfolds?”

Fu Jian’s generals all said, “We should hold the Fei River and prevent them from landing. We outnumber them, so we are sure to win if we do.” Fu Jian replied, “Let the army withdraw and allow them to cross. Then we will attack them head-on with tens of thousands of armored cavalry.” Fu Rong agreed. Fu Jian waved his banner and ordered the lines to retreat, but once the army fell into disorder, it could no longer be controlled.

Xie Xuan, Xie Yan, Huan Yi, and others led 8,000 elite troops across the Fei River. The forces led by Xie Anshi engaged Zhang Hao and briefly fell back. Xie Xuan and Xie Yan pressed the attack, and a decisive battle unfolded south of the Fei River. Fu Jian was struck by a stray arrow, and Fu Rong was killed at the front of the lines. Fu Jian’s army immediately collapsed. Countless soldiers were trampled by their comrades or drowned; it seemed as though the Fei River itself had run dry. The remaining troops abandoned their armor and fled through the night. At the sound of wind or cranes calling, they thought the Eastern Jin army was in pursuit. They made their way through the grass and spent nights in the open, suffering hunger and bitter cold; seven or eight out of every ten died. Fu Jian was soundly defeated and retreated to Chang’an.

Not long afterward, Murong Chong raised an army, and the Guanzhong region descended into chaos. Murong Chui also rebelled against Fu Jian, returned to Ye, and proclaimed himself ruler of Later Yan. Yao Chang likewise raised a revolt and declared himself ruler of Later Qin, while Lü Guang established himself in Liangzhou and founded Later Liang. People defected in an unending stream, and uprisings broke out across the land. Chang’an was besieged by Murong Zhong, and the city was in grave danger. Fu Jian left his crown prince, Fu Hong, to defend the city and fled with 500 cavalry to Mount Wujian. There he was captured by Yin Wei, one of Yao Chang’s generals, and brought before Yao Chang. Yao Chang demanded that he surrender the throne. Fu Jian cursed him bitterly and was eventually killed. Fu Jian’s crown prince, Fu Hong, and Zhang Dafu and others surrendered the city to Murong Chong, and the state founded by Fu Jian was thus destroyed.

The Explication says: For example, Emperor Yang of Sui led an army of forty thousand and assembled at Pyeongyang.

The Book of Sui records that Emperor Yang of Sui was named Yang Guang. After Emperor Wen of Sui took the throne, he made Yang Guang Prince of Jin. Yang Guang was naturally skilled at disguising his true character. People at the time praised him as benevolent and filial, so Emperor Wen deposed the crown prince and appointed Yang Guang in his place. After ascending the throne, Yang Guang toured Luoyang and built the Eastern Capital. He conscripted more than a million able-bodied men from Henan to dig the Bian Canal, connecting it to the Huai and Si Rivers. He also had dragon boats, phoenix boats, and other vessels built, collectively called “great ships,” all decorated with gold and jade. He then sailed to Jiangdu. The fleet stretched for a thousand li, its vessels linked from front to back.

In the eighth year of the Daye era, Emperor Yang personally led an army against Liaodong, claiming to have two million troops. His campaign against Goguryeo failed, and the army had to retreat. In the thirteenth year of Daye, he again toured Jiangdu, present-day Yangzhou. At Jianguo, Fengxin Lang Cui Chengxiang submitted a memorial warning that bandits were rising everywhere and that continuing the tour was unwise. Emperor Yang flew into a rage, first having Cui’s jaw broken, then ordering him executed. Fengxin Lang Wang Airen also urged him to return to the Western Capital because the bandits were growing more rampant; Emperor Yang had him killed.

After Emperor Yang reached Jiangdu, Li Mi, Dou Jiande, and others each raised armies and proclaimed themselves leaders. Bandits roamed everywhere, raiding commanderies and counties. Local bandit chiefs rose up one after another, and almost no region in the realm escaped their incursions. Drought and famine added to the devastation: men and women died in great numbers, their bodies piled one upon another, beyond counting.

Then Gaozu of Tang raised the banner of rebellion in Taiyuan and advanced to Chang’an, rescuing the people from the suffering of war. He enthroned Yang You, Prince of Dai, as ruler. Yang You was Emperor Yang’s son. Gaozu honored Emperor Yang from afar as the Retired Emperor. Before long, Emperor Yang was killed by Yuwen Huaji. The following year, the Sui dynasty abdicated the throne in favor of the Tang. Gaozu and Taizong of Tang took advantage of the situation to pacify the upheaval. With an army of thirty thousand, they brought the realm under their control as easily as breaking dry branches, and ultimately unified the country.

Men like Fu Jian and Emperor Yang of Sui are examples of what is meant by a state torn apart. The Discourses of the States says: “The state is divided and broken apart, its people scattered from one another.” These examples all show that relying on superior force and waging war in pursuit of victory can instead lead to crushing defeat, leaving the situation beyond repair.

The Commentary on the Meaning says: For a bow to work properly, its materials must be carefully chosen and shaped to fit, and its string adjusted so that its tension is balanced and it feels right to use.

The Excerpt cites the Rites of Zhou: When bow makers craft a bow, they must gather six materials—wood, horn, sinew, glue, silk, and lacquer—at the proper times of year, then have skilled artisans prepare and combine them. In choosing the bow wood, they look for a reddish-black color and a clear sound when struck. To shoot far, a bow must have strength and force; to penetrate deeply, it must be strong and straight. In choosing the horn, they look for a blue-white color and thick tips. Cattle slaughtered in autumn have thicker horns; those slaughtered in spring have thinner ones. The horns of young cattle are straight and glossy, while those of old cattle are more curved and hard. Only when horn in all three colors is available is it considered fine material.

Bow making must also follow the seasons: the bow wood is treated in winter, the sinew prepared in summer, and the horn softened in spring; the silk, glue, and lacquer are joined in autumn. Once the bow has taken shape in the cold, it will not warp when drawn. When the materials are good, the workmanship skilled, and the bow made at the right time, this is called “the Three Harmonies”: the materials, workmanship, and season are all properly balanced.

The Commentary on the Meaning also cites the Book of Changes, which says: “To establish the Way of Heaven is to speak of Yin and Yang.”

The Explanation of the Trigrams in the Zhouyi says that the ancient sages created the Classic of Changes to accord with the patterns of nature and life. Thus, the Way of Heaven is made up of Yin and Yang; the Way of Earth, of yielding and firm forces; and the Way of humanity, of benevolence and righteousness. Each of the Three Powers—Heaven, Earth, and humanity—has its Yin and Yang aspects, so the hexagrams in the Classic of Changes consist of six lines. Yin and Yang alternate, and yielding and firm forces are used in turn; together, the six line positions form a hexagram.

The Extended Commentary says: The alternation of sun and moon, and the coming and going of cold and heat, diminish what is excessive. When what is in surplus is used to supply what is lacking, the work of the seasons can be completed. The Commentary on the Appended Phrases in the Classic of Changes says: “The sun gives way and the moon comes; the moon gives way and the sun comes. As sun and moon yield to one another, brightness comes into being. Cold gives way and heat comes; heat gives way and cold comes. As cold and heat yield to one another, the work of the year is completed.” This must be the principle being described.

The Extended Commentary further says: That is why it speaks of “reducing what is full and adding to what is humble”: the aim is to weigh things properly, so that what is given and distributed is fair and appropriate.

The passage quoted here comes from the Image Commentary on the Humility Hexagram in the Classic of Changes: “The Way of Heaven diminishes what is full and adds to what is humble.” It also says: “A mountain within the earth: this is the image of Humility. The exemplary person observes the circumstances, reducing what is excessive and increasing what is insufficient, and distributes things fairly according to their actual conditions.” The Extended Commentary draws on these passages to illustrate Heaven’s warning: restrain what is high and support what is low.

The Way of Heaven diminishes what is in surplus and supplies what is lacking. Human practices, by contrast, often do the opposite: they diminish what is insufficient and use it to support what is in surplus.

The Extended Commentary quotes the Decrease and Increase hexagrams from the Classic of Changes. The Decrease Hexagram says that reducing below and adding above makes power flow upward. The Increase Hexagram says that reducing above and adding below brings the people boundless joy.

The explanations of the hexagram statements in the Decrease and Increase hexagrams of the Classic of Changes say: “Reduce below and add above: its way moves upward”; and “Reduce above and add below: the people’s joy has no bounds.” They also say that extending generosity from above to those below makes the way one follows flourish. This interpretation draws on the Decrease Hexagram itself and also touches on “decrease” within the Peace Hexagram.

The Judgment of the Classic of Changes’s “Decrease” hexagram says: “Decrease what is below and increase what is above, and force will move upward.” The Judgment of the “Increase” hexagram says: “Decrease what is above and increase what is below, and the people will rejoice for a long time. When those in high positions share their benefits with those below, the Way of right conduct will shine forth.” Looking also at how the hexagrams change: when the benefit of the ninth line in the third place of the “Peace” hexagram is decreased and that of the top ninth line is increased, the result is the “Decrease” hexagram. When the benefit of the ninth line in the fourth place of the “Standstill” hexagram is decreased and that of the initial ninth line is increased, the result is the “Increase” hexagram. Taking what is excessive from those above and giving it to those below who lack it is why this is called “Increase.”

In terms of underlying principle, Heaven’s Way seeks balance: what is abundant is diminished, and what is lacking is supplemented. This is the very opposite of what people commonly do. In human affairs, people often take from those who have too little to support those who already have plenty—that is, they take from the many to give to the few. The principle here is to support those who are lowly and restrain those who stand high, diminish fullness and increase humility. This is an essential principle for governing the state and bringing stability to the people, as well as a standard for cultivating oneself and aligning with the Great Way. Its significance is especially profound.

Who can use their own surplus to support all under Heaven? Only a person who has the Way.

The commentary says: In former times, when Celestial Master Zhai Qianyou was alive, he was renowned for the art of Examination and Summoning, a Daoist technique for invoking deities and investigating spirits.

This is transcribed from the account in The Celestial Master’s Family Tradition. The principles above have already been set out in full, so they are not copied again here.

Chapter 78: What Is Soft and Weak Under Heaven

Nothing under Heaven is softer and weaker than water, yet nothing surpasses it in overcoming hard and strong things. Nothing can take its place.

The commentary says: Water’s nature is to rest content in low places and not contend for precedence. Whether in motion or at rest, it follows the moment; its shape—square, round, or otherwise—changes to fit its container.

The Guangshengyi explains: Water is extremely soft in form, and by nature it always flows downward. Many rivers converge, and all streams flow toward the sea. Water turns into mist and dew, rises above the clouds, passes through the radiance of the sun, moon, and stars, and reaches the Milky Way. In its vastness, no matter how many rivers have flowed into the sea throughout time, the sea never overflows. In its minuteness, even the tender shoots of newly growing plants can be moistened by water. For this reason, the Old Lord used water as a metaphor for the Dao.

Water has three abilities that do not yield, and it also possesses seven virtues, complete in every respect. It embraces the transformations of all things between Heaven and Earth and connects their many forms and signs. It stays amid filth and bears contamination; it takes on the shape of its vessel, becoming square or round. This is its utmost softness, and so nothing can harm it. Water can also sweep across the Ten Continents and float to the farthest reaches in the eight directions; it holds the sun and moon and nourishes Heaven and Earth. Mountains and valleys shift because of water, and even the Kunpeng transforms by relying on its force. Water can demolish mountains and pierce rock, and is nearly capable of anything. This is its utmost strength, and so nothing can subdue it. Water is like this precisely because it is soft and weak. If people can follow water’s example and hold fast to softness, they can respond to the myriad transformations, and nothing will be able to overcome them.

Thus the soft overcomes the hard, and the weak overcomes the strong. Yet people in the world do not understand this, nor can they put it into practice.

The Yanyi says: As an example, one might cite Emperor Guangwu of Han’s tour of inspection at Zhangling.

The Guangshengyi quotes the relevant account from the Biographies in the Book of the Later Han. The original gives a detailed account, so it is not copied here.

Therefore, the sage says: “One who bears a state’s filth may be called its lord of the altars of soil and grain; one who shoulders a state’s misfortune may be called the ruler of All under Heaven.” Such sound principles seem to run counter to common sense.

The Yanyi explains: This means that if a ruler can contain what is impure and take upon himself the blame of all quarters under Heaven, he fulfills this role.

The Guangshengyi quotes the Tang Gao, “Announcement of Tang,” in the Book of Documents: “If you have done good, I dare not conceal it. If the guilt is mine, I dare not pardon myself; I submit only to the judgment of Heaven. If you in the various quarters are guilty, the responsibility rests with me alone. If I alone am guilty, it does not implicate you in the various quarters.”

The Yanyi adds: In the Spring and Autumn period, Jin attacked Chu and had already marched three she without agreeing to stop. A senior official asked to send out troops to meet them in battle.

According to the Huainanzi: Honglie Jie, when the state of Jin attacked the state of Chu, its army had already advanced thirty li—one she in ancient reckoning—but had not stopped. A Chu minister asked to send troops out to meet the enemy. King Zhuang of Chu said, “During my late father’s reign, Jin did not attack Chu.” The original discussion of the underlying principle has already been included in full, so it is not repeated here.

The extended discussion says: During the reign of Duke Jing of Song, the planet Mars—called Yinghuo in ancient times—lingered near the Heart lunar mansion. The ancients regarded this as an inauspicious celestial omen.

The relevant material has already been recorded in the Honglie Jie, and the discussion of its underlying principles has also been included in full, so it is not repeated here.

Chapter Seventy-Nine: Harmonizing Great Resentments

When deep resentment is reconciled, resentment often remains. How can that be considered a truly satisfactory resolution?

The extended discussion quotes the Zhuangzi: “One who takes revenge does not break a Mogan sword; even with resentment in one’s heart, one does not blame a falling roof tile.”

The Zhuangzi, in the “Attaining Life” chapter, says: “One who takes revenge does not break a Mogan sword.” According to tradition, during the Spring and Autumn period, the King of Wu commissioned Gan Jiang to forge swords. Gan Jiang and Moye were both legendary ancient swords. Even when people harbor resentment, they do not blame a falling roof tile, because if a tile happens to fall and injure someone, it did not do so intentionally.

Therefore, the sage holds a tally as proof of an agreement but does not use it to make harsh demands of others.

The extended discussion quotes the Book of Rites: “One who presents grain holds a tally as proof.” The relevant discussion of the underlying principle has already been included in full, so it is not repeated here.

A person of De (Virtue) keeps faith like one who holds a tally, without forcing others to repay what they owe. A person lacking De is like an official who keeps tax accounts, pursuing debts and demanding taxes. The Way of Heaven favors no one in particular, yet it often helps those who are good.

The extended discussion gives the story of Guo Ju, who honored and supported his mother. The relevant discussion of the underlying principle has already been included in full, so it is not repeated here.

Chapter Eighty: Small States and Few People

Let the state be small and its people few. Though they have various tools, they do not use them. Let the people value life and avoid traveling far or moving away lightly.

The extended discussion gives the example of Pan Geng moving the capital three times. Pan Geng was the younger brother of Yang Jia. Zu Yi established the capital at Geng. Later, the river destroyed the settlement, so Pan Geng moved the capital to Yin.

Wang explains that Pangeng’s three proclamations about moving the capital were addressed first to his ministers, then to the common people, and finally to the officials and members of the various clans. They explained the benefits of moving and the harms of staying put. After Pangeng moved the capital, he settled the people in their homes and put affairs in order, allowing everyone to live in peace. The account of the king’s move to the foot of Mount Qi is recorded in detail in chapter sixty-one of the second part of Extended Meaning of the True Classic of the Dao and Its Virtue; it is not copied here.

The Extended Meaning says: The people were displaced and had nowhere to settle.

It quotes the Odes of Mao, “Lesser Elegantiae: The Wild Geese.” The poem praises King Xuan of Zhou: when the people were displaced and unable to settle, he comforted them and called them back, gave them homes, and helped them gather and live together again. Even widowers and widows were properly cared for.

Though there were boats and carts, no one had occasion to ride in them; though there were armor and weapons, nowhere to display them. The people returned to a way of life in which they kept records by tying knots.

The Extended Meaning explains: Hollow out a tree trunk to make a boat, for crossing water.

It quotes the Appended Statements, Part Two of the Book of Changes: Make a boat from a tree trunk and carve a pointed piece of wood for a paddle. The convenience of boats and paddles makes it possible to cross waters that cannot otherwise be traversed and reach distant places, benefiting people throughout the realm. The making of these implements takes its model from the Dispersion hexagram in the Book of Changes. Its judgment says, “It is favorable to cross the great river,” meaning that one can accomplish things by traveling in a wooden boat.

The Extended Meaning also says that the “age of perfect Virtue” described in the Zhuangzi was a time when there were no paths in the mountains and no boats or bridges across the marshes. All living things formed a single whole, each dwelling peacefully in its own place.

The chapter “Horse’s Hooves” in the Zhuangzi says: In an age when Dao and De were pure and abundant, people were calm and content in their bearing, their eyes looking straight ahead. There were no paths or tunnels in the mountains, and no boats or bridges across the marshes. All kinds of living things multiplied and settled together, each forming its own community; birds and beasts gathered in herds, while plants and trees grew thickly. People could therefore walk about with birds and beasts tethered to them, or climb up to peer into birds’ nests. People lived alongside birds and beasts and shared a kinship with all things. How could anyone distinguish a gentleman from a petty person? In those days, people were content with their own lives and had no need to trade or migrate. So, even if boats and carts existed, there was no need to ride in them.

The Extended Meaning explains: Even if sturdy armor and sharp weapons existed, there would be no place where they needed to be deployed.

The Mencius, “King Hui of Liang, Part One,” records: Mencius replied to King Hui of Liang.